CWI /Visual Testing (VT) LEVEL- Il Training Course Prepared by Dr. Samir Saad General Manager Cutech Arabia LLCAA) About the Author Dr. Samir Saad General Manager Cutech Arabia LLC Experience: 17 Years (Oil and Gas) Skills & Expertise Welding and Welding Inspection + Non-Destructive Testing Material Technology In Service & On-stream Inspection * Corrosion and Management Asset Integrity Management DrSamir Saad Education Certification M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in Welding Engineering Technology. Bachelor of Mechanical Engineering Professional Certification ASME Authorized Inspector (Al), Soller and Pressure Vessel ASNT NDT LEVEL Ill In 44 methods, ASNT ID: 190902, 1. Visual end Optical Testing (VT), 7. Magnetic fux leakage Testing (MFL), 2. Radiographic Testing (RT), 8. inferred thermal testing (IR). 3. Uttrasonie Testing (UT), 8. Leak Testing (LT, 4. Liquid Penetrnt Testing (PT), 10, Acoustic Emission Testing (AE) ‘5. Magnetic Testing (MT), 11, Neutron Radiography (NR) 6._ Electromagnetic Testing ET), ‘AWS-CWEng. - Certified Welding Engineer, ID NO. 17010046. AWS-CWE -Ceried Welding Educator, ID NO. 1902001E. ‘AWS-CWM - Certified Welding Inspector, ID NO. 19021321 ‘AWS-CWS - Cerfed Welding Supervisor, ID NO. 20030008, [AWS-CWSR - Certified Welding Sales Representative, ID NO. 2003000R ‘CSWIP 3.2.2 - Senior Welding Inspector Personal, ID NO.74305, BGAS-CSWIPPainting Inspector Grade 2-BGAS, 10:589730. [API 510- Pressure Vessel Inspector ID NO. 35376. [API 570. Process Piping Inspector ID NO. 38328, ‘API 853. aboveground storage tank inspector ID NO. 26171, [APL RP 580 -Risk-Based inspection professional ID NO. 52784 [APP 871- Corrosion and Materials Professional ID NO. 55359 ‘API 996 - Refractory Personnel, ID NO. 94784 [API S77 - Welding Inspection and Metallurgy. ID NO. 94785 [API SIFE-Source Inspector Fixed Equipment, ID NO. 95780 Lead aualtor according to 180 9001:2015 from IRCChapter1 Qualification and Certification we Requirements Dr.Samir Saadi£The following documents outline personnel qualification and certification requirements: 1. ASNT Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A. 2. ANSI/ASNT CP-189: Standard for Qualification and Certification of Nondestructive Personnel. 3. ACCP: ASNT Central Certification Program. 4. NAS 410, NationalAerospace Standard Certification and Qualification of Nondestructive Testing Personnel. DrSamir Saadi¥ Training and Qualification Process: % % 1. Certification of NDT personnel is the responsibility of the effiployer A person who is in the process of training and qualification is considered a trainee. Three Basic Levels of Qualification LEVEL | — is qualified to perform specific calibrations, specific tests, and specific evaluations. The NDT Level | should receive the necessary instruction and supervision from a certified NDT Level I! or Mindividual. LEVEL II — is qualified to set up and Calibrate equipment and to interpret and evaluate results with respect to codes, standards and specifications, LEVEL II — must be capable and responsible for establishing techniques, interpreting codes, and designating the test methodiand technique to be used. The NDT Level I in the methods in which certified, should be capable of training and examining NDT Level | and Il personnel for certification in those methods. DrSamir SaadLX Qualification Requirements: 1. Organized training (required class hours). Required testing (general, specific, practical). Education (depends on written practice). Experience (documented hours). Physical attributes to perform examinations (vision acuity and color contrast test performed annually). Xt Certification “% Certification is a written testimony that an individual has met all the qualifications of a company’s written practice. DrSamir Saad~ mnsageleh to NDP = we of | x oe Dr.Samir SaadXf Nondestructive testing methods are used for the following reasons: . To ensure product integrity and reliability. . To avoid test object failure, prevent accidentsiand save lives. . To make user profits. . To ensure customer satisfaction. . To aid in better product design: . To lower manufacturers’ €osts. . To maintain uniform quality levels. DrSamir Saad| Surface/sub-surface and | Volumetric ! 1Visual Testing(VT) / 1.Radiography Testing(RT) 2.Magnetic Particle Testing (MT) 2.Ultrasonic Testing(UT) ( surface and near surface , applied on only ferromagnetic material) 3. Penetrant Testing (PT) (any defects open to surface) 4, Eddy Current (ET) ( surface and near surface) DrSamir Saadnatio’ is the most extensively used NDE method for welds. The oldest and most widely used inspection techniques The eyes of inspector are the only ‘equipment ‘usédhfor the inspection Applicable to virtually any material \VTis commonly performed on castings, forgings, and welds and it is performed after machining processes as well. Itincludes either the direct or indirect observation of the exposed surfaces of the weld and base metal. DrSamir SaadX¥ Direct visual examination va is conducted when access is sufficient toplace the eye within 6 in. through 24 in, (150 mm through 600 mm) of the surface to be examined and at an angle not less than 30 degrees to the surface as illustrated in Figure. Mirrors may be used to i the + DrSamir Saad'* Codes and specifications may list compliance with these requirements as mandatory. Sc Irements listed in thistle Incl ; * a) Awritten procedure is required for examinations. '* b) The minimum amount.of information that is to be included in the written procedure. es + c) Demonstration of the adequacy of the inspection procedure. lists Breanne en eae ter ror ate ein alr carne i Jaeger-type eye Vision test. FEQUIFEMENES — ~ 2 drecrVstsl examination requires acess to permit the eye tobe within 6in.through 24 in. (150 mm through 600 mm) of the surface, at for visual an angle not less than 30 degrees. +f] The minimum required illumination of the part under examination. examination . ‘¥\g)Indirect visual examination permits the use of remote visual ‘examination and devices be employed. * h) Evaluation of indications in terms of the acceptance standards of the referencing code. DrSamir Saad«READING CARD (Metric) sete eres er annar“whe wus stg seer ci oor “ss nn aan to sce tat Tag an ony ¢ 10 a Sate nest y on wt waren a lp iin ich teoeg iad ut kc aoa copa nat 'taewing ie wie nd stig cts senna ne oped. 1" nat wont thn whos of avy caries stow is ‘quagmire und in dey weather the dust