MODULE Week 10-13

College/Department College of Teacher Education

Course Code GEE7
Course Title Gender and Society
Place of the Course in the Program Minor
Semester and A. Y. Second Semester 2021-2022
Instructor Josephine A. Ignacio
INTRODUCTION: This module deals with the study of Gender and Development with various issues and women’s
rights situation especially in the Philippine setting.
INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES: At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. differentiate between Women in Development and Women and Development and give their insights on various gender
issues
2. discuss the various approaches on Gender and Development.
3. enumerate causes of gender inequality and react on the Philippine government policies on gender. 4. analyze women’s
rights and situations in the Philippines.
DISCUSSION:
VII. Gender and Development
Gender and development is an interdisciplinary field of research and applied study that implements a feminist approach
to understanding and addressing the disparate impact that economic development and globalization have on people based
upon their location, gender, class background, and other socio-political identities. A strictly economic approach to
development views a country's development in quantitative terms such as job creation, inflation control, and high
employment – all of which aim to improve the ‘economic wellbeing’ of a country and the subsequent quality of life for its
people. In terms of economic development, quality of life is defined as access to necessary rights and resources including
but not limited to quality education, medical facilities, affordable housing, clean environments, and low crime rate.
Gender and development considers many of these same factors; however, gender and development emphasizes efforts
towards understanding how multifaceted these issues are in the entangled context of culture, government, and
globalization. Accounting for this need, gender and development implements ethnographic research, research that studies
a specific culture or group of people by physically immersing the researcher into the environment and daily routine of
those being studied, in order to comprehensively understand how development policy and practices affect the everyday
life of targeted groups or areas. The history of this field dates back to the 1950s, when studies of economic development
first brought women into its discourse, focusing on women only as subjects of welfare policies – notably those centered on
food aid and family planning. The focus of women in development increased throughout the decade, and by 1962, the
United Nations General Assembly called for the Commission on the Status of Women to collaborate with the Secretary
General and a number of other UN sectors to develop a longstanding program dedicated to women's advancement in
developing countries.[6] A decade later, feminist economist Ester Boserup’s pioneering book Women’s Role in Economic
Development (1970) was published, radically shifting perspectives of development and contributing to the birth of what
eventually became the gender and development field.
Since Boserup's consider that development affects men and women differently, the study of gender's relation to
development has gathered major interest amongst scholars and international policymakers. The field has undergone major
theoretical shifts, beginning with Women in Development (WID), shifting to Women and Development (WAD), and
finally becoming the contemporary Gender and Development (GAD). Each of these frameworks emerged as an evolution
of its predecessor, aiming to encompass a broader range of topics and social science perspectives. In addition to these
frameworks, international financial institutions such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) have
implemented policies, programs, and research regarding gender and development, contributing a neoliberal and smart
economics approach to the study. Examples of these policies and programs include Structural Adjustment
Programs (SAPs), microfinance, outsourcing, and privatizing public enterprises,[4] all of which direct focus towards
economic growth and suggest that advancement towards gender equality will follow. These approaches have been
challenged by alternative perspectives such as Marxism and ecofeminism, which respectively reject international
capitalism] and the gendered exploitation of the environment via science, technology, and capitalist production. [8] Marxist
perspectives of development advocate for the redistribution of wealth and power in efforts to reduce global labor
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exploitation and class inequalities,[4] while ecofeminist perspectives confront industrial practices that accompany
development, including deforestation, pollution, environmental degradation, and ecosystem destruction.
Early Approaches Women in development (WID) Theoretical approach
The term “women in development” was originally coined by a Washington-based network of female development
professionals in the early 1970s who sought to question trickle down existing theories of development by contesting that
economic development had identical impacts on men and women. [11] The Women in Development movement (WID)
gained momentum in the 1970s, driven by the resurgence of women's movements in developed countries, and particularly
through liberal feminists striving for equal rights and labour opportunities in the United States. Liberal feminism,
postulating that women's disadvantages in society may be eliminated by breaking down customary expectations of women
by offering better education to women and introducing equal opportunity programmes, had a notable influence on the
formulation of the WID approaches.
The focus of the 1970s feminist movements and their repeated calls for employment opportunities in the development
agenda meant that particular attention was given to the productive labour of women, leaving aside reproductive concerns
and social welfare. This approach was pushed forward by WID advocates, reacting to the general policy environment
maintained by early colonial authorities and post-war development authorities, wherein inadequate reference to the work
undertook by women as producers was made, as they were almost solely identified as their roles as wives and mothers.
The WID's opposition to this “welfare approach” was in part motivated by the work of Danish economist Ester Boserup in
the early 1970s, who challenged the assumptions of the said approach and highlighted the role women by women in the
agricultural production and economy.
Reeves and Baden (2000) point out that the WID approach stresses the need for women to play a greater role in the
development process. According to this perspective, women's active involvement in policymaking will lead to more
successful policies overall.[15] Thus, a dominant strand of thinking within WID sought to link women's issues with
development, highlighting how such issues acted as impediments to economic growth; this “relevance” approach stemmed
from the experience of WID advocates which illustrated that it was more effective if demands of equity and social justice
for women were strategically linked to mainstream development concerns, in an attempt to have WID policy goals taken
up by development agencies.[16] The Women in Development approach was the first contemporary movement to
specifically integrate women in the broader development agenda and acted as the precursor to later movements such as the
Women and Development (WAD), and ultimately, the Gender and Development approach, departing from some of the
criticized aspects imputed to the WID. Criticism
The WID movement faced a number of criticisms; such an approach had in some cases the unwanted consequence of
depicting women as a unit whose claims are conditional on its productive value, associating increased female status with
the value of cash income in women's lives. [17] The WID view and similar classifications based on Western feminism,
applied a general definition to the status, experiences and contributions of women and the solutions for women in Third
World countries.[18] Furthermore, the WID, although it advocated for greater gender equality, did not tackle the unequal
gender relations and roles at the basis of women's exclusion and gender subordination rather than addressing the
stereotyped expectations entertained by men. [19] Moreover, the underlying assumption behind the call for the integration of
the Third World women with their national economy was that women were not already participating in development, thus
downplaying women's roles in household production and informal economic and political activities. [20] The WID was also
criticized for its views on the fact that women's status will improve by moving into “productive employment”, implying
that the move to the “modern sector” need to be made from the “traditional” sector to achieve self-advancement, further
implying that “traditional” work roles often occupied by women in the developing world were inhibiting to
selfdevelopment.
Women and development (WAD
Women and development (WAD) is a theoretical and practical approach to development. It was introduced into gender
studies scholarship in the second half of the 1970s, following its origins, which can be traced to the First World
Conference on Women in Mexico City in 1975, organized by the UN. [23] It is a departure from the previously predominant
theory, WID (Women in Development) and is often mistaken for WID, but has many distinct characteristics.
Theoretical approach
WAD arose out of a shift in thinking about women's role in development, and concerns about the explanatory limitations
of modernization theory.[24] While previous thinking held that development was a vehicle to advance women, new ideas
suggested that development was only made possible by the involvement of women, and rather than being simply passive
recipients of development aid, they should be actively involved in development projects. [22] WAD took this thinking a step
further and suggested that women have always been an integral part of development, and did not suddenly appear in the
1970s as a result of exogenous development efforts. [24] The WAD approach suggests that there be women-only

