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    The Failure of The Centralized State - James Wunsch and Dele Ol

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    Marcia Sergio

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    ean en: Pec tir east cE ie es ia dn ae The Failure ey aseian ny 10) eee "and administrative ingihciency cee i i tiene ine hasscales: eat ‘ vi a ee ee ee ey) Cn . eens eshte Centralized Sats) e le Sonic ey] E ery (ihe caer een ee orice enn eect ety Ong nae) Poche occa aar ceca ewan Tirol ces need yenyvoreonn eyo olin a Sree esti careless ey Pee) Tecra ested Muenpe seuscitater ag Corau sore WCC consi: Ay - eee ences Sa elnioat cee eS Seen terme ee eran arene ear al area ievivtey a eee aeate eho Wartnyr ins in pemoatd ee ae iceatne nc eats tani yr ca ac Sey citi puiccn ets yaaa ek tod \ sate and examine the constitutional principles thet might provide & Yass for more effective national goverment throughout the Alriean i Stat BL rao oe eu ROR OL e ; Galella Die and me Olowi Coe ensecut intr arma aia CeO Sec eu Rta ACTS Mire eamou sist slence and department head at Obafemi Anolowo University, Nigeria, For onder and other information, please yrite to: RONAN oeetee lider tm erat ut con natty pA ree Wi Rais The Failure of the Centralized State Institutions and Self-Governance in Africa wm oy James S. Wunsch and Dele Olowu Westview Press BOULDER, SAN FRANCISCO, & OXFORD Ween Spel Sar on ce ‘Aig reserve No part f his pblton mayne reproduced tras in ny thon or by aay mesa, cate oe meen, ting photocopy, rer, 8) ingrsin storage aed eval syste, won person In weg fom the pe tier Comrih ©1990 Wy Westview Pes, ne Pulithd in 190 ia the United Stes f Anca by este Ps. In, $800 Cena ‘Acne, ele, Cloreo 800, tl the Datel Kilo by Westview Pres a 56"Lonatae Road, Snomertons, Oxd O32 TEN itary of Cones Catan Patan De TN Rie of the etd se (esi spec wes on Ai) Incr tiers ond ite Aiton Poi aid pvrnment— 1948-1960 2 Ali Pais td goverment —960- 3, Dern n geternment—APien 4. Aco owas ply, Wane James res ‘Sorenson 1866. "TL Goma, Dee Sere, SQIUTSALR3S 190° 960.8 N6sDS ISBN 9133-29786 ‘rid ad bound i he Unie Ses of Amerie ‘hs paper used in his poblcmion ment the requirements A he Ameren Teton Star fr Permansse af Pape {oe Prined Livary Maerale 3948-96 Mater 6 sala Contents Preface “The Fare of the Centralized. Affcan State, James S. Wunsch and Dele Olowe 5 Experience Foundations of Centlization: The Col fand the Afean Context, James S. Wunsch Centratization and Desclopment in PostIndependence ‘Ati, James S. Wunsch “The Failure of Curent Decenalization Programs in Ati, Dele Oloww [Aftican Economic Performance: Current Programs and utae Failures, Dele Ole Sine Tutelage vs, SelGovernanee: The Rhetoric and Reality of Decentralization in Senegal, Sheldon Gellar Proprietary Authority and Local Administration in Liberia, mas Sawyer Centriztion and Development in Eastern Africa, ohn W. Harbeson CCentraiztion, Sel’ Governance, and Development in ‘igen, Dele Olowu “The Problem of Sovereignty in Homan Air, Vincent Ostrom 1 Reciprocity and Governance in Afi, Cina Hsien 12 Beyond the Failure ofthe Centaived State: Toward Self. Governance and an Alternative lastitaiona Paradigm, James. Wunsch 13 Conclusion: SetEGovernance and ican Development Dele Olowu and James S. Wunsch . About the Coneibucrs index wt a a Preface “This book grew o exchanges in whch we participated ‘ax the Workstop in Polis! Theory and Policy Analysts al fndiana ( Sern, Hlosmington, Fraliana, during the 1965/86 acndemic. year. That ‘worship as and 1s stil) fe ily by Vincent and Elinor Ostom and Theluded approximately a doren ther scholars fiom sever disciplines fiom ‘Western Europe, Asia, Latin America, Basern Europe (Poland and Fogostivay, aml the’ Cie States In thin mufte-national_ and ‘Gstiplinary cnvzonment. we were fed to fexamine and reinegrate our Dreviout rescach aid teaching on Afscan polis and public ainsi ion Repestedly ye sought to make sense of the ersis we ace rset in [Atlica he ea fortis Book developed tm this contest and was ped find molded bythe analytical Frameworks used atthe workshop, Particularly important (0 us hes boen a principe, we daresay, implicit in all the ‘workshop has done. harman being’ can govern themselves in peace and ‘ignty, though the pathway to sich a Word is one requiring care, shou ‘willingness to trust the people with their own governance, and increased {Mention to the origin, fol, and nature of human institutions Colleagues st the workshop contributed immensely 10 the development cof our work. As well as belping to frame ovr agenda of isos, their rclaor ripe in its development. While everyone there deserves our SIppreciaion, we are partivulaly.ratefl to Roger Parks of the School of Public and Eironmental Aire (SPEA) at Todiana, University, Peter Dogasin ofthe Tnsttute of Poitcat Studies in Denmark, Susan Wyane of {he wrkshop a Triana, an of course, Vincent and Flinor Oxtom. We ite also Indebeed to others tho have helped us with their support and ‘rielons, nclading particularly Thongs Mans of Creighton Universty Donald Rothchild uf te University of California, Davis, and Catherine ‘Newbury atthe University of North Carolina, Patrick O'Meara, the ditctor Df ahe Atican Studies Program at Tndiana University, read the fst drafts Of several chapters of the Book and gave very helpful comments, Our Contributors to this volume also deserve our deep gratitude: for thee fxcllen chaper, of cuz, but just as th for ther excellent criticism ‘four chapers. ‘The ater added moc of value to the book. John Harbeson SECUNY and Sheldon Cellar of Michigan State Univesity are to be much ‘anked for their persistent, ever courteous, ever valuable, most “co- ‘editorial ets Westview Press encouraged the compi:tion of the book th editorial personne’ patience an caefl attention to technical details. We furtcalany thank our lio, Barbara Mlington, Our two univers, Cretan University, Orsaia, Nebraska, and the Obafem Avetow Uni ‘eral, Nigeria, assisted the work by releasing forthe eademic year of Tons/Re to chable us to spend oar sabbunal ave develosing the projet Tihs eect we ae gretefal fo oe rexpeh> Sans (Willian Conner eA, 0 Senda and president (Michael Soxrson, $2. and. Abunbol) fir making this arrangement possible, Dean Michael Laer of Creo {Universit Graduate Schoo furthermore, helps wath several arent which ‘spported the completion of the maniscrit Te tying. corrections, and final repretuction of the marscript we made pomible by the tremendovs scretanal assistance we restved fom {he Workshop in Political Theory fa Bloomington, a6 well ay fom our reapartive departments at Obra Avelowe and Creighton. We especialy Sppreciate the time and talent of Kestin Crose and Patty Zilinsit of the ‘Renabop in Paltial Theory. Sincere thanks also goto Helen Schacler at the Polite Science Department at Creighton for ber carcfal secretariat ism, as mell a 10 ber nmxbus stodent assistants, We are also indebted io Kent Day of Omaha for his help in profenting the mano- script ‘Ser wives, Mary and Bukky, had 10 suffer our sometimes lengthy atsences rom home while we were working on the book. We both fel Itchy tobe tarred to such patent women who gave ther support to the texpeae frm begining tend. The work is dedieated to Vincent and Flin Ostrom. The theory whic informs the work is based largely on their work. They ive read, re-real, and helped stengtien foveal chapter ofthe