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    24 views44 pages

    UNIT I Scanned

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    Hari varshan

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    (oma Engnesrng VEHICLE STRUCTURE AND ENGINES 4.4. INTRODUCTION The term automobile or automotive stands for a vehicle which can be moved by itself. Therefore, an automobile is a self-propelled vehicle. It is used for the transportation of passengers and goods from one place to the other on the ground, A vehicle producing power within itsef for its propulsion is known as a self-propelled vehicle. Example: Scooters, mopeds, cars, lorry, Bus, jeep, tractors, ship, airplanes, helicopters, rockets ete. Modern automobiles are produced by using complex componenis of machineries and therefore, it requires careful attention for making it to perform in a safe, economical and efficient way. It is made up of a frame supported by the body and power producing units and power transmitting units. These units are further supported by tyres and Wheels are connected by springs and axles. In general, the power is Produced by internal combustion engines. This power intum is ‘transmitted to the reat wheels through various transmission systems ferential units etc. such as eluteh, propeller shaft, gear box, 12 Vehicle Structure The various units are held together in proper position and arranged on the frame. The automobile is propelled through the friction between tyre and ground. The super structure or body of the automobile provides the protection and co mfort to the passenger. The essential features of the automobile (i.e. truck) are shown in Figure 1.1 Steering gine Hanger FM plage ‘hat ‘Spring Dofona Fig, 11. Essential features of an automobile 1.1.1. Brief History of the Automobile ‘The invention of the automobile is not the product of a single man, single country of a single generation in any country. It isthe evolution and development of many men at different generations in different countries. The real history of automobile was started during 1Sth century (Le. during Leonardo Da Vinci’s period). But upto 18th century it was not seriously considered for development in practice. Captain Nicholas Cugnot, a French engineer is considered to be the father of “The Automobile”. He built the first road vehicle in 1769 ‘which was propelled by its own power. Actually, this vehicle was a 3 Las team engine having of four seats. It attained a speed of wieele “pout 2Smiles pet hour only fora period of 1Sminuts. During 1770, he built another self-propelled vehicle which could run at 8m.p.h carying 4 to 5 tons of weight. Richard Trevithick of England first built a practical full sized steam automobile in 1801 Julis Griffith of England built the first comfortable steam vehicle in 1821 Onesiphore Pacquaur of France took out a patent on the differential for road vehicle in 1827. Etienne Lenoir of France (Paris) constructed an internal combustion engine which ran by gas during 1860. Two years later, he fitted one of his engines in a vehicle. He drove it for about 6 mils. Nikolaus A.Otto and Engen Langen of Germany invented four stroke engine in 1876 which was run by gas. It was further improved by Gottlieb Daimler of Germany (in 1885) who substituted oil for gas. ‘The present day automobile is the development of this vehicle. Karl Benz of Germany built a tricycle with an ILC. engine in 1885-86 which was working an Otto cycle. The speed of this engine was 10m.p.h, and produced 8.11.P. In 1886, Daimler produced a four-wheeled vehicle with high-speed gas engine (800r.p.m, to 1000r.p.m.) which was considered as the greatest achievement in the history of automobile. In 1890, Charles Duryea, J.Frank Duryea Ford and E.Wintorn manufactured a gasoline automobile in America. Elwood Haynes, Henry az jele Structure and Ei Penhard and Levassor of France developed a first gasoline automobil incorporated many essential features of the present day automobile in 1895 “This car contained a vertical engine, modem type of chassis, sliding gear transmission operated by right hand clutch, brake and a foot elerator, Before 1900 considerable work was carried an in Germany, France, England and America on the development of gasoline automobile Until 1910, the automobile was in the experimental work. During 1900-1906, the production and sales of automobile besame sreal business, The world’s largest manufacturing industry was to be built in America, In America alone, there were 121 car manufacturers in which some of the familiar names are Chrysler, Nash, Hudson, Packard, Autocar, Oldsmobile, White, Ford, Cadillac, Buick overland, ‘Maxwell, Franklin etc Ford started an automobile industry with an initial run of 20000 vehicles in 1908, this was the period when the mass production was begun at the lowest possible price, ‘The year 1920 was the period of gradual change and refinement in the automobile design. The spark ignition gasoline engine was made with ‘compact, light, high speed, less vibration, air or water cooled and noiseless in nature. The engines were located in the front of the ‘chassis, The sliding gear transmission and poppet valve were used in almost every engine. (Kotomobite Engineering) History of automobile in India: In 1898, an American company imported three “Oldsmobiles” cars into Bombay (Mumbai). One of which was sold to Janshedji Teta, an industrialist. It was the first motor ear in India In 1903, an American company began to operate a public taxi service witha fleet of SOcars. In order to create and manufacture indigencous product, two automobile factories were set up in India. They were the Permier Automobiles Ltd., Bombay in 1943 and Hindustan Motors Ltd., Kolcutta in 1944. Now-a-days, there are many automobile industries for manufacturing automobile vehicles. The Maharastra and Tamil Nadu are the major states which are producing most of the automobile and auxiliary ‘manufacturing units 4.1.2, Requirements of an Automobile ‘The following requirements must be fulfilled for an automobile. |. It should develop power by itself. 2. The rate of power development must be easily controlled. 3. There should be an arrangement to transmit the power developed to the wheels. 4. An arrangement must exist to continue and discontinue power flow to the wheels $. It should be possible to control or vary the torque. 6. The driving thrust should be s vehicle. ssfully carried in the 7. It must have directional control, ~ {Vehicle Structure and Enj §. An arrangement must exist to stop the vehicle while it is |All the above requirements are fulfilled by the following arrangements 1. The power is developed by the engine 2, The rate of power development is controlled by an accelerometer. ‘The power developed by the engine is transmitted to the ‘wheels by transmission system. 4, The gear box is provided for varying or changing the torque. 5, The driving thrust is carried to the chassis frame through the suspension system. 6, Directional control is maintained through the stering, 7. The movin vehicle is stopped by means of brakes. 1.4.3. Manufactures of Automobiles in India and Abroad In India 1. Premier Automobiles Ltd., Mumbai: They are manufacturers of Premier President, Premier Padmini, Premier Pioneer and Premier Roadmaster Cars, Dodge and Forgo trucks, buses inthe range of 1 to 7.Stones as well as goods chassis, 2. Hindustan Motors Lid., Koteutta: They are manufacturers of Hindustan Ambassador Cars, Bedford, Contessa Car, Hindustan trucks and Busses in the range of 1 to 7.Stones, and goods chassis. (awe 3, standard Motor Products of India Ltd, Chennai: They are manufacturing standard Herald Mark III Cars and standard tone trucks and Gazel cars 4, Ashok Leyland Ltd., Chennai: ‘They manufacture Leyland comet truck and buses, Beaver Hipo and Jumb trucks, 5, Maruti Udyog Ltd.: Maruti 800car, Maruti 800 Deluxe car, Maruti 1000 car, Maruti Suzuki car, Maruti-suzuki Esteem car, Maruti 800 high roof van, ‘Maruti 800 Flat roof van, Maruti Suzuki Omni van, Maruti Suzuki Zen car, Maruti Alto car are manufactured by them. 6. Tata Engg. & Locomotive Co,, Ltd, (Telco) Mumbai: They are manufacturing Tata trucks and busses in the range of 5 to Stones. 