UNIT - III: PROTECTION: INTRODUCTION ‘The capital investment involved in @ power system for the generation, transmission and disiution of electrical power is so great precautions must be sured thatthe equipment not only operates as neatly as possible 10 peak effeiencies, bur also that it is protected the correct relay so a to disconnect only the faulty equipment from the system as quickly possible, thus minimizing the troubles and damage cause by fuls wien they de occur ‘The modem power system is complex and even through protection suipment fom 4 to 5% ofthe total cost involved inthe system, they play a very important olin the system design for good quality and reliability OBJECTIVES OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM PROTECTION, “The primary objective of dtribution syst protectin amily: + Minimize the ful ration ‘Minimize the number of consumes affected bythe fault ‘The secondary objectives of distribution system protection are 1 Fliminate att heard as fists possible ‘+ Minimize seevice failure to the smullest posible branch of the isibution system ‘Protest he consumers apparatus ‘Protect he distribution system from unnecessary serve interruptions and isturbances + Disconnect faulted branches, ansformers or ater components TYPES OF FAULTS ‘Overtead systems are subjected to broudly two types of faults and these are ‘temporary o transient and permanent faults Depending on the natu of the system involved, most of the faults aretransient in nature, These faults occur when phase conductors of the system clectically contact aber phase conductors or 1 the ground, momentarily due to ‘ues, birds or other animals, high winds, lightning fashoversetcThe duration of fault i to be minimized using instantaneous or high speed tripping. Automatic reclosing of relay prevents unnecessary fuse breaking Permanent faults are those which requires repair by 8 repair rew in erm of ‘Replacing burden down conductors, blown fuses or any other damaged apparatus 4 Removing tee limbs from the lines ‘+ Manually reclosing cieat breaker or reloser to restore service ‘The number of consumers affected by 2 fault i wo be maintained by properly selecting and locating the protective apparatus on the line, tthe tp point of each line section and at critical location on main feeder, By using the fuses the permanent fault on ovesead systems ae genealy seetonaized, The number of faults occuring on an under grounded system is relatively much less than the ‘overad distribution system, Generally there are again subdivided to four possible fut sypes which occur in “Sstnbution systems 1. Single ine-o-ground fauit'SLG) 2 Lineso-tine fate LL), 3. Double ine to-ground ful (DG) 4. Three-phate fault QL ORSIG) FAULT-CURRENT CALCULATIONS ‘The possible fault types that might occur in a istbution system are mentioned shave four types. ‘The fist, second and thitd type of Fals on two phase or thee phase Feeders, and the fourth type of faut can take place only on thes-phase feeder. However, ven on these feeders usually only single line -to- ground fault wil take place due to the mukigrounded consiuction, The relative numbers of the oseurrence of different ype of faults depend upon various factor, feeder configuration, eight of|round wires, voltage levels, grounding methods, relative insulation level of ‘round and betwoon phases, specd of fault clearing atmosphere conditions ct ‘The actual full curent is usually less than the bold three-phase value However the single ine-10~pround fault often produces greater fat eurrent than that of the 34F fault especially when the generator neutal is solidly grounded Decause Xi<>X\(=X;) In general ‘usually the SLG fault isthe most severe with the 3-# DLG and L-L following in tha order In general the maximum and minimum fault currents are both calculated fora tivendistiution system. The maximum faltcurtent is determined based on the following assumptions: ‘+ Maximum generators are connected ‘The faults dead shortsreuit one ‘The load is maximum peak ‘While minimum fault curent is determined based on the flossing ‘+ Minimum aumber of generators is connected, The faults not dead shoxtiteuit one, but Ful impodance isnot ero +The ood is minimum peak Usually thse ft-crreis are determined foreach secionaliing point, including the substation, and fr the ends of the longest sestions. The ‘alelated maximum falt-cuent vale afe used in dotemining the required interuping capacities of the fuses, circuit breakers or other faul-learing apparatus ‘To determine the fut curenis one has 19 determine the positive, rnogatve and zero sequence impedances of the system atthe high-voltage side of the distibution substaon transformer. These impedances are usually readily availabe fom transmission system fault studies. Therefore foray given fault ona radial distribution feeder, one an simply ado the appropriate impedances asthe fault is moved away from the substation along the feeder.SINGLE LINE TO GROUND FAULT (LGF) hinaeies Li FIG SINGLE LINE 10 GROUND FAULT Figure shows a single ine wo ground fault occurs at pase ‘athe faut cutest los through phase aad he remaining currents are 22, ‘The voltage and caren elatons ae: veo 1-0 ie Consider ZZ and Z) are the positive, negative and zero sequence impedances of the system and Vi isthe line te neutral voltage distiution voltage Fault current,ek te (Since 4-22 for wansformers and distibution lines) I ease of source, transformer and distribution circuit impedance are considered {Toa postive sequence impedance-2istZietZsae ZyeDoure impoanes 2ye=Transfome impedance Zaae-Distibtion citeuit impedance gah Oo However, fault occurs throug some ful impedance Z, the source connected in str grounded equation 6.1 and 62 are vali In ase of souce conmected. in dels,zeo sequence impedance Zy becomes infinitethese equations are not valid, This is obvious because of thre is no rear path for the curen flow. IF the primary disteibution nerwork in dla and the lines are connected by elistar with solid grounded neural point of substation transformer, the transformer primary side current can be determined by Wee iicl Where line o line distribution voltage \Vsru>line to line sub-ransmission voltage Jolin to ground fal current From equation itis clear tat she sequence networks ic., postive and ‘negative and zero sequence networks must be connected in. series. ‘The interconnection of sequences network i shown in ig ‘Therefore, Bane, “The voltages of other healthy phases ae determined by yf atnadeeta’= aie) ‘ola Vev (@ta(a-n2) — Where = operat oatLINE TOL (A)__LLF BETWEEN PHASES ‘b’ AND CIRCUIT FOR LLP. (8) EQUIVALENT, FIG LINE To LINE FAULT Figure (@ shows line tlie fault or double lie fault occurs