Carolina Vol2 - Retusat Prin OCR

The Carolina Curriculum
for Preschoolers
with Special Needs
for Preschoolers
with Special Needs
Second Edition
By
Nancy M. Johnson-Martin, Ph.D.

Bonnie J. Hacker, M.H.S., OTR/L
and
Susan M. Attermeier, Ph.D., PT
• P A U L • H •
BRC03KES ( )
PUBLISHING C Baltimore • London • Sydney
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T h e following Carolina Curriculum products can be purchased separately:
The Carolina Curriculum for Preschoolers with Special Needs, Second Edition, Assessment Log and
Developmental Progress Chart (available in English in print, on CD-ROM, or in PDF format on
the web, and available in Spanish in P D F format on the web)
The Carolina Curriculum for Infants and Toddlers with Special Needs, Third Edition
The Carolina Curriculum for Infants and Toddlers with Special Needs, Third Edition, Assessment Log
and Developmental Progress Chart (available in English in print, on CD-ROM, or in P D F format
on the web, and available in Spanish in PDF format on the web)
Please visit http://wvvw.brookespublishing.com/ccupdates for more information on these products. To

order, contact Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. at the address above, or call 1-800-638-3775 (U.S. and
Canada) or 1-410-337-9580 (worldwide).
Third printing, September 2 0 0 7 .
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Johnson-Martin, Nancy, 1 9 3 4 -
The Carolina curriculum for preschoolers with special needs / by Nancy M. Johnson-Martin,
Bonnie J. Hacker, and Susan M. Attermeier.—2nd ed.
p. cm.
Rev. ed. of: T h e Carolina curriculum for preschoolers with special needs / N a n c y Johnson-Martin
. . . et al.]. 1st ed. © 1990.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
I S B N 1-55766-654-7 (spiral bound : alk. paper)
1. Children with disabilities—Education (Preschool)—Curricula—United States. 2. Children
with disabilities—United States—Development. I. Hacker, Bonnie J. II. Attermeier, Susan M.,
1 9 4 2 - III. Title.
LC4019.2.J65 2004
371.9'0472—dc22 2004004638
British Library Cataloguing in Publication data are available from the British Library.
Contents
About th:; Authors . . . vii
Ackii:;w"UA!iavMjn's ix
ONE introduction 1
THREE Enviionnitntai Factors Influencing Learning,

Dc- v'ciopmciit, anU. Emergent uiteraey 23
FOUR Using The Carolina Curriculum 35
Assessment Log 57
Developmental Progress Chart 80
Curriculum Sequences
Person a 1-Social
Sequence 1 Self-Regulation &. Responsibility 85

Sequence 2 Interpersonal Skills 95
Sequence 3 Self-Concept 115
Sequence 4-1 Self-Help: Eating 127
Sequence 4-II Self-Help: Dressing 135
Sequence 4-III Self-Help: Grooming . 143
Sequence 4-1V Self-Help: Toileting .........151
Cognition
Sequence 5 Attention & Memory: Visual/Spatial 157

Sequence 6-1 Visual Perception: Blocks & Puzzles ...171
Sequence 6-II Visual Perception: Matching & Sorting. 181
Sequence 7 Functional Use of Objects & Symbolic Play . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Sequence 8 Problem S o l v i n g / R e a s o n i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 0 3
vi CONTENTS
Cognition/Communication
Sequence 1 0 Concepts/Vocabulary: Receptive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

Sequence 11 Concepts/Vocabulary: Expressive . 257
Sequence 12 Attention Memory: Auditory 271
Communication
Sequence 13 Verbal Comprehension 279

Sequence 14 Conversation Skills 291
Sequence 15 Grammatical Structure . 307
Sequence 16 Imitation: Vocal 321
Fine Motor
Sequence 17 Imitation: Motor . 327

Sequence 18 Grasp <5k Manipulation. 333
Sequence 19 Bilateral Skills 341
Sequence 20 Tool Use. 351
Sequence 21 Visual-Motor Skills 359
Gross Motor
Sequence 22-1 Upright: Posture ck Locomotion .........371

Sequence 22-11 Upright: Balance 389
Sequence 22-111 Upright: Ball Play. ... . . 399
Sequence 22-IV Upright: Outdoor Play 407
Appendix A Selected Impairments and Their Effects on Development . . 417

Appendix B Resources and Recommended Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1 9
Appendix C Play and Children with Motor Impairments . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Appendix D Object Boards as Aids for Teaching Children with
Severe Motor Impairments 425
Index 427
About the Authors
Nancy M. Johnson-Martin, Ph.D., is a consultant for assessment and early inter-
vention following her retirement from the University of North Carolina at Chapel
Hill where she held positions in the Division for Disorders of Development and
Learning and in the Frank Porter Graham Child Development Center (now called
the Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute).
Bonnie J. Hacker, M.H.S., O T R / L , is an occupational therapist with more than 25

years' experience working with children. She holds certifications in Neurodevelop-
mental Therapy, Southern California Sensory Integration Tests, and Sensory Inte-
gration and Praxis Tests. She is currently the director of Emerge—A Child's Place,
a pediatric clinic in Durham and Chapel Hill, North Carolina, that provides chil-
dren with occupational and speech therapy services.
Susan M. Attermeier, Ph.D., PT, is a pediatric physical therapist in private practice

in Hillsborough, North Carolina. She was previously Assistant Professor in the Di-
vision of Physical Therapy at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
vii
Acknowledgments
This volume would not have been possible without the efforts of those who played
a major role in the development of the first edition of this curriculum. Sally Robin-
son, Ph.D., and Raymond Stumer, M.D., helped create and house the CHILD (Chil-
dren with Handicaps Integrated for Learning in Daycare) project at the Child
Development Center of Duke University. Sara Carter, CCC-SP, provided major as-
sistance in the development of the language sections. Karen O'Donnell, Ph.D., and
Peggy Ogle Gallagher, Ph.D., contributed to the early development of the chapter
on guiding learning, and Barbara Davis Goldman, Ph.D., contributed much to our
thinking about language and cognitive and social skills in young children. Teachers
in many child care centers in Durham, North Carolina, partnered with us to better
serve children with impairments in their classrooms and taught us about the joys
and problems of serving children with widely varying skills.
We acknowledge and thank those professionals who took time from their busy
schedules to review the first edition of the curriculum and make suggestions for im-
proving this revision.
Finally, we thank Bob Johnson for his time and expertise in capturing on film
the personalities of our cover children; our families and friends for their support of
our endeavors,- Heather Shrestha for her encouragement and help in getting us
started on this revision,- and Mackenzie Lawrence for her wisdom, diligence, pa-
tience, and persistence in shepherding us from our first draft to the finished product.
ix
To the children, parents,
and dedicated child care workers who,
for the past 30 years, have come into our lives,
teaching us much of what we know about
human development, courage, determination, adaptability,
and the joy of accomplishment. Without them,
this curriculum would not have been created.
ONE
Introduction
T
he first edition of The Carolina Curriculum for Preschoolers with Special
Needs (CCPSN; Johnson-Martin, Attermeier, &. Hacker, 1990) was an out-
X growth of a federally funded "demonstration project" designed to facilitate
the inclusion of preschoolers with special needs with typically developing children
in community child care centers by providing consultation and developing screen-
ing and intervention materials. In the 1980s, most states had not yet established
programs for identifying preschool children with special needs or for providing ap-
propriate education for them. Other than Head Start, few public preschools existed
for typically developing children, making it difficult to find space and teachers to
serve those with special needs. Some states considered serving children with spe-
cial needs in private child care centers or preschools by providing assistance to
those centers; however, neither the child care providers nor the preschool teachers
had been trained to work with children with significant impairments. Furthermore,
although there were many excellent programs for training preschool teachers, rela-
tively few programs had a special education component. Likewise, while there were
many curriculum guides for teaching typically developing preschoolers, there were
few curricular materials for children with special needs.
Against this background, the first edition of the C C P S N was developed as a
guide for teachers and interventionists as they assessed the skills of a preschool
child with special needs and planned the individualized educational program (IEP)
required under federal and state guidelines developed following passage of the Edu-
cation of the Handicapped Act Amendments of 1986 (PL 99-457). T h e first edition
included skills children typically develop between the ages of 2 and 5 years. Because
some children would have sufficiently atypical developmental patterns that would
make it difficult for them to work through most preschool curricula, we chose to
2 THE CAROLINA CURRICULUM FOR PRESCHOOLERS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS
follow the format of The Carolina Curriculum for Handicapped Infants and Infants
at Risk (CCHI; Johnson-Martin, Jens, Attermeier, &. Hacker, 1986). T h e CCHI was
designed for children from birth to 2 years, and many interventionists found it use-
ful for accommodating the needs of both the children whose development was
markedly atypical and those whose development was delayed but followed a typi-
cal pattern.
There have been many changes since 1990 in the services available to preschool
children with special needs. Many universities provide education and training for
teachers who will serve young children with special needs. All of the 50 states now
have programs in place for identifying and serving these children, although there
continue to be many unidentified children and many identified children who are un-
derserved. There continues to be a need for criterion-referenced assessments and for
intervention materials that accommodate a wide variety of developmental problems.
One of the continuing problems facing those who work with children with spe-
cial needs is that there are a number of children of preschool age whose develop-
ment in one or more areas falls within the range usually included in infant curric-
ula rather than in preschool curricula. To deal with this issue, the CCHI was revised
in 1991 as The Carolina Curriculum for Infants and Toddlers with Special Needs
(CCITSN; Johnson-Martin, Jens, Attermeier, &. Hacker). T h e C C I T S N provided a
chart to facilitate the assessment of children whose skills spanned the infant and
toddler curriculum and the preschool curriculum; however, many of those relying
on the two curricula to address the scattered skills of preschool children have re-
ported difficulty moving smoothly from one curriculum to the other because of
how differently they were organized.
This revision of the C C P S N and the concurrent revision of the C C I T S N have
been designed to provide a comprehensive guide for working with children who
have special needs functioning in the birth to 60-month range. The organization of
the two curricula is consistent throughout. T h e infant and toddler curriculum now
covers developmental skills from birth to 36 months, whereas the preschool cur-
riculum covers skills from 24 to 60 months. T h e sequence and the item names are
identical in both volumes for the 24- to 36-month range so that interventionists can
move smoothly from one curriculum to the other.
WHAT IS THE CCPSN APPROACH?
T h e CCPSN, like the C C I T S N , links assessment to intervention through hierar-