wan scnive Tanw with ‘ain the inbabaantesraaing nud whic purchaingtheirprovinons canSt Optical Aids > — Optical aids used in visual inspection 3e{ Adequate Illumination: include the following. Ambient Light Meters Lighting the inspection surface illumination is of extreme importance. ‘Adequate ilumination levels shotiid bé established in order to ensure and.effective visual inspection. ra Illumination meters for the ‘Standards such as ASME,Section V Article 9 measurement of ambient specify lighting levels of 100 foot-candles (white) light in foot-candles (1000 lux) at the examination surface. or lux. Dr Samir SaadQ Effective program of visual inspection) It has been proven that EFFECTIVE program | inspection will discover vast majority of the defects which "> und later using expensive NDE methods & “This only possible when soup accomplished: > BEFORE, DURING Bya trained and qualified inspector (that’s why AWS developed the CWI program) > Propertools Desai SineQ Why VT is very cost effective: Relative simplicity It is least expensive inspection method Minimal amount of equipment required: Minimize the repair time and cost; » Itallows for detection and correction of many discontinuities before weld completion Application of VT % Before welding “ During welding % After weldingDuring Welding After Welding. — Chemical analysis — Mechanical properties Base Metal Conditions — Freedom from internal and surface discontinuities — Flatness, straightness, dimensional accuracy Joint Condition — Edge Shape Dimensional accuracy — Cleanliness — Root opening — Alignment - Backing, — Tack welds Special Assembly/Fabrication Practice — Adequacy and accuracy 6f jigging, bracing, or ‘fixturing — Application and accuracy of pre-stressing oF precambering Preheat and interpass temperatures, — Controls — Measurement methods! Filler Metal — Identification — Control — Handling Root Pass — Contour — Soundnes® Root preparation prior to welding second side + Cleaning between passes + ‘Appearance or passes (ometimes in comparison with workmanship standard) In-process NDE as required or specified ‘Conformance to approved welding procedure “+, Postheat treatment requirements Acceptance inspection Method of cleaning for inspection Nondestructive examination — Visual examination — Surface contour and finish of welds — Conformity of welds with drawings — Magnetic particle — Liquid penetrant examination — Radiographic examination — Ultrasonic examination — Proof testing — Other suitable methods Destructive testing — Chemical — Mechanical — Metallographic Marking for acceptance or rejection Repairs Inspection after repair£ Optical Aids » — Optical aids used in visual inspection include the following. b) Mirrors / valuable to the inspector allowing themto : look inside piping, threaded and bored holes, inside castings andaround corners if necessary. DrSamir SaadX£ Optical Aids » — Optical aids used in visual inspection include the following. c) Magnifiers ¥ helpful in bringing out small details and. defeots. FP DrSamir SaadVisual Inspection Tools ) Optical aids used in visual inspection include the following. widely used for examining tubes, adeep hole, long bores, and pipe bends, having internal surfaces notaccessible to direct viewing metal. DrSamir SaadSX Weld Examination Devices > Typical inspection tools for weld inspection include the following. a) a) Inspector's kit contains some of the basic tools needed to perform anadequate visual examination of a weld during all stages of welding {Before welding During welding and After welding} It includes as the following:- 6 inch Ruler 1 inch Micrometer Metric Dial Caliper Palmgren Gage Underout Gage Fillet Weld Gages DrSamirSaadSX Weld Examination Devices > — Typical inspection tools for weld inspection include the following. b) Bridge cam gauge + canbe used to determine the weld preparation angle prior to welding. This tool can also be used to measure, > excess weld metal (reinforcement), depth of undercut or pitting, fillet 2 weld throat size or welt,leg length " NM LO and misalignment (high-low). EILETWELD THROAT ANGLE OF PREPARATION MESALIGNMENT ICES WELD METAL LET Ls LENoTH DrSamir SaadWeld Examination Devices Typical inspection tools for weld inspection include the following, Bridge Fillet weld gauge-The types of fillet weld gauges include. Adjustable fillet weld gauge —measures weld sizes for fitups with 45 degree members and welds with)unequal weld leg lengths The weld fillet gauge —a quiok go/no-do gauge used to measure the fillet weld lag'fength, Gauges normally come in sets with weld leg size8from 1/8 in, (3 mm) to 4 in (25.4 mm). a weld filet gauge being used to determine i the crown has acceptable concavity or convexity. DrSamir SaadX& Weld Examination Devices > Typical inspection tools for weld inspection include the following. ¢) —_Hi-lo welding gauge. 1) Italso measures internal mismatch, weld crown height ahd root weld spacing. DrSamir- SaadXf Weld Examination Devices > Typical inspection tools for weld inspection include the following. ¢) Digital pyrometer or temperature sensitive crayonS + measures preheat and interpass temperatures. =a [Sa Ss SS) =a DrSamir SaadQO Penetrant examination is a sensitive method of detecting and locating discontinuities, provided the discontinuities are cledtvaind open to the surface. Q Method ) * The method employs a penetrating liquid ase which is applied to the properly cleaned surface to be examined and which enterS the discontinuity. * After a suitable dwell time, the excess penetrant is removed from the surface and the partis dried * A developer is then appligdhwhich acts as a blotter, drawing the penetrant out of the discontinuity. / * The penetrant, drawn from an opening on the surface, indicates the presence and location. ofa discontinuityoe a Apply Penetrant Clean then apply Developer Desai SineO basic classifications of the penetrant met! There are two basic classifications of é penetrant method, both using a similar principle. * One uses a visible dye and the other fom dye which is only visible with exposure to ultraviolet light Visible penetrant is usually red to provide a contrast against the white developer background. NOD ight is usually sufficient to view the discontinuities. Fluorescent penetrant Provide a greenish yellow indication against a dark background when d in a darkened area under a black (ultraviolet) light source. The fluorescent method is more sensitive due to the fact