inbetween, phases "band eth voltage and current relations are “The fault current, however fa fut occurs through some fal impedance Ze Fauleewrent, I="N5tn =i Bag, Wakerhay ‘The sequence cures ae deemed byrom equation i is lear thatthe sequence networks i, positive and negative sequence networks ms be connected in parallel and opposite. The interconnection of soquence networks i shown i fig 6.78) Zero sequence curent will be absent in this case. This is in consistence with tho fact that no ground current can flow, The presence ot absence ofa grounded source neutral doesnot affect he fault curent. I the source neutral is not grounded sifinite and Vis in terminate but line to Tine voltage may be found since they contain no zero sequence component,DOUBLE LINE TO GROUND FAULT (DLGF) (A) DLGFIN BETWEEN PHASE ‘b” AND" _(@) EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT FOR DLGE FIG DOUBLE LINE TO LINE FAULT Figures 6.82) shows a double line to ground ful Between phases band‘ the voltage and current relations are: “0 itty wave ‘The symmetrical components of volage ae: And fault curont From the above restionsthe equivelentcizcuit for double Tine to ground fault is shown in fg (B) the negative and zero sequence networks are connected in parallel and this combination ie connected in series with the postive sequencea ‘vce coe sinety dae "4 ene? W%lersdoze) Wi faeafi we) fon Y wlzzezeaze|‘THREE PHASE GROUNDED/UNGROUNDED FAULT (LF OR3LGF) Fy () SLRAUCT (B) THREE PHASE FAULT FIG THREE PHASE FAULT Figuw638 (A) shows a tee phase or thee phase to ground fut fa this «as al he phases are shor-cireuited the voltage and caren eatons ae Neo Wtsth=o Fault current, However there i fault though some felt impedance 2; Faulteument 16 +2; Equivalent far this type of faults shown in fig 6.82) (OVER CURRENT PROTECTIVE DEVICES.‘The overcurrent protective devices applied to distribution systems include relay contollod ciecit breakers, automatic cieeuit reclosers, fuses and sutomati ine sestionlizes ee, FUSE It is an over current device with a circuit opening ability when dieeiy heated and gets destroyed by the flowing overcurrent through it in the event of tn overioad of short-circuit conditions. Thercfor, the purpose of fs is to isolate the fire neo Segment from the system ‘The fuse element is generally made of material having low melting point, high conductivity and least deterioration due to oxidation eg. silver, ‘copper et. [tis inserted in series withthe ctu tobe protected, Under normal operating conditions, the fuse clement is at a temperature below its meting point. Therefore, i earres the normal curent without overheating, However, when a shorecicuit or overload occurs, the eument flowing tough the fase will increase beyond is rated value. This raises the temperaure and fuse clement melts, disconnecting the circuit protected by it. The time required to blow out the fuse depends upon the magnitude of excessive curen, The greater the cute the smaller is the ime taken by the fase to blow a. ADVANTAGES. ‘The advantages ofthe fase are: (0) Cheapest form of protection availble (G)Requires no maintenance (ii) Break heavy short-circuit curent without noise a smoke (Gv) The minimum time of operation can be made much shorter than thatof the circuit breakerDISADVANTAGES “The disadvantages ofthe fase ae: } Considerable ime is requted in rsmoving or replacing & fuse afr operation “The current time characteristics of fase cannot always be corelated with ha of ‘the protected apparatus AUTOMATIC CIRCUIT RECLOSER Its an over current protective device tht automaticaly trips and eclosed 2 numberof times to clear temporary faults or isolate permanent faults. About 90% of faults on overhead distribution lines ae f temporary nature and caused by lighting or by-passng of objects near oF through linestbirds, vines, tee anches el) or touching of conductors. These conditions result in aring fats asd the rein the ai faults ean be extinguished by de-eergizing the sytam by Simultaneous opening of circuit breakers on bath ends ofthe feeder or one end ofthe feeder. Aer a short time called dead time, th circuit breakers can be recloted a¢ soon asthe ae in fault his been extinguished and the path has gained is dielecti swongth, Recosing of feeder stores the supply. 1 distibution systems, multishot auto-ocosing feature is generally provided. The auto-reclosers contalling primary feder perform two. thee or fu reclosing eyclestshot if necessary ‘fhe teniporary fault as Vanished during the dete, the auto-ecloser remains lose. 1 fault persists after firssecond recloser one more enclosing fs attompted. If fault persists after thidinal reclser, the auto-ecloser i ‘opened and locked. With auro-reclosing breakers in primary feeder th ezeit ‘contiuity ding temporary faults is improved, Auto reclosing is generally not adopted for underground cables. The fouls on cables are generally not temporary ADVANTAGES (@) Iecan be perform the tasks that can be ull by the combination of ecu breaker, over current relay and reclosing relay (Geis igh in weight and maintenance feeii) When @ permanent fault occurs near the end of the lengthy feeder, then this feedor ean be sctionalized using auto-ecossr so a5 10 reduce the ourages DISADVANTAGES (@)iteanmot clear the permanent felts completly (itis costier than the circuit breaker (iv) Ttis mot suitable for cables asthe breakdown of insulation in cables sauket a permanent outage AUTOMATIC LINE SECTIONALIZER It isthe overcurrent proteetive devices installed only with backup circuit ‘brcakers or auto-oclosing circuit breaker. ts a no-load switching device which is provided with over current relays, earth fault relays and counters: The counter counts the numberof aperations of the back-up circuit breakerfeuto-eslser. Aft a predetermined number of back up citcuit breakr/auto-ocloser, if the citcait breakelauto-recloser open has not cleared the line Faul.she circuit brekesluto- reclosee pent and thereafer the ulomaic sectionslizer opens wader no cure “The operating modes of auromatie secigiliets te a8 flows 1. the fulton dstbution line is temporary and is cleared while the ato recloser is open, the connector of sectionalizer is reset automatically to is ‘normal position ater iato-eclscr is close, the Fault curent counter inthe sectionalizer will prepare for counting of next opening ofthe ato-ecoser 2, If he auto-recloser is st to lockout on the fourth opening operation, the auomtion seitionalizer will he set to tip duting the open iteut time following the third tipping operation ofthe auto-recloser Application aspects of automation setionalier Several pects must be considered to finalize the scheme: (0 emus be usd in series with