book. Both of us and sever ‘Of the contributors to this volume have at onetime or another benefited fiom the strength of tei scholarship ar the warrth of ther fiendshin. AWhule scknowldging their assistance ard that of others not mentioned tee, we hasien toa that we are soley vesponsble forthe kleas express in the book: Whatever its shorteoming, they are ou. James $ Wansch Dele Glow The Failure of the Centralized African State James S. Wunsch and Dele Olow Introdveton Nearly thirty years ago in Acca, Gian, Arie march wo independence be siih Wotiomtal ash rveres, 4 tong dumestic agricultural eco aera pills) and profesiolized civil service, 2 popular Raat, and a oy ele fonatonin.compenive-part, pavbieniary S75, Nope foe the future was bright “ay tae hopes Rave fed. The economy ist preseat only Depining a etn Man etlapse and nett bankruptcy. [is ONP decid at an Scrape af 1} percent each yea fom 1960 10 1982, and its average ination aides MB percent annually over the same period (Workd Ban 1982) Frise military coups have buted GRanaians political hopes, which bad fice tem ince the fst cou in 1966 onthe Backs of two nowiscanded (hetttiony The iv servic hs ren demoralized by political insta Faeraeiitary intervention, nthe economy has been devastated By Sub infalon rates, Magy of the test tained and skilled. personae fave Tet the emu), One aids, why? "Guana fe not alone OF Alex’. 34 independent states, omy 18 have avebded succes military coups, OF these 1B, at Hast 6 have experienced soci de ieterpts, mitary revolts, of susarned civ confit, Coup Sy puncrata have given way te coups by colanes, captams, ght evans Dy B twang sergeants and corporate A weary samencss ses: each ree Baances ihe’ pevions one and paomises an carly return to cian detetnment afer seus up" at “reforms” the government, Too often rover tary eeima as indeed cleaned up.” bt oti the way i promised ‘Bia! Dscato tm hs book on the military, sows quite graphically ow Sarma ate oe power within regimes intensifies once consbubional cs ve ieekded, and hoy facta, mutual distrust, er, and countessoup ar The most nual consequences (Dera 1976), Upanda, Congo-Braravte ‘Seren, as wel a Cana, sce exemplary cases of this process. n 10 many cases, military rine have tured Puta, on ther vw people. sing dient nl repressing the opposition Ta Liberia, Ethiopia, Cental African Repu, Uganda, Sudan, and others his has happened. Bloody civt wars hae on fought an sever countries (Nigeria, Shan, Chad, Ethiopia, Angola, re, Ua). ethme prorat. fave torn throsgh several (Nisa, Un, Randa, Burund, ad co fuption fs ao deep in Zaire dat there ae accnding to Davi Gul, oer ‘tny ferent ous to describe ts varios dstingishabie mantis {Gould 1979, eonomicly, Africa has fared no betes. While af developing counties ew al'a 43 percent rte (GNP) fom 1950 1 1970 and atu 2.7 pecest Fate from 197910 1979, Abies record wis only 13 perent and 8 pecent ‘ver those same time periods, Fo suliciency has generally decline since Independence, rural per epitatncore his on average ected, ad few Sheltered infant industries have grown up. In fac, 10 sul» Saharan Aan euniies hed average cepive growth (CINE) Kom 1960-1982, 10 were Sagnant oc near stagnant (0.1 Io 1.5 pereat, and excluding South Afcan ‘en sates and of exporters, only 8 tal rates of gronth of more han 1 percent during that time period (Work Bank (9440). More isu certing beomse it suggests tore stagnant growth, is the continaity of pricing and curency exchange systems bused against agriculture which ontinnes 1 employ the vast cajrity of Alrca’s peoples and produces fetween 30-60 percent of Ain GNP. Partially at a rsull of th an index of per capita food production shows only four sub-Saharan Altican tuntres'were producing more food per captain 1982 than they were in 169 (Rwanda, Central A@ean Republi, Cameroon, very Coast Fillen ‘were producing BO-89, percent of thee 1960 per-capita, thee al 70-79 Percents and to at 6-69 percent (Angola, Mauritania, Ghana; Somalia Gnd Marambiquo! AS a whol, from 1940-910, Avican agriculture n ‘reset per capita producuan by ows 2 percent From 1970-198) i ‘cle by an average of Lt peneent per peur (World Bank. 19844, 19840)! "These tes ave deed gre, and justify considering much of Aca to be at 2 point of crisis, Stil some slales have fared better! These, however, ate most oflen slates wiih substantial petroleum reserves o states Imhich have ad to sericea substantial aapount of autonomy to what are Sommonly: reptrded a» nco-clonial or “dependency” sclationships with ‘Gecloped sates, and tre based on a single, Key leader or “strong man” Forthermote, when one looks behind their impressive GNP cates, ove ‘broader social indicators sch a8 Titeacy.lie-expectanc. caloric int ‘and food production are not distinc Vetter in these countries than i the others (World Bank 1984), Final. recent events have suggested that the apparent politial stability of these counties may be ephemeral, with foupe oF violent coup aftempts occurrmg in several of them (Niger Kenya, Cameroon) Hehas become an accepted hypothesis in contemporary foci cence that the procenes of ecomarie development and soca change arty with them forces promoting political tabi. Vowever, the per he havin of the Cie rt formance of many other third work! tons and the terry we wll ses Tel Teal vs to argue that crical flaws a9 the fandamental pica Slrucutes of African stacs hase Md this instability far worse and have ‘fade esoonnie development fur sower than ought to hae been expected. ‘Many fats have contd to Aas peters. We have no dou for example, tht changes in the anerational sonomic sien woul thamataly nprose the Man situation, partacclrly changes in pecing Strucurcs fe agvicaltral and aineral products (Trdependent Commission 1980) South African adhentutism hay severely damaged several African fMateg, Farermore the ele of roceat tural doers sock 25 drogeht {ibd igine oll continue to cule tntermationa!anistanee, These se ‘ional and vataral prions have contbuted ty Affe’ carn pb fem, Certainly the hiertare on dependency provides an important, even Ieontroversa, bof theory sega he inernaliona rots of Atias ‘rablenn, But theve external sources of Affca's cis ean be exerted. Bia amp precinle an eigecine. appraisal and analsis of the fwestc fapects of the Alfican predicament. what Africans have control over dean do something to smprose. A preacupation with exteralfenviton- ‘Mal proicms sedesteps something long understood in Iman aBairs: Bical development bas abweys een premised ona peoples ability to Eteaticly nmmpulate their environment to advantage over a period of {ime in spite fF eds Honposed by Wat environment (Mabogunje 198); Riggs 197) any would agrce with the postion of the Independent Commission fon International Development head by Willy Brandt which, even thovsh ‘quite sympathetic to the environmental constants on counties of the Sout, submitted that: “The pvermeet ant people ofthe South (Ma, Asia ad Latin Ameri) Tse ine primary respons Yor mas the ho prolate vl [Ens uso ts poate tf ha sour by Hr own eft, ad {plan and manage tw oan economies, On hey can ensue that he Fru of deepen te tly stated side ser counties ad that Freer Jusine ant eauty im the word ate mated Dy appre reforms es indeyndent Common 1H AT=2, puree aad eps ee ‘Our argument in this book derives from a body of theory implicit in ‘ne bucgeoning research om domestic APican insittions that augaess Ihe i'n vastrecrvoir of eters and