tion and Speed weve Degen in Gases 5:1. WAVE MOTION Harlot When we throw a stone in the calm water of that a disurbance is produced at the place where stone S00 water, This disturbance advances in the same form tie one end of a edge of pond (fig. 5:1 a), In the same manner if we a et a Tope to a hook and move the other end up and down, ‘ihe sane form + disturbance is produced in the rope and advances in fone with a definite speed (fig. 5:1 b). Such a disturbance Wed wave mechanical wave and the process of its propagation is ca Brin a motion. Thus a mechanical wave is a disturbance produced 7s material medium and propagating with a definite speed in medium without changing its form. i Now we may consider the physical picture of wave-motion by the help of above examples : Z J \d, we note a pond, fone strikes the (b) Fig. 5.1. first example when the stone falls in water, hn at that point. Due to, property of elastici n ontinues to ome time even after the depression is filled and so the at that place becomes higher than the level of ater. Due to property of elasticity, the water again S process continues and the water-particles at the p and down. These particles transfer their energy to ticles and acquire their original position of rest, Particles transfer their motion to next (200)neighbouring particles and this fi is i Be posta was ercbesrag uate ee permanently but they simply move up and down of their stable positions and the disturbance produced by stone propagates continuously. To prove this fact i Ml inca aeons water-surface at some di ‘rach HB plaids of Tall of atthe, WO t istance from the place of fall of stone. We see me as the disturbance reaches the cork, the cork starts moving up a meee while the disturbance goes on propagation. rly in another example if we mark the rope at some place by a chalk and produce disturbance at its one end, we note that the mark moves up and down at the same place while the disturbance goes on propagating. Thus we see that if we produce disturbance in a particle of a elastic material medium, that particle starts executing simple harmonic motion and transfers its energy to the neighbouring particles so that they acquire similar motion and in turn transfer their energy to the next neighbouring particles to make them in” similar motion. This process continues. In this way the energy and momentum are transmitted through the limited motion of the particles. This is wave-motion. Thus wave-motion is process of energy-transfer in which the energy is transmitted in the form of disturbance. from one place to another without the actual migration of particles of medium. ‘The mechanical waves are transmitted in a material medium and they transfer only energy and momentum but not the r matter). In wave motion the, energy transfer is possible cteristi medium viz. (1) elasticity and (2) r the propagation of mechanical es can not propagate in vacuum. a medium continuously, the uously. In this condition the is called a progressive wave nt places on the surface of water brator then after some time all down about their normal brator starts vibrating first, the i see all the corks at same -in the same form in n position, the some of physics ations. Thus202 ropagates in ne a progressive wave train propagates ea lane, that sehen ie ices en crease mela cf inthe sdme tay bu the phave of elbrationa te different for differe! particles, owe 5:3, CHARACTERISTICS OF MEDIUM FOR MECHANICAL WAVES i st have For propagation of mechanical waves the medium mus\ the foll wing characteristics : ‘ it the 1. Elasticity + The medium must be elastic, so tha cee itions Particles may have tendency to return to their original positi wens ‘The medium must have inertia, so that the irticles of medium may store energy. ing, Hans, Low Damping The medium must have very low eae so that the wave may propagate in forward direction. ephes larger friction or damping, due to which the wave can not piouaees forward. That is way the electric bell is made of iron and n‘ wood. 5-4. TYPES OF MECHANICAL WAVES. Mechanical waves are of two types : 3 1. Transverse Waves : If on propagation of mechanical wave in a medium, the particles of medium vibrate perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave, then the wave is said to be ansverse wave. The waves on the surface of water, the waves in a stretched string are