EFFECTS OF PLYOMETRIC TRAINING ON ACHILLES
TENDON PROPERTIES AND SHUTTLE RUNNING DURING
A SIMULATED CRICKET BATTING INNINGS
LAURENCE A. HOUGHTON, BRIAN T. DAWSON, AND
School of Sport Science, Exercise, and Health, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia
ABSTRACT
Houghton, LA, Dawson, BT, and Rubenson, J. Effects of
plyometric training on achilles tendon properties and
shuttle running during a simulated cricket batting innings.
J Strength Cond Res 27(4): 1036–1046, 2013—The aim of
this study was to determine whether intermittent shuttle
running times (during a prolonged, simulated cricket batting
innings) and Achilles tendon properties were affected by
8 weeks of plyometric training (PLYO, n = 7) or normal
preseason (control [CON], n = 8). Turn (5-0-5-m agility)
and 5-m sprint times were assessed using timing gates.
Achilles tendon properties were determined using dyna-
mometry, ultrasonography, and musculoskeletal geometry.
Countermovement and squat jump heights were also
assessed before and after training. Mean 5-0-5-m turn time
did not significantly change in PLYO or CON (pre vs. post:
2.25 6 0.08 vs. 2.22 6 0.07 and 2.26 6 0.06 vs. 2.25 6
0.08 seconds, respectively). Mean 5-m sprint time did not
significantly change in PLYO or CON (pre vs. post: 0.85 6
0.02 vs. 0.84 6 0.02 and 0.85 6 0.03 vs. 0.85 6 0.02
seconds, respectively). However, inferences from the
smallest worthwhile change suggested that PLYO had
a 51–72% chance of positive effects but only 6–15%
chance of detrimental effects on shuttle running times. Jump
heights only increased in PLYO (9.1–11.0%, p , 0.050). Achil-
les tendon mechanical properties (force, stiffness, elastic
energy, strain, modulus) did not change in PLYO or CON.
However, Achilles tendon cross-sectional area increased in
PLYO (pre vs. post: 70 6 7 vs. 79 6 8 mm2, p , 0.01) but
not CON (77 6 4 vs. 77 6 5 mm2, p . 0.050). In conclusion,
plyometric training had possible benefits on intermittent shuttle
running times and improved jump performance. Also, plyomet-
ric training increased tendon cross-sectional area, but further
Address correspondence to Laurence Houghton, laurencehoughton@
hotmail.com.
27(4)/1036–1046
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
Ó 2013 National Strength and Conditioning Association
the TM
1036 Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
JONAS RUBENSON
investigation is required to determine whether this translates to
decreased injury risk.
KEY WORDS change of direction, cross-sectional area, jump,
modulus, stiffness, stress
INTRODUCTION
T
he advent of multimillion dollar team franchises in
the shorter, more intense formats of Twenty20
cricket (29) has spurred a need for evidence-based
strength and conditioning programs for cricketers
(3). Cricket is a sport played around the world and requir-
es the skills of batting, bowling and fielding. When batting,
points (‘runs’) can be scored by hitting the ball and running
shuttles between 2 lines (separated by 17.68 m) before the
fielder returns the ball. As such, cricket batting is typical of
many team games in that it requires intermittent running
with change of direction.
Cricket batting has traditionally been portrayed as physically
undemanding because it requires intermittent shuttle running
interspersed with long periods of standing and walking (10).
Nevertheless, successful batting innings are often prolonged
(e.g., typically .2.5 hours when scoring 100 runs in One-Day
cricket) and require frequent accelerations, decelerations and
changes of direction (10,29). These actions, repeated over time,
contribute to physical fatigue in batting (16,27). Recent findings
demonstrated a significant decrease (;5%) in squat jump (SJ)
height, an increase in straight-line sprint times and an increase
in change-of-direction times across a prolonged, simulated,
high-intensity, One-Day hundred (here-in referred to as
BATEX; [15,16]). Although physical fatigue has been observed
when batting, there has been no research into strength and
conditioning programs that aim to improve intermittent shuttle
running (running between the wickets) times during a pro-
longed batting innings (3,27).
It is possible that plyometric training may benefit perfor-
mance during a cricket batting innings because shuttle running
requires short, high-intensity accelerations and decelerations.
Plyometric training involves short, high-speed movements that
use the stretch-shortening cycle (30). Previously, the benefits of
plyometric training have been demonstrated in team sports
(basketball and soccer) and individual sports (swimming), but