polenta untapped at AGEN grass Joors Tis teature fs complemented by eer research on national politics, {hat underscores the ental role played by domestic political processes and pulccs elite colt, plitcal stably, and cconomle, performance ‘We il argue inthis book that etme confit, poltvea ineficacy, admin ative weaknesses and eetmonic stagnation can be understood on pa { camed by atierpts over the last to decades to impose high level of 4 James S. Wns and de Oe ‘caratizaton in contemporary African sites. and that these explanations ante freely for changes in plea stare and development ster Contraction fn Aiea Messures of centralization pose concepts! and statistical problems given + problems already Wentiid in delineating Hticen sate and ocicty (Nisbet 18631975), peivate and public sectors (Hoo 1986), and te measuring the Dobie sector or is growth (Orgedi 1953. Crunaw 198%; Gretchmann 1586), ‘The problem i compounded in Afsca where reliable crose national dats are hard o find. Nevertheless, the contemporary Akan sate ean be ‘huracterized as centralized through a variety of measures. The raportion ‘of public revenues expended by national 1s opposed to local govern, {he taxes raised by national vs. local governments, the proportion of GNP ‘expended. by goverament, the juridical weakness of sub-national govern ment, andthe absence of competitive political parties or contested elections ave all conventional indicators tis cater to- demonstrate that the African state is centralized in ‘ualtative rather than in quantitative terms. Some African central povern- ments spend a high percentage of thei country's gross national product (ati 69%, Botswana 45%, Congo 44%), ut the average fe just under 30% ‘White this might be high forthe level of industrialization and urbanization in these countries, i i relatively comparable to those of several olher developing and industiaized countries Panama 40%, Nicaragua 49%, ‘Metico 28%, Netherlands 59%, Ireland 58% and Sweden 47% Sil, i is worth noting that while the number of pubic sector employes i less developed counties is not dramatically higher per capita than in OBCD ‘countries, their cost ita hr higher propertion of non-agricltursl employ rmcat (OBCD = 24%, LDC = 449). Thus, governmental function seems fo include a rather high portion of the mevern sector of the economy (Her ana ‘Tat 1982: 7). “The critical dffence between AMfican sate and mom other across the worl, however, lies in the qualitative dimension, specifically in the ‘istibation of authority, responablity and resoures avalable to centel vs. local governments virtually no Afican counties have local gover- ‘ments any independent juridical authority. Even in stacs where local goveraments are largely arms of national governments, the percentage of| {otal budgetary resources allocated by them is far grester than in Afric, For example, rom France at the lower ranges (17%) to Sweden at the higher (664), local level instittions are majo partners in the delivery of Dublic services. Equivalent African Bigures are as low as 2% “The percentage distribution of personnel atthe local Hevels also reflects this pattern. Arcam counries as'« whole have the least of thei? madera scetor employee a the local level (2.1). 1 ‘Asia (8.0%), Latin America (42%) and the’ Organization for, Eeonomic ‘Cooperation and Development (OECD) states (128) (Heller and Tait 1982), Generally in Attica there ha been a shift of poner fom the provinces to ‘he capital. Io vitally esery African county, Hol selEgeverning ns. tutions have teen supplements sito ceplaced ty Feld admisiatne agencies (Mawhood 1983, Hide (83, Snath 1983). Len within the cota fvernmnent there is @ isproperdonite share of manpower and fires he as ost senior tine and experienced ive and work atthe RequartrsThe rest that experience {nd junior offers fcated in the more popula eoutryide have to wa instructions even gn routine matters (Mrs 198). md focus tet of ‘heir atention on whut they rust do 10 gain posing at the center (Wendinels 197, “This pattern, tially, can also be seen in the area of nan governmental and private oranizalions such as unions, churches, cooperatives, univer Sis, benevolent associations aod the Hk, which have almost everywhere ‘ome under cite povernmental contol na ko cases they have been eradicated, Private bases foe clive action have heen cacully destroyed, ‘Within the poltical realm, competing politcal parties have been listed ‘ut of existence (wih the exception of a few countries notably, Gambia, Botswana, Mauritania and Niger) while voluntary assocatons. labor ‘unions, etc, are kept under clase surveillance near everywhere (Zolherg 1966; Young T9R2: Lisbenow 186). Powers have been stripped from the jndicary and the Teislature in alms all Afcan countries ta favor of Concentrating these powers in an executive presidency (Selassie 1974, Tor olf 1984; Jackson and Rosberg 1982}. Some commentators ef to this situation as one of personal rule (Hyden 1983; Sandbvook 1985), and sich ‘len leaders of a singleparty or of & mitary reine: in ion is oppesition intittionalzed or tolerate, tis important, Mrthermore. to undercore 8 point made by other sehr: the centratiation of the formal tasttions-oF goverment hat teen fitile as wll as destructive. It has been desteuctve because Ht hat ‘preempted negotiation with and real cooperation by elements of the sockty ‘whose’ wiling commitment and eflrts were needed for development. I tas been futle in that the Africa slates dint have enough power 10 compel ey elements of the society to act at the stite demanded (Regs 1864; Hyden 1980, 1983; Bunker 1987; Mawhwood a=d Davey 1980). The result has Been characterized asthe “disengaged” or “sof” wate (Ryden 1983; Rothchild 1965) In trying to do and be too mich, tended up too ide. In general, what might be called “civic capacity” hasbeen reduced, and “constitutional cofeentration” 4as been inereated, The fist reles 16 the legal capacity of the populace 1o engage in diverse collective ation, and the second refers to the tendeney tr roncentrate constitutional pore In the hands of one or ves) few persons, We wall ang in thi boob th ese oro tendencis ave sloved economic growih and weakened the political capacity of Africas peoples. ‘ Janes Wanchai Bee Obs As we shal argue anil develop tho ths volume centrale faceted p tion. It Would include such chang 3 ltt nce of deve (1) devolution of ret sesponsibility ant authority to hone an prose socal services and development soci t local overamenty oe Chapters 4,6, 3 and 9} (2) substan she kage of the role ths cea state in te economy, including size of ational budge, regulation of the small-sese co icing the coat of the chil ence, icin 1 prodcton roe of the state (et o ctr pulie participation, dough not ng to ernie Westminster o¢ Asin. hms of competitive political parts see Chapters and 8 Iegaliing and peotecting exte-stnc voluntary gros erganized for ‘communal, commun, oupstional, prokssiont, relies labor ete; purpose, and encouraping their activity in ses cco some and poltialafrs (see Chapters 6 7,9 and U1) ad (6) consttng the role and power of pul fice holders to those tasks, necessary to manage the site, rachr dan ofering them the wy to redefine the rules of the state to Bitte their intrest {ect and 2) “ Centrattzation, Poiteal Decay and Development Conalizauon and Development | centralized approach wo poital onfer was advocated stand by cial scientsis when the new sales emerged