chies of developmental tasks that are relevant to what children normally do with
their caregivers and teachers and are pertinent to long-term adaptation. Having
each item on the assessment tool linked directly to a curriculum item that de-
scribes procedures for teaching the assessed skill provides a framework for moving
smoothly from assessment to intervention. Use of curricular activities that are both
INTRODUCTION 3
relevant to typical routines for young children and pertinent to long-term adapta-
tion is an approach described as "authentic" by Bagnato, Neisworth, and Munson
(1997). T h a t is, the intervention is integrated in a meaningful way into the child's
life. T h i s edition includes the following characteristics:
1. T h e curriculum is based on typical sequences of development but does not as-
sume that a child will develop at the same rate across domains or even within
one domain (e.g., a child may exhibit typical cognitive development along with
very delayed motor development or a child may have age-appropriate gram-
matical structures but have significantly delayed vocabulary). Thus, the cur-
riculum is designed for you to use both with the child who is developing slowly
but in a typical pattern and with the child whose pattern of development is
markedly atypical due to one or more impairments.
2. T h e curriculum approaches atypical development in two ways. First, the items

in each developmental domain are subdivided into logical teaching sequences
(i.e., a sequence in which item order is primarily determined by how one skill
builds on another, not only by the mean age levels at which typical children
learn the skills). Second, general modifications of the items in each develop-
mental domain are suggested so that you can accommodate a child's particular
sensory or motor limitations. Thus, a child with severely delayed motor abili-
ties but potentially average cognitive skills is not held up in progressing
through the cognitive domain because he or she cannot do items that require
typical motor skills.
3. T h e curriculum is based on the recognition that many young children with se-
rious impairments will never develop typically in spite of intervention efforts.
Thus, in treating these children, you must consider teaching atypical but
highly adaptive skills that may temporarily or permanently replace typical
skills. For example, should a child be unable to talk but have adequate motor
skills, it is appropriate for you to teach signing as a means of communication
until speech becomes effective. Should the child be unable to talk because of
severe physical problems, it is appropriate to teach eye gaze, pointing, or an-
other indicator response that will allow him or her to make choices, commu-
nicate wishes, and eventually use an electronic communication device.
4. T h e curriculum is developmental, with items drawn from standard develop-

mental assessment tools, clinical experience, and the research literature read
by the authors, but behavioral theory and methodology underlie item con-
struction. There is also a strong emphasis on developing adaptive functional
skills, even if these are not necessarily typical (e.g., moving by scooting on
one's buttocks or using a scooter board when crawling would be typical but is
not functional).
WHAT IS INCLUDED IN THE CCPSN?
T h e C C P S N has been designed to provide a systematic approach for developing in-

tervention plans for children with special needs who are functioning within the 24-
to 60-month developmental range. In this curriculum, you will find
• A criterion-referenced assessment for determining the child's mastery of impor-
tant social, cognitive, language, motor, and adaptive skills
• Suggestions for selecting educational objectives from the assessment
• Guidelines for developing activities for the IEP (or for the individualized family
service program [IFSP]) that incorporate the educational objectives
W H A T HAS C H A N G E D IN THIS REVISION?
R e o r g a n i z a t i o n of Sequences
This edition of the C C P S N includes almost all of the items included in the first edi-
tion, although some have been moved to different age levels on the assessment
chart based on the most current information available to the authors.
T h e primary change is one of organization. New sequences have been created
and others renamed, combined, or divided in order to provide a consistent progres-
sion from infant and toddler skills to preschool skills. In some areas of development
(especially language), there appears to be a very smooth progression in the skills a
child learns from infancy through the preschool period. In other areas, the progres-
sion is less clear. That is, it is difficult to identify the infant precursors of some pre-
school skills. We have done our best to identify the commonalities in infant and
preschool skills and to reflect these in the sequences.
Table 1.1 provides a list of the sequences and the developmental domains under
which they are organized in this curriculum.
Note that three sequences, Concepts/Vocabulary: Receptive,- Concepts/
Vocabulary: Expressive? and Attention & Memory: Auditory are listed as Cognition/
Communication. T h e skills assessed in these sequences are included on almost all
tests of cognitive ability and almost all tests of language ability. Thus, they clearly
belong in both domains and should be included in both when estimating a sum-
mary level of development for those domains.
Increased Emphasis on Functional Activities

Recognizing that preschool children with special needs are being served in a variety
of settings (e.g., at home, in child care centers, in preschools), we have replaced the
Classroom Activities section in each item with a section labeled Classroom &
Functional Activities. Classroom Activities refers to activities that a teacher may
employ in a classroom to build educational objectives for children with special
INTRODUCTION 5
Table 1 . 1 . Developmental domains and the sequences of the CCPSN
Personal-Social Communication
1. Self-Regulation & Responsibility 13. Verbal Comprehension

2. Interpersonal Skills 14. Conversation Skills
3. Self-Concept 15. Grammatical Structure
4-I. Self-Help: Eating 16. Imitation: Vocal
4-ll. Seif-Help: Dressing
4-IH. Self-Help: Grooming
4-IV. Self-Help: Toileting
Cognition Fine Motor
5. Attention & Memory: Visual/Spatial 17. Imitation: Motor

6-I. Visual Perception: Blocks & Puzzles 18. Grasp & Manipulation
6-II. Visual Perception: Matching & Sorting 19. Bilateral Skills
7. Functional Use of Objects & Symbolic Play 20. Tool Use
8. Problem Solving/Reasoning 21. Visual-Motor Skills
9. Number Concepts
Cognition/Communication Gross Motor
10. Concepts/Vocabulary: Receptive 22-I. Upright: Posture & Locomotion

11. Concepts/Vocabulary: Expressive 22-1I. Upright: Balance
12. Attention & Memory: Auditory 22-III. Upright: Ball Play
22-IV. Upright: Outdoor Play
Note: Sequences 10, 11, and 12 overlap the cognition and communication domains and have been separated in this table to
show this.
needs into an activity that some or all of the children's classmates can enjoy. Func-
tional Activities refers to suggestions for practicing the skill in a variety of settings
and in a way that promotes greater effectiveness in the general environment. It also
refers to developing skills that promote independent play, not only skills that are
functional for academics or self-care.
Emphasis on Emergent Literacy

To encourage interventionists to think of the long-term goal of preparing children
for school and a productive adult life, this edition of the curriculum highlights the
importance of emergent literacy skills. Since the 1980s, there has been a growing
recognition that literacy does not begin with learning to read and write (Notari-
Syverson, O'Connor, & Vadasy, 1998). Rather, it begins in the infant, toddler, and
preschool years through
• Print/book awareness: Reading to children before they can read themselves is
highly related to their later ability to read. Parents and other caregivers play a
primary role by reading books to children, letting children see them reading, and
pointing out text in the environment. Awareness of print includes early scrib-
bling, drawing, letter/word formation, and the understanding that written words
express ideas.
• Metalinguistic awareness: Metalinguistic awareness refers to the ability to re-

flect on, manipulate, and talk about linguistic forms. At the age levels covered
in this curriculum, this generally involves an interest in novel sounds and new
words and the recognition that a new word shares characteristics with known
words (e.g., isolating initial sounds in words, forming rhymes and nonsense, cre-
ating words). Children learn these skills through rhyming, singing, and picking
out sounds in words.
• Oral language: Oral skills related to reading include using words and sentences
to describe events, tell a story, carry on a conversation, and express feelings
(Notari-Syverson et al., 1998).
Items related to emergent literacy are scattered throughout the curriculum. They
include memory for sequences of sounds and words, interest in pictures and books,
understanding that words stand for specific objects and pictures, using words to
communicate, listening to stories, trying to repeat stories as if reading, matching
shapes, scribbling, drawing shapes and letters, and so forth. Emergent literacy is one
of the long-term goals that should be kept foremost in mind when developing in-
tervention programs for children with special needs, whether the program is to be
implemented at home or in a preschool.
A checklist of emergent literacy skills is included in the appendix at the end of
this chapter. It covers skills learned from infancy through the preschool years (the
ages covered by the C C I T S N and the CCPSN). Most of these skills are included in
one or another of the curriculum sequences. T h e value of the checklist is not only
to help you assess a child's progress in emergent literacy but also to demonstrate
the relationship of literacy to specific curriculum items focusing on visual, motor,
cognitive, language, or social skills.
References for P a r e n t s and T e a c h e r s

Regarding C o m m o n C o n d i t i o n s Affecting D e v e l o p m e n t
Many children who are served in preschool programs for children with special needs
have unspecified "developmental delays." T h e lack of a more specific diagnosis is
due to both the genuine difficulty of making correct diagnoses in young children
whose development is variable and a reluctance of professionals to label a young
child. As authors, we also have concerns about labeling young children. Yet, a diag-
nosis is sometimes helpful to parents and the child in providing access to services
that are earmarked for specific conditions. Furthermore, the diagnosis may have an
impact on family planning and other important issues.
In the first edition of the CCPSN, we included a chapter on selected impair-
ments and their effect on development. Because teachers and interventionists are
generally more knowledgeable now than when the first edition was written, we
have omitted that chapter but included a list of common conditions affecting de-
velopment in Appendix A at the end of the book. Characteristics of each of these
INTRODUCTION 7
conditions, their effects on development, specific tips for interventionists or class-

room teachers, and a list of resources are included on the Paul H. Brookes Publish-
ing Co. web site (http://www.brookespublishing.com/ccupdates).
We encourage those working with preschool children who have special needs
to familiarize themselves with the characteristics of these various conditions. As
you work with a child described as having a developmental delay, it may become
apparent that the child does not just have delays but has characteristics that sug-
gest a more specific condition or may simply be very puzzling. If this happens, you
may wish to encourage the family to seek further evaluation or professional con-
sultation to better understand the nature of the child's problems, especially if a spe-
cific diagnosis would provide access to additional services or support for the family.
FOR WHOM IS THE CCPSN INTENDED?
T h e C C P S N was originally designed to be used by teachers and child care workers