autozeclosers lt mast nt be located between two auto-elosers ii) With oo or tree setioalizers after one auto-ecose the sequencerust be co-ordinate nimum fault curent ha to be mote than miniowum Fault current at the end of line section controlled by the sectionalizer (Under no circumstances the short time circuit curent and momentary peak curent at the location of sctionalizer should be leas than respective ratings ofthe sectionalizer ADVANTAGES (@) Automation seedonalizer are cheaper and required less maintenance than suto-elosers (Gi) They may be employed for interupting or switching loads within their a ‘The main drawback tha the failure rat i in general greater than hat of fake CIRCUIT BREAKER (Circuit breaker isa switch that opens and cut-off low of cunt when the current exceeds a certain level. Circuit breakers are placed at critical points in circus to proeet aginst damage that could result fom excessive eurent No, ‘hich typically caused by component aloe igh volige citeuit breakers ate intended for. making high voltage circuits and for breaking load currents and short-circuit caren. The circuit breakers must have adequate MVA breaking capacity the shortest possible total break time and be highly reliable in servis and operation high voltage circuit, breakers must be explosion proof and te proof and weight as their duty will permit Inbriof, the fnetion of C.Bis to iolats the faulty pat ofthe power systems network from that of healthy part under abnormal conditions. These abnormal conditions will be sensed a trip signal to the CB afer eceving a tip signal fiom the celay, the fault part wil be slated from the power syst A ciruit breaker can be operated by manually by a remote contol oF sutomaticelly The automatic operating phenomena canbe observed only under fault conditionsHOW A CIRCUIT BREAKER WORKS? BASIC PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION, A cireuit breaker consists of fixed and moving contacts which ate touching cach other user normal conditions ic, when circuit breaker i closed, The end ofthe moving contact stached to handle which can be manually operated or ican be operated automatically with the help of @ mechanism which as a ip coil energized by the secondary ofthe eutent ansformer. The power supply i brought to the terminals ofthe circuit breaker. Under normal conditions the emf induced in the secondary winding of the circuit transformer is not slicient to energize the tp coll lly for operation, But under fault condition the abnormality in the value of the current inthe primary circuit of the current transformer induces «sufficient em in the secondary circuit to energize the ‘rip coil When the trp evil get energized the moving contacts are pulled by some mechanism and there by the cieuitis broken ‘The basic consrvetion ofa iruit beaker requires the separation of eomtats in an insulting Haid which serveswo fuaeions ‘They are () extinguishing the ate between the contacts on the opening of circuit breaker (i) providing insulation or Muids between th contacts and from cach contacto earth ‘The medium or fuids commonly used fo the purpose of ar extinction in circuit breaker ae (Odi at amospbesic pressure pCompeessed aie (Oil producing hydrogen for are extn (Gta high vacua (Gi) Sulphur hexa Muorid(SFe) ‘The fuids tht can be used in circuit breaker shoul have the following properties: (OMlgh dielectric strength (6 Non inlammabiityGig thermal tabiiy Gvpchemiesl stability (Arwen (6 Comme AUTOMATIC CIRCUIT BREAKER 1 is an automatic iteruping device, which is capable of breaking and enclosing 2 circuit under all conditions, ie, faulted, or normal operating conditions| A circuit breaker essentially consists of fixed and moving contacts called electrodes. Under normal operating condition, these contacts remain closed and will not open automatically until and unless the system becomes faulted. OF couse, the contacts can be opened manually or by remote conzol whenever desired, when a fault occurs on any part ofthe distribution system, the trip coils of the circuit breakers get energized andthe moving contacts are pulled apart by some mechanism, ths opening the circuit ‘When the contacts of citcuit breaker ate separated under fault conditions, sn aro is struck between them. The curent i this able to coninae anti he discharge ceascs, The production of are not ony delays the current inteupion process but i also generates enormous heat which may cause damage of the system ot tothe cieut breaker itself. Therefore, the primary tak ofa circuit breaker if to eitinguish the ac that devslops due to Separation ofits contacts in an arc-extingtishing medium, for example, in ar as isthe case for sir eicuit breakers, in il a isthe ease fro iret breakers, in SF, on vacuum,NECESSITY OF CO-ORDINATION ‘Time-current characteristics of over current protective devices in distiution system ae seleced and set such thatthe protective devices operate in desired preset time sequence the event of fault, Ths is alld proseetion co-ordination, When to protective apparatus installed in series have sameldtferent characteristic, whieh provide a pre-set nly to isolate the fal is defined 3s the protetive device, Its usually the apparatus, which willbe neaer tothe fault. The apparatus, which funishes back up protection but operates nly when the proecting device fails to operate to clear the fault, is defined as the proected device. It is usually the apparatus, which willbe faraway to he fat, OBJECTIVES OF CO-ORDINATION ‘The main objectives of propery co-ordinate protective devices ae: + Minimize the extent of faults inorder to reduce the numberof esters affected “+ Minimize the service interruptions due f temporary faults + Minimize the duration of service ouages o identity the location ofthe fault PROCEDURE OF CO-ORDINATION, int points of co-ordination procedure Draw the diagram ofthe disuribuion system indiatng location oF overcurrent relays, fuses, autozeclosers es. ii) Determine the following Steady sat shor-ciruitcument ‘+ Asymmetrical peak short-circuit eurent + Normal load current "+ Minrmum shor-circuit current at shove locations (ii Co-ordinate protective devices sarting from substation outward or fom the end ofthe distribution feeder back othe substation (Gv), Drow time curentchaacterstics forthe co-ordination“The above information isnot realy available and therefore, it ean be gathered fom the diferent sources. Generally, ime current characteistios(TCC) cuves of the protective devices are plated by collecting the data from the manufacturer ‘The values of load curent and fault curren are obtained fam power flow study sn ault low study General co-ordination procedure: ‘The over curent proective devices