EEM 465

FUNDAMENTALS of DATA COMMUNICATIONS

Lecture 9

Lecturer

Assist.Prof.Dr. Nuray At
 2

Minimal Polynomials
Let . The minimal polynomial of 𝛼 with respect to GF(q) is the
smallest degree nonzero polynomial p(x) in GF(q)[x] such that

The principal design question:

If we want polynomial p(x) with coefficients in GF(q) to have a root 𝛼 from
GF(qm), what other roots must the polynomial have?

Conjugacy Classes
Let . The conjugates of with respect to GF(q) are the elements

Conjugates of 𝛼 with respect to GF(q) form a set called the conjugacy class of 𝛼
 3

Example: Find conjugacy classes of , 𝛼 a primitive element, with

respect to GF(2).
q=2, m=3,
GF(8)=
{0}
{1}

Theorem: The conjugacy class of with respect to GF(q) contains d

elements, where and d|m.
 4

Example:
a) Let 𝛼 be an element of order 3 in GF(16). The conjugates of 𝛼 wrt GF(2)

b) Let 𝛼 be an element of order 6 in GF(25). The conjugacy class of 𝛼 wrt GF(5)

c) Let 𝛼 be an element of order 63 in GF(64). The conjugacy class of 𝛼 wrt GF(4)

 5

Example: Conjugacy classes of wrt GF(2), 𝛼 a primitive element

p=2, m=4,
{0}
{1}

Theorem: Let . Let p(x) be the minimal polynomial of 𝛼 wrt GF(q).

The roots of p(x) are exactly the conjugates of 𝛼 wrt GF(q).
 6

Example: The minimal polynomials of the elements in GF(8) wrt GF(2).

Recall the construction of GF(8).

Conjugacy class Associated minimal polynomial

 7

Factorization of xn-1 (n=qm-1)

Theorem: The set of nonzero elements in GF(qm) form the complete set of roots
of the expression . Equivalently, the elements of GF(qm) are
roots of unity.

The minimal polynomials wrt GF(q) of the nonzero elements in GF(qm) thus
provide the complete factorization of into irreducible polynomials.

Example: The factorization of in GF(2)[x] :

 8

Factorization of xn-1 (n ≠ qm-1)

If n| qm-1, then there is an element of order n in GF(qm). Let be an element of

order n in GF(qm).
 By definition,
 Also the elements are distinct.

Therefore, n roots of xn-1 are the n consecutive powers of

Look for smallest extension field GF(qm) of GF(q) so that n|qm -1

Once the desired primitive root has been located, form the conjugacy classes and
compute the associated minimal polynomials.
 9

Example: Factor using polynomials with coefficients from GF(2).

5|10, 11 is not power of a prime
5|15, 16 = 24 . Roots of lie in GF(16)
Conjugacy classes of GF(16) wrt GF(2):

Let be a root of
 10

Cyclotomic Cosets:
In many cases the common base of the elements in a conjugacy class is obvious
within the context. When the base element is deleted, the resulting partition of
powers of the base element form cyclotomic cosets
Example:
Conjugacy class Cyclotomic cosets