in preschool and other child care settings serving children with special needs func-
tioning between the ages of 24 and 60 months. T h a t continues to be the primary
focus of the curriculum. Many of the items included represent skills most readily
observed in group care settings. However, we recognize that the first edition of the
C C P S N was also used by other professionals working with this population, often
in collaboration with a classroom or with parents. These professionals included
speech-language pathologists, occupational therapists, physical therapists, and spe-
cial education resource teachers. To encourage continued broad usage, a major ef-
fort has been to avoid professional jargon in the writing of the materials. In addi-
tion, there has been an effort to alert users to a child's characteristics or responses
that require attention from professionals with particular skills (e.g., a physical, oc-
cupational, or speech-language therapist).
HOW ARE ITEMS ORGANIZED IN THE CCPSN?
T h e items included in the C C P S N are drawn from the clinical experience of the au-
thors, the research literature, and a variety of published assessment instruments (see
References at the end of this chapter). In the process of organizing items into se-
quences and assigning the sequences to the different domains, we recognize that our
decisions were sometimes arbitrary. For the most part, however, there was a clear
rationale for the decisions. When choosing items for sequences, our concern was
that a child should be able to move through the sequence without being hung up by
significant variations in the visual, motor, or speech demands of the items. For ex-
ample, Sequence 6 (Visual Perception) includes items requiring visual discrimina-
tion and an understanding of the concepts of colors, shapes, and functional rela-
tionships, but the motor skills required are minimal and no speech is necessary.
Sequence 10 (Concepts/Vocabulary: Receptive) and Sequence 11 (Concepts/Vocab-
ulary: Expressive) also include items related to colors, shapes, and functional rela-
tionships but require either an understanding or an expression of a verbal concept.
This division is important because a child may have such a severe speech impair-
ment that he or she appears to have mental retardation. Typical cognitive function-
ing with respect to a visual understanding of the child's world, however, may be ev-
ident through his or her ability to match and sort colors, shapes, alphabet letters,
and numbers and his or her ability to sort objects by class or function.
T h e holistic nature of development makes it problematic to divide the se-
quences into the typical broad domains of development (personal-social, cognition,
communication, fine motor, and gross motor). For example, cognition underlies al-
most all aspects of development; motor skills are a necessary component of speech,
self-help skills, and many cognitive skills,- and communication is a critical aspect
of cognition and social skills. We have assigned the sequences to domains based on
what seemed to be the most important characteristics of each sequence. In the
cases of communication and cognition, however, we include three sequences that
span both domains. For the purposes of assessing a child and determining what
skills should be targeted for intervention, the domain to which these skills are as-
signed is irrelevant. Yet, the domain divisions are important because they represent
the traditional way of looking at the pattern of a child's development and provide a
summary that you can readily understand.
WHAT IS THE ROLE OF THIS C U R R I C U L U M ?
We have observed that in many programs serving young children with special
needs, there appears to be an underlying assumption that all children, regardless of
their disabilities, must work through all domains in a developmental curriculum,
eventually demonstrating the skills observed in typically developing children.
Some modifications in those programs may be made for sensory impairments (e.g.,
a child who is blind is not required to learn colors), but few modifications are con-
sidered for other kinds of conditions. We do not intend for the CCPSN to he used
in this fashion. Specific disabling conditions may make whole sequences inappro-
priate for some children and others appropriate only with significant modifications.
For example, a child with severe athetoid or spastic cerebral palsy will never be able
to do most of the items in the fine motor and visual-motor skills sequences. Instead
of spending their time trying to master the motor requirements of stringing small
beads or other such tasks, these children should be working on motor activities rec-
ommended by the occupational and physical therapists that will be functional for
self-help or independent play activities. The cognitive components of visual-motor
tasks (e.g., the form discrimination aspect of copying block patterns) should be
worked on through matching and sorting tasks that minimize motor requirements.
Although we have included some suggestions for modifications at the begin-
ning of each sequence to accommodate specific impairments, it is probably both
INTRODUCTION 9
Impossible and undesirable to develop a curriculum that has modifications for

every kind of disabling condition. No curriculum can replace the intelligence and
creativity of a good teacher. In the C C P S N , we have made an effort to describe each
sequence in such a way that the teacher or interventionist will understand the un-
derlying purpose of the series of items and will, therefore, be able to make modi-
fications in the items to accommodate a particular child's needs. For example, t h e
introduction to Sequence 8 (Problem Solving/Reasoning) concludes with the state-
ment " T h e purpose of this sequence is to help children observe the effects they
have on the objects around them and, as language emerges, to be able to discuss per-
ceptions and conclusions with adults. Another goal is to help children develop con-
fidence and pleasure in their efforts to understand the world around them." M a n y
of the items in this sequence require the child to answer questions. If the child is
unable to communicate through speech or some form of augmentative and alterna-
tive communication, it may be necessary to create multiple-choice options through
pictures so that the child can demonstrate reasoning by pointing or eye gaze. T h e
child m a y work through the sequence quite well with such modifications and
should be encouraged to do so. It is not necessary that every child demonstrate
skills in the same way.
SUMMARY
T h e first edition of the CCPSN has been used in a variety of settings to promote de-
velopmental progress in young children with special needs. It linked a developmen-
tal assessment procedure with curricular activities and provided suggestions for
modifying activities to meet the needs of children with specific and severe dis-
abilities. This revision is an attempt to update the curriculum by responding to feed-
back from users, making it more consistent with the second revision of the C C I T S N ,
building on the strengths of the previous edition, and addressing concerns.
REFERENCES AND RESOURCES
Almy, M., Chittenden, E., &. Miller, P. (1967). Young children's thinking. New York: Teach-
ers College Press.
Bagnato, S.T., Ncisworth, J.T., &. Munson, S.M. (1997). UN King assessment and early in-
tervention: An authentic curriculum-based approach. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Pub-
lishing Co.
Bayley, N. (1993). The Bayley Scales of Infant Development (2nd ed.). San Antonio, TX: Har-
court Brace &. Co.
Boehm, A.E. (2001). Boehm Test of Basic Concepts-Preschool Version (3rd ed.|. New York:
Psychological Corporation.
Bracken, B.A. (1998). The Bracken Test of Basic Concepts (Rev. ed.). Columbus, OH: Charles
E. Merrill.
Bzoch, K.R., League, R., & Brown, V. (1991). Receptive Expressive Emergent Language Test
(2nd ed.). Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.
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Folio, M.R., &. Fewel, R. (2000). Peabody Developmental Motor Scales (2nd ed.). Los Ange-
les: Western Psychological Services.
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Wiley & Sons.
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Johnson-Martin, N.M., Attermeier, S.M., cx Hacker, B. (1990). The Carolina Curriculum for
Preschoolers with Special Needs. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.
Johnson-Martin, N.M., Jens, K.G., & Attermeier, S.M. (1986). The Carolina Curriculum for
Handicapped Infants and Infants at Risk. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.
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riculum for Infants and Toddlers with Special Needs. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publish-
ing Co.
McCarthy, D. (1970). McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities. New York: Psychological
Corporation.
Notari-Syverson, A., O'Connor, R.E., St Vadasy, P.F. (1998). Ladders to literacy: A preschool
activity book. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.
Rosetti, L. (1990). The Rosetti Infant-Toddler Language Scale. East Moline, IL: LinguiSystems.
Santa Cruz County Board of Education. (1988). Help for special preschoolers, Assessment
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Sparrow, S.S., Balla, D.A., & Cicchetti, D.V. (1984). Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales. Cir-
cle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
Thorndike, R.L., Hagen, E.P, & Sattler, J.M. (1986). Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale (4th ed.).
Chicago: Riverside Publishing.
Wechsler, D. (2002). Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (3rd ed.). New
York: The Psychological Corporation.
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Antonio, TX: Harcourt Brace & Co.
CHAPTER ONE APPENDIX
Checklist for
Emergent Literacy Skills
11
Print/hook awareness Copies words

Handles and plays with Pretends to write
books Uses invented spelling to
Looks at pages write short messages
Turns pages Metalinguistic awareness
Examines pages visually Uses environmental sounds
Puts hands on pictures in play
Indicates a particular pic- Repeats single sounds when
ture when asked, "Show asked to
me. . ." Fills in next line in repeated
Has favorite pictures or line story
pages Participates in nursery
Comments on story rhymes
Orients book correctly (i.e., Recalls one word from a

right side up, opening from sentence
right side) Understands and produces
Has favorite books, asks to rhymes
have them read Recognizes beginning
Talks about a story while sounds of a word
looking at pictures Blends syllables into words
Points to text while talking Divides words into syllables
Knows that text moves Oral language
from left to right Uses words
Reads environmental print
and logos Uses sentences
Recognizes simple words in Describes an event with a

text beginning, middle, and end
Repeats stories that have
Answers questions about
the story been read
Relates story to own life Has sustained conversations

experience Uses categories to describe
Knows names and sounds of objects (e.g., animals, food)
Talks about past
letters
experiences during play
Makes marks on paper
Predicts what might happen
Scribbles
Differentiates between real
Copies lines
and pretend
Copies shapes Describes feelings and
Copies letters motivations
Source: Notari-Syverson, A., O'Connor, R.E., & V >, P.F. (1998). Ladders to literacy: A preschool activity
book. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.
TWO
Guiding Learning
Principles and Suggestions
T he goal of the C C P S N is to provide assistance to preschool teachers, child

care providers, families, and other caregivers in their efforts to optimize the
development of young children who have specific impairments, who are
demonstrating developmental delays, or who are at risk for developmental delays
due to environmental or other factors. T h i s chapter summarizes the principles that
underlie both the way the curriculum activities are written and the intent of the au-
thors as to how the curriculum should be implemented. T h e s e basic principles con-
sist of the following:
• Include play
• Follow the child's lead
• Provide choices
• Make consequences count
• Ensure success by breaking tasks into smaller steps
• Provide sameness and change
• Build learning experiences into daily routines
• Use clear language
• Allow quiet time
• Group children for optimal learning
• Structure an inclusive classroom
• T h i n k long term
13
I N C L U D E PLAY
Play is the context in which children do most of their learning. It is critical that par-
ents, interventionists, and teachers weave intervention activities into children's
play, view their interactions with children as play rather than therapy, and devise
ways that children with significant impairments can play independently. Many ac-
tivities throughout the curriculum are described as games in an attempt to empha-
size this point. We encourage you to also try other activities, either ones that you
create yourself or ones that draw from readily available books dedicated to play ac-
tivities, rhymes, and songs for children functioning in the 2- to 5-year range. Exam-
ples of books related to preschool activities are included under the Aids for Teach-
ers and Parents section in Appendix B at the end of the book.
Play is also critical as a window into a child's cognitive, emotional, and social
development. Observing a child's independent play and play with peers tells what the
child is interested in, what the child is trying to understand, what problem-solving
strategies the child uses, how the child handles frustration, and how the child views
his or her social world. All of these factors should be considered in devising an ap-
propriate IEP (or IFSP).
Children's impairments affect the ways in which they can play. For example,
one of the salient features of childhood autism is stereotypic play or a restricted
range of play activities. One approach found to be helpful for these children is the
use of floor time, as described by Greenspan, Wieder, and Simon (1998). This in-
volves playing with the child on the floor using the toys the child chooses and al-
lowing the child to take the lead in how the toys are used. T h e adult's role is to help
the child expand his or her play themes or activities. For example, if the child is
spending his or her time spinning the wheels on a car, the adult may spin the
wheels on another car, talk about how fast or slow the wheels can go, model push-
ing the car across the floor, and then lift the car to see how the wheels are turning.
This may evolve into longer periods of pushing the cars on the floor and episodes of
more complex pretend play.
Because so much of a child's early play involves motor manipulations of one
sort or another, impairments in motor function may interfere dramatically with
play and, consequently, with the child's cognitive, language, and social develop-
ment (Jennings & MacTurk, 1995). Appendix C at the end of the book provides a
brief summary of typical play development, suggestions for encouraging play in
children whose motor impairments prevent the usual interactions with objects and
people, and a case study example.
F O L L O W T H E CHILD'S L E A D
From birth, children experiment to see the effects of their actions on their physical
and social environments. Their success in creating effects reinforces their motiva-
GUIDING LEARNING 15
tion for learning and their growing concept of themselves as competent individuals.
One of the greatest risks of providing a curriculum for young children with special
needs is that adults may become too directive, seeking to teach children specific
skills on the adults' timetable, thereby reducing children's natural exploration and
initiative and often disrupting the joyful social interactions that are a critical aspect
of early personal and emotional development.
Therefore, one of the most important principles to remember in developing in-
tervention plans for preschool children with special needs is to integrate interven-
tion with the children's immediate interests and ongoing activities. It is also im-
portant, however, to recognize that young children (like the rest of us) may avoid
precisely those activities that arc most important for their developmental progress.
When you notice that a child is only interested in playing with one set of materials
or carefully avoids an activity that is important for his or her intervention goals, it
may be necessary to rearrange the environment (e.g., remove the materials the child
persists in using for a period during the day) or to become more directive (e.g., "We
need to spend some time drawing today. Let's draw a picture first, and then you can
play with [favorite object]").
When a child has severe or multiple disabilities and participates in few ongo-
ing activities, identifying his or her interests may be difficult. In these situations,
teachers and caregivers will have to take a more active and creative role in stim-
ulating the child's attention and interest, modifying materials to provide more
intense or varied stimulation. Yet, it remains critical to give the child as much
control as possible, even if it extends no further than choosing activities by using
eye gaze.
PROVIDE CHOICES
One of the major developmental tasks of the preschool child is to develop a sense
of mastery and independence. It is this wish for independence that is at the root of
the "terrible twos" and sometimes blossoms into an oppositional and defiant child.
T h e best way to help a child negotiate this period is to provide him or her with
many opportunities to make choices. This does not mean giving the child free reign
to do anything he or she wishes. That kind of irresponsible freedom may also pro-
duce an oppositional child. Rather, it means giving the child many opportunities to
choose between alternatives that are acceptable to his or her caregivers. For exam-
ple, at bedtime a parent can say, "It is time for bed. Do you want to read the book
about bugs or the book about trains?" or, "It is time for bed. What do you want to
do first? Brush your teeth or put on your pajamas?" In this situation, going to bed
is not negotiable, but you can allow the child to make other decisions when given
acceptable choices. In most cases, when a preschool child is given a choice between
doing one activity or another, he or she is unlikely to reject both options, even if
neither is generally a preferred activity.
Offering choices is important to remember not only as a way of managing be-