ie, fuse, CB, reloser and line seetinalizer mus be co-ordinate for identifying and ifolating the faults. According to specific operating sequence, the two over current devices are said to be co- ‘ordinate or selected. For all ypes of co-ordination the co-ordination procedure is same and a follows: 1. Necessary and required data for co-ordination of protective devices shoul be collected 2. For a given distrbution network, select the device allocation of protective 5. Calculate the minimam and maximum value of fault cutent for various types of faults at ever selected location and a the end of main fesder ot lateral or sub laterals 4. Choose the necessary protective devices located a the distribution substation in ‘order to protect the substation transformer properly from any type of fants ours in the dstbation system 5. The aver curentproteelive devices should be co-orinae either fam substation ‘onwards or end ofthe dstebution system hack tothe substation 6 Ienecessary, reconsider and change the inital locaton of the protetive device 7. Reconsider the selected protestive device for current caring capacity, interrupting capacity and ninima pik time 8. Draw the TCC curves showing the co-ordination ofall protetve devices sed with common base voltage 9. Finally draw the disibution network diagram which shows the minimum andmaximum valve of fault curent and ako the rating of the various protection devices used, ‘TYPES OF CO-ORDINATION “The diferent types of co-ordination methods ar: 1, Buse to fise co-ordination 2. Auto ~recloser to fseeo-ordinaion 1. Citeuit breaker to fuse co-ordination 4, Cineit breaker to ato-roclser co-ordination FUSE TO FUSE CO-ORDINATION Fuse ‘AY is call the protective fuse and fuse ‘Bis ealled she protecting fuse are drawn single graph as shown in fig for perfect co-ordination, fuse "B" rust melt and clear the fll before fuse “AT is damaged .To ensure this three things ae eguited (the maximum characteristics ofthe fase Bis plated i) The minimum chatactristie of the fase Ais plated (Gi)25% of the minimum meng curve of A is plotted to make sure that the fase it not damaged and to account for any degradation jn the fase characteristics the damage eve of ise A and the tne letra curv of fuse never eros, thn itis sai tbe perfect protection If hey’ crass, at some value of current, then itis called the limit of co-ordination. For example, suppose the curves toss at 200A ,This means that co-ordination more than 200A is unlikely However the ‘maximum available shoe ieut cument of the system at shat location i oly 150A the fase would be considered tobe fault co-ordinate, Fuse A- mating tre 7 sari To) eure 75% OIA Faso 8-1 ‘searing TC curveFig CO-ORDINATION BETWEEN TWO FUSES IN SERIES, AUTO-RECLOSER TO FUSE CO-ORDINATION ‘The time-curen characteristics of auto-recloser (AR) inthe main feeder ‘veut and fag B in the lateralis as shown in ig the faut °F" beyond the fuse B is temporary, the auto-ecloer “AR should clea it without blowing of fuse “The time-curtont characteristics ofthe fiseB ae in svo pats: 1, Minimum melting ime versus fuse B eurrent 2. Frst operating time versus fase B current FIG AUTO-RECLOSER AND FUSE CO-ORDINATION ‘The above two curves of ise B is co-ordinate with below two curves of tipping characteristics of AR’ 1. Delayed auro-recloser opening characteristics 2. Instantaneous auto-reloser opening characteristics ‘1a current isles han “M? the closer operates with delayed openingime4 faut uments tess dha the auto ~tecoser operates wit insantancous ‘operating time. + Beyond cutentN, the fuse B operates + Autoreloser (0 fuse co-ordination forthe complete auto-eclosing eye takes into account the heating oF the fuse dv t low of short-circuit urrent time inthe eyele (CIRCUIT BREAKER TO FUSE CO-ORDINATION ‘The circuit breaker is wippe by overcurrent phase fault proteton. Total ful clering ime is equal tothe relay time plus cre breaker time.” ‘When fuse “A” is used asa main protection and circuit breaker asa backup is shown in fig, the operating time is selected as 150% of total operating time ofthe fuse of overcurrent relays for phase to phase ful: Therefore the fse A operates first nd the cieut breaker operates next only if fie fil to operate ee AF b > | Xo (CB) — backup, Fuse A - main Current —> FIG_ FUSE GIVES MAIN PROTECTION AND CIRCUIT BREAKER GIVEN BACK UP Time >ict breaker provides the main protection and the fse “A asa back vp 4s shown ing the relays should operate iastantancously and citeit breaker should isolate the fault before blowing up the fse. The minimum melting time of the fuse should be about 135% more than fault “learing ime” of the circuit = ‘caker relay combination for phate o phase fal A FIG CIRCUTT BREAKER GIVES MAIN PROTECTION AND FUSE GIVEN’ BACK UP ‘CIRCUIT BREAKER TO AUTO-RECLOSER CO-ORDINATION, ‘The circuit breaker provides « back up protetion, The auto-recloser has three ‘ricipal opening characteristics |. Firs and second opening operation ‘A’ for instantaneous oping characteristics 2. Thied opening operation ‘Bf dlayed opening charactrsis 3, Fourth opening operation “C' for extended —delayed opening characterises“The inverse time characteristics “D’ of over current relay and circuit breaker combination should be above that of the tc characterises of auto-tecloser as sown in fig ania Se FIG CHARACTERISTICS OF CIRCUIT BREAKER PO AUTO-RECLOSER ‘CO-ORDINATION,Unit ‘Compensation for Power Factor Improvement 5. CAPACITORS, ‘In uncompensated distribution system the reactive power demand i usally ret by the source, thus burden the sytem and results in poor voltage profile and increase in losses. ifthe reactive power demand can be met locally then the ‘wansmiting of reactive power from the source tthe reactive elements can be reduced. Localized meting. of reactive power demand can be achieved by installing either switchable capacitors or fixed capacitors a Bushing ilfiled case bande Mounting bracket ‘and Hing eye Case HIG 5.1 PRIMARY CAPACITORFIG 5.2 POLE MOUNTED CAPACITOR 5.1 EFFECT OF SHUNT CAPACITOR ‘The Joad incident on the disvibtion system is mostly inductive, requiring large restive power, Th best method isto compensate the reactive power atthe load end itself but it is difficult 19 implement in pactce Hence, providing compensation on the distribution system is essential. The equivalent circuit of Dasie configuration is shown in f8.3(A)-The citeuit wth shunt compensation is shown in ig 5 3b). is extensively used in disibution systems. Shun capacitors are connected across an inductive load so aso supply the reactive power of current to rece the out of phase component of eurent required by an inductive load ie it modifies the characteristics ofan inductive