7, Mahindra & Mahindra Ltd, Mumbai: They manufacture Kaiser Universal Jeeps, FC 150, 160 trucks, FC2601 truck, Mahindra Scarpio ject, Tractors. 8 Bajaj Tempo Ltd. Pune: They are manufacturers of Tempo Henseat 3 wheels and Tempo Viking and Matador 4-wheeler, M80 and MSO motor cycles, Bajaj 1SOCBU and Bajaj 1SOLKD Scooters. 9. Automobile products of India (API), Mumbai: Auto ricksha, delivery van, tanker, pick-ups, milk van, vans for traders, postal vans, mini school bus, Lambay 150 and MAC 175 Scooters, Lamby 1S0CC and 175CC, Mac 175 scooters are manufactured by them, 18 \ [Vehicle Structure and Engine: 10. Escorts Ltd., Faridabad: They manufacture Escort tractors 3036, 3350 model, Rajdoot 350, Rajdoot 175, Ra oot 175GTS motor cycles, Fond tractors. 11. Enfield India Ltd., Chennai: are manufacturers of Enf motor cycles of various mode ch as minibullet 198, Exploy Enelator, Fantabulas scooters and three wheelers. 12, Andra pradesh scooters Ltd., Hyderabad: Aclwyn pushpak 150 scooters. They manufacture Vespa PLT 13. Scooters India Ltd., Lucknow: Vijay deluxe, Vijay super, Lambretta cento 100 scooters are ‘manufactured by them, 14. Kiroloskar Tractors Ltd., Mumbai: ‘They manufacture International B-275, B-444 and, D400K tractors, 15. HMT, Pinjore Zetor tractors of 2511, 511, S711 models are manufactured by them, 16, Ideal Jawa (India) Pvt. Ltd., Mysore. They are the manufacturers of Yezdi 350, Yezdi 250, Colt 60 motorcycles. 17, Kinetic Engg. Pvt. Lid, Pane They manufacture only Luna mopeds 18. Tractors and Farm equipments (TAFE) Ltd: They are manufacturers of Massy F 1's ME-1035 model, TAFE-504 tractors. 19. Panjab tractors, Mohali Swaraj tractors are manufactured by them, 19 Engineer Auton _ 20, Kirloskar Ghatge Patil, Kolhapur: they manufacture only Laxmi mopeds. 21. Majestic Auto They manufacture only Hero majestic mop. p2, Mopeds India Ltd., Coimbator They manufacture only Suvega mopeds. 23, Tamilnadu Mopeds Lid., Chennai: ‘They manufacture only Mayuram mopeds. 4, Karnataka scooters Ltd., Banglore: They manufacture only Falcon 150 scooters, 5. Lokia Machines Ltd., (LML): pa XE 100, Vespa XE 150 scooters, y are manufacturing Vi Freedom motor cycles. 26, Ind Suzuki Lid: They manufacture only AX 100 motorcycles 27, Sundaram clayton Léd., Chennai: This industry only produces TVS 50. 28, India Utomobiles Ltd., Jamshedpur: The; ‘manufacture only Hindi Panther mopeds. World's leading automobile manufactures: 1, General Motors Ltd 2. Ford Motor Co. Ltd. 3. Fiat 4. Chrysler 5. Toyota 6. Nissan 7. Hyundai 8. Mercedes Benz Ltd. 9. Mitsubishi 10, Renault Ltd Daimler Co, Ltd. 12, Rolls-Royce Ltd, Sunbeam-Talbot Ltd, 14, Mazda Motors 15, Volks wagenwerk Ltd 16. Lea-Francis Cars Ltd, 17. Morgan Motors Ltd, 18, Suzuki Ltd 19, Rover Co. Lid. 20. Peugeot 21. Chevrolet Austin Motor Co, Ltd, 23. Allard Motors co. Ltd 24, Lancia (England) Ltd, 25. Morgan Motors Co. Ltd 26. Jowett Cars Ltd, 27. Jaguar cars Ltd. 28. ISUZU 1.2. TYPES OF AUTOMOBILES ‘Automobiles can be classified with respect to different purposes which are as follows: () With respect to the purpose: (@ Passenger vehicles. Examples: Car, Bus, Jeep, Scooter, Mopeds, Motor cycle. (b) Goods carriers. Examples: Trucks, Lorrys. (i) With respect to the fuel used (@ Petrol vehicles (b) Diesel vehicles (©) Gas vehicles (@ Electric vehicle (©) Solar vehicle (iii) With respect to capacity. (@) Heavy Transport vehicle or Heavy Motor vehicles. Example: Bus, Lorties, Trucks, Tractors. (b) Light transport vehicle or light motor vehicles. Example: Car, Scooter, Mopeds, Motor cycles, Jeeps. Sine cal Double deci Tey Coates Bakar Ta ls gawk Sons ta KC isc Tar Figure 1.2 Classification of automobiles (ty) With respect to the number of wheels: (@) Two wheelers. Examples: Scooters, Mopeds. (b) Four wheelers. Fxamples; Car, Jeep, Buses, Trucks. [Vehicle Structure and E @ Tire: wen Brame: Au, Tenpes acter Example: Heay tule, (o) With respect the drive of the vehicle: (2) Single wheel drive vehicles, (0) Two wheel drive vehicles. (© Four wheel drive vehicles (@ Six wheel drive vehicles. (vi) With respect to the side of drive: (b) Left hand drive, Example: Most of the American, UAE vehicles. (©) Right hand drive. Example: Most of the Indian vehicles. (vil) With respect to transmission: (b) Conventional, Example: Most of Indian vehicles. (©) Semi-automatic, Example: Most of British vehicles. (d) Automatic. Examples: American vehicles. (vti) With respect to their construction: (@ Single unit vehicles. (b) Articulated vehicles and tractors. A general classification of the automobiles is shown schematically in Figure 1.2. 4.3. VEHICLE CONSTRUCTION Before invention of automobile, the most common type of vehicle used in our country was bullock cart. Now-a-days, we are also using bullock cart in rural areas, It is better to understand the construction of bullock cart before discussing with automobile. Figure 1.3 shows the bullock cart. (aie ag Vane () Fame Gi) Whee andl Yoke Body or superstructure and platform “These parts can be divided into the following two main portions. @_ Machine portion Gi) Carriage portion Machine portion consists of a frame in which wheels are attached through the axle, A yoke is fixed at the front of the frame through which the cart is pulled by bullocks. Figure 1.3 Construction of bullock cart The carriage portion consists of platform and body which is mounted over the frames. The platform con ts of two long beam connected by cross members. The load or goods to be carried by this portion and the {otal load are borne by the frame. ‘The basic construction 0° automobile is similar to that of a cart. An automobile also consists of machine portion and carriage portion ia \ ile Structure and Engines rence between a cart and an automobile lar 10 cart, The dif being that cart is a simple vehicle where as automobile is a self- pro In addition to that, an automobile al vehicle. A vehicle consists of engine to drive the vehicl 0 consists of power transmission systems such as clutch, gear box, propeller shaft, universal joints, differential etc Autemobile is also provided with steering for directional control, acce‘eration for speed control and brakes for stopping purposes. The speed of the cart is very slow as compared to the automobile, Due to this fact, the automobile is subjected to more shocks which inturn put more strains on the frame. Therefore, the automobile is needed robust, frame and shock absorbers to bear all stresses and strains ‘The axle is not directly fitted with the frame in the automobile. It is suspended with the frame through strong springs. In order to arrest shocks and save the passengers from jerks and jolts due to rough road condition, shock absorbers are provided. Figure 1.4 Layout of a car (ast Figure 1-4 shows the layout of a car, It consists of an engine which is Jocated at the front of the vehicles followed by transmission systems. rhe radiator is located in front of the engine various other parts of the vehicle shown in the Figure 1.4 are generator, starter, steering, clutch, rear axle, differential, universal joint, wheel, tyres, body, lamp et. ‘the power developed by the engine is transmitted to the rear whee! through clutch, gearbox, propeller shaft, universal joint, and differential. Lamps are provided with the automobile so that these could be driven safely during night hours. Hom is provided for making warning sound to the other road users. ‘The body oF superstructure is built upto fulfill the requirements or trends of the passenger. Brake is provided to the vehicle to stop ot slow down the speed whenever required. Fuel tank is provided to store the required amount of fuel. Radiator is provided for cooling the engine and related parts of the vehicle 1.4, CHASSIS ‘To construct any automobile, chassis is the basic requirement. Chassis is a French term and was initially used to denote the frame or main structure of a vehicle. It is now extensively used in complex vehicles except the body. A vehicle without body is called a chassis 1.41, Main Components of Chassis 1. Frame 2. Front suspension 3. Steering mechanism 4. Engine, clutch and gear box 5. Radiator 6. Propeller shaft We \ _ 7. Wheels 8. Rear and front springs and shock absorber 9. Differential unit 10, Universal joint Brakes and braking s ge battery 13, Fuel tank ical systems 15, Silencer Fame Deen hoo and Te Propo ae) Rear ale ‘Goer fl Dine ent on sng Engine / Figure 1.5 Layout of chassis / TAT 1.5 shows the layout of th hassis. It shows that the engine is Figur rocated fr clutch, The drive of the engine can be connected or at the front end of the vehicle. It is connected to the gearbox throug xd from the gearbox by the dri + with the help of clutch edal pe box, the power is transmitted to the diff From the geal ferential through opeller shaft propell es. Radia 1d universal joint and finally to t! wheels via rear is placed in front of the engine. 