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Introduction to Environmental Science

Overview of Environmental Science

Immersive Reader

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Environmental science is the interdisciplinary study of the environment, incorporating different fields of science, each with its respective
approach in addressing various environmental issues and problems, both on a local or global perspective. It is humanity’s relationship with
the earth’s living and nonliving components. Moreover, environmental science is a continuously evolving field, having its roots in early
civilization, where many ancient cultures revere nature, providing us with food, water and shelter. These are just among the many services
recognized even by many modern people. In the early 1980s, industry was seen as the major contributor to air and water pollution, but with
technological advancements in industrial pollution control, industries are no longer the major sources of pollution. It has become apparent
that the actions and lifestyles of individual citizens have become the major sources of pollution. Thus, we are now witnessing the
emergence of new environmental problems. Climate change-related disasters, emerging wastes, COVID-19 pandemic and other similar
outbreaks, unmitigated mass tourism, genetically modified organisms and biodiversity loss are among the fast-emerging issues that over
time, will assume greater importance.

Environmental Science and Ecology

The word environmental usually refers to the conditions around which affects people and other organisms. In a broader context,
environmental science is the study of the interactions between humans, other organisms, and their surroundings and how these interactions
affect their surroundings. Thereupon, environmental changes from these activities will eventually have repercussions on humans and other
organisms.

Ecology on the other hand, is a branch of biological science that deals with the relationships between living things and the non-living
components of the environment and plays an important role in environmental science. Its focus of study is the ecosystem. An ecosystem
occupies an important hierarchy in the level of organization in nature, more complex than a community, consisting of organisms interacting
with one another and with the nonliving matter and energy within a defined area. An example is a forest ecosystem consisting of plants
(mostly trees), animals and microorganisms that decompose, all interacting with each other and interacting with the physical and chemical
components of the air, water and soil, driven by the life-sustaining energy of the sun. 

Environmental Principles

The study of environmental science deals with interactions and relationships existing in nature in which man has a profound influence in
many of its processes. We do not only deal with relationships between the biotic and abiotic factors, but we also deal with people – the
culture, politics, economics and social life. Many environmental problems are rooted within the various structures of society, and unless we
look into the socioeconomic and political aspects of our society would we be able to solve these environmental problems. With millions of
years of evolution, nature has established stability and homeostasis that allowed life to flourish in relative harmony. From this viewpoint, a
number of so-called ‘environmental principles’ can serve as a guide on how society can establish its harmonious relation with nature.

1. Interdependence and Interconnectedness.

“Everything is connected to everything else,” is a fitting phrase to describe what one does will affect another, whether directly or
indirectly. In nature, living things are interdependent on one another and with their surroundings. To understand the intricacies of
environmental problems will require a knowledge of the social, physical, and biological sciences. Primarily, the way Man relates to
his environment and resources is influenced by his culture, and in so doing, makes the natural and human resources intimately linked,
such that the use or misuse of one will affect the other. The food chain and food web are prime examples to illustrate the
interdependence and interconnectedness between the many biotic components of the ecosystem.  Moreover, it is not limited to living
things alone but also the connection of the biotic factors with the physical factors. For example, how the type and distribution of soil,
chemical characteristics of the water affects the distribution of organisms.
2. Change and Material Cycles

“Everything in Nature Changes” and that species and environments are constantly changing. Some changes improve the quality of
the environment while others create impacts that degrade it. Changes with adverse impacts have to be avoided, prevented, mitigated or
controlled, whichever approach is sustainable. Materials in the environment undergo cyclic changes, passing through geologic and
biological systems. Likewise, when energy flows through nature, it is neither created nor destroyed, but changes from one form to
another. “Everything in Nature has to go Somewhere”. Materials are natural resources, but when placed in the wrong place at the
wrong time become wastes and pollute the environment, diminishing the utility of a resource. We have to remember that the Earth is a
closed system, and that its self-cleaning capacity is limited. Many would argue that pollution is a necessary evil, that while it is
inevitable in many circumstances can be efficiently controlled using innovative, environment-friendly approaches.
3. Law of Limits and Population Dynamics

Carrying capacity is the maximum number of users of a resource without creating adverse environmental impacts. An ecosystem can