load by drawing a leading eurent Which counter acts oF opposes some or all of the lagging component of the inductive load curent at the point of installation so that the reactive VA rs transmited over the Tine are redueed, there by the voltage across the Toad is tmainained within certain desirable Hinits, It has the same effect of synchronous ‘condenser or phase modifier. The disadvantage of the use ofthis capacitor is that ith fll of voltage a paricular node the corrected Vrs wil als be reduced,FIG 5.3 SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM WITHOUT AND WITH SHUNT. ‘COMPENSATION 1FIGS.4 PHASOR DIAGRAM OF FIG 5.3 (a) AND(®) RESPECTIVELY -By the application ofthe shunt capacitor told Feeder the magaifede of source _eurrent can be redused, the p.cav be improved and consequently the voltae drop ‘erween the sending and receiving ends i also be reduced as shown in fig 5.8 “However itis important to note that, it does no effect caren orp. beyond thei point of in Voltage drop ofthe line without and with shunt capacitors ae givens VeALR COS HX sing With shunt capacitor, VE-LR COS¢ H(I-loX: sing ‘Wher fe Reactive component of current leading the voltage by 0"‘The voltage rise duet the location ofthe capacitor isthe difeence between the voltage drops determined by using equations 5.1 and 52 and is pivenby Voltage rse-IoX. 2 And inproved t=5.2 FIXED AND SWITCHED CAPACITORS ‘The distribution system load depends onthe time ofthe day. during evening period the system has maximm load, During the day the load is moderate while itis generally low during ate ight I the capacitor is connected atthe end of the line, which snot feeding any lout will cause the reciving end voltage to be more than the sending end voltage thus ercating over voltage problem. Therefore he rating of the capacitor should be such that it does nat result in leading pf. under Hit 1 condition ‘The optimum solution sto havea capacitor bank which es ais the VA ss supplicd match the VARs demand lod exactly, Though i is posible to have suc a system it would be very expensive and complex ‘The possible feasible solution is to have fixed and switched capacitors, the fixed capacitors bank forthe Hight load conditions and switched capacitor bank for maximum load conditions, Such a system would cause leading pf uncer light loud condition but this is generally acceptable, 521 SWITCHED CAPACITOR BANKS ‘Switched capacitor banks provide benfis under the following situations ‘+ More loss teductions: As the reactive Toading on the cieuit cages, we reduce losses by switching banks on and off 0 sac these changes ‘+ Voltage Tints: TF optionally applied Banks under the average loading scenario cause excessive voltage under light loud hen use switched banks In adkition, automated capacitorstho with communiction-have the flexibility to ako use distribution VA 1s for tansmision support. Fiked banks aze relatively casy to site and size opsimally witched banks are more dificul. Optimally sizing ‘capacitors, placing them, and deciding when to switeh them are difficult tasks Several software packages are availble that can optimize this solution, ‘To place switched capacitors using the % KVAr method, again place the ‘banks athe location where the line KVAr equals half the capecitr bank rating, Butinstead of using the average reactive load proile(he rule for fied banks).use the average reactive flow during the time the capacitor iso, With time switched ‘benks and information onload profiles (or typical load priles);we can pick the on time and the off time and determine the proper capacitor sizing based on the average reactive low between the on and off Gimes Ore ean place a hank snd pick the on and of ies such that she average reactive lin flow while the bask is switched on equals half ofthe hank rating. In these cases, we have specified the sive and citer the placement or svitching time, To more gunecally optinize including sizing, placement, numberof bank, and switching time, we must use @ ‘computer, which iterates to find a solution Combinations of fixed and switched banks are more dificult The following approach isnot optimal but gives reasonable results. Apply fixed banks to the circuit with the kVA rule based on the Hight-oad ease, Check voltages, there ae under voltages, inetease the size of capacitor, use more eapactor banks, or ad regulators. Now, lok for locations suitable for sited banks. Againsse the average reactive line flows forthe ime when the capacitor is ont the already placed fixed capacitors in the cccuit model) When applying switched eapacitrs, ‘check the light load case for posible over voltage, and check the peak-oad case for under voltages, 5.3 EFFECT OF SERIES CAPACITOR “Tho muntonance of volage atconsumer premises within sacory limits at all loads is the responsibiliy of ublity. Capacitors can also be installed in series with primary feeders fo reduce voltage drop, but they are racy employed in tis fashion. Where shunt capacitors, connected in parallel withthe Toad, corest the ‘component of the cument due fo the inductive reactance of the cre, series ‘capacitors compensate for te reactance voltage drop in the feeder. A capacitor in series with a primaty Teedr serving » lagging pf load will ease a rie in voltage 4s the Toad increase. The pf of the load through the seies capacitor and feeder rust be lagging i the voltage drop is to decrease appreciably. The voltage on the load sido of tho series capacitor is ried above the toure sid, ating to improve the voltage regulation of the feeder Since the vollage rise or drop occurs instantancously with the vations in the lod, the series capacitor response as @ ‘voltage regulators faster and smoother than the regulatorson ee ee ee a SOS gen gator aoe oa 1 se tno i oye a SE SS es soft pte eee os plo satya nacre pea ny a a ae fs po { Le ee FIG S$ CIRCUIT DIAGRAM WITH OUT AND WITH SEREIS) ‘COMPENSTION vs a? o 4 » FIG 5.6 PHASOR DIAGRAM OF FIG 5.5(2) AND (B) RESPECTIVELY Figures 55 and 5.6 show the line ans its volte phasor dsgram without and ‘with series compensation. The approximate voltage dop ofthe line without seriescapacitor is given by equation (3.1) ‘And wit series capacitor, VLR COS#+1(X.