4.4.3. Classification of Chassis The chassis can be classified on the following basis: 1. According to the fitting of engine: (@ Full-forward (b) Semi-forward (©) Bus chassis (@) En (©) Engine at centre at back In full-forward chassis, the engine is fitted outside the driver cabin or seat, Example: Cars, Mahindra jeeps. In semi-forward chassis, a half portion of the engine is exactly in the driver's cabin whereas the other half is in front but outside the driver's cabin, Example: Tata SE series of vehicles. Inbus chassis, total engine is fitted in the driver cabin. It provides the increased floor area in the vehicle. The driver seat is just above the front wheel. Example: Busses, Trucks. In most of the vehicles, the engine is fitted in front portion of the chastis. The drive is given to front wheels only. Example: Matador ehicles. In some vehicles, the engine is fitted in the back portion of the chassis. Example: Volkswagen cars, Leyland bus of England, In (Webel Structure and of the chassis, (6) Roar engine ave (2) Centra engine cive Figure 1.6 Classification of chassis according to the fitting of engine 2. According (0 the number of wheels fitted in the vehicles and the number of driving wheels: (@ 4x 2 drive chassis ~ It has four wheels out of which 2 are driving wheels (b) 4 x 4 drive chassis — It has four wheels and all of them are driving wheels (©) 6 «2 drive chassis ~ It has six wheels out of which 2 are driving wheels (@) 6 4 drive chassis ~ It has six wheels out of which 4 are driving wheels «s) r ing) To (somite ; 4, Characteristics of Good Chassis 1 ror good chassis design and its good performances, it must have th following characteristics: 1. Fast pickup 2. Strength 3. Safety 4, Dursbility 5. Dependability 6. Ease of control 7. Quietness 8. Speed 9, Power accessibility 10. Eccnomy of operation 11, Low centre of gravity 12, Stability 14, Braking ability 16.Simplicity of lubrication 13. Load clearance 15. Good springing 4,5. FRAME ‘The frame is the main part of the chassis. It is the backbone of the vehicle. All other parts of the chassis are mounted on the frame. It is the rigid structure that forms a skeleton to told all the major parts together. tthe front end of the frame, the engine is mounted. The engine intur is connected to the clutch and transmission unit to form a complete Power assembly. The frame is supported by the wheel and tyre assembly. Some part of the steering system is connected to the frame and remaining to the body. The fuel tank is fastened to the rear end of the frame, 4.51. Functions of the Frame 1. To form the base for mounting engine and transmission systems, _ TET [Vehicle Structure and Engines} To withstand the engine and transmission thrust and to stresses as well as accele smmodate suspension systen To carry the other parts of the vehicle and its passengers. To resist the effect of centrifugal forces when cornering a 6. To withstand bending and twisting stresses due to the fluctuating or rear and front axle. 1.5.2. Requirements of Good Frame It must be strong, light and designed in si withstand the shi a way that it may blows, twists, vibrations and other strains to which it is subjected to the road conditions. It should also resist the distorting force such as; (@) Weight of the components and pas gers causing a sagging effect due to bending action. (b) Horizontal forces provided by road irregularities, (©) Upward twisting forces caused by road shocks to provide a torsional effect. 4.8.3. Frame Construction In order to provide a good resistance to bending and torsional effect, the frame sections are made of proper forms. A typical passenger car frame is shown in Figure 1.7. There are three common types of frame anne}, tubular and box. These are made from cold rolled open earth steel or heat-treated alloy steel obile F jutor recring] £120 Figure typical car frame LQOL Figure 1.8 Frame sections Channel section provides good resistance to bending but it is poor in torsion while tubular section provides good resistance to torsion and poor resistance to bending. The box sections are comparatively resistant to bending and torsion. These sections are shown in Figure 18, The frame is narrow at the front end because of short turning radius of front wheels, It is widening out at the rear end to provide a bigger space for body. \ [Wevice Stactare and Engine] modate the The rear and front of the frame are curved upward to movement of the axle due to springing and also kept the chassis heig also avoids impact due to ss low. axle bouncing. Figue 1.9 shows the simplified diagram of the frame. It con two longitudinal o side members of channel section, r - eS , R Neve an om Figure 1.9 Conventional frame ‘The side members are braced by a number of cross members of channel or tubular section. In conventional design, the cross members ight angles to side members as shown in Figure 1.9. Several ‘modern chassis frame have cross members that cross in the form of “X" between the side members as shown in Figure 1.10. are at ‘The brackets are provided to connect the springs and support running boards. If necessary, more brackets are provided to support the engine, gear box ete. The engine, clutch and gearbox are bolted together to form one rigid assembly. It is mounted usually on the front end of the frame by means of rubber pads to withstand engine vibrations. — Cross member for anemission support Figure 1.10 X-type frame 1.5.4. Load on Chassis Frame A chassis frame is subjected to the following loads: 1, Loads of short duration: ‘When the vehicle is crossing a broken patch of road, it is acted upon by heavy and suddenly applied loads of short duration. This load results in longitudinal torsion. 2. Combined loads of moment any duratio ‘These loads occur while negotiating curve, applying brakes and striking a pot hole. 3. Inertia toads: These loads are applied on the vehicle due to application of brake for short period, This load tends to bend the side members in the vertical plane. [Vehicle Structure 4. Impact loads: These loads are applied during collision of vehicle with another object. It results in a general collapse. Load due to road camber: Load due to road camber, side wind, and cornering force while taki ig atuen, It in lateral bending of side members. 6. Load due to wheel impact: oad obstacles may cause thi Load due to wheel impact with to remain obstructed while the other wheel tends to particular whet move forward. It will tend to distort the frar to parallelogram shape. 7. Static loads: Loads due to chassis parts such as engine, steering, tank, body ete are constantly acting on the frame. 8. Overloads: The load of the vehicle which is loaded beyond the specified design load is known as overloads. 1.5.5. Materials for Frame © mild The various steels used for conventional pre steel sheet, carbon steel sheet and nickel alloy The composition of sheet nickel alloy steel is given as follows: Carbon 0.25 t0 0, Magnanese ~ 0.35 t0 0.75% Silicon 0.30% (Maximum) Nickel 3% 05% (max) 4.5.6. Types of Frame rere are three types of chasis frame construction a follows 1. Conventional frame construction 2, Semi-integral frame construction 3. Integral or Frameless construction 1, Conventional frame construction: nis type of frame is also called as non-load carrying frame. This frame is shown in Figure 1.7. The loads on the vehicle are transferres to the suspension by this type of frame. The frame supports the various parts of the vehicle such as the engine, power transmission elements and car body. The total frame is mounted on the wheel axle by means of springs. The body of the vehicle is made of flexible materials such as wood and mounted on the frame by using rubber mountings in between body and frame. This arrangement makes the body completely isolated from t frame deflection, It is mostly used i heavy vehicles such as trucks. For commercial vehicles with relatively low volume production, it has advantages of strong chassis of small proportions weight sufficient to camry the considerable pay loads, localized accident damage which is easy to repair in comparison to the integral chassis, Further, both long, and short wheel base version of the same vehicle can be produced. PP - [Vehicle Structure and Engines Figure 1.11 Dismantled view of chassis frame and body construction The éross-sections of the frame are usually channel, tubular or box type. Figure 1.1 shows a dismantled view of conventional chassis frame and body construction. 