that the human eye can more easily discem a fluorescent.indication.Ovisible dye OFluorescent dye OThree removal systems: > Solvent > Water > EmulsifiableQ These Are the Medias by Which Tmax Can Keep Permanent Records. % Sketches * Photographs % LiftofftapesQ Advantages and Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages 1) Low operator skill level) ~| 1) Highly clean metal 2) All materials (NowPorous) | _|2) Open Surface flaws only 3) Low cost method 3) Somewhat slow 4) Simple equipmentQ Application & * Magnetic particle inspection may be applied to detect and near surface defects in C QO Method os ferromagnetic materials only . = Clean area to be tested & Apply contrast paint Apply magnetism to th Oren Apply, froma the component during magnetising Interpret the test area’ Post clean and demagnetise (if required) Drsami SintO Method e oO is Contrast paint Magnet ao Result i ¢Q Magnetic Field Orientation and Flaw Detectability > Ifthe magnetic field is parallel to the defect, iil will see little disruption and no flux leakage field will be produéedy ~~ a > An orientation 843 to 90 degrees between the magnetic field and the defect is necessary to form an indication.Magnetic particle testing...) Q Circumferential Magnetization > Circular magnetic fields are produced _by 1) passing current through the part 2) A headshot on a wet horizontal test unit an 3) Prods 4)Central conductorsQ longitudinal Magnetization > alongitudinal magnetic fields are produced by, 1) Permanent magnets and Electromagnetic yokes 2) Coils & Solenoids Macnenc FretQuestion = ? From the previous slide regarding the optimum)test sensitivity, which kinds of defect are easily found in the images below? ELECTRIC Cracks at 90° to lin€orée will show Cracks at parallel to line force will not showQuestion ® ?~ From the previous slide regarding the optimum test sensitivity, which kinds of defect ‘are easily found in the CURRENT G) (ad GA DoS MAGNETIC LINES SPP Oace Longitudinal (along the axis)Question From the previous slide regarding the optimum test sensitivity, which kinds of defect are easily found in the images below? EXTERNAL } a FIELD »& ie J Ee ~ MAGNETIC FIELO A HA . © CURRENT Longitudinal (along the axis) Transverse (perpendicular the axis)QO Magnetic Particles OMT Equipment + ferromagnetic iron oxides cee / DC bench units «Dry or wet © “AC yokes & * Types oe “AC / DC yokes “Color dyed <° “AC / DC prods “Fluorescent AC / DC coilsQ These Are the Medias by Which Tmax Can Keep Permanent Records. % Sketches * Photographs % LiftofftapesQO Magnetic Particles Advantages Disadvantages 1) Low operator skill level 1) Fe Magnetic metal only 2) Rapid -). (2) De-magnetize may be required 3) Relatively cheap 3) Can cause are strikes # 4) Portable . 4) Poor with thick coatings # When using the straight current prod technique ,Q Overview of Radiographic Testing X or Gamma radiation is imposed upon a tést object Radiation is transmitted to varying degrees dependent upon the density of the material through which it is;trayelling Thinner areas and low density materials show as darker areas on the radiograph Thicker areas and High density materials show as lighter areas on a radiograph Applicable to metals, non-metals and composites~. Oy Load film Exposure to Radie he Interpret Graph e Radioactive source Developed Graph . — ‘tent image on the filmSTEEL STEP WEDGE LIGHTEST DARKEST © Areas of high radiation teansmission, or low absorption, appear as dark areas on the developed film, 2 Areas of low radiation transmission, or high absorption, appear as light areas on the developed film.High dense discontinuity Low dense discontinuity Lighter regionPb LIGHTEST sen — ~ DARKEST Metal Densities Grams/cubic centimeter Aluminum 2.70 Steel 7.87 Copper 8.96 Lead 11.34 Tungsten 19.30Radiographic Testing Flaw Orientation a° 10° 20°Radiographic Techniques Single Wall Single Image (SWSI) IQI’s should be placed source sideRadiographic Techniques Single Wall Single Image Panoramic IQI’s are placed on the film side Source inside film outside (single exposure)Radiographic Techniques Double Wall Single.Image (DWSI) IQI’s are placed on the film side Source outside film outside (multiple exposure) This technique is intended for pipe diameters over 100mmRadiographic Techniques Double Wall Double Image (DWDI!) IQI's are placed on the source or film side Source outside film outside (multiple exposure) A minimum of two exposures This technique is intended for pipe diameters less than 00mmRadiographic Techniques Double Wall Double Image(DWo!) Elliptical RadiographRadiographic Testing ~ f Radiographic ares ( 2% thickness test object) \ ' - O) Image Quality Indica 1S \ \ Hole type IQI ~~ Dr.Samir SaadRadiographic Sensitivity OPlacement of IQT Hole Type IQI. Wire Type IQIAdvantages vantages 1) A permanent record operator skill 2) Most materials 2) Difficult interpretation 3) Requires access to both sides 4) Flaw orientation 5) Safety requirements*Apply Couplant Sound wate Result* cer display \I = Signal rebounded from Lack of fusion Desai SineUltrasonic Testing Pulse echo signals Asscan Display Compression probe checking the material ThicknessThickness AQO Longitudinal (straight beam)-Compression Probe “ Thickness measurement m defect Back wall initial pulse echo echo “Lamination check Compression Probe CRT Display( Ultrasonic Testing ) Q Shear (angle beam) Probe % Weld check initial pulse- defect echo CRT Display initial pul defect echo. Full. Skip.UT Advantages UT Limitations A true volumetric test One side access * Highly skilled operator * Smooth surfaces * Groove welds > 1/4” thick Very accurate Deep penetration - 200” Critical flaws found Equipment fully portableEddy Current Testing “Based on the principle of eddy currents being formed in conductive materials in the presence of an AC coil.and changes in those eddy currents by material’changes.” Induced Eddy CurrentsET application Flaw detection Metal thickness Coating thicknes. Metal hardgenfs Heat treatmentET Advantages ET Limitations No contact required with part Highly skilled operator No couplant required “Too sensitive” Readily Automated Shallow penetration - 3/16” Applicable to all metals Calibration standards required Requires surface cleanliness Magnetic materials more difficult~ Chapeee Metal Properties.and De&tructive tin » Ye oe a ab” =Q Destructive Testing * destroying, a part, or a portion there lermine its properties Q Nondestructive Testing > * Does not affect