fom the breakdown lonial empires afer the Second World War (lor 4 review see Fann 1963, Apter 1965; Huntington 1968)) Today, however virally no cont porary scholars argue that the “centralized” stategy for aveal velop fis performed well in postindspendence Airc Scholars have noted. ‘ead such patterns asthe fequency of severe ears in deselopmen policy (iden 1980}; the emergence of autocratic and corrupt governments (E> 197%; Austin 1984 achson and Rosberg, 1982), the exploitation ofthe rural ‘masses by miguscule urban elites (Bates 198K; Lofehie 1983), andthe asage Of ‘ast amounts af resouces on poorly planned development projets (Moris 198; Rondinelt 1979, Wunsch 1986). Other dysfunctions Include the difeuty of administering efcuvely from the center when problems are poody undersind, resources ate short and management ‘stems ace ioapproprane (Mois 1976 191: Leonard 198, Leona! and Oyugi 1985; Wonsch 1986), the elective withdrawal In self-defense of the ‘al masses fom the market economy (Item 1980, 183), the eosve fesse policies have had on the ene cconomy {Word Hank PBN) The bare 0 and the use una few cass of brutal tyanmes to boll power (lckson at Rosberg 1982: Austin 1988, Decals 1985} Indeed, mich of this was Fortlt ‘years ago by Rene Dunant (Duma 16) "The torment oF many Affxns and thei fraseaion vsith thie fils crazed governments made poignantly and poserflly clear t= Mee norary iterate, prteslath by such authors a6 Achebe and So inka (Achebe 196, Soyinka 1963, 1967). \-mumber of Afcan soil scientists have also calla oe attention to the ratninahip between cen Aealization and regional and chic inequalities (Mabogunje 1972; Flani TORK and abuse of ace hy public oficials (Epo. 197 Oh 19HK} Scholars have alo explored the tmpliatons fer pica and administrative rangement (Kase 1976 Adamscken 1986), Tie questions ee nt 9k ate why fay the cemst state sategy led 0 dally? What may nie bbe done about 1 Social Orgontzaion and Pesslopment “To beein with, let ws posit tthe start that no singe factor of “vara” caplaing Affice's recent disappniniments, Ae ned above, ineratinal feinosnc patterns, climate and weather patterns and changes, the diverse Togicies of clonaism, economic distortions and distances generated events inthe West and the Middle-East, Squth African ineerence. the Imussive scale of development needed. by Africa, al are important conti iors to Afa's contemporary poliwal and economic problems. While ‘these are no doubt real problems, the focus of tis book #s on another ‘problem which, we believe, has worked wah the to inpede Acs ability {0 surmount theme the overentaliced state. The purpose of this book ts 4 describe Be origin of Wat sat, review ils efles, discuss and anaes ‘forts made to remedy x, and hep discussion of alternative statepes wich we beeve might enn developmental prosps's In lage", ‘our argumcat wil be that the unleashing and encowragement of AEA Detple"scleorganicng” capable: Haugh what we call self onsen eal prerequisite for human development Yo cecun, We ml angie the excessive centtalcatwe af iattatbn of fuvernmen. in Afoes ince independence has serious! enpeded Africans’ abit To do 1s a fo engage inthe art of seponersance. For eur message 19 be understod, However, we must Avs pause and discuss what we understand "develo rent to be. “There ave few concepts in the socialsciences of which there, has been ‘more writing. and dsiate than the concept of "deselpment” Variout authors stress its economic. soci. and political dirnensons to varying Adegees. and many paths to Hare posited. Cutting across ther, however ‘and subursing most of the values they post (economic abundance, sc feedow. polite capi) ore human fealty: development sequies the production of complex economic. socal and politcal poods, ones requiring omples and coordinated bhv ior hy diverse peoples across lage areas time and apace. Econonnatssicy Hts economic aspects Ispeciazaion 5 Lume Wun and Dele ova sor, masive capital investments; inerstonal ade; dscovery a Jonton of new texhnloix cootnated production systems: peta the natural environments ant human incepta erat ch ie procedure for dnl adjudication of intergovernmental disputes, a stable curene. reliable eights nd measures, unifed fren polly, ete. are spelled cut Alter tative; bread areas of diceetion as wel as thea Tinkages among diverse yoversmetal unity can exist «faite ‘oriented programs art shaved concerns, complemsenty skis and econ ‘mies of seae These systems can mec legitimate and unavoudable te ‘urements for cohesion and consistency without sesking centration of fle, homogenization, or prelaling 4 very broad autonomy for organiza tions within parameters. ‘The challenge, thea, for institutional alysis is {o determine which eelationships noed such consistency and cohesion, and hwo structure relationships among the various organizations to mania their relative authority, auton, and independent spheres of action (Me dion, Hamilton, and Jay 1966: V. Ostrom 1987). tie our judgment thatthe forces behind ceneaiaton are immensely poverfl in tiy's world, and requte equally powerful measures to blunt fand challenge their progres. Centralizing forces sochide 9 Isiable and Inumane impatience with human suffering; unrealistically unbounded con- Fence in both cur techni! kledge and our ait to plement st owed im human aac a Tinted understanding of the roe indies far ctzens and as members of diverse communities must play tbr Aout development, including in culectve action, a linited Understanding ofthe crucial role that socal nfastvctores, bath old and ew must play fn falitating that citizen savolvement, and’a very pooe understanding of the crucial cle fundamental corstutional choices pay in predetermaning the whole direction of pita ie “The goal of this hook isto articulate an alternative approach to devel- ‘opment and insitaional analysis whieh we believe Is hey prerequisite for reversing this momentum toward centralization, and for providing & ‘song foundation forthe future of Ain sities. I purpose 5 to extn ‘afesh the debate on the design and character of domestic politeal insi- tutions in Aca: we do not pntend to have a Hurprnt, bot insead are ‘riclsting one concepualization of umn development in order to belp ‘sain what must be a lengthy andl challenging debate and inquiry. 2” James Wns and Dele Oo X Kaufmnn, G. Majo, and ¥_ Oso, 19-207. Ben a New Yor Water de Grater, 1386 uningon, 8? Politral Order im ChanensSaceies New Hoven, Com Yale ‘Vniversy Pres, 168 Ayden Contn, Beyond Uamaa im Tanaris ndrdeeagen a Pc Bere: Uninet af Cain Press 180 see Shere to Press Aca Iiee:pment Manasemen! n Perpeste. Tee: Univesity of Caifrala Pres. 198% Indgendea Commistin on Tatersaionl Development bss, Noth South, A ‘rognumme for Surin, Lando: Pa Books, 180. choot Rohe nl Cat Rsk Personal le Black Ati, Prince aa ‘phe, Trt esc: Unrest of aoa Pres, 182 er opregty aed Untedernpmen.Jurideal Staal i the AGC ‘Gini The ral of Mederma Sur 24 (Mary 1886 1 Kast Neon, The Sironng Poltcal rena Deroy: University of Caliorain Press, 19%, Keloe Pamoed. “Haranbec!: calonal Poly and the Police! Economy of Ral ConmomityOvstziton Kissa" Paper procwed at the ABiAn Staies Anotaton Mecting. Chic, in 178 Lamina, Mart *Rehaney, Hata, an the Probl of Duplication and ‘Sueian” PiieAition Revie 29 UUy/ Aas 369. 