-Xe) sing ‘Where X= capacitive reactance ofthe sees capacitor 4 DIFFRENCES BETWEEN SHUNT AND SERIES CAPACITORS Tanto tor Series eapasiorTsupply xed” amount oF feecve) I quantum i compensation is independent power to the system atthe poin where [onload curent and instantaneous changes they are installed. Hs effet if elt inthe | eeu Is effets from its loation towards circuit from the location towards load end source only 2.causes reduction in reactive power Flowing. in the Tine and causes) improvement of pf of system (bvolage profile improvement (eidecrease kVA. loading on source ies generators, transformers dine ‘upto location and thus provide adaitional capacity 2it is. effective(a) on radial feeders improve regulation automatically (Bo te Hines, power transfer are greater (ehspecificlly suitable when Mickers duc to repetitive load functions occur 2.the locaton has toe a near the load point as possible. in practice duc to high compensation required, is found economical to provide group compensation on lines and at substations 3.As thumb re bet location i 1/3" of levies impedance fom the source bus 4.As fined KVAR is supplied this may [4A Bt oud Gare pos throug. the Sometimes result in over compensation | P38, should be more than che Joad during. light Toad period, “switched | T= banks, comparatively costlier become necessary S.As the pf approaches unity, lange Compensation is roquited for SAS series capacitor feed faults also incremental inprovement ofp. special proteton is required Where ines are heavily loaded] S.causes sudden rise in voliage at the compensation roquired will be more | Hoasion ‘Le0st of compensation is lesser than] 7st of series capacitor is higher than scires capacitor sunt capacitor5.5 ECONOMIC JUSTIFICATION OF CAPACITORS. By placing the capacitr, the following benefits canbe oblained 1. Released generation, transmission and distribution subeation system capacity 2, Additional advantages in distribution system are: (Reduction the roquizement ofthe fesder capacity (3) Improve the voltage profile a loads (Gi) Reduetion in kVA demand for consumers (Gv) Reduetion in system power or energy loss (©) Reduction in system investment per kW of load supplied (i) Improvement in voltage regulation (ui) Improve the pf ofthe source generators (vii) Revenue ineeates with improvemeat of voliages Because ofthe above advantage, shunt capacitor aare widely used in resent day most of the consumers in dstbuton system 51 BENEFITS DUE TO REALEASED FEEDER CAPACITY Benefits due to released feeder capacity KP AK « Ck ike kr =Relead feeder capeiy CKF-eostof the FeedeckVA IKF-A nna rate of cost of feeder S82 BENEFITS DUE TO SAVING IN ENERGY ‘Benefits de wo savings in energy KE aK xr Where ‘a KE>savings inenergy (annual energy loses before installing the capacitor) (annual energy losses after instaling capacitor) rate of energy in Rs kWh553 BENEFITS DUE TO REDUCED DEMAND Benefits due to reduced demand KP~ ak? CP KP KP Reduced demand (kW) cKP=costof generation Kw IKP=A annual rate for generation sost 546 CALCULATION OF POWER FACTOR CORRECTION “The pf conection can be determined from power triangle rom the fig 57 the triangle OAB is for te original p.£(cosg, ) whereas tangle ‘OAC is forthe improved pf. (os 4) it may be observed thatthe active power (OA) does not change with pal improvement However the lagging kVAr ofthe Toad is reduced by the pf corection equipment, thus improving the p10 cos, Leading kVAx(Qe) supplied by p.feorsetion equipment as BC-AB-AC -Q-0s ~OAKtan 4-106) Pitan tang) Knowing the Ieading KVAr (Q) supplied bythe p.feorest equipment the sized tess ean be obtainedHIG 5.7 POWER TRIANGLE, 5.7 PROCEDURE TO DETERMINE THE BEST CAPACITOR LOCATION (Capacitors ae placed in distribution system forthe improvement of voltage profile and reduction of energy losses by improving power factor of distbution system. when capacitors ate placed in Aistbution system and are controled propery then they inerease the economic benefit of the systom It i possible to generate all the reactive power neadéd in a system at the place of demand itself an ideal situation will be tht no reactive power will flow through the transformer and feeders. This requires shunt capacitors that ate tobe placed at every node, The cost of capsctors including their msitenance ete, may fr exceed the cost of the benefits obtained by their installation. This fact sugges that capacitors to be installed at some selected nodes of the network ony. Moccover the amount of reactive power generated (or size of capacitor Insaled) at these nodes is t6 be dtecined in order thatthe beneit, obteined by capacitor installation i maximixed. Hence the capacitor placemeat problem thus becomes an optimization problem where the apactor locations and sizes are to be determined in such a way that a objective function representing the difference between the costs ofthe benefit obiained by the capacitor placement and cost of the capacitor is maximized ‘The genera ie Lead the date of th lin, lad end desired pf ofthe distribution system 2.Caleulate helo ikW and pt ofthe system 2 process requires the following steps: v=3 caeulate the cometion fctr of load (ie, KWAr per kW) necessary to cores the sytem pf. ftom the original othe desired p fo ealeulat ‘the ratngof capacitor required, multiply this coretin factor by aot KW of thesystem 4 calculate the individual kVA's and p.£"s ofeach load or group of loads Sto calculate the VAC of the feeder, mul loadsby thir respective reactive factors iy individual ood or group of ‘develop a nomograph to determin the feeder losses per km duc to indutive lods tabulated in steps 45 Multiply these feder losses by thee respective feder lng in km Repeat this process fr al loads and feeder sections and add them to get toil inductive Feder losses “LIne case of haying presctly existing capacitor banks on the systom, perform the same calculations as in step,but this tme subract the ‘capacitive feedcrlsses fom the total inductive feder losses, Ute the ‘capacitor KVAr'sealeulate in sep 3 ad the nomograph developed for ‘step 6 and finds the feeder losses in each branch due to capacitors to determine the distaice to capacitor locaton, divide toa Indutive feeder losses by capacitive Feeds fasses per km this co- ficients greater than the feeder branch length (vide the remaining inditve feed loses by capacitive Feeder losses next feeder branch to find the location (Gi) this co-eticieais greater than the feeder branch length repeat step 8) 9: print the results and chek the vote iis CAUSES OF LOW POWER FACTOR Low pont factors undesirable fom economic point of view, Normally, the power factor ofthe whole lead on the supply system in lower than 8 The following ae the causes of low power factor ao aT NTA ONAN(@) Mos of thea motors are of induction type (1) and 3) induction motors) which have ow lagging power factor. These motors work at a power actor which extremely small on light Toad (0-20 0°3) and ss to 0-8 of 0-9 afl Toad, (Gi) Are lamps, cleee discharge lamps and industal heating furnaces operat at low lagging power factor. (Gy The load onthe power system is varying; being high during moming and evening and low at ether times. During low