2. Semi-integral frame construction: In this type of frame, the rubber body mountings are replaced by relatively stiff mountings. This arrangement transfers a part of the frame load to the body structure also. This type of frame is mainly used in European cars and American cars, But this construction is heavy in nature as compared to the conventional type. 3. Integral frame construction or Frameless construction: This type of construction is also called as chassisless, unitary or ‘monocoque construction, This is now-a-days used in passenger cars. ‘This construction provides a stiff light construction particularly suitable for mass-produced vehicles. In this type of construction, there is no separate frame, All the assembly units are attached to the body. in this design, heavy side members of the frame are eliminated and the floor of the body. The body of the vehicle gives a mounting for engine, transmission, suspension and ‘other mechanical units and components. This type of construction is Jed to much reduction of weight which is important in design consideration. cross members are combined Figure 1.12 Frameless chassis construction for car Structure of this type includes a floor structure having side members, cross members, floor and other components. They are welded together 4s one assembly. The surfaces are having ribbed portion to increase strength and rigidity. For carrying the engine and front suspension, a sub-frame is also attached to the front of the body shell. The floor and Side panel surfaces have pressed grooves to increase stiffness In this type of construction, the stresses are evenly distributed throughout the structure. A strong structure with good torsional Figidity and resistance in bending are provided by this construction The structure is also free from shakes on rough roads which-cause an YK 3) (automobile Engineer bon (0.1 ry low carbe e ve required to t sections by spot welding Jy is immersed in a rust body is sistance and rusting resistance. Figure 1.13 Dismantted view of frameless ‘construction for car Box section root rails @ headers, Box section com ep siucure Figure 1.15 Frameless chassis construction for buses order to avoid the objectionable drumming sound from panel due to vibration, a sound damping material should be packed on inside ofthe rere sory panel. Figures 1.12, 1.13, 1.14-and 1.15 are shown in different types of integral construction car and bus. pile Box section vals Figure 1.14 Assembly view of frameless construction et start ea im faire 1.8. BODY The bs om af he mode aomobile Bay is oder hase dvr ‘aig. They hv snl Sa pe by contion wines vey litle sty the pasengr fom weather Lane ses ssh bodies ver developed and manufactured vith pcg ‘0 provide increased space, safety or protection to the Passengers from weather. A body consists of windows and doors, engine cover, roof, luggage seu €te: The electrical system in the body is connected to the chassis clectrical units so that the battery and the Beneratov/alternator can furnish the required electrical energy tothe system, 1.641. Importance of Vehicle Body Design |. Weight of the body is about 40% of total Weight of the car and about 60 to 70% of total weight of buses, Therefore, eduction in body weight is important, 2. If'we reduce the weight of the body it will also improve the fuel economy:ie, mileage), 3 The body of the vehicle determines its aerodynamic characteristics. Better aerodynamic structure leads to fuel SSonomy at high speeds and stability in eross winds, ‘The Positive Pressure on the font of the vehicle should be —__ £131 and it should be deflected smoothly to prevent the creation of eddies, 4. The body is also important for aesthetic and ergonomics It should give pleasant appeal and style for the 4.6.2. Requirements of the Vehicle Body The vehicle body should fulfill the following requirements. 1. It must be strong enough to withstand all types of forces acting on the vehicle. The forces are including the weight of the car, inertia, luggage, braking and comering forces, Stresses induced in the body should be distributed evenly to all portions. 3. Weight of the body should be as minimum as possible. 4. It should be able to cope with impact loads of reasonable ‘magnitude. 5. Itshould have reasonable fatigue life. 6. It must provide adequate space for both the passenger and the luggage. 7. It should have minimum number of components, 8. It must have sufficient torsional stiffness ie, ability to resist ‘the twisting stresses produced by imegular road surface. % It should have good access to the engine and suspension elements, 10, It must ensure a quite ride, easy entry and exit 11. Ttshould create minimum vibration during running Ke ___[Weniet Ta. The shape of the body should be such that the sir drag is minimum 13, Itis easy to manufacture as well as cheap in cost 14. It should be designed in such a way that the passengers and the luggage are protected from bad weather 15, It should give peel finish in shape and colour. 1.6.3. Types of Vehicle Body passenger space and overall For different types of auto-vehicle: dimensions vary. Various types of bodies for different vehicles can be listed as 1. Car 2, Straight truck 3. Truck - half body type 4, Truck-platform type 5. Tractor 6. Tractor with articulated trailer 7. Tanker 8. Dumper truck 9. Delivery van 10. Station wagon 11, Pick-up 12. Jeep 13, Buses 14, Mini-buses 15, Three wheeler (ie., Auto) | om 133 fe salient features of the car body are four doors, pillerless frame, ‘The two front seats with two extra seats at back, partition between driver and passengers, luggage space as a continuation of passenger compartment, folding roof with windup windows, sliding roof and folded flat windscreen. The car bodies have great resistance to wind. For high-speed vehicles, special attention is given to streamline the body. The streamlining is the process for shaping the body to reduce air resistance. It is mainly used for racing cars. straight truck vehicle bodies are constructed into two parts. On driver cabin and other goods carriage. Goods cartiage is closed type with particular standard height. These vehicles are used to carry the goods which are affected by the weather conditions. Example: Vegetables, sugar, rice, sea foods ete. ‘Track half body is having driver cabin as usual but the goods carriage has open at the top. It is used to cary various goods which are not affected by weather. Truck platform type has also a separate driver cabin. Its goods carriage is platform type. It usually carries goods such as Iron billets, barrels, concrete slabs etc. Tractor consists of very small length body in addition to driven cabin, Usually, an articulated trailer is attached to the rear end of the trailer. ‘This trailer has various cabins. Figure 1.16 shows the above types of vehicle body arrangement. It may be open type or closed type depending on the purpose of use. It is used to carry passenger cats, mopeds, motor eycles ete. Most ofthese vehicles have six wheels. Tanker isthe vehicle which consists of a tank fo carry fluids of various natures. The tank may be welded o bolted to the chassis frame behind the driver cabin. The tank has an opening at the top to pour fluids and a drain cock atthe bottom to drain the fluid. ve) Tractor with ata a seep Figure 1.16 Different types of bodies for different vehicles Dumper truck has heavy goods carrying