the servi of the part after testing is completed Desai SineQ Mechanical Properties of Metals » + The important mechanical prope jpg Otmetas Strength oe Ss? © Toughness Q' Fatigue Strength Soundness "ow + Desai SineIntroduction Mechanical Test Samples Tensile Specimens’ CTOD Specimen e Bend Test Charpy Specimen Fracture Fillet SpecimenQ Strength * The property of metals that describes their ability to carry a load Q Two common methods/of lone 8 Sitchin, 0 expression: “ Ultimate tensile strength (UTS) * Yield strength (or yield point) Elongation (n.)Tensile TestingQ Metal Behavior Under Load Elastic - No permanent deformation Plastic - Permanent deformation. Conventional stressQ Offset Method * Used for Deterring Yield Point + Usually Offset at 0.2% (0.002 IN/IN)s. L * Line Parallel to Elastic Li Desai SineO The result of the tensile test include + Ultimate Tensile Strength % Yield Strength * Percent Elongation > Percent Reductio:Q Ultimate Tensile Strength Maximum load applied = 22000 Ib. Least cross sectional area = 0.5 in2 UTS = Maximum load applied cross sectional area UTS = — 22000 _ 0.5 UTS = 44000 psi= 44 ksiQO Percent Elongation Original gage length = 2.0 in. Final gage length = 2.6 in. Desai SineQ Percent Reduction of Area Original area = 0.2 in.? ee Final area =0.1 in. 7 C %Reduction of area (%RA) = ? %RA = original are : %RA = 0.2- 0.1 x 0% 0.2 ;Stress-Strain Diagrams th St8els Structural Steel Medium Strength Stee!Q Hardness & O *% Ability to resist indentation & Q hardness tests 5 * Brinell * Rockwell © *» Hardness Tests ae » Vickers » KnoopQ Indenters, and Shapes of Indentation Test Indenter Shape of Indentation 10 mm spheré of e@ Brinell or tungsten car Knoop D\Diamond 02° arate) amid —— re AS 2? Diamond e \ 1/16 in Diameter steel sphere & 1/8 in Diameter ow E ‘sphereHardness and Hardness Testing.| Q Brinell * can use it DT or NDT Approximate Tensile Strength = BHN X 500Q Rockwell “% uses both minor and major loadQ Microhardness + Two Major Types v Vickers v KnoopQ Temperature Effects « As metal temperatures incre: » Strength decreases S & » Hardness decreas © >Ductility incregses : Desai SineQ Toughness * ‘The ability to absorb energy” ee The common notch foun r impact tests include > Charpy V notch & > crack tip opening ssneean (CTOD). oma Q Charpy Testing Transition Temperature’ SamplesQ Charpy Test Results e “+ Energy absorption - Ft. Ibs. oe “+ Lateral expansion - Mils & & se[ Ductility ) Q Ductility “% The ability of a metal to deform withouPbreaking Q Brittle vs Ductile Failure Ductile Brittle ¥ Percent elongation Y Percent reduction of areaQ Transition Temperature : ** The temperature at which a metal fractur6mode changes from ductile to brittle Transition Temperature t g 2 2 2 2 = 5 Temperature —>Q Fatigue Strength + The strength of a metal when exposed to repeated reversals of cyclic stresses Q Endurance Limit * “The maximum stress at which no failure. will occur, regardless of cycles* Y Only Ferrous alloys and titariitim alloys have Endurance Limit ¥ Other structural metals such as aluminium and copper, do not have rs 1047 See 201076 Aluioum ww wo eo Number of cytes Typical S-N CurvesQ Soundness S ee * “Freedom from discontinuities” Q Soundness Testing & “ Bend testing oe “ Nick-break Sy : Fillet break Desai SineBend testing Wrap-around Bend Test Jig Guided)Bend Test JigTransverse Weld Bend Specimens : Root /fade-]") ala Tupto 12mm Root bend Thickness of material-“t" | Side bend Desai SineSend testing Bend Test Samples Transverse Weld Bend SpecimensBend testing J Bend Test Samples Longitudinal Weld Bend Specimens{ Bend testing Acceptance for Psat minor ruptures on specimen would be. tension surface unacceptable pelea! requirementsFillet Break - Sample FractureNick Break Test Sa nples MECHANIZED OR SEMAUTOMATIC WELDING SOURDE: ANSVAWS 840-02( Nick Break Test ) Evaluation of Nick-BreakQ Metallographic Testing Macroscopic — specimens exaringdat magnification of 10x or lower os ¢ “ Microscopic - specitiens examined at use magnifications greater than 10%, usualy 100X or higher.[ Wstallographic Testing f QO Photomacrograph 10x or lower flacro specimen “for determining such as depth of fusion depth of penetration ,effective throat, weld soundness, degree of fusion, presence of weld discontinuities, weld configuration, number of passes”[ Metallographic Testing ) QO Photomicrograph usually 100X or higher100X men “used to determine various features as well included are microstructure constituents, presence of inclusions, presence of microscopic defects, and nature of cracking”QO Photomicrogra| eos ? -oscopic of the welded joint jicluding:~ a) Base metal (BM). b) Fusion Zone- Weld metal (WM). ©) Coarse grain heat affected zone (CGHAZ). 4) Fusion line (FL). ¢) Fine grain heat affected zoneChapter Metal Joinitig, " ing Processes ~SQO 3 Basic ‘Process’ Groups e “ Welding oe oe * Cutting < : * BrazingQ Shielded Metal Arc Welding > isan arc welding process wherein coalescence is produced by heating with an electric arc between a covered metal electrode and the work, > Sometimes called “Stick” >_ Manual process “The SMAW process is alrfiost totally WELDER dependent” ELECTRODE COVERING, SHIELOING ATMOSPHERE WELD POOL. METAL AND SLAG SOLIDIFIED SLAG DROPLETS DIRECTION OF WELDINGUO The electrode coating, It Provides: 4. Shielding > some of the coating decomposes to form a gas€ous Shield for the molten metal. 2. Deoxidation » the coating provides a fluxing action to'remove impurities and oxygen and other atmospheric gases. 3. Alloying > the coating provides additional alloying elements for the weld deposit. 4. lonizing > when the flux coating-beconiies molten it improves electrical characteristics to increase arc stability. 