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support only a certain number of individuals at a given time. When the carrying capacity is exceeded, an imbalance in the system
occurs.
4. Diversity and Stability

“All Forms of Life are Important”, and as organisms require a place to thrive on, “All Ecosystems are Important” as well. Therefore,
the more diversity among life forms and ecosystems are, the more resilient and stable the environment will be. Protected areas, nature
reserves and wildlife conservation areas are invaluable in ensuring biodiversity in the genetic, species and ecosystem levels. Likewise,
respect for human cultures also promote social and environmental stability.
5. Balance of Nature and Stewardship

“Nature Knows Best” is an affirmation that Nature has its own laws and processes to maintain itself, and therefore going against what
Nature prescribes will have undesirable consequences. As another saying goes, “There’s No Such Thing as a Free Lunch”. Although
Nature is capable of self-maintenance and self-regulation, human activities should be consistent with the natural laws and processes.
We should bear in mind that humans are part of nature. We are not masters but stewards of the Earth and its resources. “Nature is
God’s gift to all and it is everybody’s duty to protect it.” It has its own value, regardless of its value to humans. Therefore, Man is
morally responsible for decisions relating to his environment.
6. Finiteness of Resources

“Ours is a finite Earth”, means that most resources are nonrenewable, vulnerable to depletion and degradation unless it is used
prudently and wisely. But as populations increase and the demand for resources increase, bear in mind that Nature has limits beyond
which its resources can no longer sustain overpopulation. The use of resources must ensure maximum benefits not only for the present
but for future generations for an indefinite period of time. Shifting to an environment-friendly lifestyle can reduce the demand for
resources and environmental stress.

Environmental Ethics

Ethics is a branch of philosophy which transcends all cultural and religious boundaries to discern fundamentally what is right and what is
wrong. Most cultures have a reverence for life and hold that all humans have a right to live, and therefore considers unethical to deprive an
individual of life. In contrast to morals, morals reflect the predominant mindset of a society about ethical issues at a distinct time period.
Although most cultures share the same view that it is certainly unethical to kill a person. However, when circumstances compel a country to
declare war against a hostile state, majority of the population accept the necessity of killing the enemy, as an act of self-defense or a means
of self-preservation. During a state of war, killing the enemy is a moral thing to do even though ethics says that killing is wrong. No nation
has ever declared an immoral war. Even Adolf Hitler view the necessity of war as a moral act of delivering the German nation from the
oppressive conditions set forth by the Treaty of Versailles after the First World War, which left Germany in ruins, politically and
economically.

Resolving environmental issues require a consideration of both ethics and morals. When the government imposed a nationwide enhanced
community quarantine during the COVID-19 Pandemic and people were required to stay indoors for a certain period, local food supplies
were adequate enough to feed the population. It would be unethical to allow some people, particularly the poor to starve during the
quarantine period while others have more than enough. Lamentably, a pervasive social problem among those in the higher social classes is
one of indifference. They don’t feel morally obligated to share what they have with others. The situation reveals the grim reality that this
indifference makes it permissible to allow poor people to starve while urging them to stay indoors so as not to pose a risk to others. This
moral stand is not consistent with a purely ethical one. Ethics and morals are not always on the same plane of thought. Because of this
ambiguity, it is often difficult to define what is right and what is wrong. Some people view that global warming as serious and have reduce
their fossil fuel consumption. Others doubt that there is a problem and so have not modified their energy use. Still others do not care what
the situation is. They will use fossil fuels as long as it is available. Other issues are population and pollution. With world population at 7.8
billion in 2020 and the Philippine population at 109.5 million, is it ethical to have more than two children in a world beset with
overpopulation? Is it ethical for the plastics industry to lobby to legislators to vote no on a bill banning plastics because it might reduce
profits, even though its passage would improve the environment? The stand we take on such issues often depends on our position. For
example, government does not look upon mining as negatively as indigenous people who are displaced do as a result of mining activities.
In fact, many business leaders view the behavior of hard-core environmentalists as immoral because it restricts growth and, in some cases,
causes unemployment. Many ethical questions are very complex. Ethical issues concerning the environment is no different and has to be
dealt with objectively. It is important to explore environmental issues from several points of view before taking a stand. When we decide to
take an ethical stand, we become prey to attack from those who disagree with our stand, and have to endure the stigma of being portrayed
as villains for pursuing a course of action against which the opposing party consider righteous. Environmental ethics is a topic of applied
ethics that examines the moral basis of environmental responsibility with the end goal focused on the moral foundation of environmental
responsibility and how far this responsibility extends. There are primary theories of moral responsibility regarding the environment, all of
which supports environmental responsibility but whose approaches are different: 