TABLE 1. Anthropometric variables pretraining and posttraining.*
Pretraining Posttraining
Body mass (kg)
Control† 78.53 6 10.09 79.24 6 9.55
Plyometric† 73.68 6 10.34 74.96 6 10.54
Stature (cm)
Controlz 179.3 6 2.9 179.6 6 3.2
Plyometric 174.6 6 3.1 174.5 6 3.3
*Control group, n = 8; plyometric group, n = 7.
†p , 0.050, main effect of time: pretraining vs. posttraining.
zp , 0.050, main effect of condition: control vs. plyometric.
no investigations have been carried out on cricket-specific per-
formance (6,19,31). A recent review concluded that plyometric
training may improve change-of-direction and straight-line run-
ning times (typical in cricket batting), particularly if horizontal
and lateral jump exercises are included (4). However, this
review did not report any research on the effects of plyometric
training on prolonged, intermittent shuttle running times as
required in a successful batting innings.
The theoretical benefit of plyometric training on inter-
mittent, shuttle running performance is further supported by
considering previous research on the Achilles tendon. The
mechanical properties of the Achilles tendon significantly
contribute to ensuring efficient human locomotion (23). Pre-
vious research demonstrated that individuals with faster
running-between-the-wicket times had stronger plantar flex-
ors and stiffer Achilles tendons (16). It was suggested that
stiffer tendons may allow better force transmission when
accelerating and changing direction (16). Additionally,
research has demonstrated increased Achilles tendon stiff-
ness and increased lower-limb strength after plyometric train-
ing (5,12,22,33). Coupled together, these prior observations
further suggest that, in theory, a plyometric training program
Figure 1. Cross-sectional area of the Achilles tendon using
ultrasonography (white arrows denote the tendon area).
Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
the TM
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research | www.nsca.com
might improve shuttle-running
times. Also, the effects of
plyometric training on other
% Change from Achilles tendon properties
pretraining (effect size) has been observed, including
increased elastic energy and
1.0 6 1.7 (0.08)
muscle-tendon-junction dis-
1.8 6 2.6 (0.13) placement (22) and no change
in cross-sectional area (12,22).
0.2 6 0.3 (0.11)
20.1 6 0.4 (-0.03) METHODS
Experimental Approach to
the Problem
There is no published research
on the effects of strength and
conditioning programs on shut-
tle-running performance during cricket batting. The primary
aim of this study was to determine whether the addition of
plyometric sessions to normal preseason training affected
shuttle running times (straight-line sprints and turns) during
a prolonged, simulated cricket batting innings (BATEX). A
secondary aim was to assess whether there were accompanied
changes in Achilles tendon properties because Achilles stiffness
has been reported to correlate with change-of-direction time in
cricketers (16). Previous research has demonstrated that at least
2–3 plyometric sessions per week over at least 6 weeks are
required to improve strength and power (26,33). Therefore,
running-between-the-wickets performance was assessed dur-
ing a simulated batting innings (BATEX) both before and after
8 weeks (15 sessions) of plyometric training.
To assess running-between-the-wicket performance, mean
5-m sprint times (seconds; intraclass correlation coefficient
[ICC] = 0.83; typical error [TE] = 0.01) and mean 5-0-5-m
turn times (seconds, ICC = 0.76; TE = 0.04) were recorded
(dependent variables). Also, countermovement jump (CMJ)
heights (centimeters, ICC = 0.94; TE = 1.76), and SJ heights
(centimeters, ICC = 0.81; TE = 1.88) were assessed to compare
the efficacy of the plyometric program with previous research.
In addition, the following Achilles tendon properties (indepen-
dent variables) were assessed: force (newtons), low force-range
stiffness (Stiffness0–40%), high force-range stiffness (Stiffness50–
90%, newtons per millimeter), elastic energy (joules), peak strain
(percent), peak stress (megapascals), Young’s modulus (giga-
pascals) and cross-sectional area (millimeter square).
At the start of preseason (late-June, local winter), the
participants were allocated to either an 8-week plyometric
training group (PLYO, n = 9) or a control group (CON,
n = 10). The participants were familiarized to BATEX and
to the Achilles tendon test approximately 4 weeks before the
training program started. Two weeks before training com-
menced, the Achilles tendon test was completed. One week
before the training program, BATEX was performed. Out-
side of their involvement with the study, both groups com-
pleted their normal preseason preparation. The Achilles
tendon test and BATEX were both repeated within 2 weeks
VOLUME 27 | NUMBER 4 | APRIL 2013 | 1037
 1038

Plyometrics and Shuttle Run Performance

TABLE 2. Details of the plyometric training program.*

Focus of training Landing technique Maximize jump height Repeated jumps

Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research

phase
the

1 2 3 4
Week
Session 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Land off box 3 3 10 (50) 2 3 10 (65), 2 3 5 (40)† 2 3 6 (40)†

(height, cm) 2 3 4 (40)†
Standing long 2 3 10 (100)z 2 3 10
jump in squat (100)z
jump position
(height, cm)
Standing long 2 3 10 (100)z 2 3 10 (100)z 3 3 10 (100)z
jump
(height, cm)
Forward jump 3 3 10 (20) 3 3 10 (20)z, 4 3 5 (40), 434 5 3 10 (40)z 6 3 5 (40)z 4 3 5 (30)†
over hurdle 2 3 4 (20)† 2 3 8 (20)† (30/40)†
(height, cm)
TM

Vertical 436 338 3 3 10

countermovement
jump
Lateral jump 2 3 10 (20) 2 3 4 (20)† 3 3 7 (40), 2 3 8 (20)† 3 3 5 (40)z 3 3 6 (20)†
over hurdle 2 3 5 (20)†
(height, cm)
Reactive jumps 3 3 8z 3 3 12z
Forward jump 335 435
(50 cm apart)
Bounding 436 336 436 337
Forward hurdles 2 3 5 (20)z 3 3 4 (20)z
(height, cm)
Forward jumps 3 3 5 (50) 3 3 5 (65)
to box
(height, cm)
Box jumps (height, 335 336
cm to cm) (35–40) (40–40)
Total jumps per 100 82 118 124 135 140 148 158
session
Focus of training Fixed height—jumping Drop jumps—maximize height, minimize contact time
phase with speed
Week 5 6 7 8
Session 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Land off box 1 3 5 (40)†
(height, cm)

Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
 Vertical 332
countermovement
jump
Forward jump 3 3 6 (30)†
over hurdle
(height, cm)
Lateral jump 2 3 7 (30)† 3 3 6 (40)z 2 3 10 (40)z,
over hurdle 2 3 5 (30)†
(height, cm)
Reactive jumps 1 3 5z 4 3 12z
Forward jump 534
(50 cm apart)
Bounding 536 534 438 336
Forward repeated 5 3 4 (20/30)z 535 536 536
hurdles (height, (20/30)z (20/30)z (20/30)z
cm)
Forward jumps to 3 3 5 (35)† 3 3 5 (40)† 3 3 5 (40)† 4 3 5 (65) 2 3 5 (40)†
box (height, cm)
Lateral jumps to box 3 3 5 (50) 4 3 5 (50)z 4 3 5 (65) 236
(height, cm) (50/65)
Box jumps (height, 335 435 435 335 436

Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research

the
cm to cm) (40–40) (50–50)z (50–50/65)z (50–50)z (40–50)z
Drop jump (height, 3 3 5 (40) 3 3 6 (40)
cm)
Drop jump and jump 3 3 5 (40, 40) 4 3 5 (40/ 4 3 5 (40/50,40)z
over hurdle 50, 40)z
(height,
VOLUME 27 | NUMBER 4 | APRIL 2013 |

cm to cm)
Total jumps per 71 138 138 96 109 112 116
session

*All exercises required landing on 2 feet unless marked otherwise.

†Exercise performed on 1 leg (recorded sets and repetitions completed on each leg).
zExercise performed with both hands on hips.