5. Insulating > the solidified slag provides an insulating blanket to slow down the weld metal cooling rate.Q AWS Shielded Metal Arc Covered Electrode Classification System E inal Minimum Tensile Strength in ksi. First Two Digits Of A Four Digit Or First Three Digits of a Five Digit Number Position 1 = All Positions 2 = Flat & Horizontal Fillet 4 = Vertical Down Usability, Type of Coating, Weld Current Type. & PolarityQ AWS Shielded Metal Arc Covered Electrode Classification System aN Example Strength : InKsi Types of Coating and CurrentQ Stainless Steel Electrodes E - 308 L 16)-—— seu Type of Stainless Steel 4 Position 2 Type of Current 45 DCEP 46 AC or DCEPQO Electrode Coating Classification’ F #: “ F-1 High Deposition Group > (Exx20, Exx24, Exx27, Exx28) “» F-2 Mild Penetration Group | > (Exx12, Exx13, Exxt4) “+ F-3 Deep Penetration Group > (Exx10, Exx11) Cellulosic electrode ‘+ F-4 Low Hydrogen Group > (Exx15, Exx16, Exx18)QO Low Hydrogen Electrodes. + Types end ina ‘5, ‘6’, or ‘8° Purchase in sealed, metal containers \ “Store after opening in heated, vented oven > Most codes require that low hydrogen electrodes be held at a minimum oven temperature of 250°F [120°C] after removal from their )* J + Limit atmospheric exposure >» alow moisture content(less thanQ Stainless Steel Electrodes & > E308, E308L - Weld 304 and so “» E316, E316L - Weld 316 and feb “+ E309 - Weld Stainle: on SteelLU) Welding Current Types AC DCEN- DC Electrode Negative -—- (Straight) Polarity DCEP — DC Electrode Positive (Reverse) Polarity ~catnooe “AEST,) Arc length “ The distance between the tip of electrode and the ortiece As arc length increases, voltage goes up; and + asarc length decreases, voltage goes down. Desai StU) Traditional Welding Power Source “Constant Current Power Source ¥ Electrode moved closer, Arc V falls, Arc A rise: ¥ Electrode moved away, Arc V rises, Arc A drops| Vv 0 Arc current directly related to heat input ler controls heat input to workO) Arc blow welding problems is the result of a distorted maGnéti¢ field that deflects the welding are Porosity can also result from the preseficeare’ blow Direction | omalveame nine mc | iene of current Distorted |_ Distorted Magnetic Fields at Ends of Welds | Fields at Ends of Welds Around Electric ConductorQ To reduce the effects of arc blow, several alternatives can be tried. They include: . Change from DC to AC. . Hold as short an arc as possible. . Reduce welding current . Use a back-step technique. . Wrap work cable around the workpiece and pass work current through it . Extend the end of thé\joint by attaching runoff plates.Q SMAW Advantages O a. Field or shop use 4 Hip ote skill required Inexpensive power supply Rate deposition is very low Very portable oe 3. Slag removal All pestions <)> 4. Electrode storage considerations Welds most alloys 5. Arc blow Desai Sine{ Welding J as Meta il Arc Welding (GMAW)Gas Metal Arc Welding > An arc welding process that uses an arc between a contintious filler metal electrode and the weld pool the process is used with shielding from/an externally supplied gas > > Sometimes called “MIG” or MAG Used as automatic or semiautomatic process DIRECTION OF TRAVEL, CURRENT CONDUCTOR WIRE GUIDE AND CONTACT TUBE Gas NozzLe CONSUMABLE) a GASEOUS ae SATS ELECTRODE ARCQ Process Principles > Heat source- electric arc between electrode (wire) and the work > Shielding- an external gas supply Feed control Shielding- Control system gas WorkpieceWelding Current Types e DCEP- normal type of current used Q_ Shielding Gas & Inert- ( Argon )a gas that does not combine chemically with the base or filler material Carbon Dioxide- not inertyis the most common gas used on low carbon steel 75% Argon,25%CO2- is used to produce a smoother bead with less spatter, but will reduce penetration > Argon/Oxygen- this mixture with 5% Oxygen as maximum will produce a spray transfer with no spatterSpray > ARIO2 > High amperage and voltage » flat and horizontalOQ GMAW Modes of Transfer “Pulsed Arc > various amperage levels > spray transfer > all positions » transition currentQ GMAW Modes of Transfer Globular » C02 or AR/CO2 > higher amperage and voltage » — flat and horizontal0) GMAW Modes of Transfer Short-Circuiting » CO2 or AR/CO2 > low amperage and voltage > all positions > provides the lowest amount of heat to the workpiece and therefore prone to incomplete fusion > This type of transfer produces a small, fast-freezing weld pool that i generally suited for the joining of thin sections, out-of-position welding, and filling of large root Drop ee puddle, openings. causing short circuitQ GMAW Modes of Transfer & ee “Factors for Transfer Modes > Shielding gas & & » Current level > Voltage teveiQ) >» Power supply + Desai SineQ GMAW Electrode Identification System @ Chemical Strength Composition Cov 1 T ERXXS-X LS L_ Electrode Rod Solid WireQ Low Alloy (Solid) Electrode Classification GMAW, GTAW, and PAWS ER 80 S - Ni3 Electrode or Rod Tensile Strength Solid or Chemical Composition Metal Cored ER 70S-3Q Stainless Steel (Solid) Electrode Classification GMAW, GTAW, and PAWS ER - 308 LS / / \ Electrode or Rod ‘Type of Low Carbon Content High Stainless Steel .04 Maximum SiliconQ GMAW Power Source Types and Characteristics “ Constant Voltage- 100% duty cycle with flat volt/amp curve + Is ‘self-regulating’ (maintains constant arc length) > 8 3 3 CURRENT, A wooQ GMAW Advantages 1. Works faster as compared to SMAW. due to Continuous filler metal feed . High deposition rates as compared to S.M.A.W. . produce welds with deeper penetration |. No slag formation takes place . Clean process . Welds most alloysQ GMAW Limitations 1. Equipment is more complex 2. The equipment are Costly;and less portable. 3. GMAW is not suitable for Filed since strong wind may below away the shield)( Welding J Flux Cored Arc WeldingLU) Flux Cored Arc Welding > An arc welding process that uses an arc between a continuous filler metal electrode and the weld pool. » the process is uses with shielding gas from,a'flux contained within the tubular electrode with or without additional shielding from anextérnally supplied gas Self-shielded FCAW Flux-Cored(B) Self-ShieldedQ Welding Current Types “ DCEN or DCEP depending on type of wire Q_ Shielding Gas ce £C + Carbon dioxide (C02) is the most widely Used for use in welding steel because ¥ C02 provides deep penetration Q Methods of Application Manual N/A + % Semiautomatic M Mechanized widely used * Automatic widely used Desai SineQ FCAW Electrode Identification System Strength Tubular [] C] EX X\T PX Ld co cand pngQ Low Alloy (tubular) Electrode Classification FCAW cme Zh aan Electrode’ Tensile Strength Indicates Usability and X10 KSI J Performance Capabilities Indicates Flux Cored Electrode Position O-flat and horizontal. «= Tubular 1-all positionsQ Stainless Steel (tubular) Electrode Classification FCAW E316LT+3 Type of Sa ee Stainless Steel =| a External Shield -Q ~FCAW Power Source Types and Chafadtrstis “+ Constant voltage with flat volt aye + Constant speed system wi argu current machine “+ The wire feeder is a Sarbte speed system + + 100% duty ere)»Q FCAW Advantages 1. 2. 3: 4. 5. 