1. Ecocentric. This is a holistic view that maintains that the environment deserves direct moral consideration and not one that is merely
derived from human and animal interests. This comes with a view that the environment has direct rights, which entitles it with moral
personhood, deserving of a direct duty to be protected, and that it has inherent worth. The environment, by itself, is considered
morally at par with humans. Planetary health advocates argue that the “right” of the planet is a natural extension of the concept of
human rights and therefore entitled to a similar degree of environmental protection. Moreover, environmental ethics consider one’s
actions towards the environment as a matter of right and wrong, rather than one of self-interest.
2. Anthropocentric or human-centered. Environmental anthropocentrism revolves around environmental responsibility derived from
human interest alone. It is assumed that only human beings are morally significant organisms and have a direct moral standing. Since

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a healthy environment is paramount to human existence, we have a duty toward the environment in the pursuit of human interests.
Proponents contend that our environmental duties are derived both from the immediate benefit that the present generation receive
from the environment as well as from the benefit that future generations of people will receive. But critics argue that since future
generations of people do not yet exist, then, strictly speaking, they cannot have rights any more than a dead person can have rights.
Indisputably, both parties acknowledge that environmental concern derives solely from human interests.
3. Biocentric. This is a widely embraced view that all forms of life have an inherent right to exist. Some bio centric advocates give
species a hierarchy of values, where they contend that we have a greater responsibility to protect animal species than plant species,
while others say that the rights of certain species are denied from where the rights of humans begin. For example, when rats and
mosquitoes are labelled as pests, they see nothing wrong in exterminating them. Extreme bio centrists believe that each individual
organism, not just each species, has a basic right to survive. On a different note, animal rights advocates put more value on animals
than on plants. Trying to decide which species deserve protection from death or early extinction due to human activities is an ethical
dilemma, where, it is very difficult to be ethically consistent.
4. Technocentric. Technology can solve problems

Environmental Attitudes

There are many different attitudes about the environment, most of which fall under one of three heading: a) the development ethic, b) the
preservation ethic, c) the conservation ethic. Each of these ethical positions has its own code of conduct against which ecological morality
may be measured.

1. The development ethic is based on individualism or egocentrism. It assumed that the human race is and should be the master of nature
and that the Earth and its resources exists for our benefit and pleasure. Many believed the moral ascendancy for this view was gained
from the Old Testament, Genesis 1:26 where God said, “Let Us make Man in Our image, after Our likeness, to rule over the fish of the
sea and the birds of the air, over the livestock, and over all the earth itself and every creature that crawls upon it.” and Genesis 1:28
where God blessed them and said to them, “Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth and subdue it; rule over the fish of the sea and
the birds of the air and every creature that crawls upon the earth. This view is further reinforced by the work ethic, which dictates that
humans should continuously effect change and that resources utilized represent “progress and prosperity”, which itself is good. The
idea that “if it can be done, it should be done” is the motivating factor that drives our actions and energy when engaged in creative
work.
2. The preservation ethic considers nature special in itself. Nature, it is argued, has intrinsic value or inherent worth beyond human
appropriation. Preservationists have diverse reasons for wanting to preserve nature. Some hold an almost religious belief regarding
nature. They have a reverence for life and respect the right of all creatures to live, no matter what the social and economic costs.
3. The conservation or management ethic. It is a scientific preservationist view leaning on the concept of sustainable development,
where it recognizes the desire for decent living standards, but must work towards a balance of resource use and resource availability.
The conservation ethic should strike a balance between total development and absolute preservation. It emphasizes that rapid and
uncontrolled growth in population and economics is unsustainable and prone to fail in the long run. The goal of the conservation ethic
is people living altogether in one world indefinitely without depriving the future generation the opportunity to meet its needs as well.