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development projects that were theorized to remove women from the patriarchal hegemony that would exist if women
participated in development alongside men in a patriarchal culture, though this concept has been heavily debated by
theorists in the field.[25] In this sense, WAD is differentiated from WID by way of the theoretical framework upon which it
was built. Rather than focus specifically on women's relationship to development, WAD focuses on the relationship
between patriarchy and capitalism. This theory seeks to understand women's issues from the perspectives of neo-Marxism
and dependency theory, though much of the theorizing about WAD remains undocumented due to the persistent and
pressing nature of development work in which many WAD theorists engage. Practical approach
The WAD paradigm stresses the relationship between women, and the work that they perform in their societies as
economic agents in both the public and domestic spheres. It also emphasizes the distinctive nature of the roles women play
in the maintenance and development of their societies, with the understanding that purely the integration of women into
development efforts would serve to reinforce the existing structures of inequality present in societies overrun by
patriarchal interests. In general, WAD is thought to offer a more critical conceptualization of women's position compared
to WID. The WAD approach emphasizes the distinctive nature of women's knowledge, work, goals, and responsibilities,
as well as advocating for the recognition of their distinctiveness. This fact, combined with a recognized tendency for
development agencies to be dominated by patriarchal interests, is at the root of the women-only initiatives introduced by
WAD subscribers. Criticism
Some of the common critiques of the WAD approach include concerns that the women-only development projects would
struggle, or ultimately fail, due to their scale, and the marginalized status of these women. Furthermore, the WAD
perspective suffers from a tendency to view women as a class, and pay little attention to the differences among women
(such as feminist concept of intersectionality), including race and ethnicity, and prescribe development endeavors that
may only serve to address the needs of a particular group. While an improvement on WID, WAD fails to fully consider
the relationships between patriarchy, modes of production, and the marginalization of women. It also presumes that the
position of women around the world will improve when international conditions become more equitable. Additionally,
WAD has been criticized for its singular preoccupation with the productive side of women's work, while it ignores the
reproductive aspect of women's work and lives. Therefore, WID/WAD intervention strategies have tended to concentrate
on the development of income-generating activities without taking into account the time burdens that such strategies place
on women.[26] Value is placed on income-generating activities, and none is ascribed to social and cultural reproduction
Gender and development (GAD)
Theoretical approach
The Gender and Development (GAD) approach focuses on the socially constructed differences between men and women, the
need to challenge existing gender roles and relations, [28] and the creation and effects of class differences on development. [4] This
approach was majorly influenced by the writings of academic scholars such as Oakley (1972) and Rubin (1975), who argue the
social relationship between men and women have systematically subordinated women, along with economist scholars Lourdes
Benería and Amartya Sen (1981), who assess the impact of colonialism on development and gender inequality. They state that
colonialism imposed more than a 'value system' upon developing nations, it introduced a system of economics 'designed to
promote capital accumulation which caused class differentiation'.
GAD departs from WID, which discussed women's subordination and lack of inclusion in discussions of international
development without examining broader systems of gender relations. [29] Influenced by this work, by the late 1970s, some
practitioners working in the development field questioned focusing on women in isolation. GAD challenged the WID focus on
women as an important ‘target group’ and ‘untapped resources’ for development. GAD marked a shift in thinking about the need
to understand how women and men are socially constructed and how ‘those constructions are powerfully reinforced by the
social activities that both define and are defined by them.’ GAD focuses primarily on the gendered division of labor and gender
as a relation of power embedded in institutions. Consequently, two major frameworks, ‘Gender roles’ and ‘social relations
analysis’, are used in this approach.[33] 'Gender roles' focuses on the social construction of identities within the household; it also
reveals the expectations from ‘maleness and femaleness’[30] in their relative access to resources. 'Social relations analysis' exposes
the social dimensions of hierarchical power relations embedded in social institutions, as well as its determining influence on ‘the
relative position of men and women in society.’ This relative positioning tends to discriminate against women.
Unlike WID, the GAD approach is not concerned specifically with women, but with the way in which a society assigns roles,
responsibilities and expectations to both women and men. GAD applies gender analysis to uncover the ways in which men and
women work together, presenting results in neutral terms of economics and efficiency. [35] In an attempt to create gender equality
(denoting women having the same opportunities as men, including ability to participate in the public sphere), GAD policies aim
to redefine traditional gender role expectations. Women are expected to fulfill household management tasks, home-based
production as well as bearing and raising children and caring for family members. The role of a wife is largely interpreted as 'the
responsibilities of motherhood.'[37] Men, however, are expected to be breadwinners, associated with paid work and market
production.[28] In the labor market, women tend to earn less than men. For instance, 'a study by the Equality and Human Rights

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Commission found massive pay inequities in some United Kingdom's top finance companies, women received around 80
percent less performance-related pay than their male colleagues. In response to pervasive gender inequalities, Beijing Platform
for Action established gender mainstreaming in 1995 as a strategy across all policy areas at all levels of governance for
achieving gender equality.
GAD has been largely utilized in debates regarding development but this trend is not seen in the actual practice of developmental
agencies and plans for development. Caroline Moser claims WID persists due to the challenging nature of GAD, but Shirin M.
Rai counters this claim noting that the real issue lies in the tendency to overlap WID and GAD in policy. Therefore, it would
only be possible if development agencies fully adopted GAD language exclusively. [40] Caroline Moser developed the Moser
Gender Planning Framework for GAD-oriented development planning in the 1980s while working at the Development Planning
Unit of the University of London. Working with Caren Levy, she expanded it into a methodology for gender policy and
planning. The Moser framework follows the Gender and Development approach in emphasizing the importance of gender
relations. As with the WID-based Harvard Analytical Framework, it includes a collection of quantitative empirical facts. Going
further, it investigates the reasons and processes that lead to conventions of access and control. The Moser Framework includes
gender roles identification, gender needs assessment, disaggregating control of resources and decision making within the
household, planning for balancing work and household responsibilities, distinguishing between different aims in interventions
and involving women and gender-aware organizations in planning. Criticism
GAD has been criticized for emphasizing the social differences between men and women while neglecting the bonds between
them and also the potential for changes in roles. Another criticism is that GAD does not dig deeply enough into social relations
and so may not explain how these relations can undermine programs directed at women. It also does not uncover the types of
trade-offs that women are prepared to make for the sake of achieving their ideals of marriage or motherhood. Another criticism
is that the GAD perspective is theoretically distinct from WID, but in practice, programs seem to have elements of both. Whilst
many development agencies are now committed to a gender approach, in practice, the primary institutional perspective remain
focused on a WID approach. Specifically, the language of GAD has been incorporated into WID programs. There is a slippage
in reality where gender mainstreaming is often based in a single normative perspective as synonymous to women. Development
agencies still advance gender transformation to mean economic betterment for women. Further criticisms of GAD is its
insufficient attention to culture, with a new framework being offered instead: Women, Culture and Development (WCD). This
framework, unlike GAD, wouldn't look at women as victims but would rather evaluate the Third World life of women through
the context of the language and practice of gender, the Global South, and culture.
Neoliberal approaches Gender and neoliberal development institutions
Neoliberalism consists of policies that will privatize public industry, deregulate any laws or policies that interfere with the
free flow of the market and cut back on all social services. These policies were often introduced to many low-income
countries through structural adjustment programs (SAPs) by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).
[47]
Neoliberalism was cemented as the dominant global policy framework in the 1980s and 1990s. [4] Among development
institutions, gender issues have increasingly become part of economic development agendas, as the examples of the World
Bank shows. Awareness by international organizations of the need to address gender issues evolved over the past decades.
The World Bank, and regional development banks, donor agencies, and government ministries have provided many
examples of instrumental arguments for gender equality, for instance by emphasizing the importance of women's
education as a way of increasing productivity in the household and the market. Their concerns have often focused on
women's contributions to economic growth rather than the importance of women's education as a means for empowering
women and enhancing their capabilities. The World Bank, for example, started focusing on gender in 1977 with the
appointment of a first Women in Development Adviser. In 1984 the bank mandated that its programs consider women's
issues. In 1994 the bank issued a policy paper on Gender and Development, reflecting current thinking on the subject. This
policy aims to address policy and institutional constraints that maintain disparities between the genders and thus limit the
effectiveness of development programs. Thirty years after the appointment of a first Women in Development Adviser, a
socalled Gender Action Plan was launched to underline the importance of the topic within development strategies and to
introduce the new Smart Economics strategy.
Gender mainstreaming mandated by the 1995 Beijing Platform for action integrates gender in all aspects of individuals
lives in regards to policy development on gender equality. The World Bank's Gender Action Plan of 2007-10 is built upon
the Bank's gender mainstreaming strategy for gender equality. The Gender Action Plan's objective was advance women's
economic empowerment through their participation in land, labor, financial and product markets. In 2012, the World
Development Report was the first report of the series examining Gender Equality and Development. Florika Fink-Hooijer,
head of the European Commission's Directorate-General for European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations
introduced cash-based aid as well as gender and age sensitive aid.
An argument made on the functions behind institutional financial institutions such as the International Monetary Fund
(IMF) and the World Bank are that they support capitalist ideals through their means of economic growth of countries