havior but also as a way of helping a child master a task that is particularly diffi-
cult. Select one or two easier tasks and present them to the child with the difficult
task. Let the child choose the order in which he or she does the tasks. In this situ-
ation, you are following the child's lead, giving the child a sense of control, indi-
cating your respect for him or her, and meeting your desire to have the child work
on the difficult task.
MAKE CONSEQUENCES COUNT
One of the most fundamental precepts of learning is that behaviors followed by a

desirable or interesting event are more likely to be repeated or continued. If a be-
havior has no discernable effect or is followed by an undesirable event, however, it
is less likely to be repeated or continued. Some consequences of our actions are a
function of physical laws (e.g., if you tip over a glass of liquid, it makes a mess), but
many are a function of social interchanges (e.g., if you smile at someone, they smile
back at you,- if you do a good job, you get a pat on the back). Although peers begin
to play an increasing role in the preschool years, adults, through their social re-
sponses and their control of their children's environments, remain responsible for
providing most of the consequences for young children's behavior.
Guidelines for M a k i n g C o n s e q u e n c e s Effective

Promoting learning through the use of consequences sounds simple, and it is. You
must, however, remember some crucial aspects if consequences are to be effectively
used.
1. Naturally occurring consequences are usually the most effective in generaliz-
ing and maintaining behavior over a long period of time. If a toy or activity pro-
vides positive feedback to the child (e.g., music comes on when a button is
pushed, the pieces of a puzzle finally fit together to make a picture), the child
is likely to seek out other similar activities. Likewise, if a parent or teacher re-
sponds to a child's attempts to communicate, the child is likely to try to com-
municate even more. You may teach a child to push a button, put together a
puzzle, or repeat words by giving him or her an M A M for each attempt. T h e
child's attention, however, may be more focused on receiving the candy than on
mastering the task. When encountering similar tasks in settings where no one
is dispensing candy, the child may have little motivation to attempt the tasks.
2. T h e more serious a child's impairment, the more a caregiver may have to set
up learning situations so that natural consequences occur. For example, if a
child has severe physical limitations, it may be necessary to introduce elec-
tronic switches that require minimal motor movements to activate toys, turn
on a tape recorder, or signal for help.
GUIDING LEARNING 17
3. Social consequences are powerful. From birth, children need attention and will
repeat activities that result in adult attention. The adult who learns to attend to
the child's desirable actions and ignore the child's undesirable actions will most
likely find that the child learns faster and presents fewer behavioral problems.
4. When the nature of a task makes it necessary to support or replace natural con-
sequences with social consequences, food, or other rewards, reduce this form of
reinforcement as soon as there are signs that the child is beginning to respond
to the natural consequences of his or her actions.
5. Social consequences are natural consequences when teaching communication
skills. Learning to communicate depends on a responsive listener. It is critical,
then, for adults to listen to children carefully and take what they have to say
seriously.
6. T h e same consequences will not be effective for all children. Some children
will respond more readily and positively to interactions with toys, whereas oth-
ers may prefer social exchanges. A few children will respond only to one or two
consequences (e.g., food) and will need to be taught to enjoy social conse-
quences and environmental effects. Careful observation is important to deter-
mine the best consequences for a given child.
7. Positive consequences are more effective if varied. Like adults, children can be-
come bored with the same consequences, and previously desired events or ex-
periences can become less exciting.
8. A consequence is most effective if it immediately follows the target behavior
and is applied consistently. This helps children perceive the relationship be-
tween what they do and what happened in the environment. Consistency is
particularly important when children are learning something new and when
caregivers are providing undesirable consequences (e.g., time-out) for negative
behaviors. When trying to get rid of a behavior, the consequence should be em-
ployed every time the behavior occurs. For example, a child may become con-
fused if he or she is excluded from group activities only some of the times that
he or she tries to bite another child.
9. When children begin to understand language, the effectiveness of consequences

can be increased by verbally explaining the consequences to them. In this way,
children receive additional information about the way in which they affect the
environment (e.g., "Push the button and see the television come on," "Eat
lunch, and then we will go outside").
E N S U R E S U C C E S S B Y B R E A K I N G TASKS I N T O S M A L L E R STEPS
To ensure children's continued motivation and interest, it is vital that they experi-
ence success. The items in the CCPSN sequences are arranged in order of expected
difficulty for most children. Although the procedures for each item will be suffi-
cient for most children, it will be necessary to break down the task into smaller
steps in order to ensure success and facilitate learning for some children. Breaking
down a task may involve changing materials and/or teaching parts of the task sep-
arately. For example, if a child has difficulty releasing blocks so that they balance
on one another and the task is to build a six-block tower, you might start with bris-
tle blocks that the child can stick together without being concerned about balance.
When the child masters building a bristle block tower, you can then introduce
smooth blocks. Creativity in breaking down tasks will be necessary to meet the
needs of children with varying abilities.
PROVIDE SAMENESS AND C H A N G E
Although it sounds contradictory, children need both sameness and change in their
surroundings. Sameness gives children a sense of security. Parents and teachers
should provide order and routine in children's lives; this helps children learn that
the world is, in part, predictable. Children learn what to expect from specific peo-
ple and in what order daily routines such as bathing, eating, and dressing occur.
Children also learn what to expect from particular toys and may take great pleas-
ure in repeating an activity long after it has become uninteresting or even irritating
to adults. Of course, routines are altered sometimes, but a sense of sameness helps
children learn to feel safe in their world and to trust their caregivers. Within this
secure world, children are able to accept and enjoy the changes that do occur.
BUILD LEARNING EXPERIENCES INTO DAILY ROUTINES
A child learns in all domains of development, every day. Although development

may be relatively advanced in some areas and more delayed in others, the child has
a possibility of learning something new in a number of areas with each activity.
Singing action songs with a group of other children, for instance, involves gross
motor, fine motor, cognitive, communicative, and social skills.
Similarly, teachers and caregivers have the opportunity to encourage learning
in every interaction with the child, whether during a specific time that is set aside
for particular activities or during routine caregiving activities. In fact, there is
ample evidence that shows that experiences that take place as a part of daily rou-
tines are more effective for teaching than those that are isolated in a specific teach-
ing activity (Sandall, 1997). For instance, a child who is learning to improve his or
her grasp has many opportunities to practice this skill during the day (e.g., during
dressing, eating, bathing, art activities, play).
GUIDING LEARNING 19
USE CLEAR LANGUAGE
It is important that adults neither talk down to children nor talk over them. This
becomes especially critical for children whose impairments affect their ability to
communicate effectively.
Do Not Talk D o w n
Adults should use correctly articulated, adult forms of words (e.g., horse, not
horsey) to encourage children's language development and support social develop-
ment. Make language easier to understand by using shorter sentences, expanding
them as the child's understanding expands.
Do Not Talk Over
If a child is not talking much, adults are inclined to talk about the child (e.g., report
preferences, failings) as if he or she were not present, as if he or she could not hear.
This is detrimental both to the child's self-concept and his or her ability to learn
language.
Do Talk To
Speak directly to children, looking for other cues of understanding if they are un-
able to speak. Encourage children to make choices through whatever responses are
available to them. Introduce children to others, and let them know they are valued.
ALLOW QUIET TIME
Like adults, all children need t i m e to themselves (i.e., time to play by themselves
or time to play with adults without the adults making any demands). Adults can
teach a great deal by simply being responsive to children and showing interest and
enthusiasm for the children's interests. Use curricular materials, such as those pro-
vided in this book, consistently and regularly, but keep in mind that the activities
featured in this edition constitute only a few of the important routines that chil-
dren will do on a daily basis.
GROUP CHILDREN FOR OPTIMAL LEARNING
Many preschools and child care centers rather rigidly separate children by chronolog-
ical age and maintain that separation throughout the day. Even within the typical
population of children, there is considerable variability in the emergence of particu-