Relevant Environmental Attitudes and Behavior

1. Tragedy of the Commons. The worldview that the Earth, since time immemorial had been able to sustain us led most of us to believe
that its resources are easily replenished and abundant enough for everyone to enjoy. This idea of commonly shared resources where
most are renewable had led to its overexploitation and eventual degradation, mainly due to its open-access nature. Examples of these
are the atmosphere, the open ocean and its fishes. This phenomenon was first described in 1968 by economist/biologist Garret Hardin,
in an essay entitled the “Tragedy of the Commons”. Hardin explained that each user of a shared common resource reasons that, “If I
do not use this resource, someone else will” or “a small amount used or pollute is not enough to matter, anyway, it’s a renewable
resource”. This reasoning can be presumed to be logical if the number of users is small, assuming that with such small impact, nature
can indeed renew itself. However, the collective effect of many users exploiting a shared resource can eventually degrade and exhaust
it irreversibly and consequently everyone suffers in the end. Thus, the shared resource or “commons” had met its tragedy.
2. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs is a fundamental theory in psychology proposed by Abraham Maslow in 1943, that can explain why
poverty is a major contributing factor to many environmental problems today. Poverty and environmental degradation are intertwined
in a vicious cycle, where insufferable circumstances leave poor people with no choice but to engage in practices that have adverse
impacts on the environment as they seek basic provisions to improve their quality of life. A degraded environment creates less
opportunities, so poor people become more vulnerable in the process. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is represented through a five-tier
model of human needs, arranged in hierarchical stages within a pyramid. Needs lower down in the hierarchy must be satisfied first
before individuals can attend to needs higher up. From the bottom of the hierarchy upwards, the needs are: physiological, safety, love
and belonging, esteem, and self-actualization. Majority of the poor linger at the bottom of the pyramid, where their primary concern is
to satisfy their physiological needs in order to survive. This makes environmental protection the least of their concerns. Only when
one has achieved self-actualization at the top of the pyramid would it open him to engage in altruistic endeavors such as
environmental protection.
3. Precautionary Principle. The precautionary principle or precautionary approach has its origins in the early 1970s from the German
principle 'Vorsorge', or foresight, based on the belief that the society should exert efforts to avoid environmental damage by careful
forward planning. In environmental policy-making, it is a strategy to address environmental issues with potential of harm while
extensive scientific knowledge on the matter is lacking. It emphasizes caution, pausing and reviewing before leaping into new
innovations that may prove disastrous. It is analogous to Benjamin Franklin’s axiom that “an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of
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cure” and novelist Samuel Lover’s idiom “better safe than sorry”, where it is wise to be careful and protect yourself against risk rather
than be careless. However, opponents to this approach takes it with a grain of salt, arguing that it is unscientific and an obstacle to
progress. In the issue of global warming, climate change skeptics use the precautionary principle, where the lack of data to prove that
anthropogenic greenhouse gases (GHG) is the principal cause of climate change justifies the business-as-usual use of fossil fuels
unless data is sufficient enough to effect a reversal of lifestyle. But for climate change advocates, precautionary measures should be
taken even if some cause and effect relationships are not fully established scientifically. In this context the proponent of an activity,
rather than the public, should bear the burden of proof.

Environmental Justice and Governance

Environmental justice is defined as fair treatment, meaning that “no group of people, including racial, ethnic, or socioeconomic groups
should bear a disproportionate share of the negative environmental consequences resulting from industrial, municipal and commercial
operations or the execution of national and local policies.” Environmental justice is also interchangeably referred to as “environmental
equity”, defined as the equal protection against environmental hazards of all individuals, groups or communities regardless of race,
ethnicity, or economic status. The end goal of environmental justice is fairness and speaks of the impartiality that should guide the
application of laws designed to protect the health of human beings and the productivity of ecological systems on which all human activity,
economic activity included, depends. The following are relevant principles in the application of environmental justice:

1. Polluter-Pays Principle. This is one of the oldest principles of environmental law and also one of the most intuitive, which traces its
origins among the celebrated passages of the Greek philosopher Plato in ‘The Dialogues of Plato’ which stated that, “If anyone
intentionally spoils the water of another…let him not only pay for damages, but purify the stream or cistern which contains the water.”
It makes practical and moral sense to make the polluter pay for its wrongs and is expected to deter would-be polluters in the future. In
the interest of environmental justice, it seems fair that “if you make a mess, it is your duty to clean it up”.
2. Intergenerational Equity. This principle is deeply rooted in various cultural and religious traditions, built upon the use of equity.
Initially formulated by the Greek philosopher Aristotle, intergenerational equity serves as the guiding principle in international law for
formulating standards in allocating and sharing resources and for distributing the burdens of caring for the resources and the
environment in which they are found. The principle of intergenerational equity became the foundation for the concept of sustainable
development, during the 1987 UN World Commission on Environment and Development, contained in the Brundtland Report which
defined sustainable development as “meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs.”
3. Writ of Mandamus and Writ of Kalikasan. Article II Section 16 of the 1987 Constitution provides that “The State shall protect and
advance the right of the people to a balanced and healthful ecology in accord with the rhythm and harmony of nature.” This provision
was put to the ‘acid test” in the Oposa vs. Factoran Case, where the Supreme Court of the Philippines, in a landmark decision on July
30, 1993 upheld the Doctrine of Intergenerational Responsibility on the environment in Philippine jurisprudence. It was a milestone
case heralded not only in Philippine legal system but also in international environmental law. Appalled by the state of the Philippine
forest in which only 4% of the country’s original 800,000 hectares remains in 1990, due to the government’s reckless issuance of
logging permits to logging concessionaires for an absurd 3.9 million hectares, an area five time as much forest that actually exists,
Attorney Oposa sued DENR Secretary Fulgencio Factoran, acting on behalf of 43 children, including his own, and on behalf of
children not yet born. The plaintiffs demanded that all existing timber concessions be  cancelled, and that no new ones be issued. The
lower court upheld the DENR’s position on the grounds that people who didn’t yet exist had no right to sue. Upon appeal, the
Supreme Court ruled in favor of Oposa, where the high court agreed that “the rhythm and harmony of nature” undoubtedly required
the “management, renewal and conservation” of natural capital, and imposed on each generation a responsibility to preserve nature for
succeeding generations. This is “intergenerational responsibility, “and became known as the “Oposa Doctrine,” where its echoes can
be heard in courtrooms around the world. This ushered in a new era in legal jurisprudence, where, in another landmark case of Oposa
vs MMDA, the Supreme Court again ruled in favor of Oposa, issuing the Writ of Mandamus, which led to the massive cleanup of
Manila Bay. The writ is a legal instrument in the form of a court order commanding a dilatory organization or individual, in this
particular case, several government agencies, to perform its legal duties and obligations, or be penalized for contempt of court. Oposa
also judiciously made use of another legal instrument unique to the Philippines, the “Writ of Kalikasan” (“kalikasan” means “nature”),
a court order which can be enforced to deal swiftly with environmental threats affecting life, health, or property that may cover two or
more municipalities or provinces.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

1. Environmental science is the interdisciplinary study of the environment, incorporating different fields of science, each with its
respective approach in addressing various environmental issues and problems, both on a local or global perspective.
2. Ethics is a branch of philosophy which transcends all cultural and religious boundaries to discern fundamentally what is right and
what is wrong, while morals reflect the predominant mindset of a society about ethical issues at a distinct time period. 
3. The ‘environmental principles’ that can serve as a guide on how society can establish its harmonious relation with nature are
interdependence and interconnectedness, change and material cycles, law of limits and population dynamics, diversity and stability,
balance of nature and stewardship, and, the finiteness of resources.
4. There are three primary theories of moral responsibility regarding the environment, all of which supports environmental responsibility
but whose approaches are different: ecocentric, anthropocentric, biocentric and technocentric.  Many environmental attitudes about
the environment, fall under one of three headings, where each of these ethical positions has its own code of conduct against which
ecological morality may be measured: a) the development ethic, b) the preservation ethic, c) the conservation ethic.

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