TM
| www.nsca.com
1039

Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
 Plyometrics and Shuttle Run Performance
TABLE 3. Mean sprint times and mean turn times during the high-intensity stages of the batting simulation and jump
heights both pretraining and posttraining.*
size 6 90% CI
(%beneficial/trivial
Pretraining Posttraining
5-m Sprint time (s)
Control 0.85 6 0.03 0.85 6 0.02 20.43 6 0.69 (72/22/6)
Plyometric 0.85 6 0.02 0.84 6 0.02
5-0-5 m Turn time (s)
Control 2.26 6 0.06 2.25 6 0.08 20.21 6 0.67 (51/35/15)
Plyometric 2.25 6 0.08 2.22 6 0.07
Countermovement jump height (centimeters)
Control 36.0 6 5.5 35.6 6 4.6 0.82 6 0.45 (98/2/0)
Plyometric 37.8 6 5.2 41.9 6 6.1†z
Squat jump height (centimeters)
Control 34.1 6 4.2 34.6 6 4.4 0.65 6 0.41 (96/3/1)
Plyometric 36.1 6 4.2 39.5 6 6.0†
*CI = confidence interval; control group, n = 8; plyometric group, n = 7.
†p , 0.050, control vs. plyometric.
zp , 0.01, pretraining vs. posttraining.
after the training program. Before and after the training pro-
gram, testing sessions were performed at a similar time of
day and a 24-hour food diary was used to replicate dietary
intake before BATEX.
Subjects
Nineteen players were recruited from local district-grade
cricket clubs. All the participants were without injury, had
experienced only minor lower limb sprains in the previous
2 years, regularly batted in the top 7 of the batting order,
and had not completed a plyometric training program
before. Typically, maximum aerobic speeds of approximately
15 km$h21 have been recorded in our laboratory (unpublished
work). The participants were informed of the experimental
risks and signed an informed consent form before the study
commenced. The study was approved by the University
Human Research Ethics Board for use of human participants.
Two participants withdrew from PLYO (one because of sport-
ing commitments and the other without giving reason). Two
CON participants were not included in final analyses because
they were unable to attend the final BATEX test. As a result, 15
participants were included in the final analyses (21 6 4 years).
Stature was marginally higher in CONT (2.8%, p = 0.009,
Table 1). Conversely, body mass was similar in PLYO and
CON but increased in both groups from pretraining to post-
training (1.7%, p = 0.029, Table 1). In both PLYO and CON,
a typical week of training (determined using diaries) included
0.5 hours of walking or running, 0.5 hours of upper
body weights, 0.75 hours of cricket training, and 1.5 hours of
the TM
1040 Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
Effect Decrement in time from
stage 2 to stage 6
/harmful) Inference Pretraining Posttraining
Unclear 20.02 6 0.02 20.02 6 0.01
20.02 6 0.03 20.02 6 0.01
Unclear 20.03 6 0.06 20.02 6 0.04
20.07 6 0.07 20.09 6 0.04
Very likely
beneficial
Very likely
beneficial
recreational sport. This training regime was similar to that
reported by the participants before the study.
Procedures
The mechanical properties of the right Achilles tendon were
determined using the protocol described in detail in Houghton
et al. (16). In brief, the participants lay prone with ankle held in
neutral (908) and performed five, 5-second ramp isometric plan-
tar flexions to maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) (21).
The ramp contractions allowed Achilles tendon mechanical
properties to be determined by plotting a graph of muscle-
tendon-junction displacement at 10% force increments of
the day’s MVC. Displacement of the medial gastrocnemius
muscle-tendon-junction was visualized using ultrasonography
(6–7 MHz, 60–70 frames per second, 60-mm scanning length,
Echoblaster 128 EXT-1Z, Telemed Ltd., Lithuania) and mea-
sured in ImageJ software (v1.43, NIH, USA). In each 5-second
ramp contraction, displacements of the muscle-tendon junction
were digitized 3 times, and the mean was used in final analyses.
Achilles tendon force was estimated using an inverse-
dynamics protocol using a dynamometer (Biodex System 3,
835-220, Shirley, NY, USA), electromyography (EMG;
Telemyo 2400R G2, Noraxon, AZ, USA) and tendon
moment arm (28). For the EMG, electrodes were placed on
the surface of the tibialis anterior and medial gastrocnemius.
Inevitably, some heel slip occurred (7.8 6 2.58 plantar flexion)
during the ramp contractions, and so, muscle-tendon-junction
displacement was corrected for change in ankle angle by
 the TM

Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research | www.nsca.com

angle (908). Care was taken to

ensure the probe was kept per-
TABLE 4. Achilles tendon properties pretraining and posttraining.*
pendicular to the line of the
% Change from baseline Achilles with minimal com-
Pretraining Posttraining (effect size) pression of soft tissue. Using
ImageJ software (v1.43, NIH,
Resting tendon length (cm)
Control 199 6 38 198 6 40 20.5 6 3.9 (20.01) USA), cross-sectional area was
Plyometric 186 6 19 184 6 18 21.5 6 2.3 (20.16) measured 3 times for each the
Cross-sectional area (mm2) images (Figure 1), and the
Control 77 6 4 77 6 5 0.3 6 6.9 (0.03) mean was calculated. Resting
Plyometric 70 6 7† 79 6 8z 12.8 6 7.5 (1.02)§ Achilles tendon length was
Stiffness040% (N$mm21)
Control 246 6 58 243 6 74 21.5 6 14.1 (20.04) measured from the insertion at
Plyometric 238 6 54 246 6 80 5.7 6 35.2 (0.12) the calcaneus to the muscle-
Stiffness50290% (N$mm ) 21 tendon junction of the medial
Control 805 6 220 738 6 232 22.3 6 36.4 (20.30) gastrocnemius (using ultraso-
Plyometric 940 6 473 856 6 564 29.4 6 22.3 (20.17) nography). At the start and
Elastic energy (J)
Control 26.6 6 9.7 29.1 6 9.7 9.9 6 9.0 (0.26) end of the study, lower leg
Plyometric 25.2 6 9.9 24.8 6 8.3 2.9 6 27.1 (20.05) pain was subjectively rated
Peak tendon force (N) on a visual-analog scale after
Control 6,035 6 603 5,711 6 739 25.5 6 6.5 (20.48) performing 10 calf raises.
Plyometric 5,694 6 715 5,415 6 907 24.6 6 13.4 (20.35) The visual-analog scale was
Muscle-tendon-junction displacement (mm)
Control 14.7 6 3.1 15.0 6 2.4 3.4 6 8.7 (0.13) from ‘no pain at all’ (0 mm) to
Plyometric 14.3 6 3.4 14.1 6 2.4 2.0 6 21.1 (-0.07) ‘extremely painful’ (100 mm).
Peak stress (MPa) Linear regression equations
Control 79.2 6 11.1 74.6 6 9.3 25.5 6 8.3 (20.46) (R2 = 0.94 6 0.06) were fitted
Plyometric 81.7 6 8.0 69.2 6 11.4 215.2 6 12.3 (21.09) to the plot of tendon force
Peak strain (%)
Control 7.6 6 2.1 7.8 6 1.8 4.0 6 9.6 (0.11) against muscle-tendon-junction
Plyometric 7.7 6 2.0 7.7 6 1.5 3.5 6 20.9 (0.01) displacement between 0–40
Young’s modulus (GPa) and 50–90% MVC with gradient
Control 2.1 6 0.8 2.0 6 0.9 23.6 6 33.7 (20.19) used to determine stiffness in
Plyometric 2.5 6 1.3 2.0 6 1.3 219.2 6 18.3 (20.38) the low (Stiffness0–40%) and high
*Control group, n = 8; plyometric group, n = 7. force range (Stiffness50–90%),
†p , 0.050, control vs. plyometric. respectively. The total area
zp , 0.01, pretraining vs. posttraining.
§p , 0.01, control vs. plyometric. underneath the Achilles tendon
force-displacement curve was
used as a measure of elastic
energy. Muscle-tendon-junction
displacement was expressed as
determining muscle-tendon-junction displacement at different a percentage of resting Achilles tendon length (strain) to stan-
degrees of plantar flexion during passive rotation of the ankle dardize between participants. Tendon force was standardized
(16,24). In contrast to Houghton et al. (16), ankle angle was by dividing by cross-sectional area of the Achilles tendon to
recorded using a motion-capture system (Tracking tools, determine stress (megapascals). Finally, by plotting stress
v 2.3.1, OptiTrack, OR, USA). Continuous monitoring of against strain, Young’s elastic modulus was determined from
ankle angle also enabled an estimation of the misalignment the gradient of the linear regression (R2 = 0.97 6 0.03) fitted
of the medial malleolus with the dynamometer’s axis of between 50 and 90% of peak stress on the day of testing. If
rotation that occurred during heel slip (1). Moment arm of a change in tendon stiffness is accompanied by a change in
the Achilles tendon was determined using the tendon excursion Young’s modulus, it might suggest that alterations in Achilles
method (11,24). tendon material properties or biochemistry rather than tendon
To measure tendon cross-section, 3 transverse ultrasound hypertrophy. All mechanical properties were determined as
images (10 MHz, 40-mm scanning length, Echoblaster the mean of three of the ramp isometric contractions.
128 EXT-1Z, Telemed Ltd.) of the right Achilles tendon The physical demands of a high intensity, prolonged
were taken 2 cm superior to the line joining the lateral and (2 hours 20 minutes) cricket batting innings were simulated
medial malleoli of the right ankle (4.9 6 0.7 cm superior to using the BATEX protocol at an indoor net facility. Overall,
the inferior margin of the calcaneus). During this procedure, BATEX lasted 2 hours 20 minutes, required 49 straight-line
the participants were in normal stance with ankle at a neutral runs, 30 shuttle runs (total of 34 changes of direction) and

VOLUME 27 | NUMBER 4 | APRIL 2013 | 1041

Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
 Plyometrics and Shuttle Run Performance
Figure 2. Achilles tendon stress-strain curves both pretraining (closed
symbols) and posttraining (open symbols) in control and plyometric
groups. Note that data points are matched at 10% increments of peak
pretraining or posttraining tendon force but point of absolute maximal
stress (at maximal tendon force) has also been included on the graph.
For clarity, error bars (SD) have only been included for stress. †Large
effect size: 1.21–1.24.
approximately 5 km was covered (17). Details of BATEX
(including standardization of food and fluid intake) are avail-
able in Houghton et al. (15). Briefly, BATEX required the
completion of six, 21-minute stages. During each stage the
batsman played shots against balls delivered by a bowling
machine. To replicate the timings of a match, balls were
delivered every 35 seconds but with 80-second rest after
every 6 balls (an ‘over’). Before each ball, audio cues
instructed the batsman the number of shuttles (e.g., 1, 1.5,
2, or 3) to be made after each shot. In stages 1, 3, and 5 all
shuttle runs (running-between-the-wickets) were at a self-
selected ‘cruise’ pace, whereas during stages 2, 4, and 6 all
shuttle runs were at full speed. In the full-speed stages, mean
5-m straight-line, sprint time was assessed in the single shut-
tles and a 5-0-5-m turn time was assessed in the 1.5, 2, and
3 shuttle runs (9). Running-between-the-wicket times were
measured using electronic timing gates (Swift, Australia).
Because of the limited space available in the indoor net
facility, the pitch length was 1 m shorter compared to pre-
vious studies (15) and so the 5-m sprint time was sampled
between 6.68 and 11.68 m (rather than 7.68 and 12.68 m)
from the start ‘crease’. Further, in contrast to previous studies
(15), BATEX was adapted to allow completion in pairs rather
than by individuals. Therefore, each batsman received half
the deliveries (i.e., 90 rather than 180 balls) but still com-
pleted the same shuttle running demands as in previous stud-
ies. Leg-guard design can affect running performance (35),
the TM
1042 Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
Figure 3. Relationship between Achilles tendon strain and mean 5-0-5-m
time during the batting simulation, r = 0.577, p = 0.004.
and so, the participants were required to wear the same pro-
tective equipment before and after the training intervention.
Immediately before BATEX, jump heights were assessed
using a contact mat (Innervations, Kinematic Measurement
System, v 2009.1.0). After a standardized warm-up (light
shuttle running and dynamic stretches), the participants
performed 3 CMJs and 3 SJs at maximal effort (each
separated by 1-minute rest). The highest CMJ and SJ flight
times were used in later analysis. The jump-test battery was
repeated approximately 2 minutes after BATEX.
The 8-week plyometric training program was based on
previous literature and included horizontal and lateral (uni-
lateral and bilateral) exercises of varying intensity (12,30,31).
Details of the plyometric program are presented in Table 2.
All the sessions were carried out on rubber gym matting
with at least 2 days between sessions. Each session began with
4-minute cycling at moderate intensity and 5–6 minutes of
dynamic stretches.
Statistical Analyses
All values are mean 6 SD. Statistical significance was
accepted at p # 0.050. Statistical analysis was performed
using PASW statistics v18.0.0 and Microsoft Excel (2003).
Two-way, mixed-design factorial analyses of variance (Time:
pretraining/posttraining 3 Condition: PLYO/CON) were
used to analyze the effects of training on all variables (Achil-
les tendon properties, for example, Stiffness0–40%; anthropo-
metric properties, for example cross-sectional area; BATEX
performance variables, for example, 5-m sprint times; and,
jump heights). Levene’s test was used to confirm equality of
variances. If significant interaction effects were found, t-tests
were used to test for differences within (pretraining vs. post-
training) and between groups (PLYO vs. CON). Also, infer-
ences from the smallest worthwhile change were determined
for performance data (5-m sprint, 5-0-5-m turn, CMJ, SJ)
using coefficients of variation (spreadsheet developed by
Hopkins available at www.sportsci.org/resource/stats/).
Inferences were made based on threshold chances of 5%