lar social, cognitive, motor, and language skills. While a well-structured classroom
and a creative curriculum can reduce the frustrations of children who are not devel-
oping typically within these age groups, the effects on self-esteem can be significant.
T h e problem is magnified when children with special needs are included in
classrooms with typically developing children. Because delays (or unusual patterns
of skills) prevent children with special needs from participating in many activities
with peers, they may end up being more isolated from other children in an inclu-
sive setting than they would be in a self-contained program with other children who
have special needs.
One solution to this problem is to have multi-age groups, making it more like
a family, in which different-aged members are expected to have different skills and
to help each other learn. While this solution has merit, it also is fraught with prob-
lems due to licensing laws that require different teacher-child ratios for younger
and older children and may specifically forbid mixing very young children with
older children because of safety concerns.
Another solution is to have flexible groupings in which children move from one
small group to another within the same classroom or between classrooms in order
to ensure that groups of children have similar skill levels when learning something
new. This also provides opportunities for children who share a particular interest to
be together. Flexible grouping is a particularly helpful strategy when including chil-
dren with moderate to severe delays or children with special disabling conditions
such as cerebral palsy. Preschoolers with moderate to severe mental retardation
often function quite well in settings with children who are 1, 2, or even 3 years
younger than they are. They should not require special modifications but will not
progress as rapidly as typically developing children and may need extra practice.
Children with typically developing cognitive skills but mild orthopedic or neu-
rological impairments may be able to participate in all activities with their same-
age peers. Consultation with physical and occupational therapists will help clarify
this, as well as assist the teacher or caregiver in efforts to adapt activities.
Children with unusual patterns of skills also require flexible grouping strate-
gies. For example, some children with cerebral palsy who cannot talk are still quite
capable of learning some age-level, pre-academic skills by being with other children
their age who are asking the questions they cannot ask. These children as well as
those with other conditions interfering with speech may need major modifications
in activities to allow them to demonstrate what they know (e.g., matching rather
than naming) but are still able to learn at a normal rate and should be with their
peers for this kind of learning. Children with typical learning ability but significant
motor delays or differences, however, may need to be grouped with a few other chil-
dren who need specific therapies or interventions or to have specially designed ac-
tivities that they do with support on the playground.
GUIDING LEARNING 21
For children with severe motor impairments, a variety of devices are available
that can provide proper positioning and mobility, both indoors and outdoors. There
may, however, be a limit to the amount of independent mobility possible. In such
cases, it is up to the caregivers and teachers to spend extra effort to move the chil-
dren from place to place, to physically assist them in games, and to facilitate their
inclusion in the activities.
STRUCTURE AN INCLUSIVE CLASSROOM
One of the biggest challenges for preschool teachers who serve children with spe-
cial needs is the provision of individualized instruction. Children's needs will vary,
and the very nature of a child's problem frequently makes it easy to overlook his or
her instructional needs in a busy classroom. For example, a child who talks very lit-
tle may receive less attention and the conversational interaction he or she needs. A
child who is not independently mobile may be content to remain where he or she
is placed and, therefore, miss out on interactions with mobile peers.
While it is clearly not possible to tend to each child's needs all of the time,
there are a number of strategies that you can use to maximize learning. One is to
use structured times, such as circle time or story time, for individualized purposes.
One child may need to say the names of objects, another may be working on count-
ing, and another may need praise for just sitting still. Another strategy is to subtly
manipulate the interactions between typically developing children and children
with special needs so that they relate with each other as much as possible. Perhaps
you could give a child who does not speak much a favorite toy or game that more
than one child can use at once. This strategy may attract other children. A child
who is not mobile may have to physically be moved from place to place, but there
may be a way for the other children to participate in the process. Consult the ther-
apists who are working with the children for specific ideas.
Most children with special needs will need some individual instruction during
the day, and this requires setting aside time and private space. Some preschools
have a small room that can be used for that purpose. Other preschools simply par-
tition off a corner with a curtain or bookcase for such activities.
THINK LONG TERM
At the beginning of each curriculum sequence, we have tried to explain its impor-
tance for the long-term development of the child. Some children, however, will
have impairments that preclude mastering most of the skills in one or more se-
quences. Interventionists will need to consider the long-term goals of these items
or sequences and help the children develop adaptive skills. Considering ways for
children with severe visual and/or motor impairments to master emergent literacy
skills will be especially important (e.g., handling print materials, recognizing let-
ters, drawing). Chapter 3 discusses emergent literacy and provides some ideas for
modifying literacy materials for children with various conditions.
SUMMARY
This chapter has focused on facilitating the learning of individual children by build-
ing intervention into play and other typical daily activities; being sensitive to the
child's developmental level, needs, and desires,- providing appropriate consequences,-
allowing time for quiet and independent play,- using clear language,- and having flex-
ible groupings in a classroom to accommodate uneven development. Yet, these prin-
ciples are only part of the equation for giving children their best hope for optimal
development. T h e other part of the equation is the safety, security, and stimulation
provided by the larger environment. These factors are the focus of the next chapter.
REFERENCES
Greenspan, S.I., Wieder, S., & Simon, R. (1998). The child with special needs: Encouraging
intellectual and emotional growth. Reading, MA: Perseus Books.
Jennings, K.D., & MacTurk, R.H. (1995). The motivational characteristics of infants and chil-
dren with physical and sensory impairments. In R.H. MacTurk & G.A. Morgan (Eds.), Mas-
tery motivation: Origins, conceptualizations, and applications. Vol. 12: Advances in applied
developmental psychology (pp. 147-219). Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Corporation.
Sandall, S.R. (1997). Early intervention contexts, content, and methods. In A.H. Widerstrom,
B.A. Mowder, & S.R. Sandall (Eds.), Infant development and risk (2nd ed., pp. 261-286).
Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.
THREE
Environmental Factors Influencing

Learning, Development,
and Emergent Literacy
T his chapter focuses on important factors affecting learning and develop-

ment that may be overlooked when intervention plans are created for young
children. In our work in home and child care centers, we have observed that
many parents and child care workers are unaware that the environments they pro-
vide for children may not be optimal for promoting the mastery of basic develop-
mental skills or for laying the foundation necessary for acquiring early literacy-
skills. First, we address factors that are important in the physical environment.
Then, we consider the role of music, rhythm, and movement in promoting devel-
opment. Since the 1960s, there has been increasing recognition of the important
role early music exposure plays in promoting the development of language, emo-
tional, cognitive, social, and motor skills (Campbell, 2 0 0 2 ; Gardner, 1993; Madaule,
1994). Finally, we address home and school environments and activities that en-
courage emergent literacy skills.
LEAST RESTRICTIVE ENVIRONMENTS
Both Part C (for children from birth through 2 years) and Section 6 1 9 of Part B (for
children 3 - 5 years) of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA.)
Amendments of 1997 (PL 105-17) require that these children be served in the "least
restrictive" environments. For some children, the least restrictive environment is
at home, where the standard family practice is for children to stay at home until age
5 or 6 (or longer if it is a family that home schools its children). For most, however,
23
the least restrictive environment is with a group of other preschool children, most
of whom are developing in a typical fashion. Providing these environments may be
difficult in many public schools where there are not yet programs for typically de-
veloping preschoolers. Some school systems are making use of existing public and
private preschool and child care settings in the community by providing money to
support the additional time and effort required to serve children with special needs.
Others are integrating their programs by recruiting a few typically developing chil-
dren to attend a preschool program designed for children with special needs.
Wherever children with special needs are served, the characteristics that define
the best preschool environments for them are the same as those that define the best
preschool environments for typically developing children.
TEACHING PRACTICES
In its position statement, Developm en tally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood

Programs Serving Children from Birth Through Age 8, the National Association for
the Education of Young Children (NAEYC; 1997) has summarized what is known
about the way in which preschoolers learn. This statement suggests that teachers of
young children should act more like guides or facilitators than like teachers in the
more traditional sense. T h e statement also suggests that the teacher's role is to pre-
pare the environment for children to learn through active exploration and interac-
tion with adults, other children, and materials. Concrete learning activities should
be provided to the children with materials and people relevant to their own life ex-
periences. T h e teacher should view each child as a unique person with an individual
pattern and timing of growth and development. Thus, learning activities should be
developed to accommodate differences in ability and interests.
One of the primary tasks of preschool education is to help children develop self-
control to deal appropriately with their emotions, share, negotiate, and demonstrate
respect for others. Teachers facilitate this self-control by providing good examples for
the children, redirecting them, and setting clear limits that match and respect the
children's understanding and needs. Self-control is not taught by rigid enforcement of
rules, punishment, lecturing, or attempts to make children feel ashamed.
Probably the most important attributes a teacher or caregiver of young children
can possess is a sense of humor and an ability both to see and respond to each child's
strengths. Children need and thrive on attention. If they do not get the caregiver's
attention by doing something appropriate, they will get it by doing something in-
appropriate. A caregiver in a group setting rarely has enough attention to go around.
This makes it all the more important that strengths be emphasized both when deal-
ing with behavior and when dealing with learning activities. You can often address
inappropriate behavior very effectively by ignoring it and giving a lot of attention to
another child who is engaging in desirable behavior.
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS 25
PREPARING THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
T h e environment established at home and in classrooms provides an integral frame-

work for the development of children's cognitive, motor, social, emotional, lan-
guage, and literacy skills. Infants and young children learn best in an environment
that offers safety and security, meets children's physical needs, includes areas for
different types of play, and provides an appropriate amount of stimulation without
being overwhelming.
Offers Safety and S e c u r i t y

Homes and classrooms need to be carefully child proofed. It often helps to get down
on the floor and move around the area at toddler height to discover potential haz-
ards. To avoid potential hazards
• Cover electrical outlets and secure any cords.
• Put dangerous materials (e.g., cleaning materials, medicines, scissors) up high
and lock them away.
• Cover sharp edges, maintain open areas and pathways through rooms, remove
small rugs, and make sure shelving cannot be pulled over. These measures are
particularly important for children who are learning how to walk, especially if
they have any motor challenges.
M e e t s Children's P h y s i c a l Needs
Homes and classrooms also need to be physically accessible to children. For an en-
vironment that is child friendly
• Keep toys on low shelves to provide easy access.
• Designate certain areas for toys (children need to be able to count on toys being
located in predictable places).
• Use furniture that is appropriately sized for children. When sitting at a table, a
child's feet should be flat on the floor or supported by a foot stool.
• M a k e sure that equipment (e.g., walkers, standers, wheelchairs) can be placed at
play centers easily for children who require assistance.
I n c l u d e s A r e a s for Different Types of P l a y

At home, using different areas for different types of play will likely mean using differ-
ent rooms in the house or, perhaps, different areas in one or two rooms. A classroom
should be divided into zones. Different types of play include quiet/reading, active, art,
manipulatives, dramatic play/dress-up, miscellaneous small toys, and music.
Quiet/Reading
It is important to have a quiet area where children can go if they are stressed or
overwhelmed. At home this may be a corner in the child's bedroom. In a classroom
this often can be combined with the book/reading area, which tends to be a quiet,
cozy place. Include soft pillows and maybe a bean bag chair. In either place, include
a variety of sturdy books. A love of books is one of the building blocks for a love of
reading. Although you may wish to protect some books you read to the child, he or
she should have unfettered access to books that have interesting pictures and are
not easily damaged.
Active
Although active areas will include outside/playground, there also should be an ac-
tive area inside, which is especially valuable on inclement weather days. Space will
determine what can be used, but some possibilities include a water bed mattress
filled with air or water, a small climbing structure with slide, a ball pit, a trampo-
line, a mat or mattress, and/or a cloth tunnel.
Art
Provide access to a variety of art materials, including paint, markers, play dough,
fingcrpaint, chalk, collage materials, glue, and a variety of papers. In addition to the
structured instruction included within curricular items, children should be en-
couraged to explore and interact with art materials in an unstructured, open-ended
fashion. T h e process of learning to engage with these materials is more important
than the final product (Kohl, 2002). Avoid making judgment statements about the
child's artwork; instead, provide specific observations or feedback. For instance, it
Is better to say, "I like the way you used the color red here" than to say, "That's a
great picture."
Encourage tactile exploration of materials, while being mindful of children
who are still mouthing objects. If a child is still mouthing, try art activities using
food, such as pudding or whipped cream. Group art activities with such materials
are an excellent way to promote social interaction.
Manipulatives
Provide a variety of manipulative toys that encourage children to use their hands
and eyes together. Some of these toys involve close-ended play, while others en-
courage more open-ended, imaginative, and social play. Typically, this area would
include the following objects:
• Several different types and sizes of blocks
• A range of puzzles, from those in which each piece has its own hole to simple
interlocking puzzles
• Pegs and pegboards
• Shape sorters
• Toy animals and people