load period, supply voltage is increased which increases the magnetization curent, This results inthe decreased power factor. Most Economical Power Factor Trace roves he oer fica, hre eto nisin EVA demas a else aig over eaten end apes, Heres whepe Att ‘sinproved ewe capil ner the per fcr omecoe ep! Te eae Sim enpendint ery yen these af al ret sp deen theese The vale hick the power for sand be med 0a hve mana et a sig acne pn mie hing PEN a pon ning te mos Perper Siecle chal nay meu ariaporedys cod; isda fee 61) a, Amu denials AVA,=Peng-Puch BE Amo demands AVA, ~Pens =P ee os = Renney Poed) moa > RanP eed se ° Rene poeta fy AR, Pi Ren poe one KVAR,~ Pon Beene Aaa coop. comsionopipaet erent) Fo ALATA NTA OTAetal ving 0). (0) = sPleecd, ec h)»P(on— a0) 1 is exes, ony vale wie al ae guise ined Three, he sce sog CG etn abcde Store poets Oo ines see ~se0) -P Can 120 6)1=0 rigor tnt -8 ema be ted the most esa ye tr Gs) peat on he elie os ofsppy ad pf conection eines bt tadepeen of te Sa coy POWER FACTOR CORRECTION ‘typi iy sytem woul ve x eat od t 0% pon cr ing smmer moms. he pone cro ec ‘rete nel dren ons tect gs he te eee tnd he cone eet percestm apparent poe Soft en eee or ly spel Fgwes 8nd 89 ills Iw thee power amponen ies wich 1% chong owe fcr Nt ta Aigctated nF 8 een an 40% power teat poo iegate re faming 229% reas ne tol apart pove (kosher tei. in poe fis, ker of captors needed ae ot ta TS ou Lg mpm ’prvoly mentors, he eer facie power ower at aE ply Ye loud cd at afd eomorcally ibltcncly be rvedy sep Iota at ted center. igre 0k poe ator oer aie se, Ac isan te gue capats da et ese pe am he sre at thy 9 ‘te poner ad apuren poner ts aging pork hey stat apc fA ale adhe poner canbe ng rer oo dy oe Te 69) Fe‘Thee as can be bere aig 10 te ppt pve athe ate porate eres tom 520A 5,3 ran Oka 0, aby olde te pe ‘pci The ima eect a ws ec wa conn eed The {Stes sper ne. Ta th oer far sro tes conc ss ape ‘spend nl fel expense ass of Loveanpense cap ad leno owe lesen al he apart twee ep oleh arose he sores one im ning rn ne von or on an er Tt salts con oft eats opus incom petra Sys Ih i ad it cont hae pete econ pme cr tw ey Hower he ‘cures pomerfactr ve feta heft apererinmpenne he poe scope sey Secting te cre sharp es one Taser uy teas me exer th Sei a gh mp se or te site scan vo i ein 0= Fes, TS. re, ee the epi opens ink, tener nk WP, sth rg once Iter Sr the dei poner aor Tarte ener owner how the pont str dea ep on vo anaes wat aking place scaly Cot induct mrt bg aed 1 the real ower Pantha poner al oer Pat mre thera: pet {Gist Bu sta sede oe ener int mage el th mtr Sic a Fe is wean. he magn Bel onder je of ling up 2 eng es, Ae fet ibility or si eet. sth lis spiesing don,t esc creat Hos ue he nr bck oe api ane Tal Tpit whats mde some ypect dove ace aclu tema sage eno‘te teoce power when the magni ldo he mtr ls dorm “he ie device fr hiss capotor wt syne mag. Howes. wry sore in an eee ed By cones capacr pele! ih he up ine he ad, Ute eye Now of tate power oes pase aan te mr tn he tape the Sal ines cacy ony te erent soppvig rel pout he mt Ts ont wpe {ir wt pover fot condition For the onc ashe sap ines nl a ee ECONOMIC JUSTIFICATION FOR CAPACITORS tenia mo cngsents sve power imesiein iowa and pve sed A Acie pro {be iacese see wording Casco con mite economy ect ‘Sew pour asa ne ye, he un ef pei can ent psd Cretan ioc ks nh ay seo oc he sears ent eit ram he ation oh ea at ‘soy pul the aad cant of the vos ef expr Te thd na yh ero tesrct te some rec Cred fe a tlle of epces var fener ‘ecru the Senn ef thy ol nel eos of aa see) 3nd 5 Races aro rat cpeiy 4 Adon aatages indaibton ste, a) Rede eacas oppen ses. {@ Redundvnag randoms inane ge ulation {e) Rest cpus af eeerand sce pps (2) Pongonenent or ninaino cpl eagotiar ds sum ngrvenen an =A PRACTICAL PROCEDURE TO DETERMINE THE BEST CAPACITOR LOCATION In gore fhe bot leon er capaci cn te fund by optinicing pore kas ane seige rezton A fester hag ple ly i peed 0 woman the mst eee Tocnon fr capo and ibe denn 3 Woes wie wah aed mie Usual, 2V sep ccs ann ton ara t's Veo cc wea lees ‘ee apposinaly th mixin ole charges a a allowed vies awh expect ba [epee epersicn. Te ener ern process alc emu nef ig 1 Calle flog cei and od infomation (@) Any woo te folowing foreach ou: ovatrpees,iloars, kilowatts, ad oad power tr, 1H) Desired creced pone efi (0) Fedee ret alge, (2) teste cat map which shows beans a ade and preety ein eapacior termine te ilowat lod ofthe fede andthe power ft. From Tale 8, dyin the klovars per lewats of ad (th comet Fst) recess to covet the ede ut poner fico fom the ginal th desied poet Fao To deesne teats of eapacors oie, mig ths Creston fact Dy theo Kwat the dere Determine the ida Kioomperer al poser tr freed c aaep of ‘odie the ilove othe i kita lad groups of oud by their ements ie Inout hndtaelted in stepe ans’ Mai tee ine assy th espe ie ons instep 6, Ot sist ecg on fo the al dacn ic “Toind he dance capac ston Sve toe ine ne ss y cape ine idee ie lay apse Hi onthe nest in setonUNIT - V: Voltage Control: 6.1 INTRODUCTION ‘The distribution system ssid to be well designed iit gives «good quality of reliable supply. Good quality means thatthe voltage profiles are within the reasonable limits. In practice, all the equipment on the distribution system are designed to operate satisiciorily only when the voliage profile on the systems comesponds to their volages or atthe most the variations are within permissible limit the consumers terminal i, + 5%6:To keop distribution system voltages thin the permissible limits means that it mast be provided to contra the voltage that sto increase the cirevit voltage when it sto low and to reduce when it is too high 62 IMPORTANCE OF VOLTAGE CONTROL When the loud on the electrical distribution system changes wolage atthe cstmet’s terminals i also changes. The variations of vollage atthe customer's termi are undesizale and. must be Kept win, permissible, limit, for the following easns: In case of lighting loads, the lamp characteristics are very Sensitive to change of voltage + Incase of power loads consisting of induction motors, the voltage variations ‘may cause erate operations, Ifthe supply voltage is moe than noes, the rmolor may operate with a saturated magnetic circuit and consequently large smagnctizing curent will be drawn Oa the other hanjf the voltage is 100 below, it will educe the starting torque + Too wide variations of voltage causes excessive heating of distribution transformers, hi may rede te rating of rnsformers 6.3 METHODS OF VOLTAGE CONTROL,‘The fllowing methods are used to improve the voltage in he disteibution system: + Generator voltage regulators ‘+ Insaling voltage regulating equipment and capacitors inthe