for substantial magnitudes of change (14). Before and after
training, the percentage change of variables was compared
using independent t-tests. Effect sizes were considered small
(0.2–0.59), moderate (0.6–1.19), or large (1.2–1.99) (7,13).
Significant correlations (p , 0.050) between Achilles tendon
properties and BATEX performance variables were reported
as moderate (0.300–0.499) or strong (.0.500) (7).
RESULTS
The mean 5-m sprint time and decrement in 5-m sprint time
(from stages 2–6 of BATEX) were both similar between groups
and from pretraining to posttraining (p . 0.050, Table 3). The
effect size (20.43) suggested that the 0.01-second decrease in
mean 5-m time in PLYO was small, possibly (72%) practically
beneficial and the overall inference was ‘unclear.’ Likewise,
mean 5-0-5-m turn time was similar between groups and from
pretraining to posttraining (p . 0.050, Table 3). The effect
size (20.21) suggested that the 0.03-second decrease in mean
5-0-5-m turn time in PLYO was small, possibly (51%) practically
beneficial and the overall inference was ‘unclear.’ Although the
decrement in 5-0-5-m turn time (from stages 2–6) did not differ
in either group from pretraining to posttraining (p = 0.665), the
mean decrement (both pretraining and posttraining) was greater
in PLYO compared with CON (20.08 6 0.06 vs. 20.03 6 0.05,
p = 0.010, Effect size = 20.91, Table 3).
Self-selected running times (stages 1, 3, and 5 of BATEX)
for both 5-m (1.42 6 0.28 seconds) and 5-0-5-m (2.95 6 0.41
seconds) were similar between groups and from pretraining
to posttraining (p . 0.050).
In PLYO the percent increases in CMJ (11.0 6 7.1%), and
SJ (9.1 6 5.5%) heights from pretraining to posttraining were
all greater than CON (20.7 6 8.2, 1.5 6 3.5, and 0.4 6
12.6%, respectively; p , 0.050). These findings mirrored
absolute jump height because CMJ and SJ only increased
in PLYO (p , 0.050, Table 3). The effect size statistics sug-
gested that the increases in CMJ and SJ were moderate (0.82
and 0.65), very likely (98 and 96%) practically beneficial and
with the overall inferences being ‘very likely positive.’
Achilles tendon properties (resting length, Stiffness0–40%,
Stiffness50–90%, elastic energy, peak Achilles tendon force,
muscle-tendon-junction displacement, strain and Young’s
modulus) did not statistically differ from pretraining to post-
training or between PLYO and CON (p . 0.050, Table 4).
The main effect of time for both Young’s modulus (p = 0.067)
and peak Achilles tendon force (p = 0.082) approached sig-
nificance but the effect sizes were small (0.19–0.48).
There was no change in pain rating in either PLYO or
CON from pretraining to posttraining (pre to post: 27.5 6 17.8
to 31.6 6 29.3 mm and 19.4 6 15.4 to 25.8 6 9.4 mm,
respectively; p = 0.402).
There was an interaction effect (time 3 condition) for
Achilles tendon cross-sectional area (p = 0.007) such that
the pretraining cross-section was 9.8% lower in PLYO vs.
CON (p = 0.029). Moreover, from pretraining to posttrain-
ing, cross-sectional area only increased in PLYO (%Δ PLYO
Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
the TM
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research | www.nsca.com
vs. CON: 12.8 6 7.5 vs. 0.3 6 6.9%, p = 0.010, moderate
effect size of 1.02; Table 4).
Peak and submaximal Achilles tendon stress were statistically
similar between PLYO and CON (main effect of condition:
p = 0.749–958) but decreased from pretraining to post training
in PLYO only (main effect of time: p = 0.002–0.004, Figure 2).
However, there was a moderate trend for peak stress to
decrease more in PLYO compared with CON (%Δ, PLYO vs.
CON: 215.2 6 12.3 vs. 25.5 6 8.3%, p = 0.093, moderate
effect size of 0.87; Table 4). Also, at all submaximal points in
PLYO, the interaction effects (time 3 condition) approached
significance (p = 0.054–0.073) and there were large effect sizes
(1.21–1.24), together highlighting a strong trend for decreased
stress from pretraining to posttraining in PLYO (Figure 2).
Pretraining, maximum muscle-tendon-junction displacement
(r = 0.548), strain (r = 0.577, e.g., Figure 3), Stiffness50–90%
(r = 20.535) and modulus (r = 20.522) were all strongly
correlated with 5-0-5-m turn time (p = 0.024–0.046). Pretrain-
ing, correlations between 5-m sprint and 5-0-5-m turn times
and all other Achilles tendon properties were nonsignificant
(p . 0.050). Furthermore, there were no significant correlations
between change in mean 5-m time, change in mean 5-0-5-m
time and change in all other Achilles tendon properties after
the training program.
DISCUSSION
The aim of this study was to explore whether the addition of
plyometric sessions to normal preseason training affected: (a)
Shuttle running times (straight-line sprints and turns) during
a prolonged, simulated cricket batting innings (BATEX), and
(b) whether there were accompanied changes in Achilles
tendon mechanical properties. Inferences from the smallest
worthwhile effect suggested that plyometric training may have
possible benefits on shuttle running times and only a small
chance of a detrimental effect. Achilles tendon stiffness0–40%,
Stiffness50–90%, elastic energy, force, muscle-tendon-junction
displacement, strain and Young’s modulus were unaffected
by plyometric training. Interestingly, cross-sectional area of
the Achilles tendon increased after plyometric training.
In PLYO, although there were no statistically significant
changes in mean 5-m and 5-0-5 m times from pretraining
to posttraining, there were possible benefits on shuttle run times
and the chance of detrimental effects were small (,15%).
Moreover, the decrease in mean 5-m sprint (0.01-second) and
5-0-5 m turn (0.03-second) times from pretraining to posttrain-
ing are equivalent to completing a shuttle run approximately
6–13 cm quicker. It is emphasized that these are mean improve-
ments over the course of a 2-hour 20-minute batting simulation
and therefore, if consistently replicated in a match, might assist
a batsman in getting his or her bat back across the crease-line
before the ball is thrown in by a fielder. If a batter does not
‘ground’ his or her bat across the crease line before the ball is
thrown in by a fielder then their innings is terminated (‘run-out’).
Despite no statistically significant changes in running
times, the efficacy of the plyometric program was confirmed
VOLUME 27 | NUMBER 4 | APRIL 2013 | 1043
 Plyometrics and Shuttle Run Performance