• Small vehicles
Dramatic Play/Dress-Up
When children reach the toddler stage of development and begin imitating adult ac-
tions with props, it is important to provide a variety of materials to promote the de-
velopment of imaginative and social play. At home, this area might include simple
items, such as children's dishes; a few cooking utensils borrowed from the kitchen; a
doll or stuffed animal; a toy telephone,- and some cast-off clothes, hats, and shoes. A
few scarves can be used to create a variety of outfits. Many classrooms often include
child-size stoves and refrigerators; doll beds; and a variety of dishes, cooking utensils,
and toy foods. For children functioning in the 3- to 5-year age range, it is useful to ro-
tate materials in the dramatic play area or to have several different areas that promote
different sorts of dramatic play, such as a store (with a cash register, play money, and
empty food boxes), a post office, or a doctor's office. Materials appropriate to different
seasons or holidays also may be included. It is always important to include literacy
materials that may be incorporated into play (e.g., pencils, notepads, books).
Miscellaneous Small Toys

A collection of wheel toys, plastic animals, noisemakers, and so forth provides chil-
dren an opportunity to explore the different features of objects, learn the toys'
names and functions, and incorporate the toys into imaginative play. Safety must
be a concern, however. Avoid toys with parts that might pose a choking hazard.
Music
Make simple instruments readily available for children to explore. These might in-
clude xylophones, toy pianos, drums, maracas, rhythm sticks, bells, and so forth.
Incorporate music into circle time, encouraging children to participate in a variety
of ways (e.g., singing, clapping, playing a rhythm instrument, dancing). A tape or
CD player with a collection of music is useful for providing musical exposure and
setting the tone or mood. Soft, quiet music can be used to calm children for quiet
play or naptime. Lively music can be used for movement experiences to help chil-
dren release pent-up energy.
Provides a n Appropriate A m o u n t
of Stimulation without Being Overwhelming
Children need to have a variety of sights and sounds to stimulate them but do not
learn effectively in an environment that is too cluttered, busy, noisy, or unpre-
dictable. It might be a good idea to limit the number of toys available so that chil-
dren are not too distracted to play. If the child or classroom has a lot of toys, try ro-
tating them every few weeks. Limiting background noise is also important. Both
homes and classrooms need a reasonable degree of quiet and order. A television that
is constantly on at home may teach a child to tune out sounds—not only the sounds
on the television but also others that are important for learning. Loud and constant
noise in a classroom is also detrimental. T h e value of inside voices/noises and out-
side voices/noises should be stressed. Speaking in a firm but quiet voice is gener-
ally more effective in maintaining an orderly classroom than yelling.
It is important to recognize, however, that individual children may have very
different needs in terms of stimulation. Some children may be easygoing and adapt-
able, others may be highly sensitive or easily overwhelmed, while others may be
relatively unresponsive. Often these needs are evident in infancy. Environmental
modifications may be necessary for children to function effectively.
• If the child is easygoing and adaptable: Provide an interesting and stimulating
environment. This child will readily adapt to minor changes in environment
and schedule.
• If the child is highly sensitive or easily overwhelmed: Tone down the environ-
ment. Use neutral colors. Keep lighting low. Indirect, natural lighting is pref-
erable. Avoid visual clutter, such as busy wallpaper or having multiple pictures
on the walls. Maintain a predictable schedule. Reduce noise level. Play quiet,
rhythmic music. A slow drum beat can be soothing. Keep your voice soft and
your movements slow and gentle. Use soft, natural clothing and bedding. Some-
times a child like this cannot function in a group of 10-15 other children until
he or she has had time to develop coping skills in a less stimulating environment.
• If the child is relatively unresponsive: Provide a more stimulating environment.

Use bright and contrasting colors. Play music with a lively tempo and variable
style and rhythm. Be animated in your movements and voice when interact-
ing with the child. Engage the child in vigorous age-appropriate physical play.
Change toys frequently.
Offering an environment that meets children's needs provides a powerful tool for
promoting optimal development. It is the foundation on which everything else rests.
Whether you are a parent or a teacher, creating an environment in which the child
feels comfortable and secure and that offers diverse and appropriate learning op-
portunities provides a critical foundation for the child's growth and development—
physical, emotional, cognitive, and social.
ENRICHING THE ENVIRONMENT

THROUGH MUSIC AND MOVEMENT
Early music experiences contribute to the development of the rhythm and timing
that provides a foundation for cognitive and language skills, social interactions, at-
tention, focus, and motor coordination. Music is a powerful tool that connects us
to each other and ourselves. Sharing early songs and rhymes provides children with
a shared cultural heritage, which is being lost as society has moved toward passive,
prepackaged music experiences (Campbell, 2002). Unfortunately, many young par-
ents do not know these simple songs and chants and, therefore, are unable to pass
them down to their children. Circle time, as part of the preschool experience, pro-
vides an excellent opportunity to incorporate daily exposure and participation in
music and movement activities.
Music offers a powerful tool to parents or caregivers working with children
with special needs. Many children with special needs demonstrate a strong affinity
for music. Reluctant children can sometimes be encouraged to participate in more
challenging activities through the use of music and singing. Familiar songs (tradi-
tional or made up) can be used to ease transitions and establish routines. In the fol-
lowing sections, you will find specific ideas about incorporating different types of
music experiences into the child's daily routine.
Singing
Singing is a wonderful way to connect with young children. Incorporate singing into
everyday routines. Make up simple songs to accompany self-care activities, such
as getting dressed or brushing teeth. Sing together as you go about daily tasks
(e.g., performing simple chores, running errands). When children are first learning
a song, try leaving out the last word of each line for them to fill in. Make up songs
that have the children's names in them (or insert their names into songs they al-
ready know). For example, "the wheels on the bus go round and round" can become
"Jimmy is jumping up and down."
Chanting
Simple chants or rhymes provide the rhythm, and often the rhyme, of language to
children. T h e y are also good for adults who arc less comfortable with singing. Ex-
amples include Hickory, Dickory, Dock; Simple Simon,- Baa, Baa, Black Sheep; This
Little Piggy; or Jack and Jill.
Recorded Music
Recorded music can provide a rich variety in music exposure. T h e music experi-
ences during the first few years of life train children's ears for future music under-
standing in much the same way that the language!s) we are exposed to train our un-
derstanding of speech sounds (Campbell, 2002). It is important, therefore, to expose
children to a wide variety of music, including music from different cultures. Look
for quality recordings of music, including those that may not have been recorded
specifically for children. An excellent source for a large variety of children's music
is Music for Little People (1-800-346-4445).
Hand Rhymes
Starting with early favorites such as Pat-a-Cake and T h e Itsy Bitsy Spider, simple
hand rhymes help young children learn imitation skills, rhythm, and timing. Ini-
tially, you should help the child move through the motions, gradually fading your
physical prompts. These activities often are very popular with young children, and
many will want to repeat them again and again. As children demonstrate increas-
ing skills, challenge them to learn more complex hand rhymes. By age 4, many chil-
dren can perform basic hand rhymes in conjunction with another person.
Rhythm Instruments
Collect and/or make a variety of rhythm instruments (e.g., drums, wooden sticks,
tambourines, shakers, bells, maracas). A homemade drum might be a box or pot and
a wooden spoon. A shaker might be a film canister filled with some rice and secured
firmly. Be sure the instruments are safe and sturdy, with nontoxic paint and smooth
edges. Let children explore and play with the instruments. Demonstrate ways to use
the instruments to create different sounds. Ask the child to imitate you: "Can you
play fast . . . or slow? Can you play soft . . . or loud?" Use the instruments to ani-
mate the sounds in songs (e.g., shake a maraca for rain). When singing or listening to
music, demonstrate how to play an instrument in time with the music. Pat out a
simple rhythm on a drum and tell the child to drum with you. After the child is suc-
cessful maintaining a simple regular beat, try variations (e.g., loud beat, soft beat).
Movement
Children naturally respond to music and often spontaneously move their bodies to
the rhythm. Play music and/or beat a drum as older children march around the
room. Introduce movement songs that involve the whole body, such as If You're
Happy and You Know It, Clap Your Hands or T h e Hokey-Pokey. Sing songs about
stretching up to the sky, down to the ground, and turning around. Have children
pretend to be different animals as they move around the room. Use songs to rein-
force identification of body parts, such as Head, Shoulders, Knees, and Toes. By age
4, children may be ready for very simple circle dances.
Participation in group music and movement classes is a good way for children
to be exposed to a wide variety of music and to experience music in a social envi-
ronment, sharing the experience with others. Group music and movement classes
also provide parents with an expanded repertoire of music to share with their chil-
dren. Contact the Early Childhood Music and Movement Association (1-360-568-
5635) if you need help locating an instructor in your area.
USING THE ENVIRONMENT TO PROMOTE EMERGENT LITERACY
Two of the most important factors in developing emergent literacy skills are a text-
rich environment and adults who regularly share books with the child either by
reading or by looking at pictures. A text-rich environment is one in which printed
materials are in abundance (e.g., newspapers, books, magazines) so that children are
exposed to print and have an opportunity to observe adults reading whether it is the
newspaper, a recipe book, instructions for constructing a toy, or print on a computer
monitor.
T h e I m p o r t a n c e o f Reading A l o u d
By having stories read to them, children develop a rich store of language concepts
and vocabulary that will facilitate reading comprehension when they begin to read
on their own. Children are stimulated to develop their imagination and creativity
and learn to extend their attention span. Most important, they learn from adults
that reading is pleasurable, and children develop the desire to read by themselves.
Reading aloud takes on special importance for children who are limited in their
abilities to move independently; such children rely on others to bring the world to
them in order to learn about it. T h e following is a list of suggestions for choosing
and reading books:
1. For younger children, choose books with simple colorful pictures or pop-up pages.
2. Preview all books to see if there are sections that need to be shortened, ex-
panded on, or eliminated. Select books that are age-appropriate for the children.
3. Avoid controlled-vocabulary books that are designed for new readers (e.g., Dr.
Seuss's Hop on Pop and Eastman's Go, Dog. Go!). These books are excellent for
teaching reading, but the concepts and vocabulary are too limited to challenge
a typically developing preschooler. Better are books with interesting story lines
and broader vocabulary, such as Carle's The Grouchy Ladybug and The Very
Hungry Caterpillar, Dr. Seuss's Green Eggs and Ham and The Cat in the Hat,
Freeman's Corduroy, Rey's Curious George series, Johnson's Harold and the
Purple Crayon series, or Slobodkina's Caps for Sale. Remember that the pur-
pose of reading aloud is not to teach the children how to read; rather, it is to
stimulate new ideas and to instill a love of books. This will prepare the chil-
dren to become good readers later on.
4. When reading to one child, sit him or her on your lap. When reading to a group,
seat the children in a semicircle around you. Read slowly and expressively,
changing voices to match different characters in the story. Run your finger
under the words as you read, and hold the book so that it is facing the children.
5. Welcome children's questions about stories and take time to answer them. This
is a good time to elaborate on the theme of the story or to relate it to the chil-
dren's direct experiences.
6. Give children ready access to books throughout the day.
Emergent Literacy in the H o m e