distribution substation, ‘+ Load balancing onthe primary feeders 4 Adequate sizeof fecder conductor "+ Conversion of I feeder sections to mi-hase feeder sections ‘+ Shifting the loads to new feeders or new substations + Conse the new substation and primary feeders ‘+ Increasing the voltage levels on primary feeders + Location of shunt and series capacitors on primary feeders EFFECT OF SERIES CAPACITOR “The maintenance of voltage at cofsunr prises within statutory Tinie at all loads is the responsibilty of uslity. Capcitors can also be installed in series with primary feeders to reduce voltage drop, but they are rarely employed in tis fashion. Where shust capacitors, connected in paalel withthe loud, correct the ‘component of the curent due to the inductive reactance of the cre, series «apaciors compensate for the reactance voltage drop in the feeder. A capacitor in series with primary ede serving a ageing pf oad wil ease ris in vollage 4s the Toad increase. The pf of th load through the sores eapacior and feeder rust be lagging if he valtage drop i to decrease appreciably. The voltage on the load side of the series capacitor ie rise above the source side, ating t improve the voliage regulation of the feeder, Since the volage rise or drop occurs instantaneously with te variations in the lod, the series capacitor response a8 a voltage regulator is faster and smoother than the regulators Main drawback of tis capacitor is the high voltage produced across the ‘spacior terminals under short-circuit conditions. The drop acros the capacitor is 1X, where Ip i the fault eurent which of many of times the ful Toad current ‘undo cortain conditions It is essential, therefore, that the capacitor is to be taken ‘out of service as quickly as posible. spark gap wi a high-speed contactor can‘be used to protect the capacitor under these conditions ‘Because of the potential hazards, series capacitors as voltage regulators are ‘usualy restieted to transmission systems rather than in distribution systems FIG 61 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM WITILOUT AND WITH SEREIS) ‘COMPENSTION, Ys i ‘, R FIG 62 PHASOR DIAGRAM OF FIG 6,12) AND (B) RESPECTIVELY Figures 6.1 and 6.2 show the line ans ts voltage phatordigram without and with series compensation. The approxiate voltage drop of he lne without series ‘espacior is piven by equation ‘And with series capacitor, Vir COS +14 -Xe)sing ‘Where X.= capacitive reactance ofthe series capacitor. AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATORS (AVR)tis also called automate voltage booste(AVB) Voltage regulators ae used to hold the voltage of feeder ata predetermined value within a limit which the ‘control equipment is capable of maintain and within acceptable tolerance values for distribution purpose. Regulators may be installed at substation or on istibation feeders on poles or platforms ‘Those ae essentially autotransformer, with the secondary or series) portion ofthe coi arranged so that all or apart of its induced voltage can be added to subiraced fom the lie or incoming primary voltage. The voltage variations are accomplished by changing the ratio of transformation automatically without de- enerzng the wnt Voltage regultos ate clasified in wo types and they ae: (6) Induction type and {Step type or tap changing under lalKTCUL) type regulators VOLTAGE REGULATORS ARE EITHER OR MOTOR OPERATED AS. SHOWN INFIG 58,Fig 6.3 Valiage Regulator INDUCTION TYPE REGULATOR In this type of voltage regulator, the primary(HV) winding and secondary (or series) winding are so arranged that they rotate with respect to one anther as shown in fig The primacy eolis usualy the stator and the secondary cul the rotor, the direction of rolation generally depending on whetier the incoming voltage isto be rated or lowered. The voltage induced in the secondary or in series winding will depend on the positon in relation to the primary winding Depending on the position, the induced voltage can add to or subtract the input voltage to obi the output votageDuring the rotation ofthe primary oil, the moving magnetic Held ean cause 4 large reactance voltage drop inthe secondary. To cance his effect, thitd col is mounted at right angle to the primary coil on the movable core and shor: ‘ircuited on itself. The moving primary coil will induce a voltage inthe third coil Which wil, in tum set-up moving magnet fel of its own, which will tend to ‘oppose that setup by the motion of the primary coll, The reactance of the regulator units thus kept essentially constant.Unregulated incoming voltage Compensating nang FIG 6 INDUCTION TYPE OF VOLTAGE REGULATOR STEP TYPE REGULATORS ‘Step type or TCUL regulators are frther classified as either: (©) ration ype which are 1- gor 3-pand it canbe used in substation for bus volage regulation o individual feeder voltage regulation (6) Distribution type, which cam be only 1-#and used fr pole mounted on over ‘ad primary feeder "eis essentially an autotransformer, ands connedted in the feeder same manner ‘asthe induction regulator. This ype does not employ rotation of one af the cals, ‘but changes voltages by means of aps inthe primary cols as shown in ig ‘Mos ofthe regulators are designed to correc the ine voltage fom 10% Ioostto 10% buck {ie., 10% )in 32 sepswith a S/8% voliages change per step. In addition to is autotransformer componeats, a step type voltage regulator also has two major components namely the tp changing and control mechanisms Each volige regulator is consisting of necessary controls and accessories and 50 thatthe tps ate changed automatically under loads by a tap changer which response to a voltage sensing contol to maintain a predetermined output voltage. By receiving its inputs from PT's and CT'S the contra! mechanism provides contol of voltage level end bandwidth, Further jt provides the ability to adjust, line drop compensation by selecting resistance and reactance settings; | Jnrogulated Pegusted noon ovsgat % vollage Sear | x cal 6 + eary fe FIG 6.5 STEP TYPE VOLTAGE REGULATOR (CONTROL AND RATING OF VOLTAGE REGULATORS “The rotation ofthe primary col inthe industion regulator and the tap changing in the step type regulator are controlled by a vokageregulatng relay(known as 2 Pereguiation + ee ‘control Licme i vege rept ar FIG 6. SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF LINE DROP COMPENSATOR AL vege spite | recommen FIG 6.7 LOCATION OF FEEDER VOLTAGE REGULATOR ‘The point of compensation shouldbe selected so thatthe customers farthest from the regultor will have the least lowest permissible voltage Under the heaviest fad ‘while the customer nearest the regulator wil bave the highest permissible volage ‘under light load eonitons