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globally and their participation in the global economy and capitalist systems. The roles of banks as institutions and the
creation of new workers’ economy reflect neoliberal developing ideals is also present in the criticisms on neoliberal
developing institutions. Another critique made on the market and institutions is that it contributes to the creation of
policies and aid with gender-related outcomes. An argument made on the European Bank for Reconstruction and
Development is that it creates a neoliberal dominance that continues the construction and reconstruction of gender norms
by homogenously category women rather than the gender disparities within its policies.
Gender and Outsourcing
One of the features of development encouraged in neoliberal approaches is outsourcing. Outsourcing is when companies
from the western world moves some of their business to another country. The reasons these companies make the decision
to move is often because of cheap labor costs . Although outsourcing is about businesses it is directly related to gender
because it has greatly affected women. The reason it is related to gender is that women are mainly the people that are
being hired for these cheap labor jobs and why they are being hired.
One example of a popular place for factories to relocate is to China. In China the main people who work in these factories
are women, these women move from their home towns to cities far away for the factory jobs. The reasons these women
move is to be able to make a wage to take care of not only themselves but their families as well. Oftentimes these women
are expected to get these jobs.
Another example of a country the garment industry outsources work to is Bangladesh, which has one of the lowest costs of
labor compared to other third world countries (see the ILO data provided in figure 1). With low labor costs, there is also
poor compliance with labor standards in the factories. The factory workers in Bangladesh can experience several types of
violations of their rights. These violations include: long working hours with no choice but to work overtime, deductions to
wages, as well as dangerous and unsanitary working conditions.
Although the discussions made around outsourcing do not often involve the effects on women, women daily endure
constant results from it. Women in countries and areas that may not have been able to work and make their own income
now have the opportunity to provide for themselves and their kids. Gender is brought to attention because unemployment
is sometimes a threat to women. The reason for it being a threat is because without jobs and their own income women may
fall victim to discrimination or abuse. It is very valuable to many women to be able to obtain their own source of income,
outsourcing allows women in countries that may not easily obtain a job the opportunity to obtain jobs. Many times factory
owners discuss how many women want the jobs they have to offer.
With the availability of jobs and the seeming benefits comes a concern for the work conditions in these outsourced jobs.
Although some women have acquired a job the work conditions may not be safe or ideal. As mentioned above the jobs are
in extreme demand because of how limited opportunities for employment is in certain regions. This leads to the idea of
women being disposable at the workplace. As a result of this the workers in these factories do not have room to complain.
They also are not able to expect safe working conditions in their work environments. Women have to move far from their
hometowns and families to work at these factory jobs. The hours are long and because they are not home they typically
also move into dormitories and live at their jobs.
Gender and microfinance.
Women have been identified by some development institutions as a key to successful development, for example through
financial inclusion. Microcredit is giving small loans to people in poverty without collateral. This was first started by
Muhammad Yunus, who formed the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh. [68] Studies have showed that women are more likely to
repay their debt than men, and the Grameen Bank focuses on aiding women. [69] This financial opportunity allows women
to start their own businesses for a steady income. [70] Women have been the focus of microcredit for their subsequent
increased status as well as the overall well-being of the home being improved when given to women rather than men. [71]
There were numerous case studies done in Tanzania about the correlation of the role of SACCoS (savings and credit
cooperative organization) and the economic development of the country. The research showed that the microfinance
policies were not being carried out in the most efficient ways due to exploitation One case study went a step further to
claim that this financial service could provide a more equal society for women in Tanzania.
While there are such cases in which women were able to lift themselves out of poverty, there are also cases in which
women fell into a poverty trap as they were unable to repay their loans. It is even said that microcredit is actually an
"antidevelopmental" approach. There is little evidence of significant development for these women within the 30 years
that the microfinance has been around. In South Africa, unemployment is high due to the introduction of microfinance,
more so than it was under apartheid. Microcredit intensified poverty in Johannesburg, South Africa as poor communities,
mostly women, who needed to repay debt were forced to work in the informal sector.
Some arguments that microcredit is not effective insist that the structure of the economy, with large informal and
agriculture sectors, do not provide a system in which borrowers can be successful. In Nigeria, where the informal
economy is approximately 45–60% of economy, women working within it could not attain access to microcredit because
of the high demand for loans triggered by high unemployment rates in the formal sector. This study found Nigerian
5
woman are forced into “the hustle” and enhanced risk of the informal economy, which is unpredictable and contributes to
women's inability to repay the loans. [79] Another example from a study conducted in Arampur, Bangladesh, found that
microcredit programs within the agrarian community do not effectively help the borrower pay their loan because the terms
of the loan are not compatible with farm work. If was found that MFIs force borrowers to repay before the harvesting
season starts and in some cases endure the struggles of sharecropping work that is funded by the loan.
Although there is debate on how effective microcredit is in alleviating poverty in general, there is an argument that
microcredit enables women to participate and fulfill their capabilities in society. [81] For example, a study conducted in
Malayasia showed that their version of microcredit, AIM, had a positive effect on Muslim women's empowerment in
terms of allowing them to have more control over family planning and over decisions that were made in the home. [82]
In contrast, out of a study conducted on 205 different MFIs, they concluded that there is still gender discrimination within
microfinance institutions themselves and microcredit which impact the existing discrimination within communities as
well. In Bangladesh, another outcome seen for some of the Grameen recipients was that they faced domestic abuse as a
result of their husbands feeling threatened about women bringing in more income. [83] A study in Uganda also noted that
men felt threatened through increased female financial dominance, increasing women's vulnerability at home. [84]
Through the “constructivist feminist standpoint,” women can understand that the limitations they face are not inherent and
in fact, are “constructed” by traditional gender roles, which they have the ability to challenge through owning their own
small business. Through this focus, a study focused on the Foundation for International Community Assistance's (FINCA)
involvement and impact in Peru, where women are made aware of the “machismo” patriarchal culture in which they live
through their experiences with building small enterprises. [85] In Rajasthan, India, another study found mixed results for
women participating in a microlending program. Though many women were not able to pay back their loans, many were
still eager to take on debt because their microfinance participation created a platform to address other inequities within the
community.
Another example is the Women's Development Business (WDB) in South Africa, a Grameen Bank microfinance
replicator. According to WDB, the goal is to ensure “[…] that rural women are given the tools to free themselves from the
chains of poverty […]” through allocation of financial resources directly to women including enterprise development
programs.[87] The idea is to use microfinance as a market-oriented tool to ensure access to financial services for
disadvantaged and lowincome people and therefore fostering economic development through financial inclusion. Diving
into another example regarding Microfinance and women from Women Entrepreneurship Promotion in Developing
Countries: What explains the gender gap in entrepreneurship and how to close it?is Vossenberg (2013) describes how
although there has been an increase in entrepreneurship for women, the gender gap still persists. The author states “The
gender gap is commonly defined as the difference between men and women in terms of numbers engaged in
entrepreneurial activity, motives to start or run a business, industry choice and business performance and growth”
(Vossenberg, 2). The article dives into how in Eastern Europe there is a low rate of women entrepreneurs. Although the
author discusses how in Africa nearly fifty percent of women make up entrepreneurs.
As a reaction, a current topic in the feminist literature on economic development is the ‘gendering’ of microfinance, as
women have increasingly become the target borrowers for rural microcredit lending. This, in turn, creates the assumption
of a “rational economic woman” which can exacerbate existing social hierarchies [89]). Therefore, the critique is that the
assumption of economic development through microfinance does not take into account all possible outcomes, especially
the ones affecting women.
The impact of programs of the Bretton Woods Institutions and other similar organizations on gender are being monitored
by Gender Action, a watchdog group founded in 2002 by Elaine Zuckerman who is a former World Bank economist. [90][91]
Gender, financial crises, and neoliberal economic policy[edit]
The global financial crisis and the following politics of austerity have opened up a wide range of gender and feminist
debates on neoliberalism and the impact of the crisis on women. One view is that the crisis has affected women
disproportionately and that there is a need for alternative economic structures in which investment in social reproduction
needs to be given more weight. [92][93] The International Labour Organization (ILO) assessed the impact of the global
financial crisis on workers and concluded that while the crisis initially affected industries that were dominated by male
workers (such as finance, construction and manufacturing) it then spread over to sectors in which female workers are
predominantly active. Examples for these sectors are the service sector or wholesale-retail trade. [94]
There are different views among feminists on whether neoliberal economic policies have more positive or negative
impacts on women. In the post-war era, feminist scholars such as Elizabeth Wilson criticized state capitalism and the
welfare state as a tool to oppress women. Therefore, neoliberal economic policies featuring privatization and deregulation,
hence a reduction of the influence of the state and more individual freedom was argued to improve conditions for women.