Reading to a child should be a daily activity in the home. For maximum effective-
ness, parents and caregivers should focus on the pleasure of reading, not on teaching
the child to read. In a playful way, parents and caregivers can point out pictures and
text, elicit questions about the story, and relate the story to events in the child's life.
Favorite books can be revisited many times, and new books should be introduced. It
is also fun to make a photo album book about the child's day, with photographs de-
picting the child's activities—waking up, eating, going to school, taking a bath. Pic-
tures of familiar activities and people will hold the child's interest.
Encourage parents and caregivers to model and talk about literacy-related ac-
tivities. For example, they can show their child how they follow a recipe, read the
newspaper, identify favorite store logos, or look at road signs.
If a child's parents have low literacy skills, they are at risk for becoming alien-
ated from the child's educational process (Lewis, 1992). Do everything you can to
keep them involved. Point out to parents that they will contribute to their child's
ability to read by teaching basics such as orienting the book, moving from left to
right, and turning pages. By making up a story to go with the pictures, parents can
help their child focus on details and understand that stories have a beginning and
an end. Books without text, such as the Carl the Dog series, can be used to teach
all of these basic concepts. T h e most important message to the child should be that
reading is pleasurable. If a parent wants to improve personal reading and writing
abilities, encourage him or her to seek out a local literacy council or community
college for free instruction.
Non-English-Speaking Children and Families

If the parents are non-English speakers, strongly encourage them to read to their
children in their own language. If necessary, help them construct their own books.
Also encourage them to call their child's attention to the text and logos on envi-
ronmental items such as cereal boxes and canned goods. Reassure them that their
most important contribution is to instill awareness of reading as an important and
enjoyable activity.
E m e r g e n t L i t e r a c y A c t i v i t i e s i n Child C a r e o r P r e s c h o o l
Provide a text-rich environment with charts, posters, and labels on doors and fur-
niture. When you set up theme-based centers for play, include materials for reading
and writing along with other props. For example, a kitchen center can include paper
and markers for making shopping lists and simple cookbooks. T h e block and puz-
zle area can include alphabet blocks and/or alphabet puzzles. Join the children to
help them structure the play and model reading/writing activities. Engage children
in conversation about their activities and feelings during playtime and lunch. This
stimulates language development, a critical element of literacy. Avoid the use of
television except for specific educational purposes.
Read to children daily, alternating new books with old favorites. As you read to
the children, encourage them to visually examine the pages and predict what will
happen next. For younger children, repeated line books such as Are You My Mother!
or Brown Bear, Brown Bear help develop attention, memory, and prediction.
Encourage children to describe or tell stories about their pictures. Write the
words each child uses for his or her picture on the picture. Read the words aloud
to the child. In this way, the child observes how spoken words become text. T h e
value of the text is reinforced when parents receive the picture and read the text
with the child.
Reserve a corner of the room for quiet exploration of books. Provide cushions
or a small couch for a relaxed atmosphere. Keep in mind that many children also
enjoy books with accompanying tapes.
If your class includes non-English-speaking children or children for whom Eng-
lish is a second language, include references to that language and text in your class-
room activities. To expose children to another language, you could label environ-
mental objects in both English and the other language (s), sing (or listen to) songs in
the other language(s), or serve foods familiar to the non-English-speaking children,
preferably packaged with labels in their language(s).
Adaptations of E m e r g e n t L i t e r a c y
M a t e r i a l s for C h i l d r e n w i t h Special N e e d s
You will need to make an extra effort to promote skill acquisition for children who
have conditions that limit their ability to readily engage in emergent literacy ac-
tivities. Speech-language, occupational, and physical therapists and vision special-
ists can assist you in constructing materials and selecting appropriate media tools
and positioning strategies. These specialists may provide children with an alterna-
tive system of reading-related communication consisting of gestures or pictures.
Older preschoolers may be provided with a computerized system. Therapists can
also assist in selecting literacy software and books on videotape. Although each
child is unique, the following ideas can help you get started.
For Children with Motor Impairments

Adapt books by inserting small pieces of adhesive-backed weather stripping on the
upper right-hand corner of each page,- this will make pages easier for children to
turn. You can also cut the pages out of a book and insert them into plastic sleeves
in a three-ring binder.
Place strips of male Velcro (the side with plastic bristles) on the outside of the
covers of a book. These will keep a book in place on carpet. Lightweight rubber
shelf liner is very helpful to hold books on other surfaces.
Make sure that books and writing materials are physically accessible to the
children. If a child moves on the floor, place materials on low shelves. Provide
adapted writing and drawing materials. Crayons with round tops or fat markers are
often helpful. Physical assistance may be necessary to ensure that children with
motor impairments participate in group play activities that include emergent liter-
acy activities.
For Children with Visual Impairments

Most children with visual impairments have some degree of vision. Provide
brightly colored materials to encourage children with visual impairments to use
their residual vision. Experiment with each child to see which colors he or she best
perceives. Vision specialists can provide light boxes to illuminate reading materials.
Provide books with tactile features, and teach children to explore the pages with
fingers as you tell a story.
For Children with Hearing Impairments

Consult with the child's parents and speech-language therapist regarding commu-
nication strategies. Signing and picture systems are commonly used. Learn to use
the signs the child understands, and, to the extent practical, teach the other chil-
dren in the class to use the signs. Parents and/or teachers can construct books that
combine text with representations of signs. You can easily make a videotape of an
adult reading a story by using signs.
SUMMARY
Chapters 2 and 3 have provided guidelines for facilitating learning and development
through your interactions with the child and through providing or facilitating ap-
propriate environments. With this foundation, we are ready to move on to the
specifics of how to assess a child and develop an appropriate intervention plan using
the CCPSN.
REFERENCES
Campbell, D. (2002). The Mozart effect for children. New York: HarperCollins.
Gardner, H. (1993). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic
Books.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Amendments of 1997, PL 105-17, 20
U.S.C. §§ 1400 et seq.
Kohl, M. (2002). First art: Art experiences for toddlers and twos. Beltsville, MD: Gryphon
House.
Lewis, A. (1992). Helping young urban parents educate themselves and their children. New
York: ERIC Clearinghouse on Urban Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service
No. ED355314).
National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC). (1997). Developmen-
tally appropriate practice in early childhood programs serving children from birth through
age 8. Washington, DC: Author.
Madaule, P. (1994). When listening comes alive: A guide to effective learning and commu-
nication. Norval, Ontario, Canada: Moulin Publishing.
FOUR
Using The Carolina Curriculum
T he C C P S N is a systematic curriculum that directly links a skills assess-

ment with activities to promote those skills that have not been mastered.
It includes an Assessment Log that has space for multiple assessments to
follow the child's progress over time, a Developmental Progress Chart that provides
a visual representation of the child's skills in the various domains of development,
and curriculum items that describe the necessary materials and procedures for pro-
moting each skill listed in the assessment log. Each item also lists criteria for de-
termining when the child has sufficiently mastered the skill and can move to more
advanced skills.
ASSESSMENT
T h e first step in designing any intervention plan is to carefully assess the child's de-
velopmental abilities. For this purpose, the items from this curriculum's 22 sequences
have been incorporated into an Assessment Log (which can be found following this
chapter), with space for scoring several assessments. (Additional copies of the As-
sessment Log, along with the Developmental Progress Chart, are available in various
formats and may be obtained from Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., 1-800-638-3775
(U.S. and Canada) or 1-410-337-9580 (worldwide); http://wwvv.brookespublishing.com/
ccupdates.) T h e numbers assigned to the curriculum sequences are not in any way
related to the importance of a given sequence. Each of the sequences represents a sig-
nificant area of development. Thus, it is important that each child being evaluated
using this curriculum be evaluated in all of the sequences appropriate to his or her
developmental level, although some items may be omitted because they are inap-
propriate given a specific impairment. It is also important, however, to be sensitive
35
to families' cultural practices in child rearing and respect their beliefs about certain
items (e.g., some cultures feel strongly that children not engage in mirror play).
There are four steps in the assessment process, beginning with a period of in-
formal observation and ending with completing a chart that provides a visual rep-
resentation of the child's skills in each of the 22 sequences included in the curricu-
lum. T h e goal of the assessment is to determine the skills a child has mastered and
the skills that should be the next goals for his or her development.
Please note: Although the completed chart provides a basis for estimating a
developmental level for each of the sequences, it is critical that curriculum users
recognize that the curriculum assessment is not a standardized assessment in-
strument (unlike the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, Third
Edition, for example) and that the age levels are estimates based on information
from standardized instruments and the literature on preschool development.
Step 1: P r e p a r a t i o n
Prior to beginning an assessment, you should be thoroughly familiar with the As-
sessment Log, be able to recognize the kinds of skills that are included in each
sequence, and generally be aware of the relative difficulty of items within each se-
quence. Most of the items are self-explanatory,- however, if it is unclear what you
should do to assess a particular skill, turn to the curriculum item associated with
it for an explanation.
Note that on the Assessment Log there are four columns to the right of the
item descriptions. This is to provide space for recording one child's abilities at four
different times (e.g., at the time he or she first enters an intervention program and
4, 8, and 12 months later). Enter the date of the current assessment at the top of the
first open column.
Assemble the materials needed for the assessment or identify their location
within a classroom (see list in Table 4.1). T h e assessment does not require the use
of a kit with specific materials. All of the needed items are common children's toys
or objects usually available in any child care or preschool setting and in many
homes. [Note: Never leave a child unattended with any small items that pose a
choking hazard). Some people find it more convenient to carry a box of toys to do
an assessment, especially if it is to be done in the child's home or in an office. There
is often an advantage, however, in using materials that are familiar to the child. If
a teacher or other caregiver observes an assessment that uses familiar materials, it
may be easier to understand how the skills being assessed relate to the child's daily
activities and how daily activities might be modified to improve the child's skills.
Step 2: O b s e r v a t i o n
The easiest way to assess a child with the CCPSN is to observe the child playing in a
familiar setting with familiar play partners, both adults and peers. This can be readily
USING THE CAROLINA CURRICULUM 37
Table 4 . 1 . Materials necessary for the CCPSN
Manipulatives Games
Form boards Playing cards
Puzzles (e.g., 2- to 25-piece interlocking) Old Maid cards
Pop beads Dice
Pegboards (large and small pegs) Candyland
Tools (tongs, hammer, nails, clothespins) Animal Lotto cards
Blocks of various sizes, shapes, and colors Dominos
Jars with screw-on lids I Spy Preschool Game
Bottles with small necks with raisins or other small Books and Pictures
objects inside Nursery rhymes
Pounding bench Picture books
Art Materials Preschool books with good vocabulary and story lines
Pictures including both colored pictures and line
Play dough
drawings
Fingerpaints
Matching pictures for sorting and matching activities
Crayons
Markers Outdoor equipment
Construction paper Large and small balls
Scissors Jungle gym or other climbing equipment
Balance beam
Housekeeping/pretend
Wheel toys
Dolls
Stuffed animals Other
Doll furniture Coins (penny, nickel, dime, quarter)
Cooking and eating utensils Variety of small toys of different sizes, shapes, and
Rolling pin colors (e.g., vehicles, plastic animals, doll house
Pitcher or teapot furniture)