panel with open top in the The rear side can be iilted up and down by hydraulic cinders. It is used to carry brick, siones, marbles etc. For other types, figure itself illustrates the type of body construction and its intended 1.6.4. Body construction and its components ‘The main purpose of designing the car body is for containing and protection of the engine and accessories as well as the. passenger. To fulfill the above requirements, the vehicle body has various components which are grouped under the following three groups: @) Structure — All toad canying elements are defined as structure. (©) Finish — This group includes all unstressed units such as bonnet, boot, lid, bumper etc (© Equipment ~ This group includes various parts such as tim, seats, doors, window etc. The various components of car body are body, sheets, front and rear doors, front panel, roof panel, floor panel with engine beams, wheel arches, bonnet, wind sereen piller, wind screen front and rear window, front and rear bumper, cowl assembly, seats, hood etc. ‘These components are schematically shown in Figure 1.17. All steel sections of bodies are stamped out by dies separately and welded to other sections for forming all steel bodies. The body of the car is made up of many sheet metal panels. Each panel is so designed to give enough strength and rigidity to the assembled unit, At the Be [Vehicle Structure and Binge critical locations of the body, the reinforcing members are incorporated at proper interspaces. oa wind scroon ploy | — Foot Poorpitor ear quater per >) oar window rnd _ “Fy ont sie pane Figure 1.17 Components of car body ‘The main skeleton pf the car body has two types of panels. 1. Outer panel, 2. Inner panel. The outside panels provide the shape of the car body whereas the inner panels reinforce the shell of the body. The various curved shapes are given to outer panels to provide the strength to the panels. The inner panels provide mounting locations for the various trim panels and connecting assemblies. These two panels are welded together and to the pillars and rails so as to form the skeleton of the car body. Initially, the floor of the car body is assembled and then pillars, rails ‘and panels are welded in order to form the complete car body. The floor is made up of 3 pressed stee! panels such as front, centre and rear sections. Cente section Figure 1.18 Floor assembly of car Rocker pannel Figure 1.19 Rocker panels attached to floor Each unit is so designed that it gives a lower profile and the car accommodates more passengers. In order to give additional strength, tigidity and prevent excessive vibration, metal strips have been welded at different places of the floor panel. Then rear wheel houses inner panels and rocker panels are welded to the floor. The wheel house panel is welded to the floor in such a way that it gives sufficient clearance for the up and down movement of the wheels while running. 4 car on the road, The box shaped rocker panels which are fixed to the sides ofthe floor provides added strength to the floor panel The cowl assembly or the front portion of the car is made up of many smaller panel stampings of steel sheet metal as shown in Figure 1.20. ia_\ Wa ‘The wind-shield opening frame accommodates the front glass which is Je Structure and curved in shape in many cars. Top cow pane! Cow bodymounts Cow de panels Figure 1.20 Cowl assembly The top outer cowl panel is sometimes vented to allow the fresh air to enter into the cat. The dashboard panel accommodates different warning and indicating devices required to operate the car. The instrument panel is usually welded to the cowl but in some design, itis also bolted to the cowl. The pillars on the sides of the cowl are used for fastening the front door hinges and cowl side panels. The fire wall of the cowl assembly is the sheet metal pane! which separates the front passenger space from the engine space. This wall is insulated in such a ‘way that the engine heat and noise are prevented from entering into the [a8 panel and floor panel \Wirdshiets header Contre pitar Figure 1.21 Construction of centre pillars and roof rails ‘The centre pillar supports the rear doors and hinges. It also supports the sticker plates of the front doors. The roof rails and centre pillars are usually of box section. It gives maximum strength to the body. Drip mountings are added to the side rails of the roof panel. The drip ‘mountings are U shaped channel. It is used to catch and direct the ‘water of the roof to the back of the car during raining. The roof panel is welded to the top side rails. The rear window and front windshield frames are attached to the roof panel by spot welding. a _ [ekicte Siroctre and Engine) (sai icin] —_ ia ftooe pa? —_ shaped crip moulding Figure 1.22 Drip mouldings Lower decked Rear quater panel The rear quarter panels are welded to the rear wheel house panel, the Panel praintrough floor panel and the rear of the rocker panel, The trunk lid provides cover for the trunk compartment. It is attached to the body with the help of hinges as shown in Figure 1.24. In order to prevent the water and dust 10 enter into the compartment, a rubber weather strip is Provided. Locking arrangement is also provided for the rear compartment. Figure 1.23 Quarter panels Engine compartment is formed by assembling different sheet metal Panels. This assembly covers the front wheels and therefore it prevents the dirt, mud, snow ete being thrown off by the front tyres on the cagine and the body of the car. The radiator support is provided to support the radiator by means of bolt. A stone shield is bolted to the ‘adiator support and the fenders. It prevents sticking of small flying stones on to the radiator grills and radiator and thus it avoids their damage. The two tenders which cover the front wheels are connected by the radiator support, Figure 1.24 Trunk lid Figure 1.25 Front end sheet metal The arrangement of engine hood is shown in Figure 1.25. It is constructed in the same manner as the trunk lid. It has inner and outer Panels. The inner panel acts as the reinforcement to the engine hood. It Provides mounting locations for the hood lock and hinges. The outer LAB shape to the body. The hood is attached to the car body ives t panel e ns of hinges. by mean ne of the most important components inside the car body is a seat rhe seats of the car are of various types such as folding back, bucket erally of the bucket or rigid. The seats of the present day cars a type. Four way adjustable headrest ‘Adjustable seat wings Figure 1.26 Self adjusting seat The seats are mounted on rails which make them adjustable, The back can also be tilted in the convenient position and they are also provided with head rest for safety in case of accident. Present day ears use four doors, two in front and two in rear. The front doors are hinged on front pillars where as rear doors are hinged on centre pillars. Each door is provided with a check arm consisting of an articulated plate secured on pillar and sliding into a slot in door. The ia [Vehicle Structure and Engines rubber weather strips are bonded with a special compound around the doors. Each the door consists of door handle, window, window glass regulator crank, arm rest, drop glass panel as shown in Figure 1.27. In modern cars, five doors are provided. Fifth door is used as a trunk lid here. The glasses used in cars, buses and trucks are specially designed in such a way that it does not form sharp edges when broken, petra pap Po rank Figure 1.27 Front door of Fiat 1100 select car But in ordinary glass, used for house window will form sharp edges when it is broken, The special glass used in automobiles prevents the passenger seriously injured in case of any accident. Bumpers are provided at the front and rear end of the car. These are used to protect the front end and rear end of the car from damage in case of the light collisions, They are manufactured by heavy gauge steel sheet. It is of channel section with the open side tured inwards 145 ied or riveted to the ends of the longitudinal members of the itis bol cai frame of front body rails, 4.6.5. Materials for body construction rhe materials used for construction of various parts of the body are