by increased jump heights. The increases in CMJ (+11%)
and SJ (+9%) were comparable with previous plyometric
training studies (;+10%: 12,26). Plyometric training may
improve jump height through various mechanisms includ-
ing, improvements in coordination, balance, muscle activa-
tion, neural drive, muscle strength, muscle fiber composition
and tendon mechanical properties (26). Previously, 5–6%
increases in isometric plantar flexion torque, 19–60%
increases in Achilles tendon stiffness and approximately
20% increase in Achilles tendon elastic energy were
observed after plyometric training (12,22). However, Achil-
les tendon force, Stiffness0–40%, Stiffness50–90%, elastic energy
and Young’s modulus were unchanged in PLYO, suggesting
increased jump heights were not related to improved plantar
flexion strength or a change in Achilles tendon properties.
It is possible that the increased jump heights in PLYO may
have been because of improved strength, power and tendon
mechanics in other muscle-tendon units of the lower limb
(e.g., quadriceps femoris). Moreover, jumping, sprinting, and
change of direction have been reported as specific motor
abilities (4,34) and so the increased jump heights may be
due to improved coordination and neuromuscular recruit-
ment patterns (26). If improved coordination was the reason
for increased jump height, it might explain why increases in
jump heights were not translated to faster sprinting
and change-of-direction times. Therefore, to significantly
improve shuttle running times, batting-specific sprint and
change-of-direction training may need to be combined with
plyometric training (4). In this study, specific running-
between-the-wicket practice was not reported in the training
diaries of PLYO or CON.
Before training, faster turn times were correlated to lower
strain and to higher Stiffness50–90% and modulus in PLYO
and CON. Previously, it was demonstrated that higher
Achilles tendon stiffness and force were correlated to faster
5-m sprint times and 5-0-5-m turn times during BATEX (16).
It is possible that tendons with lower strain and higher stiff-
ness allow more control of movement when decelerating
and accelerating during change of direction (16). However,
Stiffness0–40%, Stiffness50–90%, strain, and peak Achilles ten-
don force were all unchanged after plyometric training and
so may provide a further explanation for the lack of statisti-
cally significant changes in 5-m and 5-0-5 m turn times.
The lack of changes in Achilles tendon stiffness may have
been because of the relatively high pretraining stiffness. Stiffness
values in the high force range (800–900 N$mm21) were higher
than that previously reported (;400 N$mm21) (16). However,
peak muscle-tendon displacement and peak tendon force were
similar to that previously reported (16), and so, the higher
stiffness in this study may be explained by a difference in the
shape of the force-elongation curve. Further, training-induced
increases in stiffness may have been prevented to ensure max-
imum muscle efficiency (23). Previously, Achilles tendon stiff-
ness has been reported to increase after plyometric training
(5,12). Also, Kubo et al. (22) observed increased Achilles
the TM
1044 Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
tendon elastic energy and muscle-tendon-junction displace-
ment after plyometric training. In the current study, no changes
in Achilles tendon stiffness, elastic energy, muscle-tendon-
junction displacement, force, Young’s modulus or strain were
observed after PLYO. These findings might also be explained
by the shorter duration and less intense training program used
in PLYO. Previously, Kubo et al. (22) used a 12-week program
with 4 sessions per week; Foure et al. (12) used a 14-week
program with 2–3 sessions per week and 200–600 jumps per
session (total of ;6,800 jumps); and, although Burgess et al. (5)
only used a 6-week program, participants were trained using
high-intensity, single-leg, maximum-effort drop jumps. How-
ever, in this study, the plyometric program lasted for 8 weeks
with a total of 1,785 jumps and 82–158 jumps per session of
varied intensity (Table 2). A less intense workload was chosen
to reduce injury risk in the cricketers because they had no
experience of plyometric training and were also committed
to their normal preseason training preparations. Nevertheless,
it is possible that changes in mechanical properties occurred in
different locations along the Achilles tendon. For example, in
this study, determination of muscle-tendon-junction displace-
ment was limited longitudinally along the Achilles tendon,
but it is possible changes in occurred transversely or in the
aponeurosis (18).
The pretraining cross-sectional area of the Achilles tendon
was similar to that in previous studies (;60–80 mm2)
(20,25). The cross-sectional area of the Achilles tendon
was higher in CON than PLYO, possibly explained by the
higher stature in CON compared to PLYO. Posttraining, the
cross-sectional area of the Achilles tendon increased in
PLYO (+12.8%) but not in CON (+0.03%). However, there
were no significant changes in Achilles tendon force in
PLYO or CON, and so, this explained the strong trends for
Achilles tendon stress (maximal and submaximal) to
decrease more in PLYO than CON. Conversely, previous
plyometric studies have not observed changes in cross-
sectional area or stress of the Achilles tendon despite includ-
ing longer and more intense training programs (12,22).
The increase in cross-sectional area in PLYO may have
been due to reactive-tendinopathy or permanent tendon
hypertrophy (8). Ayra and Kulig (2) observed higher cross-
sectional area of the Achilles tendon in individuals with
tendinopathy (93 mm2) compared with healthy controls
(56 mm2), possibly because of water accumulation related
to increased proteoglycan production (8). In this study,
the Achilles tendon test was completed 1 week after the
last plyometric training session, so it is possible that
a training-induced ‘reactive-tendinopathy’ remained (8).
However, the training load was tapered in the last 2 weeks
to allow recovery (Table 2). Moreover, if reactive tendinop-
athy was present, increased Achilles tendon stiffness and
pain rating (using the visual-analog scale) might have been
expected alongside the increase in cross-sectional area, but
this was not the case (8). Alternatively, permanent Achilles
tendon hypertrophy might have occurred in PLYO because