3-338 Feelin, Redundancy aod System Seay” Pubs 3 (2) (Fall 1195 Ti96 non Mu Orsnizainal Spm in the ble Adonisation Be: Tnivesty of Calas, Commitee on Pubic Orpazaon,Isiue of Gov rvental Stay, 195. STUNT Rese tot, “To Manage Not to Contr: Or the Flly of Te wo Eros Pac Aainiration Review 3) (Mareh/Apei 179 (98-185, __2 Seca Bl Ladivinin Cri, tendo Tuagpabn nd Jes Worse, Final Report. Province! Deslopment ssistane Proje. ely: Iii Inersatonal Stes, 190, cama, Davi ReThe Plc Realities of Afican Manageen” In Re of or Wray om the Management eof reba Pres fe, 38-1. fhgtons DC: USAID Spas Evaation Stay Nex 3, 1 ead Wier Oyo “breeds for Deceualaed Progamming, Badeting ‘ad Work Paine sons om Kenyan Mistakes” Arial Admentraton (989) 2S. Listen) Gas. Aan Polis: Cres and Challenge, Bloomington, tana ‘Unveray ren, 1986 Litte Rene Wet Atican Urbanization: A Stuy of Vatary Aswciation fx ‘Sol Chege Cambria: Cambridge University Pres, 1968. ‘oft. Micne “Atta Agrarian Bale” In Aiea independence, The let “Fwcny Fie Years edited by Gvendolen M. Carter and Fuck O'Meara, 160- {a7 Blooningon Ind: Tndlana Unversity res 1995, Maboguni: fe The Devopment Proces'A Spatial Peipecive, Lando: Hoch “aon ater Pres, 1980. Regina’ Mabiiy and Resource Dewlpment in Wet ric. Monte Meiners 1972 ‘Modisan Sane, alexander amon and sha Jy, The Federals Paper ited ‘ty Roy Fed, Garden hy, NY" Anchor Book, 1966. an Cncaarel Ba hot a Mawhood Milpitas! Goverment jor Deeapment he perience of Yop “ic: Cheser: hae Wie. 1 Na Ken Dive. “Anglophone Aiea” fa Iuerutinat Rando on Local Tcranen! Reagricutin. ei ty D.C. Rowat, 2-444. Wesipirt, Can trctoue Greiwoad Prey 8 Mors, Joe Tae Tanfrabiiy of the Western Managemat radon wo se Sox "Wate ible Servise Sst” sie Journal Puc Admumtaion 20 (uv 01-07, ae aandcig Indiced Rural Desclypment. Bloomington, tk: Tadana Un ‘eri, inrmtional Developtent laste 98 Mics Dales Te “hew Dont Mandate Sues n Pret Desir “onan Ingen evs ago, DC: Dect tres, Ire 978 het Reber Comm anf Power New York: Oxford Uaiveriy Pres, 1962 [inte ert. Phe Twili of thorn. New Yon: Oxford Civersy Pres 1975 ‘lone, Des, Afaean Local Gowrnne at Fetumens of Economic and Si ‘Deteopment The Hpi: Inraton! Union af Lecl Autres, 187 “Hureacatie Moray Alva” ftermational Poca! Seence Review 9h snp 215-2 COs Hino Te Racsients a Revised Theory of be Origins Sarva, and Festa of fstviane fer Colecse Action” Bloumsagon, Ted: Tans Univeriy, Wershop ta Petal Theory ab Pay Anais 83 ‘osm, Vincent The Poca! Tho’ of a Compound Repaic:Desgung the Mine permet Re ncn, eh Us of Nes Fo ‘wir ae he Inlet Cris im Amurcan Pub Admisration 2nd rex "Taco Alebam! Unierty of Alba Pres 18 fal El Ours “Pb Goods ant Publ Chnces" tn lemaes for Daivering Pabie Sorce eed by ES. Swas, 749. Boule, Cobre. ‘svi Pees, 1978 ‘one, Een, and Robert Shas, Deudopment Reconidrad riding the Gap ‘rwwen ommend Pope Leagan, Mas: Legon Books. 1972 ‘Owes Mawel Uae and dbus Pal Power Cheng ners of Chae Pres, 170 ‘Ozgeie, Selouk, Manacing the Pi Since a Developing Countries ewes and ‘Word Bank Stall Wersing Paper, No 383, Vshington, DO, 198) Rigg, Fred W. Adminstration n Deciopng Counter, Boston: Houghton iin, Bes. ee arodutry Concepts” Admire Sts 16 (9168 84-88 Fda: Deans. dinate Dcenaation and Arex Development Planning “tn East Afca Impicatons for US. id Policy, Washington, DE: USAID/ST) RD, 197% Mineo. Dewlopment Projets as Paley Experiment, London: Methuen, 1983. ‘oa, "Ste-Ethokc Rehiont 4m Mle Aiea” Ty Aven Indgerdence “The Fine Tuo. Pie Yor: ested y Coenen MM Cates and Patrick Ginter, 1-95, Bbosuagin, Int tina Uiveraty Piss, 195. Sudbrook, Richard, The Pols of Arca Economie Stagnation Cambri: ‘Cemidge University Press, 1905 sat HT Pate con Gorn: Lede: Heient, 2 ames § Wah and Doe Oho Smith ein C,Desrtacaton: The Frau Dumenson the State ‘ena iwi 985. Sec Audrey. Tho Pohtice Te Role of Mhue Crone te Foters Nera Cm ene, Mat Harvard Lavery Pres 31 syns, Wole The acrrete Load Dowty 196, Kong Hares Lande Oxford Unversity Pes, 157, rig Ales de The OW Rese and ihe Pench etn, Gas Ci ‘NI: Ancor Books, 18S. NS pammracy Americ Eid J 1. Mayer New York: Aste oss, ise. “Ton Wilba. Goscomen and Ps Arce Bloomington, Ha Ian Unversity ress, 194 Tulloch, Gontia. The Policy of Buewras Washingon. DC: Pabe Ais wilson, iver “Hierarchical Cont! and Optimum Hien Sue Java of Poli mony 78 (3) 196 133-13 \wond Hank cored Development on Sub-Saharan Are Washington, 0. ‘Word Ban, 13 aes eld Decne Report 1994. Wastogn, DC: War! Bank, 19a = ‘Sistaned Development in SubSaharan Aa Washing, DC “Wore RS. 9H ‘Wunsch, Jame, “Volutary Asociaions: Determinants of Stctoe and Acisity in Too Ghanian Seronary Cee” PI) Diseationiacmigtn, Ta Indio Univers. 198, “Sieatenng Ron Deveonmest Mangement Tivo otal “Asstane Pec” Fable Admini ond Beveopment 3 1983) 280-253, sintering Rural Devopmet Have Goals Gutehe Organist ‘Capciy™ Pu Adnntation and Deslooien 6 (Wt) 237-308 Youn, Centr ao and Development um rica. New Haven, Conn: Ye ‘Unset Pree. SE ‘olny AR Crating Polical Onder: The Party States of Wow ca. Chica nd ie 966 Foundations of Centralization: The Colonial Experience and the African Context James S Wunsch Calla and nstttional Developtent CColoniatsm must be seen as an epochal event in Africas history (Eke 190). Im many powerful respect ik worked to prepare snd incline he pth of postndependence politics tovard Hobbesian theories of sovereignty (8 Chapter 10), to deprecation of he valve of indigenous and deventalized foci inasirture, and to telamce om centrale, hierarchical mecha bss to order human selationships. To understand iow this work. d, One faust briely review key features of the colonial s)stem* ‘On. phibsophical grounds, in oryanizational constitutions, in policy ‘making and poly, colonia regnes were eset els cells, and theoutist (Crowder 198K" 108-288, Obichere 197! Austen 1971, Des stamps 1971). Philosophical, thelr rue i phrased in te the propagation of Fre ‘rermnct,clonaliom way jose cm prouns that one evietion wat fing 0 remake and impose a better order on @ second (Crowder 1968 3671-73. erhaps is most complete statement in the Eaglsh language is Lond Logan's famous "Dual Mandate" which agued that Bish colonial role ‘wat to ace that Afian slates sere administered to the mul bene ht of ‘Aion peoples and the word economy (Lugard 1922) This aegument ‘moralized elite rule as it simultaneously Justified an essentially absolut ‘stem of goversance the ruler relationship tock the form of governor. fulject rather thin ola tien The metopole was the "cote leading the “periphery” (he colony) toward enlightenment and. progress, and by ‘hnition, subjects were not qualibed to evaluate ths proces. Oficial swore thus not regulted by citizens who possessed legal rights Io define a ames 8. Wosch etn. oa Ta lf i ni Er MeO i Mena Re rat a er yo Rel Ose, i ma SE a ee te eee eer ae eat a ee ee ear Seocaote mma pe oe ae ge mene ie Te oats Be World Bank, Accelerated Development on Sub Saharan Afiiva Washington, DC: es. “Stren Fetish lm ese sb Wis Ae, 1900-1940" In Hla of Micha Cromder, 566-398, ring Rural Dewopment Maan Tire tn * ve 2 ministering Rural Development: Have Goals Ones Oxganizaions! ‘Capa Puli anion and Desopment (O86 281-308 oberg A Creatine Petal Onder: The Part Se of es aa heap: Rand McNay, 196, 3 Centralization and Development in Post-Independence Africa James S. Wunsch Introduction Chapter 2 divcussed the mined heritage colonialism left for Aftca’s independence leaders ‘This cnpter will yeview the paradigm with which they interpreted hei gous in the Hight of this erie, the states they ‘developed to. purse these gals, ad