the examples of transverse waves. If we tie one end of a rope by a hook and move the other end up and down, then the transverse waves are propagated along its length. (Fig. 5:2). In a transverse wave the position of maximum displacement in upward direction is called crest and the position of maximum downward direction is called trough. Thes trough continue to advance in the create of n fig. A, C, E are crests and B, Dare troughs. two successive crests (or troughs) is called the trasverse wave, ’ asa we ena ayaa ey be produced in a material medium Hikivaccerveves site Boe ee no rigidity, hence the ed in gases or in air. In liquids Be ockng ‘waves can be formed only on the surface but ‘not in e See egos Waves : If on propagation of mechanical wave Se ieres particles of the medium vibrate along the Saini? ereesren of wave, then the wave is said to the ee a ae longitudinal waves :G)Sound Pa eaken th longitudinal (ji) If one end of a Tong spiral spring i6 pan patie oink enilis moved forward and backward along, , eet spring, the coils of spring vibrate along the length of spring the disturbance appears to be advancing along the bent te waves produced in the spring are longitudinal waves ~_—____*—_ Fig. 5.3. ‘The longitudinal waves propagate in the form of compressions turns of the spring and rarefactions. The positions where the appear to be closer are called compressions, while the position Gihore the turns of the spring appear to be farther are called parefactions. The states of compressions and rarefactions continue to propagate along the direction of motion of the wave. ‘The distance between successive compre factions) is called the ; ssions (or rare! ‘wave. The longitudinal waves can be tmedia ; solid, liquid and gases. The waves always longitudinal. In a liquid the its interior but not on its surfaces. ates in a medium, then at the ticles of the medium are closer rarefactions, they tions of rarefactions, the pressure in normal state, Thus in d pressure vary along the ne. dinal waves Difference between transverse and longitu: in the ‘These waves propagate in the|These waves aeegine i aa form of crests and toughs. Eee ae ‘These waves can be produced|These waves a Petar in the interior of solids and on|in all types of media; z ithe surface of liquids, liquid and gas sis In these waves there are no|In these waves the Re cere Yariations of pressure and|and density vary along 4 density along the direction of|direction Propagation o! Propagation of wave, wave, being maximum at the » SOME DEFINITIONS REGARDING WAVES The waves whi are called Hehe Se slain Direction of Wave Propagation Fig. 5.4.Sy ae ‘Time period : The ti , a Be pirsna tse vend cca ass em It is denoted by ‘T cya eee 3. Frequer 2 Pirating pareldicr en sae ae of vibrations completed by a eacd is edium is called the frequency. It is From definition it is clear, that n = 4 4. Wave-speed : The di: . : stance trasversed w second is called the wave-speed. leis denoted by‘ 5. Phase : The phase of a vibra! ‘ Re se ns gee eee P ‘le at that instant : If the two particles of the medium, at any instant, be at equal distance from the equilibrium position in the same direction, then they are said to be in the same phase. In Fig. 5-4, the particles O, D and H are in same phase. Similarly particles A and E are in same phase, and C and G are in the same phase. _ The difference between the phases of two particles or the two positions of the same particles is called the phase difference. In general, the phase difference is represented in terms of an angle. In fig. 5-4, particle O is taken as reference position of zero phase. ‘The phase difference between O and A is x/2, that between O and Bis r, that between O and C is 2, while the phase difference between ° and D is 2n, Obviously if the phase difference between the two. Vibrating particles be O, 2x, 4x ... (Ze., even multiple of m), the particles are said to be in the same phase. Similarly if the phase Hifference between their positions be x, 3x, 5x, ... or (odd multiple of x), the particles are said to be in opposite phase. h : The distance traversed by wave in one the wavelength. Alternatively the distance icles of medium vibrating in the same sth. It is denoted by ‘2’ . In a transverse two successive crests (or troughs) is n a longitudinal wave the distance ‘tions of maximum compressions (or al to the