of increased type I collagen fibers (20). Findings from
cross-sectional studies suggest that a history of repetitive
lower-limb loading is associated with increased Achilles ten-
don cross-sectional area, particularly in the distal region
(20,25,32). For example, in runners (.80 km$wk21) the
cross-sectional area of the Achilles tendon was approxi-
mately 85 mm2 but approximately 70 mm2 in nonrunners
(4 cm above the inferior margin of the calcaneus) (25).
Increased cross-sectional area may decrease stress placed
on the tendon during locomotion.
Interestingly, Kongsgaard et al. (20) observed lower Achil-
les tendon stress in runners (72.4 MPa) compared with those
with limited loading of the Achilles tendon (57.4 MPa in
kayakers). It has been reported that the Achilles tendon
has a failure stress of 100 MPa (25). In PLYO, Achilles ten-
don stress during maximum contraction was 84 MPa but
was 69 MPa posttraining, and so, there was an increased
‘safety margin’ because peak stress was reduced further
below Achilles tendon failure stress (assuming a failure stress
of 100 MPa that did not change as a result of training) (25).
Therefore, in PLYO, it is possible that the moderate to strong
trends for decreased Achilles tendon stress might translate to
reduced injury risk. However, further research is required to
examine the relationships between Achilles tendon cross-
sectional area, stress and injury risk.
It is acknowledged that a relatively small sample size was
used in this study and so may limit translation of findings to
a wider population. First, the small sample size was because of
the difficulty of recruiting trained individuals. Previously,
studies that observe the effects of plyometrics on performance
have largely been carried out on nonathletes (26). In part, the
preference of recruiting untrained volunteers may be because
of the tendency of athletes to be hesitant at introducing novel
training methods to their programs. The reality of small ath-
lete sample sizes in scientific investigations was acknowledged
by Hopkins et al. (14) when he recommended making pop-
ulation inferences from the smallest worthwhile change. The
recommendations of Hopkins et al. (14) were followed in the
current study. Second, the relatively small sample size of this
study was due to the high time demands of the BATEX and
Achilles tendon protocols. It could be argued that a less time-
demanding protocol should have been used to allow higher
sample size, but the BATEX protocol has been shown to
reflect the physical demands of a prolonged, batting innings
in a match (17). Therefore, the relevance of the current find-
ings to real match performance is greater than if short dura-
tion agility tests (,5 minutes) were used. Previous studies
commonly observe the effects of plyometric training on single
jump height, sprint time, or agility time (26). In summary,
findings presented in this paper are highly applicable to
strength and conditioning coaches, particularly in the under-
researched area of cricket.
In conclusion, plyometric training resulted in no statistically
significant changes in shuttle run times nor decrements in
shuttle run times during simulated cricket batting but
Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
the TM
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research | www.nsca.com
jump heights increased. However, inferences made from
the smallest worthwhile change suggested possible benefits
(with minimal chance of detrimental affects) of plyometric
training on prolonged, intermittent shuttle run times. More-
over, the change in mean sprint and change-of-direction times
in PLYO might translate to practical differences (;6–13 cm) in
a cricket match. Achilles tendon mechanical properties were
unaffected by training, but Achilles tendon cross-sectional
area increased. The increase in the cross-sectional area of
the Achilles tendon might have been because of reactive-
tendinopathy (temporary changes) or reflect permanent
Achilles tendon hypertrophy. Future research should investi-
gate methods to better differentiation between reactive tendin-
opathy and permanent adaptations to training. In addition,
research should further investigate the relationship between
tendon cross-sectional area and injury risk.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
Addition of a lower-limb plyometric program to the pre-
season training program of club-standard, cricket batsmen
may result in practically significant improvements
(and minimal detrimental effects) in shuttle run performance
(running-between the wickets) during a prolonged batting
innings. This application may translate to other sports since
intermittent running with change of direction is typical of
many team-games. Plyometric training may also led to
increased jump heights. Although increased jump heights
may not be of direct advantage when batting, such improve-
ments may benefit batsmen when fielding (e.g., when
jumping to catch a ball).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was carried out while L.A.H. was in receipt of
a University Postgraduate Reward and an Endeavor
International Postgraduate Research Scholarship. The
authors acknowledge the West Coast Eagles Football Club
for loan of the timing gates; MiSport Ltd. for the loan of
PitchVision to enhance the batting simulation; and Revolu-
tion Sports for the use of their indoor facility. They also wish
to acknowledge the invaluable efforts of all the participants.
The authors declare no conflict of interest in the findings of
this research. The results of this study do not constitute
endorsement of any equipment by the authors or the
National Strength and Conditioning Association.
REFERENCES
1. Arampatzis, A, De Monte, G, and Morey-Klapsing, G. Effect of
contraction form and contraction velocity on the differences
between resultant and measured ankle joint moments. J Biomech 40:
1622–1628, 2007.
2. Ayra, S and Kulig, K. Tendinopathy alters mechanical and material