6
This antiwelfare state thinking arguably led to feminist support for neoliberal ideas embarking on a macroeconomic policy
level deregulation and a reduced role of the state.
Therefore, some scholars in the field argue that feminism, especially during its second wave, has contributed key ideas to
Neoliberalism that, according to these authors, creates new forms of inequality and exploitation.
As a reaction to the phenomenon that some forms of feminism are increasingly interwoven with capitalism, many
suggestions on how to name these movements have emerged in the feminist literature. Examples are ‘free market
feminism’ [97] or even ‘faux-feminism’. Smart economics
Theoretical approaches Advocated chiefly by the World Bank, smart economics is an approach to define gender equality
as an integral part of economic development and it aims to spur development through investing more efficiently in women
and girls. It stresses that the gap between men and women in human capital, economic opportunities, and voice/agency is a
chief obstacle in achieving more efficient development. As an approach, it is a direct descendant of the efficiency
approach
taken by WID which “rationalizes ‘investing’ in women and girls for more effective development outcomes.” [99][100] As
articulated in the section of WID, the efficiency approach to women in development was chiefly articulated by Caroline
Moser in the late 1980s.[101] Continuing the stream of WID, smart economics’ key unit of analysis is women as individual
and it particularly focuses on measures that promote to narrow down the gender gap. Its approach identifies women are
relatively underinvested source of development and it defines gender equality an opportunity of higher return investment.
“Gender equality itself is here depicted as smart economics, in that it enables women to contribute their utmost skills and
energies to the project of world economic development.” In this term, smart economics champions neoliberal perspective
in seeing business as a vital vehicle for change and it takes a stance of liberal feminism.
The thinking behind smart economics dates back, at least, to the lost decade of the Structural Adjustment Policies (SAPs)
in the 1980s. In 1995, World Bank issued its flagship publication on gender matters of the year Enhancing Women's
Participation in Economic Development (World Bank 1995). This report marked a critical foundation to the naissance of
Smart Economics; in a chapter entitled ‘The Pay-offs to Investing in Women,’ the Bank proclaimed that investing in
women
“speeds economic development by raising productivity and promoting the more efficient use of resources; it produces
significant social returns, improving child survival and reducing fertility, and it has considerable intergenerational
payoffs.” The Bank also emphasized its associated social benefits generated by investing in women. For example, the
Bank turned to researches of Whitehead that evidenced a greater female-control of household income is associated with
better outcomes for children's welfare and Jeffery and Jeffery who analyzed the positive correlation between female
education and lower fertility rates. In the 2000s, the approach of smart economics came to be further crystallized through
various frameworks and initiatives. A first step was World Bank's Gender Action Plan (GAP) 2007-/2010, followed by the
“Three Year Road Map for Gender Mainstreaming 2010-13.” The 2010-13 framework responded to criticisms for its
precursor and incorporated some shifts in thematic priorities. [105] Lastly but not least, the decisive turning point was 2012
marked by its publication of “World Development Report 2012: Gender Equality and Development.” This Bank's first
comprehensive focus on the gender issues was welcomed by various scholars and practitioners, as an indicator of its
seriousness. For example, Shahra Razavi appraised the report as ‘a welcome opportunity for widening the intellectual
space’.
Other international organizations, particular UN families, have so far endorsed the approach of smart economics.
Examining the relationship between child well-being and gender equality, for example, UNICEF also referred to the
“Double Dividend of Gender Equality.” Its explicit link to a wider framework of the Millennium Development Goals
(where the Goal 3 is Promoting Gender Equality and Women's Empowerment) claimed a wider legitimacy beyond
economic efficiency. In 2007, the Bank proclaimed that “The business case for investing in MDG 3 is strong; it is nothing
more than smart economics.”] In addition, “Development organizations and governments have been joined in this focus on
the ‘business case’ for gender equality and the empowerment of women, by businesses and enterprises which are
interested in contributing to social good.”[99] A good example is “Girl Effect initiative” taken by Nike Foundation. [110] Its
claim for economic imperative and a broader socio-economic impact also met a strategic need of NGOs and community
organizations that seeks justification for their program funding. [99] Thus, some NGOs, for example Plan International,
captured this trend to further their program. The then-president of the World Bank Robert B. Zoellick was quoted by Plan
International in stating “Investing in adolescent girls is precisely the catalyst poor countries need to break
intergenerational poverty and to create a better distribution of income. Investing in them is not only fair, it is a smart
economic move.” The global financial meltdown and austerity measures taken by major donor counties further supported
this approach, since international financial institutions and international NGOs received a greater pressure from donors
and from global public to design and implement maximally cost-effective programs. Criticisms