wavelength. \QUENCY, WAVE-SPEED AND e transversed in one time-period Ta ! "Distance transversed in one second = 7 heres si = wave speed v. | But distance transversed in one second = ws +) 23 2 =v or A=0T 2 Substituting value of T from the relation between frequency () and time period T . fe Paz in (), we get a=2 , se v=na i i alll type of waves. SE Ee ae in a medium is 960 m/s. epee waves are passing through a point in one minute, then calcul wavelength, Solution. Given speed of wave v = 960 m/s i Frequency of wave = number of waves Passing per secon: = 3600 waves/minute From the relation y = nh, we have ZL a =16m by g Ex 2 Calculate the frequency of the radio-waves transmitted _ bya station if the wat velength of these waves is 300 m, | Solution. Radio waves propagate with speed of light ©=3x108 m/s ‘gor _ ¥=¢=3x 108 m/s andi =300 m Ben 2'c-2 32108 24” 2~ 300 = 10° Hz =1 MHz 'PLANE-PROGRESSIVE WAVE of wave in a medium, the Particles of onic motion, then the wave is said to id moreover if the ; then it is said to be toave is propagating in a medium left to right) (fig. 5.5). Tn fig. (a) the o, D )... are shown, thee 0 x 3 é = Direction of Wave Propagation Fig. 5.5. ions of these particles are shown. The curve joining these positions represents the progressive wave. Let the particle begin to vibrate from origin O at time t= 0. If y is the displacement of the particle at time ¢, then equation of » particle executing simple harmonic motion about Ois y=A sin ot @ where A is amplitude and is angular velocity. Ifnis frequency of wave, then w= 2nn. As the advancing wave reaches the other particles A, B, C, ». (beyond particle 0), these particles, begin to Pibrate, Ifv is the speed of wave and C is a particle at a distance » from O, then the time taken by wave to reach point C is bi seconds, therefore the particle will start vibrating = seconds after particle One erefore the displacement of particle C a any time t will be hich was of particle O at time( ¢-* } The displacement can be obtained by substituting ), "Thus the displacement of particle any time t is given by at (2)But oT =2 ’ toe iO) y=Asin 2n (é aa ) ‘This equation may also be expressed a5 yeAsin2#( vs} But A=nr=v y=Asin 2 wt—») Bie Equation (2) may also be expressed as e 2 von easy But © an = propagation constant hk. ” y =Asin (ot ~ kx) + ©) ‘The exponential form of equation (5) is PesA eed CeeD) 6) where i= Any of equations (2), (3), (4), (5), (6) represents the equation of a plane progressive wave propagating along positive direction of X-axis. Out of these, equation (5) is often used. If the wave be propagating along negative X-axis then the equation of plane progressive wave may be obtained by substituting — x for x, so that ‘equation (5) takes the form a y =A sin (ot + kx) ET) e phase difference between this wave travelling along X-axis and another wave, then the equation of the wave essed as y =Asin (ot — kx) +0) +++ (8) the most general equation of a plane progressive wave ong positive direction of X-axis. Ak : In all above equations v is the wave-speed but not any particle of medium. "he equation of a plane progressive wave is ; y =12sin (3-5t + 05x) .s are in metres and time is in second. Find the ‘and direction of popagation. uation is =12 sin (3-5t + 0-5x) meq) d equation isuumis 1s une seuss => 58, PHASE AND PHASE DIFFERENCE vecnow that the displacement and direction of motion of a ticle changes continuously with time. The phaseis that ty which represen’ displacement tion of a vi is the instantaneous ing particle. edium, then all the particles of in the same manner ‘about their equilibrium ed that at the same instant, the displacements motion of different particles are different or the ‘directions of motion of the same particle at s are different. Jn other words the phases of a ‘instant are different or the phase of at different instants is different. The difference of the phase difference. propagating along the ment ofa particle at a direction of positive distance x from theSanten Neer a it kx). It represents uation the argument of sine is (wt ~ kx). It represe: ne ainthsgagation tn a cat om orain a anytime § =. (2) i of particle, = (wot — hx) : é Witiace, ar ‘2 be the phases of the two particles at distances x, and x from origin respectively at the same instant ‘t’. Then mi stipe =e o,=2"(£-3!) ana on-2(4-2 2n oY O12 = ax) = Ao = 22 