how these stateges contributed 10 te political instability, economic files, and social disappointments too ‘ypical of contemporary AMCs ‘Stati and Centralzation bn Afton Neary all independent African states have pursued a lrghy statis and cota statgy of economic and poles! development during the pa thirty years While extent of iplementauon of tis strategy obviously ‘ares among them, the general direction of the strategy has been shared, Teadess as diverse as Houphonct-ovgney ofthe Ivory Coast, Nkcumah of Ghana. Toure of Guinea, Kenjatia of Kenya and. Nyerere of Tanzania ‘arly on commited thencles to an esentally satis appreach to devel: ‘opment. For most Arenn tates itis only cea that this strategy has lowed ‘Schon Toure, for example, justided the singleyarty system of Guinea by ts supposed ability to rise above the individualism, reponalism, eth nici, and claseorientation which bad “corrupted” the territorial assem ‘Wes fiom 1945-1955, and sti economic growth by the mass of people He wrote “Tec ant denmcai a pul wends fpramentay ile were the dest, ‘elt of the importation ia ar counties te Bourget ete a of Frm pata cnt, «The Dewoate Party of Guinea was 10 pet "lool radi thse pats whch pejulied the pot and toa ulti ofthe people a ree the examen oad Fadations ae “ umes $c of dectoal myst ad mtbads whic ese Hc euhiake the le ee a Judean Cece the poopie othe eyesemaes ‘age a a sls Mavi fir our waton. tate “The PD.G., Toure emphasized, was the mechanism by ahich the peop Would ese sbove sub-national and divisive loyal, and being ths united ‘woul hone hee epesnaties by conscily ming themes onthe tank andthe fs nana party ich fe the actin on KE {tuemnaton ef ve ewan san Rrppnes fo ene ard. we ‘Somme popes ene a eva Jus Nyerere (107) echoed these words wy years ae: “To build and maintain socials iis essential that all the major means of proton fang cachange inthe ration are controlled and gemned by the peasants fhrovgh the machinery of thee Gorernment and thelr cooperatives, Further, gr essemal that the ling Party shoul! be Party of peasants and cnkers” His concern with unity was equally clear {TANU is valved on 2 nar api poet and oppression i our county Thr sug aimed at meng be ope Taman and the people Kine an shal i tse of poverty toa Sta of rope We {She ten oppenet svat del we have ben expt eat deal and Ine hve been dried a reat dea sone wens wh fase 1 ted ae sera We mo ite Wing aout the tings UUnion through the sine party, TANT, was the necessary prerequisite to tnling these meas “The fundamental presupposition ing beneath this strategie ereation wat that astong central goverament was regarded as essential 10 the ational uowty and modertzation of African societies. That ths presupe position was made shuld note overs surprising it was consistent with the sructure ad habits of the eoloaad ns ‘twas selected In'an era when both Easter and Weslem modes of development emp Sred evra direton and planning. it ¢ iy de expecta ‘ons of rnterntonal ssstace organations for "rationa” planning, mat fgement and negtiatien of assistance 900 size the clave SMronger juridical clay 0 international secognition above the somewh Tenuvas de facto elit of sovereign tas encouraged by the hierarchical tnd centrist unig of pstenligtcaaeat ratios in the West, and It peovided a apparel possible sbiton for the eal challenges Gian Tears fred Az Arise Zofbere pt Hin 1966 conra om Ps Iadependence oa 6 ‘Sans aie ot cay Beaune the new ruler pt mice burensome soaks fu pene pbs diferent tut so Base ne pele ied arse found the ne a ndcendence may veh apa at he coum es ome atte time of mypendemce tan eat a dca ee, hate nm Intend bares the importance Othe cena aris, tnd tence move comands are tied at thems The Opponty 1o arta i pole and arrion hb pene up he Noodgats Of {lamas At the same tne, whl thse ew buts govectmets sus Str ie add expenses of soverciny am acompish al thi wih ‘cntscy mw so tncxpenenced hil evi, AL wer, pect) when they ‘eeome nese of hw Maco be dane the ease he an execaive ‘tho ally pes the bay f Batons is desk ony to escort ‘hat te wn onesie (Zeer 1964 ‘Th conelized state was an apparent solution Io many ofthese challenges tic as an romped yi ft Hy npn states encompassing many different peoples, fing radically varying geo- traphie problems and advantages, drawing fom four major colonial heri- {apes, and drawing from a variety of philosophial-deological schools Given all this al the more remarkable that states at diverse as Kenya (capitalist, market, anglophone, single-ethnie dominant, industializing, pening, nowsciler territory), Tanzania (radical, statist, anglophone, fag ced ethnical, spear, poor, largely on-set, Mall (adi Sats, fancophons, agricultural, poor, now-seter), and many other states ‘would perceive the world through so similar a paradigm, and pursue so ‘nara act of stategiee Infact, with remarkable consistency, though ‘arying intensity of implementation. the core presupposition of the "cen. Teale sate” has led fo hve complementary states. These ae: + replacment of competitive polities By ope oF no-party systems osten- sibly dedicated to national unty: + feline upon unified burcacratic structures exclusively accountable to ahs eontal goverament wo define, organize, and manage the pro ‘ction of publ goods aud Services along lines determined a all lewts by a Shauna plan” + bo logitinate significant ole 10 be allowed for local government, Including Wadiuona, ethnically related groups as wells modern in Institutions the Kgs, judiary, egonal goveraments, and pres tn! private onpanzaions ‘i the national budget Yo be regarded as the primary source of ting vr th devel see, and 4 be sed ut of the lrgest feat eer aysculare or mince extraction “ James Wamch (Our parpoe in this chapter so expe the impact ofthese sees natant, economy and soy he stapes ne het east wite sg was pried exten hee te Thea that develo nat stn a 2 procs of aon consolation, SEER yo prs aed chy rem of xm ee oe pc cohen well prcenl or Splacselevant oF Zips eontenton over sey. Technically bases atonal ad eit see shog wuld replace arco, uninformed, o seh contention see ee ncn honest and ocr and able cite wuld Sve the teh cay to eonceplulre and. manage developed Tet and rey emit te anges of mae eon, te xen emt a an he dng of ween om bing he eno. Hiatt ots and toyalies wonld sip "prochal™ and sarron Tere marshaling al yesoucee im an-aleady obvi an aceped progam of acon would be he pretest peequsite fr development. Ends reeves we eh gucstns and wl ad dle wee Teyelmaryigredins required for economic development and pot cspaciy 1 be teal. "iva ate the mpkatons of hee seis for Aftan politi and economic ie? Bo or Help expan Afi ecentdsapporimens? Contant Policies and Their Tenpleations ‘We do not argue that all events in postindependence Aric can be understood ‘by analyring the implications ofthese strategies. Silay, we ‘iplicnly ackrowlege That Africa's many. states have “walked” varying ‘imances down these paths, Our purpose here is rst analytical and the- ereat and accond to draw a Froud picture nto which various safes may Pe ditrenuy pled. Nonetheless, we do believe that this analysis can Take an important portion of poslndependence polities tnt, par. early among the cuutiers” of the empirical world. In dhs section of the chapter we wil herle review the consequences of acing pon these five corolary presuppositions. Potical Parties ‘We have suggssed that the majorly of Ain faders began heir developmen