6. High quality welds . High deposition rates . Deep penetration Relatively high travel Speeds . Suitable for fieldwork . Easily mechanizedQ FCAW Limitations . Equipment is more expensive . Equipment is more complex . Slag needs to be removed™ . Primarily only welds:steels . Very smoky process . Filler metal more expensive °( Welding JU1 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding > Anarc welding process that uses an arc between a tungsten electrode (non-consumable) and the weld pool . > the process is used with shielding gas > T.LG.-Tungsten Inert Gas Pee vases ——__ ecectrooe Wels MET,L) Tungsten Electrode Classifications » Tungsten electrode classifications are based on the chemical composition of the electrode and also shows the color identification system for the various classes of tungsten electrodes. :Q GTAW Filler Metals (Consumable), selection of a filler metal GTAW application > afiller metal should match the propertiesof the base metal in the welded condition GTAW cut lengths These filler metals do not producé any slag so there is no need for post-weld cleaning. Cut lengths are available ina’ range of diameters (from 4/16 to 1/8 inches) and in industry standard lengths of $6 inches (0.9 m)Q GTAW Filler Metals (Consumable), % Low Alloy (Solid) Electrode Classification » ER70S-2, ER70S-3, etc ER 80'S - Ni3 Electrode or Rod Tensile Strength Solid or Chemical Composition KSI Metal Cored Tensile Strength or Ks!Q Stainless Steel (Solid) Electrode Classification GMAW, GTAW, and PAWS ER - 308 LS / / \ Electrode or Rod ‘Type of Low Carbon Content High Stainless Steel .04 Maximum SiliconDrsami SineQ Welding Current Types (CuRRENT-TYPE AC (balanced) ELECTRODE POLARITY. ELECTRON AND TON FLOW PENETRATION CHARACTERISTICS Great for AL ENS OXIDE CLEANING ‘ACTION YES Once eve tlt oye HEAT BALANCE IN THE ARC (approx) 30% ode end 20% At work end 70% At electrode end ‘50% At work end 50% At electrode ond PENETRATION Deep: narrow Shallow; wide ‘Medium ELECTRODE CAPACITY Exealent Poor (e4,, 1/8 in [248 mm}-400 A) _ (e.g, 1/4 in (638 mm]-120 A) ~ Seed (4.9., 1/8 in (8.48 mm}-225 A)Q GTAW Advantages . High quality welds /Good appearance . No slag . Very little, if any, post-weld cleaning required . Autogenous welding (welding without filler metal /Good for thin materials such as Ak) . Can be automatedQ GTAW Limitations . High skill factor required . Low deposition rate / Low productivity . Lower productivity |. Higher initial cost of the equipment . Shielding gas expensive . Purging gas expensive, » to Prevent Oxidationin the root area during welding stainless steel, titanium and other corrosion-resistant materialsU1 Submerged arc welding > an arc welding process that uses an arc or arcs between.a bare metal electrode or electrodes. > The arc and molten metal are shielded by a blanket 6f granular flux on the workpiece Contact Tube ———s Electrode fom Molten Flux DEAE Granular Flux BlanketQ SAW Power Source Types and Character + 100% duty cycle Q Welding Current‘Types V ac 4 DCEN or DCEP depending on type of wirQ SAW Electrode Identification System ,Q Fluxes for SAW Welding “+ The 2 methods of flux manufacture are: 1) > Fused Baked at high temperature, glossy,hard and black in colour, cannot add ferro-mangafiesernon moisture absorbent and tends to be of the acidic type Agglomerated Baked at a lower temperature, dull, irregularly shaped, easily érushied'can easily add alloying elements, moisture absorbent and tend to be of the basic typeQ SAW Advantages Q SAW Limitations 1. 2. 3, 4, 5, 6. 7, 8. 9. . Deep penetration High quality weld metal 1. Flat or horizontal fillets only 2. Extensive setup time . High deposition rates 3. Slag removal . Smooth, uniform finish, no spatter . Little or no smoke . No are flash . High utilization of electrode wire . Good for overlay of large areas ._ Easily automated oxsamir SdBrazingQ Brazing vs welding Processes + welding Processes » The base metals are melted. “> Brazing > The base metals are not melted. > The melting temperature of filler metal above 840°F (450°C)Q Brazing > The brazing processes achieve a bond between matetials-by heating them in the presence of a filler metal that has a liquidus aboye)840°F (450°C) and below the solidus of the base metal. > The filler metal flows between the closely'fitting joint surfaces by means of capillary action. Q Brazing Aspects Large surface area Very small clearance Clean surfaces Flux often used Capillary actionQ The most widely used processes are S > torch (TB), > furnace (FB), oe > induction (IB), > > resistance (RB), > dip (DB), oe infrared (IRB), and < . diffusion sendaQ Brazing Advantages > Strong joints » Joins dissimilar metals C a » Joins metals to nonmetals >» Joins “unweldable” metal > Less heat, less whe +Q_ Brazing Discontinuities & > Voids, unbonded areas oe » Base metal erosion > » Corrosion by flux oe > Trapped flux Sy *Q Soldering “ The base metals are not melted. C A. + The melting temperature of filler oa betow ‘840°F (450°C) + The solder is distributed between clotely fitted joint surfaces by capillary action. F + Unsatisfactory joints Soldering generally result from > poor surface conaion (Contaminated or dirty surfaces) > Improper joint fieup, and > incorrect flux selectionQ Soldering methods and equipment + dip (DS), % iron (INS), * resistance (RS), “torch (TS), + induction (IS), * furnace (FS) * infrared (IRS), “+ ultrasonic (USS), “+ wave (WS), and cascade soldering (CSCutting, Processes+ Acetylene +» Methane “ Propane oe MPS (ataegifpropaconeQ Oxyfuel Cutting (OFC) ye CUTTING OXYGEN PREHEATING OXYGEN ACETYLENE PREHEATING FLAMES: PREHEAT TO CHERRY RED BEFORE START- ING TO CUT Drsami Sintog iy a rH (ry FJ ic 3 6 OFC Cut |Q OFC Advantages & oO + Simple equipment oe “+ Very portable > Oo + Cuts thin or thick marie “+ Good scours “+ Manual or mechanized Drsami SandQ OFC disadvantages + Inadequate to cut stainless steels. “ the finished cut may require adit leaning or grinding to prepare it for welding oe ¢ the flame and hot slag hua result in safety hazards for personnel near + the cutting ovens) Drsami SandQ Air Carbon Arc Cutting (CAC-A) ‘+ This process uses a carbon electrode to create an arc for heating along with a high pressure stream of compressed air to \ mechanically remove the molten metal. * it can be used to cut all metals ore ees) * It is capable of cutting metals that cannot be cut by the oxyfuel gas cutting process.Cutting.Processes J Plasma Arc tti Cutting (PAC)Q Plasma Arc Cutting (PAC) This process is similar