steel, wood, plastics, toughened glass, aluminium. In earlier days, ‘wooden bodies were used for construction. But now-a-days, steel is mainly used for body construction because of low cost and easy to smamafactur. ‘Wooden bodies require a separate steel chassis frame to carry the loa ‘The body structure was heavy. Further, wooden bodies are flexed considerably and hence they have short life. Initial cost is also high ‘Therefore, these bodies become obsolescence now-a-days. Sheet metal is widely used for body construction. It has high stiffness which results in negligible non-flexing and hence a longer life. Its initial cost is also less. Aluminium has also been used by some manufactures because of its good formability, light in weight, and more resistance to corrosion qualities. But, its main disadvantage is lesser stiffness and rigidity, Present day, plastic bodies are popular. Thermoplastics are quite often used for many components such as boot covers, grills etc., whereas thermosetting plastics are mainly used for body shells. The most widely used thermosetting plastic is glass fibre reinforced resin. This. ‘material can be moulded to any shape easily. The resulting structure is of light weight. The latest type of plastics used for body construction is carbon fibre reinforced plastics. It is stronger than steel and weightless. But the cost is very high. ae \ [Vehicle Structure and Engines Wind screen and window panels are made by toughened glass. As already mervioned in the previous section, it has a special property when broken, it does not form sharp edges or pieces. All the boken pieces are in the form of rounded granules which do not cause injury. There are two different types of safety glasses, namely, laminated safety glass ad tempered safety glass. Laminated safety glass consists of two layers of glass bonded together with the help of another inner layer of vinyl transparent plastic under heat and pressure. When this Blass is shattered by ‘impact, the centre layer of plastic holds the broken pieces of glass together thus not allowing them to fly. These glasses are generally used for ‘windscreen of the vehicle. ‘The tempered safety glass is made from a single piece of case- hardened or heat-treated glass. Initially, it s eu to the required shape and then heat treated until it becomes soft. Then itis blasted with cold ait to the outer surface to ereate tension between inner soft and outer hard surface. Thus, it becomes five times harder than ordinary glass When it breaks, it will form granular particles which will not cause injury. These glasses are used to side or rear windows. 1.7. RESISTANCES TO VEHICLE MOTION ‘A moving vehicle has to overcome the following resistances 1. Aire Ut is the resistance offered by air to the vehicle motion, 1t depends "upon the following factors: ince: (I) Size of vehicle Q) Shape (3) Speed (@) Wind velocity ia bile Engineering] en essances — 2 or amponet of he vlicles weight whch spr he 1m of the road. This component remains constant but independent plane of the vehicle's speed. iscellaneous resistance: ie resistances such as rolling resistances depend upon the ther resist following parameters: (2) Tyre characteristics (1) Road characteristics (4) Vehicle speed. G) Vehicle weight 1,8. AERODYNAMICS OF AUTOMOBILE BODY ero means tr, dmamies means motion. Aerodynamics i, therefore, the behaviour of air in motion relative to the vehicle body. The body design pertaining to shape and size of the vehicle must have acceptable aerodynamic characteristics. ‘The following are various forces acting on the vehicle: (@ Drag force (Fj: ; Force of air drag is acting in the direction of vehicle motion with the wind acting along the longitudinal direction axis. This force is also called air resistance. This offers resistance tothe motion ofthe vehicle The various factors, such as profile diag (57% of total vehicle), induced drag (8%), sk friction (10%), interference drag (15%) and cooling and ventilation system drag (10%) affects the total drag. The total aerodynamic drag can be calculated by using the equation, ad F, =Car a {Wevicte Structure nd Engine) where, C, ~ drag coefficient P- density of air V- Velocity of air - Projected area of the vehicle viewed from front. ‘The profile of the body should be carefully selected to avoid. The drag force stream lines of air flow around the body should be continuous and separation of the boundary layer should be avoided. Skin friction drag can be reduced by using very smooth and well Polished body. Avoiding excessive projections such as door handles, mirrors, aerials helps in reducing drag. . W) Lift force (F): Aerodynamic lift force is the vertical component of the resultant force caused by the pressure distribution on the body. Lift force can be calculated by using the equation 2A Fcpv74 Ee CprtS where, Cx drag coefficient = density of a ‘The aerodynamic lift wil tend to reduce the pressure between the tyres and the ground witich causes loss of steering on the front axle and loss of traction on the rear axle. (Uy Cross wind force (F,): Cross wind force is acting in the lateral direction, on the side of the vehicle. This is formed by the asymmetric flow f air around the vehicle body. (Kotomobile Engineering] 1 ‘these forces are acting at the centre of pressure instead of centre of gravity and hence cause moments as follows: ‘Yawing moment Figure 1.28 Forces and moments acting on the vehicle body Pitching moment (M,) which caused by the drag force F, or lift force F, about Y axis. This moment makes the rear wheels lift off the ground and further reduces the available traction, (@) Yawing moment (Mj) which is caused by the cross wind force F, about Z axis, (iit) Rolling moment (M,) which is caused by the cross wind force F, about Z. Figure 1.28 shows the forces and moment acting on the vehicle body. 1.9, NEED FOR A GEARBOX When a vehicle is running, vatious resistances oppose it. In order to keep the vehicles moving at a uniform speed, a driving force or tractive effort is equal to the sum of all the opposing forces. If the tractive effort increases the total opposing resistance, the excess Srl <<“ 130_\ [Vehicle Structure and Engines tractive effort will accelerate the vehicle. If the tractive effort is less than the total resistances, the excess of the resistances will lower down the speed of the vehicle. ‘When a vehicle starts to move from the rest, it will need more force or high torque at the time of starting and also for hill climbing, accelerating or carrying heavy loads due to various opposing resistances. It is done for obtaining uniform speed and driving force or tractive force. These two forces should be exactly equal to the sum of opposing forces. It can be achieved by running the engine at high speed and wheels at low speeds. After starting the vehicle, it is moving due to momentum gained by the weight of vehicle. The same force or torque need not require to keep the vehicle in moving. So, the speed of the road wheels has to be progressively increased when the vehicle gains speed gradually. The gearbox is mainly provided for high torque at the time of starting, hill climbing, acceleration and pulling a load. It can be achieved by a set of gears which are enclosed in a gearbox and gear changing mechanism. 1.9.1, Purposes of the gearbox 1. Ithelps the engine to be disconnected from the driving wheels, 2. It helps the running engine to be connected to the driving wheel smoothly and without shock. 3. It provides the leverage between the engine and the driving wheels to be varied, 4. Ithelps to reduce the engine speed in the ratio of 4 : 1 of passenger cars and in a greater ratio in case of lorries. ‘5. Ithelps the turing of the drive round through 90°, a mina 15 6, Ithelps the driving wheels to be driven at different speeds. 7, It gives the relative movement between the engine and the driving wheels due to flexing of the road springs. 