tasks et independence seth primary presuppostion: tha a Sfrongland unified sate was necessarily the primary actor in development AOU Sncquence of this presupposition, Aan leaders were inclined ‘Gand ‘sngle or re-party regimes in nde 10 diminish political confit find enance support for national unity around the new kadersip, In ft frost Independent regimes did ave rather quickly (@ de jure oF de facto ‘ogl-pany systems Today the onl functioning mulisparty stems (0 be und in Afia ae on Senegal, Gambia, Mauritania, Ratswana, Zimbabr, ind Nigeria with the last curry swxpended under mitre, and impabiee's thretened by leaders promises to move to a snge-party Coraization in Posndependence Aiea ” state), Most liberal, multi-party democracies became atleast defacto single party states or fell vo miltary coups before the end of the 1960s, “The implications ofthis move Lo singlepary ystems depends in some measure on one’s assumptions about the extent, nature and sigiicance of Social diversity tn independent Arica. It also depends on how one under. ‘stands plital legitimacy to Be granted 10 one fet of actors by a body af peopl. Finally, i varie with ones understanding of davelopment as ‘more or less technical process versus a political proces. TT one sees Afric’ social diversity as iter trivial ar ephemeral, a single party system has fess worrisome implicauons than if such diversity is understood to be a fundamental aspect of Affican li, one likely 10 be Felevant 10 pulic decision making. Similarly, if the public i wiling 0 {rant legitimacy to its rulers on grounds of the Iter technical of ieo- logical superinty, then a singeparty system has less disconcerting impli cations than ifthe public expects « troad public detate and discussion we the prerequisites for granting y. Finally, if development decision making and implementation are essentially technical rather than political processes, then again single purty systems may be expected to work beter than if development is 3 more ambiguows, debated and subjetve process. With these assumptions, ‘one would expel singl-party systems to operate wel: ane would be balled should they no TF instead, soca diversity a genuine and significant element of the then singe parties may be expected to be fagmented, factonalized and ineetive tools of goverment. Als, if indeed lepimacy ie'not granted to a ruling cadre on ideological oF technial grounds, we may expect to find sme parlics becoming repressive and others tering {o distributional exchanger in order to generate support. tn neither case will a debate about the comin good and collective parposes be likey 10 ‘evelop, Finally, i development policy making and implementation are not ‘merely technical exercises, but Usks in which debatable and incompletely Understood states are implemeated by equally debatable and incom Dts understood tactics, ten single-party sysems may be expected 10 bye nective in leading the development process. The absence of insiti- tionaized debate may te expected t0 lea to slower reporting of error, Slower development of allemative approaches to development, and slower ‘change in strategies Aca is diverse. Certainly no simple pietre appears when considering the last tao to. thre decades Noneteless, there ate disturbing signs eqanding all thice of these propositions That singleparty systems have ten found wat ‘he pates search for legitimacy and support, and their atempts 10 deal with national diversity sugsests that some of the worrisome implice- tions ‘of centration have licen proven true. Nowhere can one point to ‘teste where the lawerships claims for lptiacy were easily oF widely ‘ccpted much beyond the ei) sears. Leaership responses have varied, « Jones 8. Wash (ove purpose inthis chapter 40 explore the impact of thes trates cen ncaa polis, economics, and socey the gst-dependence iat ec wwe ths bp wr pt ote ee ee dre far developmen vas aeen asa process of alton! Casati, a ety of pegose aroun the city paranount gst of comone rn and peutic coesion would preempt or dsplice relevant ot ‘pnrsive contention over sttey Teta based atonal and eit SRSESsatlng wll replace raven, uninformed, or sft contention Sere A edrnzing, hoes (nd incorpo) and able cite woud {ise the technea! capac to concepuaize and. manage « developed "SSSomy and thereby ehmiate te danger of mat ero, the excesses ‘reaptatinm and the danger of aco-ckmalm fom hb Stat deuies and Taylties sould supplant “parochial” and macow Coch abd aring a esas 3a ois al eed atmo netion woul be te greats perequsit for development Es Pret oun ass were cena qustions nd wll and dsciine, were Tre'promary ingens required Tor economic development and pote CSpacty to be reshae, "ernst are the mplcatins of tse strates for Afican polit and conn He? Bo they help explain Alcs’ fecent disappointments? CCeatraist Polis and Their frapetions ‘We do not argue that all events in postindependence Aca can be ‘undersoed by analyzing the implications uf these sratepes, Silay, we Caplcly "acknowledge that Afric many slates have "walked varying ‘Gmancet down these paths. Our purpose here is fist analytical and he- ‘ata, nd second to draw a brad picture info which various stars may We iaticny plored. Nonetheless, wed believe that this analas cam make an important portion of postandependence polities ineligible, pa ‘Meuaclyamong the couters™ of the empureal world. Tn this section of he chapter we wll tevefore review the consequences of acting upon these five corollary presuppositions Poluical Parnes ‘We have sugested that the majority of Aftican kders began th evelopment tas 1 independence wit a primary presupposition: that Strony and unified sale was necessarily the primary acter in development Reva consequence of this preupposivon, African leaders. were inclined ward singe no-party Fgies order to diminish politcal confi. Sind enbance support for nail by around the new Teadeshi. In fic Most independent regimes did mene rather quickly to de jure or de facto Siogle-pary systems Today the only functioning mulivparty sytem to te danerta'Rleea ave in Senegal, Gamba, Mauritania, Botewana, Zimbab, SAE Nigeria wth the asecurrenty suspended under iar uk, and Zantatene's threatened by fenders promises 19 move t0 a singe-parly Couraization in Posndependonce Aca ° Hae), Most bea, multi-party democracies beeame st east de facto singe purty ster o fll military coups before the end ofthe 19805. “The impicsions ofthis move 10 single-party systems depends in some smeaare on onc assumptions about the extent, nature, and significance of foetal diversity im ilependent Alia. 1 also depends on how one under. ands politeal legitimacy to be granted 10 one set of actors by a body of people. Finally, 1 varies with ones understanding of development as a tore of les technical process versus a political proces. TT one sees Aries’ social diversity as either tivil or ephemeral, a single-party system has less worisome implications than if such diversity js understood w be a Fundamental aspect of Affican lif, one ikely 10 be ‘elevant to pulic decision making. Similar, if the public i willing to fant legitimacy to its rulers ‘on grounds of the laters technical or ieo- fopial superiority, then a single arty system has less disconcerting impli- cations than ifthe publ expects a broad public debate and discusion fegarding the nature of the commonweal as prerequisites for granting teptimacy, Finally, if development decision making and implementation te