7
From the mid-2000s, the approach of smart economics and its chief proponent –World Bank– met a wide range of
criticisms and denouncements. These discontents can be broadly categorized into three major claims; Subordination of
Intrinsic Value; Ignorance for the need of systemic transformation; Feminization of responsibility; Overemphasized
efficiency; and Opportunistic pragmatism. This is not exhaustive list of criticisms, but the list aims to highlight different
emphasis among existing criticisms.
The World Bank's gender policy aims to eliminate poverty and enhance economic growth by addressing gender disparities
and inequalities that hinders development. A critique [by whom?] on the World Bank's gender policy is it being ‘gender-blind’
and not properly addressing gender inequity. Rather a critique made is that the World Bank's gender policy utilizes gender
equality as an ends means rather than analyzing root causes for economic disparities and gender equity.
Smart economics’ subordination of women under the justification of development invited fierce criticisms. Chant
expresses her grave concern that “Smart economics is concerned with building women’s capacities in the interests of
development rather than promoting women’s rights for their own sake.” She disagrees that investment in women should
be promoted by its instrumental utility: “it is imperative to ask whether the goal of female investment is primarily to
promote gender equality and women’s ‘empowerment’, or to facilitate development ‘on the cheap’, and/or to promote
further economic liberalization.” Although smart economics outlines that gender equality has intrinsic value (realizing
gender equality is an end itself) and instrumental value (realizing gender equality is a means to a more efficient
development),[106] many points out that the Bank pays almost exclusive attentions to the latter in defining its framework
and strategy. Zuckerman also echoed this point by stating “business case [which] ignores the moral imperative of
empowering women to achieve women’s human rights and full equal rights with men.” In short, Chant casts a doubt that if
it is not “possible to promote rights through utilitarianism.”
A wide range of scholars and practitioners has criticized that smart economics rather endorse the current status-quo of
gender inequality and keep silence for the demand of institutional reform. Its approach “[d]oes not involves public action
to transform the laws, policies, and practices which constrain personal and group agency.” [99] Naila Kabeer also posits that
“attention to collective action to enable women to challenge structural discrimination has been downplayed.” [115] Simply,
smart economics assumes that women are entirely capable of increasingly contributing for economic growth amid the
ongoing structural barriers to realize their capabilities.
Sylvia Chant (2008) discredited its approach as ‘feminization of responsibility and/or obligation’ where the smart
economics intends to spur growth simply by demanding more from women in terms of time, labor, energy, and other
resources.[99] She also agrees that “Smart economics seeks to use women and girls to fix the world.” [99] She further goes by
clarifying that “It is less welcome to women who are already contributing vast amounts to both production and unpaid
reproduction to be romanticized and depicted as the salvation of the world.”
Chant is concerned that “An efficiency-driven focus on young women and girls as smart economics leaves this critical part
of the global population out.” Smart economics assumes that all women are at their productive stage and fallaciously
neglects lives of the elderly women, or women with handicaps. Thus she calls for recognition of “equal rights of all
women and girls -regardless of age, or the extent of nature of their economic contribution.” ] Also, its approach does not
talk about cooperation and collaboration between males and females thus leaving men and boys completely out of picture.
Chant emphasize that “The smart economics approach represents, at best, pragmatism in a time of economic restructuring
and austerity.” Smart economics can have a wider acceptance and legitimacy because now is the time when efficiency is
most demanded, not because its utilitarianism has universal appeal. She further warns that feminists should be very
cautious about "supporting, and working in coalition with, individuals and institutions who approach gender equality
through the lens of smart economics. This may have attractions in strategic terms, enabling us to access resources for work
focusing on supporting the individual agency of women and girls, but risks aggravating many of the complex problems
that gender and development seeks to transform." VIII. Gender Issues Gender issues include all aspects and concerns
related to women’s and men’s lives and situation in society, to the way they interrelate, their differences in access to and
use of resources, their activities, and how they react to changes, interventions and policies.
10 Causes of Gender Inequality
Over the years, the world has gotten closer to achieving gender equality. There is better representation of women in
politics, more economic opportunities, and better healthcare in many places of the world. However, the World Economic
Forum estimates it will take another century before true gender equality becomes a reality. What drives the gap between
genders? Here are 10 causes of gender inequality: #1. Uneven access to education
Around the world, women still have less access to education than men. ¼ of young women between 15-24 will not finish
primary school. That group makes up 58% of the people not completing that basic education. Of all the illiterate people in
the world, ⅔ are women. When girls are not educated on the same level as boys, it has a huge effect on their future and the
kinds of opportunities they’ll get.
8
#2. Lack of employment equality
Only 6 countries in the world give women the same legal work rights as men. In fact, most economies give women only
¾ the rights of men. Studies show that if employment became a more even playing field, it has a positive domino
effect on other areas prone to gender inequality. #3. Job segregation One of the causes for gender inequality within
employment is the division of jobs. In most societies, there’s an inherent belief that men are simply better equipped
to handle certain jobs. Most of the time, those are the jobs that pay the best. This discrimination results in lower
income for women. Women also take on the primary responsibility for unpaid labor, so even as they participate in
the paid workforce, they have extra work that never gets recognized financially. #4. Lack of legal protections
According to research from the World Bank, over one billion women don’t have legal protection against domestic sexual
violence or domestic economic violence. Both have a significant impact on women’s ability to thrive and live in freedom.
In many countries, there’s also a lack of legal protections against harassment in the workplace, at school, and in public.
These places become unsafe and without protection, women frequently have to make decisions that compromise and limit
their goals.
#5. Lack of bodily autonomy
Many women around the world do not have authority over their own bodies or when they become parents. Accessing birth
control is frequently very difficult. According to the World Health Organization, over 200 million women who don’t want
to get pregnant are not using contraception. There are various reasons for this such as a lack of options, limited access, and
cultural/religious opposition. On a global scale, about 40% of pregnancies are not planned and while 50% of them do end
in abortion, 38% result in births. These mothers often become financially dependent on another person or the state, losing
their freedom. #6. Poor medical care
In addition to limited access to contraception, women overall receive lower-quality medical care than men. This is linked
to other gender inequality reasons such as a lack of education and job opportunities, which results in more women being in
poverty. They are less likely to be able to afford good healthcare. There’s also been less research into diseases that affect
women more than men, such as autoimmune disorders and chronic pain conditions. Many women also experience
discrimination and dismissal from their doctors, broadening the gender gap in healthcare quality.
#7. Lack of religious freedom
When religious freedom is attacked, women suffer the most. According to the World Economic Forum, when extremist
ideologies (such as ISIS) come into a community and restrict religious freedom, gender inequality gets worse. In a study
performed by Georgetown University and Brigham Young University, researchers were also able to connect religious
intolerance with women’s ability to participate in the economy. When there’s more religious freedom, an economy
becomes more stable thanks to women’s participation. #8. Lack of political representation
Of all national parliaments at the beginning of 2019, only 24.3% of seats were filled by women. As of June of 2019, 11
Heads of State were women. Despite progress in this area over the years, women are still grossly underrepresented in
government and the political process. This means that certain issues that female politicians tend to bring up – such as
parental leave and childcare, pensions, gender equality laws and gender-based violence – are often neglected.
#9. Racism
It would be impossible to talk about gender inequality without talking about racism. It affects what jobs women of color
are able to get and how much they’re paid, as well as how they are viewed by legal and healthcare systems. Gender
inequality and racism have been closely-linked for a long time. According to Sally Kitch, a professor and author,
European settlers in
Virginia decided what work could be taxed based on the race of the woman performing the work. African women’s work
was “labor,” so it was taxable, while work performed by English women was “domestic” and not taxable. The pay gaps
between white women and women of color continues that legacy of discrimination and contributes to gender inequality.
#10. Societal mindsets
It’s less tangible than some of the other causes on this list, but the overall mindset of a society has a significant impact on
gender inequality. How society determines the differences and value of men vs. women plays a starring role in every
arena, whether it’s employment or the legal system or healthcare. Beliefs about gender run deep and even though progress
can be made through laws and structural changes, there’s often a pushback following times of major change. It’s also
common for everyone (men and women) to ignore other areas of gender inequality when there’s progress, such as better
representation for women in leadership. These types of mindsets prop up gender inequality and delay significant change.
Current Situation of Women in the Philippines
The current situation of women in the Philippines is best described as having sharp contradictions. The Filipino women
may be considered as one of the most advanced vis-à-vis the women in other countries, in the areas of academic,
professional, politics and legislation. However, they also suffer from domestic violence, economic disadvantages,
9
discrimination at the workplace, exploitation as migrant workers, and as prostituted women and displacement brought
about by the intermittent wars in conflict affected areas. The Philippines is the only country in Asia to have closed the
gender gap on both education and health and is one of only six (6) in the world to have done so. Moreover, the
Philippines’ scores on political empowerment continues to improve as its economic indicators such as estimated income,
labor force participation and income equality for similar work. The Philippines is the only country in the world where
women have parity to men in senior management roles. However, despite the remarkable achievements above, thousands
of Filipino women suffer from sex and other gender related abuses While Filipino women suffer the same domestic
violence, and economic disadvantages all over the country, women in some parts of Mindanao and other conflict affected
areas in the Philippines suffer more. As in most countries affected by displacement brought about by armed conflict,
women and children make up the great majority of the displaced population in the Philippines, and experience additional
vulnerabilities. The intermittent wars affect women’s livelihood, health, education and family life, among other things. In
the area of legislative reforms, the Philippines has ensured the protection of women against economic, social and political
forms of discrimination. The country has passed important laws like the Rape Victim Assistance and Protection Act of
1998, the Anti Sexual Harassment Act of 1995 and the Anti-Violence Against Women and Their Children Act of 2004.
The Philippines also has a vibrant women’s movement which is recognized for its work in the international and national
levels.
Government Policy on Gender.
The Philippine government adopted the Philippine Plan for Gender Responsive Development (PPGD) 1995-2025, a 30-
year strategic plan that translated the Beijing Platform for Action into policies, strategies, programs and projects for
Filipino women. To operationalize the PPGD, the Philippine government, with its partners in the non-government
organizations, and the academe formulated the Framework Plan for Women (FPW) in 2001. The FPW has the following
three (3) priority areas: (i) promotion of women’s economic empowerment, (ii) protection and advancement of women’s
rights, and (iii) promotion of gender responsive governance.
The Philippines is one of the few countries in the world that has adopted a GAD Policy Budget that requires all
government agencies (including local government units) to utilize at least five percent of their respective total budgets for
programs, activities and projects that address the needs and uphold rights of women.
National Machinery
The National Commission on the Role of Filipino Women (NCRFW) was established on 7 January 1975 and it serves as
an advisory body to the President. Among its mandate is to review, evaluate and recommend measures, including
priorities to ensure the full integration of women for economic, social and cultural development at national, regional and
international levels. It is also mandated to ensure further equality between men and women. The NCRFW has a Board of
Commissioners which is headed by a Chairperson. The Board sets policies, programs, thrusts and rules toward the
achievement of the vision and mission of the Commission. The Chairperson is responsible for ensuring the overall
implementation of the policies and programs of the Commission. The Commission’s Executive Director, on the other
hand, oversees the planning and implementation of the Commission’s operations. The Executive Director is assisted by
two Deputy Executive Directors and five Division chiefs which handle the following divisions: (i) Policy Advocacy and
Analysis, (ii) Technical Services, (iii) Monitoring and Evaluation, (iv) Information Resources Management, and, (v)
Administration and Finance Situation of Women/Gender in Education Female students in the Philippines fare very well in
the area of education
Situation of Women/Gender in Education
Female students in the Philippines fare very well in the area of education. Relative to male students, females have a higher
participation rate in the elementary and secondary levels. Moreover, female students have a better cohort survival rate in
elementary and secondary levels. This is because the dropout rate for males is higher than that of the female students. The
female students’ completion rate is also higher than that of the male students’ in both levels. Poor families tend to make
boys work because they are considered to be more physically able than girls. Since boys generally perform poorer in
school, it seems easier for parents to make them quit and get a job. Moreover, girls value education more than boys do
because they no longer see themselves merely staying at home when they grow up, they expect to have careers. Boys tend
to assume they would be able to work even without finishing school. The results of recent National Board Examinations
show that female examinees scored better than male examinees in most of the engineering courses. On the other hand,
male examinees fared better than female examinees in medicine, midwifery, nursing, nutrition-diabetics and social work.
Female students can excel on areas where men traditionally excel on and vice versa. At the post graduate level, more
females than males are enrolled in graduate courses. Overall, in terms of basic and functional literacy, females have higher
rates than males, except in the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao. Situation of Women/Gender in Health