4,10. ENGINE TYPES ‘An engine is a prime mover. It is used to convert the heat energy obtained from fuel into useful mechanical work. It is heart of the . Tt is one of the important and biggest units in the . If it fails to work, the vehicle is dead. automobil automobil ‘Automobile engines are classified in many different ways. All automotive engines are of the internal combustion type. The Internal Combustion Engine (LC. engine) is a heat engine that converts chemical energy in a fuel into mechanical energy. Chemical energy of a fue is first converted into thermal energy by means of combustion or oxidation with air inside the engine. This thermal energy is again al mechanism of the converted into useful work through mecha engine. Most of the LC. engines are reciprocating engines having pistons that reciprocate back and forth in cylinders internally within the engine, This chapter mainly concentrates on the study of this type of engine, LC. engines are classified on the basis of: @ Type of ignition: a. Spark Ignition engines (S.I. engines) b. Compression Ignition engines (C.1. engines) G@) Cycle of operation (Thermodynamics cycle): a, Otto eycle engine b. Diesel eycle engine ©. Dual cycle engine > _.<.-—-—e a. Four stroke cycle (iy) Types of fuel used: a. Petrol engine «. Gas engine @) Method of cooling a. Air-cooled engines (o) Number of cylinders: 4. Single cylinder engine ¢. Three cylinder engine €. Six eylinder engine 8. Twelve cylinder engine ll) Vabee location: a. Square engine c. head engine ¢. Thead engine, (oll Arrangement of cylinders: «a. Vertical engine «. Radial engine €. Opposed cylinder engine (Gx) Speed of the engine: a. Low speed engine ¢. High speed engine b. Two stroke cycle b. Diesel engine b. Water-cooled engines. b. Two cylinder engine d. Four eylinder engine f. Bight cylinder engine h, Sixteen cylinder engine b. L+head engine 4, Fehead engine b. Horizontal engine d. Veengine engine . Medium speed engine Ta [Vehicle Structure and Engines (Kotomobite Engineering) BE (iii) Engine cycle per stroke: @ Types of lubrication system: a. Wetsump lubrication system b. Dry sump lubrication system (xi) Method of governing: a. Quantity governing ¢. Hit and Miss governing . Quality governing (cil) Field of application: a. Automobile, truck, bus b, Locomotive engine «. Stationary engine , Marine engine . Aircraft engine 4.10.1. Classification based on number of cylinders () Single Cylinder Engine: Ithas only one cylinder. A single cylinder engines are generally used in light motor vehicles such as mopeds, motor eycles, and scooters. Maximum size of the cylinder is restricted to 250-300cc. Although a single cylinder engine seems to be the most popular choice due to fewer parts to manufacture and maintain, yet the disadvantages are more than advantages. Since, it requires heavy construction for more power due to higher unbalanced forces. Also weight increases at a greater rate in comparison to the power providing a lower power to weight ratio, A. single cylinder engine may be two stroke or four stroke cycle engine. Some of the vehicles which consist of single cylinder engine with their care given below: ia (Vehicle Structure and Engines) Vehicle : Rajdoot > 175ce Vespa > 150ce Luna = S0ee TVS XL = 50e¢ Bajaj M80 => 80ce TVS Max 100R => 100ce Bajaj boxer > 100ee Bajaj pulsar > 150ce and 180ce Yamaha RX100 => 100ce (i) Mutti cylinder engines: Multi cylinder engine has two, three, four, six, eight, twelve or sixteen cylinders which are arranged in many different ways. As compared to single cylinder engine, the unbalanced forces due to reciprocating parts are much lesser as the number of cylinders increases. Also mote power can be developed with less weight to power ratio. Two cylinder engines have two cylinders which are arranged in V-type, Inline or opposed manner. The range of size of the twin cylinder engine varies from 500 to 1000cc for heavy vehicles while and for three wheelers, it varies from 600 to 800cc for small cars, The two cylinder engines are used in Fiat (101 model) having 500cc. ‘Three cylinder engines are confined to only two strokes. They produce power impulse every 120° of crank rotation indicating that the torque produced is comparatively smooth. In case of three cylinder two stroke Pr (§otomobieBagneeig ‘engines, three power strokes in one revolution of the crankshaft with firing interval of 120° take place. Four cylinder engines have become increasingly popular in recent years. A basic reason is the trend towards small, lightweight, fuel- efficient cars. A 180° crankshaft arrangement is always used. The balance of the four cylinder engines is not as good as the balance of the opposed two-cylinder engines. But the torque is much more uniform, In these engines, two pairs of four cylinders are moving in the opposite direction, The pairs move up and down together with each cylinder being on a different stroke. In case of four cylinder four roke engines, four power strokes in two revolutions of the crankshaft with firing interval of 180° are produced. The four cylinders of this ngine may be arranged inline, opposed, square four and Vee four resulting the engines to be called as such, i.e. inline, opposed square four, and Vee four eylinder engines Some five cylinder automotive engines are being built. Mercedes produces a five-cylinder diesel engine. Volkswagen has a five cylinder inline spark-ignition engine fora front-drive car. Sixee linder engines give a better dynamic balance and @ more uniform torque than four-cylinder engines. Most of the high powered as well as modem cars of the moderate powers are employing the six cylinder engines. Though expensive and complicated these engines have much smoother, more flexible and quiter running, It requires only 8 light flywheel! due to the lower ratio of maximum to mean tonque Six-eylinder engines are snerally in-line engines built with 120° crankshafts. Some of the important six-cylinder engines are Triumph, Vitesse, Jaguar car, B.M.C. Mortis, Austin, Chevrolet Corvoir engine et, Te\ - Vehicle Structure and Engine) ‘The cight-cylinder engines have many advantages over six cylinder engines. They provide more uniform torque and better acceleration while the balance is not very good. Eight cylinders can be arranged in one long line or in two rows of four cylinders each inclined to one another. V-8 engines are almost universally in use. The Rolls Royce and Daimler car manufacturers are producing different V-8 model engines. Three big manufactures of car i.e., Ford, Chrysler and General motors are employing V-8 engine as standard engines, ‘Twelve and sixteen-cylinder engines have been used in buses, trucks and industrial plants. The cylinders are mostly of V-type. Some times, they are in three banks of W-type or four bank of X-type, Some of the linder engine are the Ferrari, the passenger ears made with twelv Jaguar and the Maserati. 4.10.2. Classification based on arrangement of cylinders The cylinders can be arranged in several ways such as vertical, horizontal, inline, V-type, flat or pancake, radial. Single cylinder engines can be arranged in either vertical or horizontal as shown in Figure 1.29, Two cylinder engines can be arranged in three ways, namely, inline vertical, opposed cylinder and V-type. In inline engine, the cylinders are arranged in side-by-side, one row and parallel to each other as shown in Figure 1.30 (a). The cylinders aie generally placed in vertical. Figure 1.29 Single eylinder engines In Vetype engines (Figure 1.30 (b), the eylinders are arranged in two rows. The two rows are set at an angle of 60° or 90° to each other. This arrangement is more compact and economical than inline tye. In opposed cylinder arrangement, the two cylinders are arranged horizontally opposite to each other. The piston and connecting rod movements are identical. The crankshaft and cam shafts are positioned between the two cylinders as shown in Figure 1.30 (c). In Three cylinder engines, cylinders are arranged vertically inline with the crankpins arranged at 120° intervals around the shaft. The crank case serves as intake and pre-compression chamber. The crank case is divided into three compartments. Each sealed off section of the erank case is provided to one of the cylinders. Figure 1.31. shows three cylinder inline four stroke cycle engine. In four eylinder engine, the cylinders may be arranged inline, opposed, Square four or flat 4 and V-four manner. In inline four cylinder engines, piston 1 and 4 are always moving in pair opposite to the direction of piston pair 2 and 3 as shown in Figure 