in most respects to PAW except that now the purpose is to remove metal rather than join pieces together. Advantages (PAC) AO + cutting of non-ferrous metals/PAC’is also useful for the cutting of carbon steels. That's means can cut all metals + ability to cut metals which'cannot be cut with OFC, > the resulting high quality cut, and + increased cutting speeds for carbon steel.Chapt Weld Hie Welding and NDE Symbols» may SFilletO Single sided preparations are normally meme n thinner materials, or when access from both sides is restrigpys ny rv Single Bevel & Single rer Single J Single rit SindQ Double sided preparations are normally m on thicker materials, Double Bev: Double J Double Uids Vv ~~ Single - U Butt(B2) Double-Square-Groove Weld | 2 £ &Single Sided - Multiple Pass Fillet Wel ‘n'a Comer Joint @ © (A) Double Sided - Single Pass Fillet Welds ‘ona Lap Jointexw Weld reinforcement. Weld metal in excess jantity required to fill a weld groove.CROSS-SECTIONAL WELDING SEQUENCEQ A surfacing weld > aweld applied to a surface, as opposed to making ajoint, to obtain desired properties or dimensions. Other terms associated With surfacing are: a) Buildup > a surfacing variation in which surfacing material is deposited to achieve the required dimensions. b) Buttering > a surfacing variation that depOsits surfacing metal on one or more surfaces to provide metallurgically compatible weld metal for the subsequent completion of a weld. c) Cladding, > assurfacing variation that deposits or applies surfacing material, usually to improve corrosion or heat resistance.Ae LD INTERFACE WELD INTERFACE (A) Groove Weld Weld interface The boundary between weld metal and base metal in a fusion weld wet “Toy (B) Surfacing Weld Depth of fusion the difference between the fusion face and the weld interface FUSION FACE DEPTH oF Fusion ‘WELD INTERFACE (C) Fillet WeldJoint Penetration (Groove Weld Size Groove Weld Size" i Incomplete + ¢ Joint Penetration (A) Incomplete Joint Penetration oO Sie, E, Equals Et plus E2 Joint Penetration and Weld (B) Complete Joint Penetration oe JOINT PENETRATION (GROOVE WELD SIZE Tammie Incomplete Joint Penetration‘PPE OF TUBE INCLINATION FRED AND NOT ROTATED. PPE OR TUBE INCLNAT er onrume nit ‘DURING WELDING (© macro. wexoma TEBy ps (©) muses weLome Test posmon-ea Desai Satl ANSUAWS A2.4 ) Standard Symbols for Welding, Brazing; and Nondestructive ExaminationWelding Symbol e > The welding symbol is the weld open all the additional element information (e.g., size; , length, etc.) applied to it. Weld Symbol a » The weld symbol identifies the specific type of weld (e.g., fillet, groove, plug, sigh ee), > The weld symbol is one of the element of a welding symbol Desai Sine-26-| --10- Sr rteRequired Elements * Reference Line - always horizontal * Arrow * Weld Symbol REFERENCE LINE * Dimensions (always shown horizontally) & + Supplementary Symbols ‘ARROW a a * Finish Required Welding Symbol Elements + Specification, Process Desai Sine| ieee CONTOUR eeteeaatata) ae MELT- BACKING Ao THROUGH ipecrmicey ecrmcLe CONVEX HEPOTHER SIDE "ARROW SIDE Q Information applicable to the arrow side of the joint is placed below the reference line onEn ane Information applicable to the other, side of a joint is placed above the reference line OTHER SIDEO A break in the arrow line signifies that the member the arrow points to is the member receiving the edge preparation. SYMBOL WELD CROSS SECTIONO A break in the arrow line signifies that the member the arrow points to is the member receiving the edge preparation.Q Two or more reference lines may be used t ate a sequence of operations. ee Q The first operation is always on the fef el of ce line nearest the arrow.QO The Tail is used to specify welding procession or other such information needed to convey the necessa elding details.Arrow side - V- groove ) \ Both sides - V- sroove Other side - V- groove & & & CS)‘Back or Backing, single J- groove, fillet “Single-bevel- ne double fillet Pr IP PIS Desai Sine“Square- groove Weld with Melt- Through “+Single-bevel-groove with Melt- Through < + “+Single-V-groove wit Through“> Edge weld with melt-Throug! > és & ee weiner Es Soe ' cms a sro. WELD CROSS SECTION JOINT DETAILED, JOWNT NOT DETALEDDepth of Bevel, S, and Size of Weld, (E) placed to the left of the symbol *’1/4 inch Depth bevel with a 3/8 inch weld 1/4 (3/8) V4 (3/8) **(No dimensions means complete penetration)va carey 17a (are)Q The Root Opening is placed within the weld symbol or just outside, and only on one side of the reference line Q Inches or mm per shop pains? o Desai SineQ Groove Angle is placed just outside the weld symbol Desai SineQ Pitch is the distance between centers/of adjacent weld segments. Pitch length is shown tothe tight of the weld length dimension — = + =Q Chain intermittent weld dimensions are to be placed on both sides of reference line, and opposite each otherQ Staggered intermittent weld dimensions are to be placed on both sides of reference line, and,Offset from each other.Q The fillet weld size is shown to the le! the symbol. -s sit6 pene. yi FiueT _ 98(A) LENGTH AND PITCH OF INTERMITTENT WELDS Desai Sine(B) LENGTH AND PITCH OF CHAIN INTERMITTENT WELDSPlug Weld Size. “Angle of Countersink. 2 Depth of Filling. Se? ¢*WELD PITCH )Spacing oe i “Number of Plug Welds. Desai Sine,Basic NDE Testing Spears Type of Test Symbol Acoustic Emission AET Eddy Current > ET Leak Magnetic Particle & ceFigure 10.38—Nondestructive Testing 10.39—Nondestructive Testing on Arrow Side ‘on Other Side ce Se: NDT either side Figure 10.40—Nondestructive Testing Figure LOA Nene neeea fae ae & = and Location of Weld to Be T “Tests to Be Performed on a Joint or at Random Locations on the Welds Figure 10.42—Designations for 0 Figure 10.44 Designation of Number of =~ ‘of Weld Length to Be Tested.EXAMINE FIELD RADIATION ALL AROUND EXAMINATION DIRECTION p—|F~| * | Symbols Showing Orientation of Radiation Source~ ~~ Chapenk Weld and Base Metal : al >». Inurties ‘ = oe Dr.Samir Saad ° 2. 