10
Across the regions in the Philippines, women have varying levels of access to health facilities during delivery. While
69.5% of live births occurred in health facilities in the National Capital Region, only 10.7% occurred in the same facilities
in CARAGA. Consequently, the number of deliveries assisted by trained health professionals vary according to the region.
CARAGA has the least number of deliveries assisted by health professionals while the NCR has the most number. The
Philippines has a number of women in especially difficult circumstances. These include (i) women in armed conflict, (ii)
women victims of domestic violence, (iii) women in prostitution, (iv) women in prison, and (v) single women. In general,
women are put in disadvantaged position due to the differences in gender roles. This limits their access to resources and
their ability to provide and protect their health. Another health related issue affecting women is the violence committed
against them and their children. Violence against women and their children (VAWC) is an act or a series of act committed
by any person against his wife, former wife, a woman with whom he has or had a sexual dating relationship, or with
whom he has a child, or against the woman’s child. This act may have been committed within or outside the family
residence resulting to (i) physical violence (bodily or physical harm), (ii) sexual violence, (iii) psychological violence, and
(iv) economic abuse The Department of Health has identified the following factors that lead to poor health among Filipino
women: (i) low social status of women, (ii) reproductive risks, (iii) inadequate gender-responsive services and facilities for
women, (iv) environmental hazards and contaminants, and (v) increased participation of women in the workforce
(reproductive health risk at work especially during pregnancy and lactation).
Situation of Women/Gender in Agriculture, Forestry, Fisheries.
The percent distribution of female hired workers in agriculture is lower than that of the males. On the other hand, there are
more unpaid female family workers than male family workers. Despite the important role played by women in Philippine
agriculture, most of the land titles of land owning households are in the name of their husbands. This may be explained by
the patriarchial system in the Philippines, where men are traditionally believed to be the main breadwinners while women
are responsible for childbearing. In the Philippines, women are still strongly tied to their traditional roles as mother, wife,
and housekeeper. There are more men than women employed in forest based industries as well as in the fisheries sector.
Women are engaged in almost all areas of rice production. Besides the actual rice production, women are also primarily
tasked to prepare food to be brought to the field during meal time. Women’s scope of influence extends beyond household
maintenance, it also includes decisions relating to budget allocation for farm input expenses and productive activities.
Most of the women are directly involved in capital procurement. Among the individuals of farming households who out
migrated, a higher proportion of females than males migrated. Although rural to urban migration occurs, domestic to
international migration is more prevalent. Female migrants mainly worked as domestic helpers and entertainers within the
Philippines and in the Middle East, Italy, Singapore, and Hong Kong. Others worked as factory workers in Taiwan, Japan
and Korea. Situation of Women/Gender in Economic Activities
While women’s labor force participation rate is close to 50%, their rate is still lower than that of men. Filipino women are
prevented from entering the labor force because of the gender role stereotyping, particularly in relation to reproductive
responsibilities. Women have slightly higher unemployment rate than men, except in 2005 and 2006. Compared with its
neighbors in the region, the Philippines has the highest percentage of female professionals and technical workers. The
Philippines is the only country where women have parity to men in senior management roles. The lack of employment in
the country has led millions of women to leave and work abroad as overseas Filipino workers (OFWs). From 1998-2006,
women outnumbered men in terms of newly hired OFWs. Women OFWs outnumber men as professionals, clerks, service
and sales workers, laborers and unskilled workers. Working overseas has brought a lot of difference in the lives of Filipino
women. For instance, those working as domestic workers are now getting remuneration for domestic work which they
have been doing in their own homes but were not credited for any economic value. The women’s ability to contribute
financially to their families has not only empowered them but also gave them a greater sense of self-worth.
Situation of Women/Gender in Political and Public Life
As early as 1937, Filipino women were already allowed to vote and stand for election. Further, as early as 1941, a woman
has already been elected into Parliament (the first in the region). The Philippines takes pride in having numerous Filipino
women who played significant roles in the United Nations to advance women’s global agenda. As early as 1964, Filipino
women already occupied high position in the U.N. Commission on the Status of Women. They have also sat as
Commission on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) Committee Chair and
Experts. There are more female employees than males in the Philippine government bureaucracy. Filipino men dominate
as decision makers and managers while women are predominant professional in government. The Philippines has
produced two women Presidents. While the incumbent President is a woman, the percentage of elective positions
occupied by women is less than a fifth of the total number of positions. According to the World Economic Forum’s Global
Gender Gap Report of 2007, the Philippines ranked 14th out of 128 countries, in terms of political empowerment. In the
judiciary branch of government most of the judges are males.