essentially technical rather than peliest processes, then gain single party systeme may Be expocted to work better than if development 1s a ‘more ambiguous, debated and subjective process, With these assumptions, ‘ne would expec sngl-partysystoms to operate we one would be baled Should they not stead, socal diversity isa genuine and significa element of the [Ain socal reality, then sil parties may be expected vo be fragmented, factonatized and inalfetve tool of government, Alo, indeed lpitimacy {snot granted 0 4 ruling cadre on ieological or tecnica grounds, we ‘may expect 10 find some parties becoming repressive and others Turing {o distributional exchanges inorder 10 everate suppor. In either case ‘sll abate about the common good and collective parposes be likely to ‘velop. Finally if development policy making and implemeaation are not tmevely techaichlexercisen, but tks in which debatable and incompletely Understood strategies are implemented by equally debatable and incom Dlctely understood tactic then sngl-party eylems may be expected to the metotive in Teading the development process. The absence of insita- tionalized debate may_tbe expected to lead 10 sioner reporting of error, ower development of allermaive approaches to development, and slower chge im segs ‘Affaca is diverse. Certainly no simple picture appears when considering the last two to three decades. Nonetiless, there are disturbing signs reqanting all three of these propositions that single-party systems have ‘ben found wanting. The pies seach for leitimacy and support, and their aiempis to eal with ational diversity surges that some of the worrisome implic- ion have ben proven tu. Nowhere cam one poi to ‘case where the leadership his for Ketimacy were easly or widely ‘cepted much beyond the’ early yeas. Leadership responses have varied, © Janes Sh hundred uousand suprosed opponents kill, including 35 cose awociates aint cabiaet members. Recently, fm Fon il but one ofthe four palit ‘moements which partjpiied in he joint civilian frat estalisied in 1977 were suppressed by the Ethiopian Detgue. Even in Tanvaaia, for example, where a more humanistic stle of socialism might be expeted 10 Trae moderated. poss, Nyerere became convinced that persuasion, and voluntarism sould leave his Ujamaa vilagiation program languishing for an indefinite period of une, He accelerated its implementation radially uring. the lale 1920s wath severe comequences (Lefehi. IHS, 198Sb, Hayden 1983). In this and other cases, dissent was viewed at best a5 aken and wrong-beaded. AU Nort, nd inthe mot ideological tyes, it has been regarded ss verging upon tweason or reflecting so dettive 4 ‘ew of ideology that it would jasy ately disqualifying the dissent From legate participation in the council of government (Roc 85h). Diversity would scam, didnot fue surny under sing-party leadership, nor eae lpiimacy a easily given by the people a6 N05 laud by the leadership Single aries have simularly been found fvely inadequate 0 the dee ‘elopenent task. While tbe souree of Ais developmental problems are ‘manifold. including international trading palteras and natural calamities, few Afican sates have vemonsrated sufieent fealty In responding (0 hanging circumstances sn the world’s changing understanding a devel ‘opment. In the face of the collapsing agricultural sctor te patent lure of the parasatal-vcban-indusinal development strategy in vietualy all Alrican countries by the erly 1970s, Affican povernmens continued 10 hold to the same strasa) with the same tates anti the ers station ofthe 1980s and ateratonal organizations forced choice upon many. The fuadual reduction of the parastatal sector in. Sencpal ane Niger, the evelopment of the second tier foreign eachange aysem i Nigeria, the eration of agicltrat prices tn Gian, ave lle But positive aves wich have marked significant progess in Uh economies of cach of these State. 11s notable, however that these reforms usually came oaly afer Dessure by external snstutions, and Us cdot rlcet hoa interest, Perspectives, or knowiedge, and probably were likely to be more disrupsive to focal economics than they would have teen were they a prodt of domestic political process (Loféie 1985, ‘As Aliican governments centralized by rotuing and sometimes, even eliminating the pluralism of grogps. organizations and interests which had ‘developed during the navn, anti-colonial ea, they succeeded in re ‘moving actual and potential competitor feom-thvie political space. Citi {osm erpanizatioal bass for oppanens, pussive an active resistance to policies and. programs, suikes, and the like sere aocomdingly reduced. Regimes felt more secure ad for the Gime Being were probably mer ily to See thee rule unchallenged However, due Wo the paucity of debate concerning objectives aod stat cles i many sats sanded oral mplemonted pies, ogra Cmtakcation tn Pot Independence se sn 1d project happened with inressng aque: In esteme cases, monic Fegines found themselves without allemalie sities to communicate ‘on problems, 10 reinerpret eves, 19 develop alternatives, oF to act as allies when the vepime cae under presse. In a pluralistic bat ieprated system, even opponens Of the day the person, the policy, the program, etc. develop an (alert I sustaining Fepimes into which they ed only 0 replace the governing cadre, When exganizaional im is eradicated, dieing widersandings of the ‘common. good, ‘need, and iotevests remain. Whal fas Been destroyed isa eyberneti and ‘negotiating structure through Whih public debate on leadership and policy ld eur, erties could Be avitlated, policy and prograr altematves ould be aie and developed, and dveriy could be recognized, accorded 2 letimote rol, and tegrated ino the regime without bebery or spre Son. Furthermore when indepetent but parallel tnttuttonal strwctares fe climinate, regimes become temibly vulperable to the breakdown of ‘sat “mocalural™ stitutions ate ll Like foes of one species, once Treaksiwn oocurs i the fie of unexpected sts, there ate nO Backup systems or rewurecs teary on the functions (Fyden nl). Ghana, Guines, Litera, Sudan, and Tanzania seem to be diverse examples ofthis proces Political dcisions this led to economic slagnation, Bureaucracy and Planning Bureueraey i an attempt to roatinize the application of already- determined slutions to already-estabised and reaity perceived categories bof problems. Such an organizational rope prcsumes that several charac. lenbtics are met by the tak at han. Fist, Known solutions must exist for the problems. A ‘body of theors pertinent To. the tsk mist exist be understood, and be applicable to varias Torms in which the problems ay appeat in order for reliable solutions to be determined and prescribed Second the fete which describe piven eases must be ascertainable Hf the responsible offal sto be able to alopt the appropriate exanizaiona ‘espone. Thi given that most peobloms require stained teation and ooatiated ation, rshable commusication and management systems must ‘ust to support and ssiain comps onganaaiona responses ‘National planning. as it has Deen generally understood in AMC, has boon the process by which the many bureaucracies have ostensibly been inked with eae ances to pode ceondinated,eynergotie development progr. I presumes the preequisics of bureaucrat operation have bees ‘met that parallel understandings of national development exist, and that

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