Ax where A@= 2-4; is the phase difference between particles at separation Ax =(x,~x,). Equation (3) represents the relation between phase difference and path difference. Accordingly @ Phase difforenco = 2" x Path difference By definition, the two particles are said to be in same phase if the phase difference between them is 2x. 3. A= 2ri.e., the two particles of medium at separation hare always in the same phase. In the same manner if ¢, and 2 are the phases of the same _ particle at a distance x from origin at instants ¢ and fz respectively, equation (2), -¢1-2n(—* Jana 9, =2n aes), If Ax = wavelength A, then Ad a $1 00=7F (ta- ty) Ao = 2 ae +) ase difference = +™ x (time difference) Te -T, then Ad 2 xT =2n that after one time | to its initial value. period, the phase of particle CLASSICAL WAVE EQUATION (oR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF WAVE MOTION) End ont R J ity and Wave Velocity : consider a plane simple harmonic wave travelling Sie a along the x-axis. The wave equation istthy y =asin (wt — kx) where y is the instantaneous di placement of a particle at the point x of medium, and a, @ and k are respectively the amplitude, angular frequency and propagation constant of the wave. & and ‘The instantaneous particle velocity (u) at the point x is 5) is obtained by differentiating eq. (1). Thus u=% = a0 (cos (wt ~ hx) Q) Now, differentiating eq. (1) with respect to x, we have ae = aD 2 = — ak (eos (ot — hx) Dividing eq. (2) by (3), we get But A or ‘Thus Particle velocity = wave velocity x strain of the medium at the point x. Thus the wave velocity multiplied by the Qy/ax measures the slope Differentiating ea- particle velocity at x is equal to the slope of the medium at x. Differential Equation of Wave Motion + (2), we get = ©) 2y __ ao? (sin (ath) ar . (3), we get (©)" Superposition of Harmonic Waves : Interference, Beats, Stationary Waves, Phase and Group Velocities 7-1, PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES This principle states that “when two (or more) waves travel simultaneously in an elastic medium, the resultant displacement of any particle at any instant is equal to the vector sum of displacements of that particle corresponding to the separate waves at that instant.” The principle of superposition means that of the many waves, each one moves independently as if the others were not present at all; and that their individual shapes and other characteristics are not changed due to the presence of one another. This is seen in daily life. When we listen to an orchestra, we receive a complex sound due to the superposition of many sound waves of different characteristics produced by different musical instruments. Still we can recognize the separate sounds of different instruments. Our radio antenna is open to the waves of different frequencies i imultaneously by the different radio-stations. But o to a particular station, we receive its stations were silent. ciple of Superposition : Suppose at time ¢ due to a wave described ibed by y2 (x, t). This must ion. That is,e: 1 2 S019 +99 6 9) = Je 2a 1 +a 9) u 1 ¥ cee ee 239 1= 74 Gy G0, @) where y (x, ¢) is the sum of the two functions : . Y@N=I1@ O +92 O (4) Eq. (3) shows that the sum of the two wave functions described by eq. (4) also statisfies the general differential equation as such separate wave function does. Hence ¥ (x, t) is a proper function to describe the displacement of the point x at time t. Eq. (4) shows that the displacement, of the point x at time ¢ is equal to the sum of the displacements y, and y2 of that point due to the separate waves at the same time. Thus the principle of superposition is a consequence of the form of the differential equation of wave motion. Limitation : The principle of superposition holds for those Waves only whose equations of motion are linear (ic. obey Hooke’s law). Thus it does not -hold for shock waves (created by explosions) and water-waves. Phenomena arising from Superposition of Waves : The Superposition of waves gives rise to various phenomena like interference, beats and stationary waves. __ Interference : When two harmonic wavetrains of the same frequency and “having a constant phase relation travel simultaneously through a medium, the resultant wave intensity at _ any point is different from the sum of the intensities due to the ; ains. This is the phenomenon the phase difference erposing waves and the resulting amplitude (and ‘may be greater or less than that of any single ere is a distribution of intensity in space. This n as “interference pattern.” © Principle of superposition results in another type which we may call ‘interference in time.’ It ocours i r Superposition gives a pattern having o nts of zero dis ement and antinodal Points raeof maximum displacement. This is known as ‘stationary-wave ttern’ having no energy-transmission. ‘Velocity of wave-groups : The principle of superposition is used to find the velocity of a group of waves which is very important concept in quantum physics. 7.2. INTERFERENCE OF WAVES When two waves of same frequency and constant initial phase difference’ travel in the same direction along a straight line simultaneously they euperpose in such a way that the intensity of the resultant wave is maximum at certain points and minimum at certain other pointe. The phenomenon of redistribution of intensity due to superposition of two waves of same frequency and constant initial phase difference is called the interference. The waves of same frequency and constant initial phase difference are called Coherent waves. At points of medium where the waves arrive in the Same phase, the resultant intensity is) maximum and the interference at these points is said to be constructive. On the other hand at points of medium where the waves arrive in opposite phase, the resultant intensity is minimum and the interference at these points is said to be destructive. The positions of maximum intensity are called maxima while those of minimum intensity are called minima. The interference takes place in sound and light both. ‘Mathematical Analysis : Suppose two coherent waves travel in the same direction along a straight line, the frequency of each wave is and amplitudes are a, and az respectively. If at any time cement of waves at a point are yy and yz respectively difference is 6, then equation of waves may be expressed eg) -(@) ciple of superposition, the resultant be ee) 4, and y from (1) and (2) in (8), we get + ay sin (wt +6) f + a (sin wt cos o + cos «we sin ¢) 05 9) sin wt + (az sind) cos at... (4) Ws| Let a; + a2 cos ¢ =A cos @ and ay sin =A sin where A and @ are new constants. | The equation (4) gives y =A cos @ sin wt +A sin @ cos wt =A sin (ot + 0) oA) | ‘ ‘This is the equation of the resultant disturbance. Clearly the amplitude of resultant disturbance is A and phase difference from | first wave is @. The values of A and @ is determined by (5) and (6). | ‘Squaring (5) and (6) and then adding, we get | (a1 +a cos 9)? + (a sin 9)” = A? cos” 0 +A? sin? @ OF af +43 cos” 6 + 2aya, cos 9 + a2 sin? 6 = A? (cos? 0 + sin? ®) As cos” 6+ sin? @ = 1, we get A? =a? +03 (cos? 6 + sin? $) + 2ayaq cos ¢ es A? =a? +03 + 2a,a, cos amplitude, A = Vai +a} + 2a,a3 cos 6 8) Dividing (6) by (5) Asin@__apsing A cos @ = a; +a cos > (9) ty of a wave is proportional to its amplitude ie. where K is a constant which dey pends on d the frequency of wave. In interference waves is same and medi 2 2 2 AP =a} +a} + 2aya9 cos 6 ++» (10) sity of resultant wave at any poi: it Point depends on paves and the phase difference For maximum intensity at any + (1D‘The maximum intensity, Tmax = 03 +03 + 2009 = (ay +49)” as@2) maximum amplitude, Aynax = Vmax = 41+ 42 + 3) a r i par os Path difference A = 5 x Phase difference = 55, 2n% = nh... (14) Clearly the maximum intensity is obtained in the region of superposition at those points where waves meet in the same phase or the phase difference between the waves is even multiple of m or path difference between them is integral multiple of 2, and maximum intensity is (a; +a)” which is greater than the sum intensities of individual waves by an amount 2a,a9. Destructive Interference : For minimum intensity at any point cos @=-1 or phase difference, ¢ =n, 3m, 5%, 77... =(@n-1)7,n=1,2, +. 5) In this case the minimum intensity, Tpxin = 03 + 03 — 24049 = (21 — 22)" 2. 16) Minimum amplitude, Anin=Imin= 11722) 0D Path difference, A= #- x Phase differece ten asters palespciste oe Bx@n-1)n=n-05 (18) intensity is obtained in the region of "where waves meet in opposite phase n the waves is odd multiple of x or than the sum of intensities of the 2a yay. 16) it is clear that the intensity of minima to maxima, This ed on conservation ofenergy.