11
Situation of Women in Mindanao
According to the Mindanao Commission on Women, urgent attention should be given to Mindanao Women in the areas of
economic opportunities, reproductive health, political participation, education and even basic services such as water and
power. The Moro and Lumad women are the poorest and most disadvantaged among the Mindanao population. They are
not only victims of the long running conflict in Mindanao but resilient survivors as well. Moro and Lumad women are
considered as minorities within minorities. According to the Mindanao Commission on Women, bride abduction, forced
marriage and payment of bride price still persist as part of the culturally sanctioned practices in Mindanao. Further, other
forms of sexual violence like incest rape, sexual harassment, wife battering and abuse in intimate relationships are still
common in the everyday lives of many women in Mindanao, especially those in the remote areas. As in the whole
Philippines, females attained higher basic and functional literacy rates compared to that of men in all regions in Mindanao,
with the exception of the women in Mindanao. With regard to health services, women in Mindanao had the least number
of deliveries which occurred in a health facility. Consequently, they had the least number of deliveries assisted by a
trained health professional. It may be noted that on the average, Mindanao has the least number of government health
practitioners serving the population.
Women's Rights in Philippines
The position of the Philippines on women's rights is relatively developed compared to many other nations. Over the past
century, noticeable developments have been made which have led to greater endorsement and protection of these rights.
The progression towards gender equality came about through women's movements, increased numbers of women political
representatives, increased numbers of educated women, greater specificity on women's issues instituted under legislation,
and the focused application of those laws. In recent years, the Filipino government has addressed the rights of women
under a multitude of legislative schemes including workplace discrimination, domestic violence, sexual harassment and
human trafficking.[1]
The Philippines has one of the smallest rates of gender disparity in the world. In the Global Gender Gap Index 2017, the
Philippines ranked 10th out of 145 countries for gender equality. [2] The Philippines ranks higher than any other Asia-
Pacific country but New Zealand. These roles range between the traditional position of mother, looking after children and
household, to positions in the political arena.
Despite the great progress and achievements for women's rights the Philippines has garnered so far, the country is still in
need of further development. There exists a discrepancy between women who have politically, academically and
financially excelled, compared to women who are domestically abused, financially unstable and who are exploited
through prostitution and migrant work.
-Suffrage Movement
The women's suffrage movement in the Philippines was one of the first, major occasions on which women grouped
together politically. It was also one of the first women's rights movements, and endeavored to attain the right for women
to vote and run for office. Many Filipino men were opposed to the idea, and held fast to the traditional view that a
woman's place was cooking, cleaning and child rearing in the home. The males of this perspective were primarily
concerned that the familial dynamic would destabilize if women were to formally step outside their customary role.
However, not all Filipino men were opposed to the movement. Congressman Filemon Sotto of Cebu filed the first
women's suffrage bill at the 1907 Philippine Assembly. From there on, various suffrage bills were sponsored by a number
of prominent men in society including; Assemblyman Melecio Severino of Negros Occidental in 1912, Mariano Cuenco
of Cebu in 1916, and various assemblymen from Bulacan, Laguna and Tomas Luna in 1918. None of these bills
succeeded. It was not until 1936 that the climate for women's suffrage shifted propitiously for women.
President Manuel L. Quezon declared his favour towards the suffragette movement in a speech delivered at Malacanang
Palace in Manila on September 30, 1936. President Quezon, having signed the Woman's Suffrage Plebiscite Bill, held that,
“…it is essential and even imperative that the right to vote be granted to Filipino women if they are not to be treated as
mere slaves” and that, for women, it was “…their opportunity to wield a very important weapon to defend their right to
secure for themselves and those to follow them their well-being and happiness.” Under the 1934 Constitution of the
Philippines, Article V held that women were to gain suffrage provided 300,000 women would affirm the same desire at
the ballot.
On September 17, 1937, women's suffrage was legalized in the Philippines, after the required threshold for the plebiscite
of 300,000 was surpassed. 447,725 women affirmed their aspiration to vote, against 33,307 no votes. The Philippines was
one of the first Asian countries to allow this right for women. -Education
Society in the Philippines values education very highly, especially for their children. It is understood to be the means by
which personal and familial poverty can be averted -allowing for a more successful way of life.

12
According to the Philippines's 2013 Census of Population and Housing, the literacy rate of the nation was recorded at
96.5%. It was also found that the literacy rate for females was 97% and males was 96.10%.
Tertiary education participation rates in the Philippines are among the highest in the world. The Honorable Patricia B.
Licuanan, in her address at the United Nations in 2011, mentioned the high academic achievement of women, yet
recognized their under-representation in some occupational fields. [14] In areas such as engineering, technology, religion,
law, trade and agriculture the graduates predominantly remain to be male. It has been hoped that this can be addressed
through changes to school curriculum, educational classes based on the elimination of gender stereotypes and the boosting
of general awareness of gender issues. The former gap between male and female literacy and tertiary graduates no longer
exists. Accessibility and attainment of education has been a major contributor to the general well-being and standard of
living for not only all women, but all people, throughout the Philippines. -Political Participation
Filipino women have become increasingly involved in politics on both the local and national level. Scholars believe that
the rise of women leaders can be largely attributed to familial connection and the support the Catholic Church gives to
women.[16] Women have come to occupy wide-ranging positions such as members of senate, members of congress,
senators, governors, mayors and judges. The greatest exemplification of Filipino women’s involvement in politics are the
occasions of female presidency. There have been several women who have run for presidency in the past, but since 1986
there have been two female presidents:
Corazon Aquino was the eleventh president of the Republic of the Philippines and the first female president. Elected into
office on February 25, 1986, Aquino restored democracy to the Philippines after the long dictatorship of Ferdinand
Marcos. Aquino was named TIME magazine’s Woman of the Year in 1987. Gloria Macapagal Arroyo was the 14th
president of the Republic of the Philippines and second female president. Antecedent to that, Arroyo had become the first
female vicepresident of the Philippines. Arroyo had already lived in the presidential palace before her presidency, because
when she was 14 years-old her father, Diosdado Macapagal, became president of the Philippines.
According to the Republic of the Philippines Commission on Elections (COMELEC), the 2016 Certified List of
Candidates for the position of President, two out of the six candidates were women:
Miriam Defensor Santiago - Dr. Miriam Defensor Santiago served in all three branches of the Filipino government. She
was a presiding judge of the Regional Trial Court (judicial), commissioner of the Bureau of Immigration and Deportation
(executive, 1988), and a Senator (legislative, 1995-2001, 2004-2016). She earned her Doctorate of Juridical Science from
the University of Michigan. She was chosen as laureate of the Magsaysay Award for Government Service in 1998. Dr.
Santiago was elected as judge of the International Criminal Court in the United Nations (2011). [21] Dr. Santiago ran for
President in 1992, 1998, and 2016. During the 2016 Presidential campaign, she was the only candidate to favor divorce.
Dr. Santiago died on September 29, 2016.
Grace Poe is the second woman running for presidency in 2016. Poe's father ran for presidency in 2004 but was beaten by
Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo. Poe has a successful political career behind her, having won a seat in senate through winning
over 20 million more votes than Loren Legarda who won the previous two elections.
-Violence Against Women
Despite the comparatively advanced position of gender equality that the Philippines maintains, gender-based violence
towards women, particularly domestic violence, remains a pervasive problem.
The Philippine Statistics Authority’s National Demographic and Health Survey 2013 revealed that: One in
five women aged 15–49 had experienced physical violence since the age of 15 years old.
One quarter of women ever-married aged 15–49, reported having experienced at any point emotional, physical, and/or
sexual violence from their spouse. Of women who had experienced any form of physical or sexual violence, 30% of them
sought help in response to that violence. While pregnant, 4% of women aged 15–49 experienced violence.
Many significant laws have been enacted directly addressing this issue. These include the Anti-Violence Against Women
and Their Children Act (Republic Act (RA) 9262), the Anti-Rape Law (RA 8353), the Rape-Victim Assistance and
Protection Act (RA 8505), the Anti-Sexual Harassment Law (RA 7877), the Anti-Trafficking of Persons Act 2003 (RA
9208) and many more.[28][29] Despite these initiatives, there is increasing recognition that the incongruence between the
laws and its effect is due to little or ineffective implementation.
In striving towards successful implementation of the law to help eliminate violence against women, a multitude of
governmental, charitable and religious organizations offer their services by taking in and caring for women; as well as
promoting public awareness on the subject. The Philippine Commission on Women draws attention to various centers and
programs that work to alleviate violence against women. These include women's crisis facilities, domestic violence phone
helplines and the Department of Social Welfare and Development’s Crisis Intervention Unit