properties of the Achilles tendon. J Appl Physiol 108: 670–675, 2010.
3. Bartlett, R. The science and medicine of cricket: An overview and
update. J Sport Sci 21: 733–752, 2003.
VOLUME 27 | NUMBER 4 | APRIL 2013 | 1045
 Plyometrics and Shuttle Run Performance
4. Brughelli, M, Cronin, J, Levin, G, and Chaouachi, A. Understanding
change of direction ability in sport. A review of resistance training
studies. Sport Med 38: 1045–1063, 2008.
5. Burgess, KE, Connick, MJ, Graham-Smith, P, and Pearson, SJ.
Plyometric vs. isometric training influences on tendon properties
and muscle output. J Strength Cond Res 21: 986–989, 2007.
6. Chelly, MS, Ghenem, MA, Abid, K, Hermassi, S, Tabka, Z, and
Shephard, RJ. Effects of in-season short-term plyometric training
program on leg power, jump- and sprint performance of soccer
players. J Strength Cond Res 24: 2670–2676, 2010.
7. Cohen, J. Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioural Sciences.
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1988.
8. Cook, JL and Purdam, CR. Is tendon pathology a continuum?
A pathology model to explain the clinical presentation of load-
induced tendinopathy. Br J Sport Med 43: 409–416, 2009.
9. Draper, JA and Lancaster, MG. The 505 test: A test for agility in the
horizontal plane. Aus J Sci Med Sport 17: 15–18, 1985.
10. Duffield, R and Drinkwater, E. Time-motion analysis of test and
One-day international cricket centuries. J Sport Sci 26: 457–464,
2008.
11. Fath, G, Blazevich, AJ, Waugh, CM, Miller, SC, and Korff, T. Direct
comparison of in vivo Achilles tendon moment arms obtained from
ultrasound and MR scans. J Appl Physiol 109: 1644–1652, 2010.
12. Foure, A, Nordez, A, and Cornu, C. Plyometric training effects on
Achilles tendon stiffness and dissipative properties. J Appl Physiol
109: 849–854, 2010.
13. Hopkins, WG. How to interpret changes in an athletic performance
test. Sport Sci 8: 1–7, 2004.
14. Hopkins, WG, Marshall, SW, Batterham, AM, and Hanin, J.
Progressive statistics for studies in sports medicine and exercise
science. Med Sci Sport Exerc 41: 3–12, 2009.
15. Houghton, L, Dawson, B, and Rubenson, J. Performance during
a simulated cricket batting innings (BATEX): Reliability and
discrimination between playing standards. J Sport Sci 29: 1097–1103,
2011.
16. Houghton, L, Dawson, B, and Rubenson, J. Achilles tendon
mechanical properties after both prolonged continuous running and
prolonged intermittent shuttle running (cricket batting). J Appl
Biomech. In press.
17. Houghton, L, Dawson, B, Rubenson, J, and Tobin, M. Movement
patterns and physical strain during a novel, simulated cricket batting
innings (BATEX). J Sport Sci 29: 801–809, 2011.
18. Iwanuma, S, Akagi, RK, Ikegawa, S, Kanehisa, H, Funkunaga, T, and
Kawakami, Y. Longitudinal and transverse deformation of human
Achilles tendon induced by isometric plantar flexion at different
intensities. J Appl Physiol 110: 1615–1621, 2011.
19. Khlifa, R, Aouadi, R, Hermassi, S, Chelly, MS, Jlid, MC, Hbacha, H,
and Castagna, C. Effects of a plyometric training program with and
without added load on jumping ability in basketball players.
J Strength Cond Res 24: 2955–2961, 2010.
the TM
1046 Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
20. Kongsgaard, M, Aagaard, P, Kjaer, M, and Magnusson, P. Structural
Achilles tendon properties in athletes subjected to different exercise
modes and in Achilles tendon rupture patients. J Appl Physiol 99:
1965–1971, 2005.
21. Kubo, K, Kawakami, Y, Kanehisa, H, and Fukunaga, T.
Measurement of viscoelastic properties of tendon structures in vivo.
Scand J Med Sci Sport 12: 3–8, 2002.
22. Kubo, K, Morimoto, M, Komuro, T, Yata, H, Tsunoda, N,
Kanehisa, H, and Fukunaga, T. Effects of plyometric and weight
training on muscle-tendon complex and jump performance. Med Sci
Sport Ex 39: 1801–1810, 2007.
23. Lichtwark, GA and Wilson, AM. Is Achilles tendon compliance
optimised for maximum muscle efficiency during locomotion?
J Biomech 40: 1768–1775, 2007.
24. Maganaris, CN. Imaging-based estimates of moment arm length in
intact human muscle-tendons. Eur J Appl Physiol 91: 130–139, 2004.
25. Magnusson, P and Kjaer, M. Region-specific differences in Achilles
tendon cross-sectional area in runners and non-runners. Eur J Appl
Physiol 90: 549–553, 2003.
26. Markovic, G and Mikulic, P. Neuro-musculoskeletal and
performance adaptations to lower-extremity plyometric training.
Sport Med 40: 859–895, 2010.
27. Noakes, T and Durandt, J. Physiological requirements of cricket.
J Sport Sci 18: 919–929, 2000.
28. Peltonen, J, Cronin, J, Avela, J, and Finni, T. In vivo mechanical
response of human Achilles tendon to a single bout of hopping
exercise. J Exp Biol 213: 1259–1265, 2010.
29. Petersen, C, Pyne, D, Dawson, B, Portus, M, and Kellett, A.
Movement patterns in cricket vary by both position and game
format. J Sport Sci 28: 45–52, 2010.
30. Potach, DH and Chu, DA. Plyometric training. In: Essentials
of Strength Training and Conditioning (NSCA). TR. Baechle and
TR. Earle, eds. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2000. pp.
427–440.
31. Potdevin, F, Alberty, M, Chevutschi, A, Pelayo, P, and Sidney, MC.
Effects of a 6-week plyometric training program on performances in
pubescent swimmers. J Strength Cond Res 25: 80–86, 2011.
32. Rosager, S, Aagaard, P, Dyhre-Poulsen, P, Neergaard, K, Kjaer, M,
and Magnusson, SP. Load–displacement properties of the human
triceps surae aponeurosis and tendon in runners and non-runners.
Scand J Sci Med Sport 12: 90–98, 2002.
33. Sáez-Sáez de Villarreal, E, Requena, B, and Newton, RU. Does
plyometric training improve strength performance? A meta-analysis.
J Sci Med Sport 13: 513–522, 2010.
34. Salaj, S and Markovic, G. Specificity of jumping, sprinting, and quick
change-of-direction motor abilities. J Strength Cond Res 25: 1249–
1255, 2011.
35. Webster, J and Roberts, J. Determining the effect of cricket leg
guards on running performance. J Sport Sci 29: 749–760, 2011.