1.32. In this rae \ [Vehicle Structore and Paging) arrangement, firing interval is regular. Since, this engine is similar ty two, two-cylinder engines arranged end to end, the overall balance ig very good due to the two rocking couples by neutralizing each other, the engine is not completely balanced and a secondary Produced. This ation ig be reduced by using light weight pistons ang connecting roi ytadors Oytiggere Piston f= Cranks Cranksnatt Bearing (2) Inline vertieal engine 7 = () Vaype engine Iboonecing ro A Crankshat A Cay. ‘fe Piston ring }< cylinder (©) Opposed cylinder engine Figure 1.30 Two cylinder engines rr (owe Engineering LAS oppased four cylinder engines, the cylinders are arranged 1 pontally in pairs on each side of a flat four crankshaft. Here, the ie power stroke is occurred in every 180° of crankshaft rotation. The torque is als0 smooth, omg rrawn-} costa comeing] So lys FS oy sy A TA A ma Bearing Figure 1.31 Three cylinder inline four stroke engine T [ovina aT kL bet] ~ Crankshaft wl los | | sal Zo a A A A Figure 1.32 Four cylinder inline engine In Vetype engines, the cylinders are arranged in two rows. The two ows are set at an angle of 60° or 90° to each other. This arrangement {is more compact and economical than infine type. In opposed cylinder ‘arangement, the two cylinders are arranged horizontally opposite to tach other, The piston and connecting rod movements are identical ia \ ‘The crankshaft and cam shafts are positioned between the 1 cylinders as shown in Figure 1.33 (c). ome Sy pes f sf | [4S LIE = > ‘Une omy SE Figure 1.33 Opposed four cylinder engine In Three cylinder engines, cylinders are arranged vertically inline with the crankpins arranged at 120° intervals around the shaft. The crank case serves as intake and pre-compression chamber. The erank case is divided into three compartments. Each sealed off section of the crank case is provided to one of the cylinders. Figure 1.34 shows, three cylinder inline four stroke eycle engine. In four cylinder engine, the cylinders may be’arranged inline, opposed, square four or flat 4 and V-four manner. In inline four cylinder engines, piston 1 and 4 are always moving in pair opposite to the direction of piston pair 2 and 3 as shown in Figure 1.35. In this arrangement, firing interval is regular. Since, this engine is similar to two, two-cylinder engines arranged end to end, the overall balance is very good due to the two rocking couples by neutralizing each other. ccondary vibration is ight weight pistons and Optngrs connecting) be"rod “| BS by] sy A 4 Fearing Figure 1.34 Three cylinder inline four stroke engine 1 2 a ‘ Pat =| connecng| {eyiedoe ved H 2 . pnkahat sy} ips | os | oy es vA way | [ray | ea a etang L Figure 1.35 Four cylinder inline engine In opposed four cylinder engines, the cylinders are arranged horizontally in pairs on each of a flat four crankshaft. Here, the engine balance is superior to that of the inline engi . In this engine, ‘one power stroke is occurred in every 180° of crankshaft rotation. The torque is also smooth. Figure 1.36 shows this type of arrangement. This arrangement is also called as flat four or pancake engine. This ia \ [Vehicte Structure and F rangement is found in air cooled Volkswagen and water cooled Jewet’s Javelin Pilon E44 Pa I Figure 1.36 Opposed four cylinder engine comeatng V-four engines have cylinders arranged in two rows of two cylinders ‘each, The two rows are set at an angle (preferably 60°) to each other. It is similar to two cylinder V engines having a common crank shaft. The engine has a firing order of 1, 3, 4, and 2 with firing interval of 180°. This engine is balanced by using a balance shaft that runs in a direction opposite to the crankshaft (6 L— Oyindors Figure 1,37 V-4 engine (stom Engineering] _ 18 ne general arrangement of cylinders is shown in Figure 1.37. Six ines ate generally inline engines built with 120° crank angement#f erank shaft is as shown in Figure 1.38. This gement is such that the crank throws of cylinders 1 and 6, 2 and arran and 3 and 4 are in the same revolution of the crankshaft. The firing order for good distributions of fuel is 1-5-3-6-2-4 and \ L 7 sy Figure 1.38 Six cylinder inline engine Six cylinder V-engines ate very important engines which are built to have a bank of three cylinders set at an angle or at V to each other. Same crank pin is used to attach connecting rods from opposing cylinders in two banks. The arrangement of cylinders in V-6 engine is shown in Figure 1.39, Opposed six-cylinder engines are also available. The arrangement of cylinders is in same manner as that of four cylinder opposed engine. Three cylinders are placed in each side of the two rows but opposite to each other. io Figure 1.39 V-6 engine Eight cylinder inline engines provide a long engine with long and expensive crank and camshaft. The interval of explosions of this ‘engine is 90°. The crank throws for different pairs of cylinders are in the same radial plane such as cylinders 1 and 8, cylinders 2 and 7, 3 and 6, and 4 and 5. The fiting order is 1-6-2-5-8-3-7-4 or 1-8-2-6-4» 3-7. The disadvantages of this engin: are long and expensive crankshaft, and its lability to torsional oscillation of the crankshaft Eight cylinder V-engines employing two banks of four cylinders each at right angles have replaced the inline eight-cylinder models in most of the higher power automobiles. The angel between the cylinder rows in V-8 engine is kept usually 90°, These engines can operate smoothly and silently Figure 1.40 V-8 engine Tas advantages of V-engines over inline engines: -the main advantages of V-8 engines are summarized as follows: 1, It is the shortest of all the eight-cylinder engines other than radial engines, It is also lighter and more rigid engine. The shorter engine provides mote space for passenger on small wheel base. 2. It provides relatively a simple valve gear arranged both for the side valve or overhead valve type engine enabling a single crankshaft to be located above the crank shaft for 90° angle arrangement of the two cylinder banks. 3. Itpermits the use of intake manifolding that assures relatively even distribution of air-fuel mixture to all cylinders since all cylinders are relatively close together. 4. Good engine balance can be obtained by suitable choice of crankshaft angles. Very good balance would be resulted, if the two outer cranks at 90° to the parallel inner pairs and in the same plane are provided 5. It is not affected by similar torsional vibrations as the in-line ‘ype. 6. Since, the carburetor and other parts are rested between the ‘two rows of cylinders, it permits lowering of the engine load line and thus a lower car profile 7. Instead of an eight-throw as inline type, only a four throw crankshaft is used. tn this ease, same crank pin is used for operating two connecting rods from opposite cylinders. This arrangement provides even firing intervals between the cylinders. Twelve cylinder engines were originally designed for aeroplanes. But Certain cars such as Rolls Royse, Daimler and Lincoln Zephyer are also used these engines. These engines consist of two sets of six cylinder inline engines witheach forming a bank V-inclined at 60° or 75°. They have common crankshaft and camshaft with six sets of forked and plain connecting rods. The Italian Ferrati is the only car which is being manufactured with a twelve-cylinder engine. Sixteen-cylinder engines having two sets of straight light cylinders inclined at an angle of V have been used in Cadillac cars. These engine have been perfectly balanced with top gear performance. The cylinders arranged in two banks of eight cylinders each are inclined at 135°, Radial engines are mostly used in aircraft. These engines are air- cooled and have cylinders arranged in a star form about the crankshaft axis. The cylinders are radiating from a common centre similar to the spokes of the wl wel. A common crankpin is employed for all the connecting rods. To get uniform firing intervals, the cylinders are odd in number such as 5, 7, 9 ete. Peto yore Connecting, 1038 Figure 1.41 Radial engine (isiomaile nineeing) ti verse engines are compact with low Weight per horsepower and

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