13
-Reproductive Rights
In the Philippines, abortion has been illegal and criminalized for over a century. This is mainly due to Spanish colonial-era
influences in Filipino life, notably Catholicism.
It is under the Penal Code 1870 that abortion was first criminalized, and from there the Revised Penal Code 1930 adapted
the same criminalizing law. Under the Revised Penal Code, midwives and physicians who have carried out abortions could
face imprisonment for six years –even if they had the consent of the pregnant woman. ] Due to the lack of exceptions in this
area, women can also face imprisonment for a sentence between two and six years for having an abortion.
In the 1987 Philippine Constitution, Article II mentions the importance of the sanctity of family life. Section 12 elaborates
on this holding that, “It [the State] shall equally protect the life of the mother and the life of the unborn from
conception.”[32] Pregnant women who want abortions, generally have to seek them clandestinely. Some women have even
deliberately

conducted themselves in such a way as to bring about miscarriage. Those women who have received proper treatment for
their health complications due to abortion procedure have often felt stigmatized by those treating them.
Despite the law on abortion currently standing unaltered, debate over change is ongoing. At present, a woman who has
been raped cannot undergo abortion due to Article II. However, in cases where the life of the mother is threatened by the
pregnancy, a doctor may let the spouse to choose between the life of the unborn child or the mother.
-Constitutional Protections
The Philippines has many constitutional and legislative protections for women; particularly in the area of violence against
women. Some of these include or are included in;
The 1987 Philippine Constitution in article II, section 14 maintains that the State, "recognizes the role of women in nation
building and shall ensure the fundamental equality before the law of women and men." [35]
The Revised Penal code of the Philippines, Republic Act No. 3815. Article 245 of the Act holds that where any police
officer or warden immorally or indecently advances to a woman under his watch, that officer or warden will be charged
and could face suspension or disqualification of his post. [36]
The Republic Act No. 7877, also known as the Anti-Sexual Harassment Act of 1995. This Act applies to all persons, but at
the same time offers particularly progressive provisions for the protection of women and children who are particularly
vulnerable in this area. This Act declares the unlawfulness of sexual harassment in employment, education and training
environments.[37]
The Republic Act No. 9710, also known as the Magna Carta of Women of 2009. Section 2 of the Act holds that, "the state
realizes the equality of men and women entails the abolition of the unequal structures and practices that perpetuate
discrimination and inequality."[38] It goes on to state that the realization of this can be achieved through appropriate plans,
policies, mechanisms, and so forth, to achieve equality and freedom from sex-based discrimination. [39]
The Republic Act 10354, also known as the Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012. Section 2
holds and emphasizes the importance of the equal protection of both the lives of women and the lives of unborn women
from conception.[40] It goes onto recognize and guarantee the promotion of gender equality and equity, women's
empowerment and that the dignity of health be classified as a human rights concern and social responsibility.
SUGGESTED READINGS:
Gender Equality and COVID19
Fighting Gender Inequality through the Philippines' Roots - In ...http://www.changemag-diinsider.com › blog › fighting-...
Gender Profile for the Philippines – JICA https://www.jica.go.jp › phi_2008_summary_en
RESOURCES:
10 Causes of Gender Inequality | Human Rights Careershttps://www.humanrightscareers.com › issues › causes-g..
Gender and development - Wikipedia en.wikipedia.org
Women in the Philippines – Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org › wiki › Women_in_the_Philip. Women's
rights in Philippines – Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org › wiki ›Women's rights_in_P...

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Name: Jeraldgee Catan Dela rama Subject: _____________________ Score: ___________________
Course & Year: BSE FIL III Josephine A. Ignacio-Instructor Date: __________________
Module Week 10-13
ACTIVITIES:
1. Differentiate between Women in Development (WID) and Women and Development (WAD)

The theoretical framework upon which WAD was founded distinguishes it from WID. WAD focuses on the
relationship between patriarchy and capitalism, rather than on women's relationship to development.
Although much of thinking about WAD remains undocumented because to the ongoing and pressing nature
of development work in which many WAD theorists engage, this theory aims to explain women's difficulties
from the viewpoints of neo-Marxism and dependency theory. a pragmatic approach

The WAD paradigm emphasizes the interaction between women and the work that they conduct as economic
actors in both the public and private arenas in their society. It also emphasizes the unique character of
women’s roles in the maintenance and development of their communities, with the awareness that simply
integrating women into development initiatives would serve to strengthen the existing patterns of inequality
in patriarchal countries. In comparison to WID, WAD is supposed to provide a more critical understanding of
women’s position. The WAD method stresses the unique characteristics of women’s knowledge, work, goals,
and responsibilities, as well as fighting for their recognition. This fact, paired with a well-known trend among
development organizations, The women-only efforts made by WAD subscribers are based on the fear of
being dominated by patriarchal interests.

2. Enumerate the 10 Causes of Gender inequality and choose 2 and discuss.

1. Uneven access to education
2. Lack of employment equality
3. Job segregationThe division of labor is one of the factors that contribute to gender inequality in the workplace. In most countries,
there is an underlying assumption that men are better prepared to perform specific tasks. Those are usually the jobs with the highest
compensation. Women have lesser income as a result of this prejudice. Women also bear the brunt of unpaid labor, so even when they
work full-time, they do extra work that is never compensated financially.

4. Lack of legal protections

5. Lack of bodily autonomy
6. Poor medical care
7. Lack of religious freedom
8. Lack of political representation
9. Racism It is hard to discuss gender inequality without mentioning racism. It has an impact on what employment women
of color can attain and how much they are paid, as well as how legal and healthcare institutions see them. For a long time,
racism and gender inequality have been intertwined. According to scholar and historian Sally Kitch, European settlers in
Virginia chose what work might be charged based on the race of the woman doing the work. Work conducted by African
women was considered "labor," and so taxed, whereas work performed by English women was considered "domestic," and

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thus not taxable. Pay disparities between white and non-white women perpetuate prejudice and contribute to gender
inequality.

10. Societal mindsets

EXERCISES:
Give your reactions on the current situations of women in the Philippines.
The gender inequality are even worst than nowadays The current situation of women in the Philippines is best described
as having sharp contradictions. The Filipino women may be considered as one of the most advanced. the women in other
countries, in the areas of academic, professional, politics and legislation. However, they also suffer from domestic
violence, economic disadvantages, discrimination at the workplace, exploitation as migrant workers, and as prostituted
women and displacement brought about by the intermittent wars in conflict affected areas. The Philippines is the only
country in Asia to have closed the gender gap on both education and health and is one of only six (6) in the world to have
done so. Moreover, the Philippines’ scores on political empowerment continues to improve as its economic indicators
such as estimated income, labor force participation and income equality for similar work. The Philippines is the only
country in the world where women have parity to men in senior management roles. However, despite the remarkable
achievements above, thousands of Filipino women suffer from sex and other gender related abuses While Filipino women
suffer the same domestic violence, and economic disadvantages all over the country, women in some parts of Mindanao
and other conflict affected areas in the Philippines suffer more. As in most countries affected by displacement brought
about by armed conflict, women and children make up the great majority of the displaced population in the Philippines,
and experience additional vulnerabilities. The intermittent wars affect women’s livelihood, health, education and family
life, among other things.

Make a reflection paper on the women’s rights in the Philippines.

In Asia Society Philippines, women hold the majority of positions. This is a vote of confidence in the country’s “women-friendly”
sociocultural climate. Despite being a modest percentage of a large and competitive professional community, it represents the nation’s
recognition of women’s role and value in fields such as justice, education, economics, politics, and health. The Reproductive Health
Bill, which is now being debated in the Philippine Congress, is still a hot topic. Despite this, the country has gone from depicting
women as submissive and meek to powerful nation builders and leaders. To argue that all of this can be attributed to government
programs is an understatement, but it cannot be ignored. That a democratic state stamped the Constitution and its supporting statutes as
the formalization of women’s protection. Although there is certainly space for development in the Philippines when it comes to
women’s issues, it is by far a fantastic location to be a woman. One of the most valuable gifts your country could possibly bestow on
you is the opportunity to aspire and shape your own destiny free of unfair constraints. The Philippines should set an example for its
Asian neighbors by accepting that everyone, regardless of look, size, color, age, or gender, is entitled to equal chances and respect.

Scoring Rubrics for Reflection Writing

Criteria Indicators Points Earned
A. Organization 1. Unity
2. Coherence
3. Emphasis

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 B. Presentation 1. Correct choice of words
2. Meaningfulness of message
Total =
Rating Scale:

5 = Excellent 4 = Very satisfactory 3 = Satisfactory 2 = Unsatisfactory 1 = Very Unsatisfactory

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