2Q Discontinuity Versus Defect ~ An interruption of the typical structure of a material Such as >» a lack of homogeneity in its mechanical, métallurgical, or physical characteristics. * A discontinuity is not necessarily a defect. O Defect is a flaw or flaws “+ by nature or accumulated.effect renders a part or product unable to meet minimum applicable acceptance standards or specifications. “ the term designates rejectability.1) Incomplete root penetration. e 2) Lack of root fusion. oe 3) Root concavity. > 4) Burn through. & 5) Excess penetratio! Oo 6) Root piping. A 7) Oxidized Root (Root Coking) Desai Sine1) Incomplete root penetration. DEFINITION: Failure of weld metal to extend into the rootof a joint. CAUSES: 1) Root faces too large 2) Root gap too small 3) Electrode diameter too large 4) Incorrect electrode angle 5) Arc length too long 6) Travel speed too highfor currentRoot Defects 1) Incomplete root penetration. Lack of root penetration2) Incomplete root fusion. DEFINITION: Lack of union at the root of the weld. CAUSES: 1) Amperage too low / too high 2) Contaminated weld prepsRoot Defects ns Lack of Root Fusion Lack of Root PenetrationLack of root penetration, ...., Lack of root fusion) Concave root (suckback). DEFINITION: A shallow groove that may occur in the root of a butt, Weld. CAUSES: 1) Root face too large 2) Low arc energy 3) Excessive back purge 4) Excessive root grinding) Concave root (suckback). Concave root( Root Defects J 4) Excessive Root Penetration. DEFINITION: Excess weld metal protruding through the root. of a fusion weld made from one side only CAUSES: 1) Excessive amperage during welding of root 2) Excessive root gap 3) Poor fit up 4) Excessive root grinding 5) Improper welding technique[ Root Defects ) See tesies ron s Excess root penetratiot) Burn Through. DEFINITION: A localized collapse of the molten pool due to excessive penetration, resulting in a hole in the weld run. CAUSES: 1) Excessive amperage during welding of root 2) Excessive root grinding 3) Improper welding technique 4) Slow travel speed 5) Large root gap/small root face (irregular fit up) Desai SineRoot DefectsRoot Defects R ROOT PIPING (notvow BEAD)Root Defects ) Oxidized Root (Root Coking). DEFINITION: During TIG , Purging gas used to Prevent Oxidation in the root area during welding stainless steel, titanium and other corrosion-resistant materials CAUSES: 1) Loss or insufficient back purging gas 2) Most commonly occurs when welding stainless steels Purging gases include argon, helium and occasionally nitrogen1) Lack of side wall fusion. 2) Lack of inter run fusion. S 3) Porosity. 4) Slag inclusions. & & 5) Tungsten Inclusio! + Ql Internal. Defects ) 1) Lack Of Side Wall Fusion. DEFINITION: Lack of union in a weld. CAUSES: 1) Contaminated weld prep. 2) Amperage too low (Insufficient heat input ) 3) flooding the joint with too much weld metal (blocking Out) improper joint desigh. PS eon mad filled groove (underfill)Internal. Defects 2) lack of interun fusion Wa ee = Me Pee( Internal. Defects ) 3) Porosity. DEFINITION: > A group of gas pores, formed by entrapped. gas during the solidification of molten metal, > Blowhole - a cavity generally over J:5mm > Wormhole (piping) - elongated or tubularRay RIAD) & atari) ( Internal. Defects ) 4) Slag inclusions DEFINITION: Slag entrapped within the weld CAUSES: 1) improper techniques 2) improper manipulation of the welding ee electrode insufficient cleaning between passes. ilaternall Defects DEFINITION A tungsten particle embedded in a weld. (Typically GTAW & PAW only) CAUSES: 1) amperage too high, 2) electrode tip not snipped, 3) electrode contact with the weld pool,1) Arc strikes. 2) Spatter. S 3) Porosity. a 4) Crater pipe. > 5) Undercut. y 6) Overlap. 7) Incompletely filled Gone (Underfill). 8) Excess weld 9) Poor weld woe 10) Misalignment (hi-lo) 11)Surface cracks. Desai Sinef) Arc Strike (STRAY FLASH) DEFINITION: ‘A localized coalescence outside the weld zoné CAUSES: 1) Accidental striking of the arc onto thé parent material 2) Faulty electrode holder 3) Poor cable insulation 4) Poor return lead clamping.2) Spatter DEFINITION: Small particles (droplet) of weld metal expelled from the welding operation which adhere to the base metal surface CAUSES: 1) Excessive arc energy 2) Arc - blow 3) Damp electrodes. ake (CUS } { Surface Def 3) Surface porosity DEFINITION: dia. Porosity is a group of gas pores. CAUSES: 1) Excessive arc energy 2) Are - blow 3) Damp electrodesDEFINITION: A depression due to shrinkage at the end of a.weldrun, where the source of heat ‘was removed. CAUSES: 1) Too fast a cooling rateSurface Defects DEFINITION: A groove cut at the toe of the weld TN) and left unfilled. CAUSES: 1) High welding speed 2) Wrong electrode angle 3) Excessive weavingRoot undercut Cap undercut6) Overlap DEFINITION: When the face of the weld extends beyond the weld toe. CAUSES: 1) Slow travel speed 2) High amperage 3) Welding techniquea, Surface Defects ) Incompletely filled groove (Underfill). DEFINITION: The weld surface is below the adjacent surfaces of the base metal CAUSES: 1) Improper welding techniques 2) Travel speed too high Slee isch Amilshcerodielee of sidewall fusion8) Excess weld metal. DEFINITION: Additional weld metal, at either the root or the face, which may or may not be acceptable. Excess weld metal can cause a poor toe blend CAUSES: 1) Slow travel speed 2) Incorrect welding technique8) Excess weld metal. WELD APPEARANCE - TOE BLEND <3mm —v.9) Poor Profile . DEFINITION: A non unifornvirregular appearance at either the weld face or root. Can include excessive root penetration/cap height and poor cap profile. CAUSES: 1) Poor welding technique. 2) Too slow/fast travel speed. 3) Are blow{ Surface Defects )10) Misalignment (hi-lo). DEFINITION: Amount a joint is out of alignment at the root, CAUSES: Linear Misalignment10) Misalignment (hi-lo). Linear Misalignment11) Cracks. DEFINITION: & Allnear discontinuity prsduasd by faanare. C & Welds, C Longitudinal (centerline) eS Longitudinal (HAZ) S + Desai SineSurface Defects 11) Cracks. Longitudinal CrackTransverse Crack :11) Cracks. Toe Cracks * Toe cracks occurring in service are often the result of fatigue loading of welded components.1) Lamination 2) Delamination 3) Seams 4) Laps1) Lamination DEFINITION: « “A discontinuity with separation or weakness generally aligned parallel to the worked surface of a metal” = If there is slag or blowholes in the part, it will elongate forming Lamination.1) Lamination) 2) Delamination DEFINITION: = “Separation of a lamination under stress”3) Seams DEFINITION: = Straight Line longitudinal crevices or openings that may appear on surface. = They differ from laminations in that they are open to the rolled surface of the metal instead of the edge Cluster:Seam:(___ Base WMetal Flaw __] J 4) Laps DEFINITION: = Laps are the result of overfilling in the mill passes that causes fins or projections