Variety of pictures
Clothing with various fasteners (e.g., small and
Alphabet and number puzzles, or cards with letters
large buttons, zippers, Velcro)
and numbers on them
Shoes with laces
Lacing cards
Comb and brush
Wind-up toys
Toothbrush
Paper clips
accomplished in a preschool or group child care setting. Much of the assessment can
he completed by an hour's observation coupled with a short interview of the teacher.
Programs vary widely, however, in the kind of cognitive and language activities they
provide. Thus, information in these areas may be particularly unclear and will need to
be supplemented with a parent interview and direct interactions with the child.
If the assessment takes place at the child's home or in a professional setting
(e.g., at the health department or a therapist's workplace), select a place where the
child and the caregiver can be comfortable playing together but that is free from the
distractions of other children, the telephone, and so forth. Depending on the age and
mobility of the child, assessments may be done on the floor. Ask the caregiver to
play with the child in a typical fashion, using familiar toys or objects (or the mate-
rials you have assembled). This time allows you to determine what activities the
child and caregiver enjoy doing together and how the caregiver elicits the child's at-
tention and responses. It also allows you to determine the child's general develop-
mental status. You will find that this brief (15-20 minutes), informal observation pe-
riod will provide sufficient information to score many of the items in the sequences
without further assessment (especially the communication and motor items). This
time also allows you to establish a comfortable relationship with the child and his
or her caregiver and begin interviewing the parent about skills not yet observed.
T h e convention for scoring the Assessment Log is a plus (+) for a skill the child
has mastered, a plus/minus (+/-) for an inconsistent or emerging skill, and a minus
(-) for a skill that the child is unable to do. When working with a child with severe
motor impairments, it is useful to add an (A) alongside the (+) or (+/-) to indicate
that the child accomplished the task with physical assistance (e.g., stabilizing the
shoulder so that the child has more control of his or her arms and hands for cogni-
tive and visual-motor activities). T h e (A) also can be superimposed on the Devel-
opmental Progress Chart, which is described in Step 4.
Step 3 : D i r e c t e d A s s e s s m e n t
To complete the assessment, sit down with the child and the child's parents or care-
givers, either at home or in a quiet space in the preschool or child care, and assess
the child on the items not yet observed or reported. When the child does not
demonstrate a skill, explain the skill you are attempting to assess and ask the care-
giver if he or she has ever seen the child demonstrate the skill under other circum-
stances. If the caregiver reports that the child has shown the skill, you and the care-
giver will have to decide together whether the skill is relatively new and not
generalized (i.e., is emerging) or whether it has been mastered sufficiently to move
on to the next task in the sequence. There are some skills, particularly those in the
Personal-Social sequences, that you may rarely have an opportunity to observe be-
cause they are most natural and functional in the family setting. For these it will
be necessary to rely entirely on the caregiver's report.
T h e items within each curriculum sequence are listed in the order of their ex-
pected development. That is, the skill described in Item a is typically learned before
Item b, Item b before c, and so forth. Ideally, if a child is observed to have mastered
Item c of a sequence and not Item d, it could be assumed that the child has also
mastered Items a and b and will not have mastered Items e and f. A child often prac-
tices several related skills at once, however, and there is little consistency as to
which skill will emerge first. Furthermore, specific impairments may have differ-
ent effects on the various skills within a sequence, disrupting the usual pattern of
mastery. It is important, therefore, that a sufficient number of items be assessed in
each sequence to be certain which skills should be the focus of intervention. As a
general rule, continue administering items until the child has passed all at one age
span (e.g., 3 0 - 3 6 months) and has not met the criteria at another. (The end of one
age span and the beginning of another are indicated by a line extending into the col-
umn at the left of the items on the Assessment Log. T h e age that marks the end of
the span is above the line.) If there are one or more sequences in which the child
masters fewer than half of the skills in the 24- to 30-month range, the C C I T S N
should be used to complete the assessment. T h i s often will be necessary in the case
of significant motor impairment.
T h e first time you perform an assessment with the CCPSN, it may seem both
confusing and time consuming. With a little practice, however, you should find that
the assessment can generally be completed in 1 to 1;/ hours if done at home or 2 to
l
2 A hours if you are observing in a preschool or child care setting. Although there are
many items to be scored, it may take only a few minutes to complete a sequence be-
cause the items are closely related and may require the same materials. You also will
find that an activity selected to assess a skill in one sequence often wil 1 reveal skills
in another sequence that you can score when you reach that sequence. For example,
you may be assessing a child's ability to match colors (Item 6-IIbl and find that he or
she not only is matching them but also identifying them when they are named (Item
lOx). If necessary, it is perfectly acceptable to do the assessment in two or more ses-
sions, depending on the child's state and time constraints.
Step 4: C o m p l e t e t h e D e v e l o p m e n t a l Progress Chart

T h e Developmental Progress Chart can be found at the end of the Assessment Log.
Each item in the Assessment Log is represented by a square on the Developmental
Progress Chart. Using a highlighter or other colored writing instrument, fill the
squares associated with items marked (+). Make a diagonal line through squares as-
sociated with items marked (+/-) and color them in halfway. Those marked with a
(-) should be left blank. Complete the chart by filling in the squares preceding the
age span in which all items were passed.
This chart will then represent the child's relative strengths and weaknesses in
graphic form. For an example of a completed Developmental Progress Chart, see the
one included in Jason's case study later in this chapter (p. 44). Subsequent assess-
ments can be added to the chart using a marker of another color, demonstrating
progress over time.
SELECTING EDUCATIONAL/INTERVENTION OBJECTIVES
T h e most effective procedures for selecting educational objectives from the curricu-
lum assessment to include in a child's intervention plan consist of the following:
1. From the Assessment Log, develop a list of the next skills to be learned in each
of the major domains of development (personal-social, cognition, communica-
tion, fine motor, gross motor). This will give you a list of 22 items (unless one
or more sequences were inappropriate because of specific impairments).
2. Meet with the child's parent(s) or other caregiver(s). Invite them to share their
concerns and their long- and short-term goals for the child. Show the caregivers
the Developmental Progress Chart and the list of next skills. Discuss the
child's strengths and weaknesses as depicted in the chart and how the care-
givers' goals relate to the list of next skills.
3. If the child is in a preschool or other group care setting, meet with his or her
teacher, going over the Developmental Progress Chart, describing strengths and
weaknesses, and eliciting the teacher's goals for the child.
4. Tell the caregivers and teacher how they are already working on some of the
next skills through daily routines of care (e.g., feeding, grooming, dressing),
reading, playing with the child, and typical classroom activities. Identify one or
more additional objectives that can readily be integrated into these activities.
5. With the caregivers (and teacher), select the several next skills from each of the
major domains that will be the focus of the next intervention period. These be-
come the child's intervention objectives.
6. Set an approximate date for reassessing the child with the intent of selecting
objectives from any sequences omitted during the intervention period just
completed.
Coping w i t h I m p o r t a n t Differences in Goals

There will be instances in which a family, a teacher, and perhaps other profession-
als have very different goals for a child. For example, it may be quite clear to a
speech-language pathologist that a 36-month-old child with severe athetoid cerebral
palsy has neither the breath control nor the oral-motor control to develop speech as
a primary mode of communication in the near future. T h e speech-language pathol-
ogist may feel it is urgent to start the child on an augmentative and alternative com-
munication (AAC) system. Yet, the family may be opposed to any intervention that
could be construed as using something other than speech for communication. T h e
teacher may feel uncertain about what is best for the child and may have concerns
about integrating an AAC system into the classroom. In such a situation, it is es-
sential that the sense of partnership among the parent, the teacher, and the speech-
language pathologist not be disrupted. After careful discussion, a compromise might
be reached in which the speech-language pathologist continues to work on breath
control and sound production but also focuses on language development through
the use of pictures and objects. T h e speech-language pathologist may also provide
consultation to the teacher about teaching basic preschool skills (e.g., form dis-
crimination, object classification, numerical reasoning, letter recognition) through
matching and sorting tasks using a picture board, computer, or other device, thereby
teaching the child skills that could be used with a communication board in the fu-
ture if the parents decide to pursue that course (seeing the knowledge that the child
is capable of revealing with a picture board or computer often helps parents under-
stand the value of an AAC system as a supplement, if not a substitute, for speech).
DEVELOPING THE EDUCATION/INTERVENTION PLAN
There are basically two steps to follow in order to move from the list of objectives
to an intervention plan: 1) review the relevant curriculum items and 2) combine
several curriculum items into one activity or a series of related activities.
Step 1 : R e v i e w t h e R e l e v a n t C u r r i c u l u m I t e m s
There is an item in the curriculum corresponding with each item on the Assess-
ment Log, identified by the sequence and the item number (e.g., Sequence 14: Con-
versation Skills, Item 14a). Identify those curriculum items that go with the objec-
tives you have chosen. Each curriculum item has four sections:
• Materials: Most materials listed are toys that are common in homes or can be
readily made from simple, inexpensive materials. For many items, particularly
those in the Communication domain, no special materials are needed. In such
cases, the materials are then described as "None required."
• Procedures: This section usually describes an activity that will allow you to as-
sess whether the child can perform the skill being assessed. This activity is also
the first step in teaching the skill in a one-to-one situation. It may include two
or more activities for teaching the skill and describe ways in which to prompt
and reinforce the child's learning.
• Classroom & Functional Activities: This section is usually separate from the
Procedures section and describes ways that the skill can be useful in the child's
daily life, whether it be at home or in the classroom. In some cases, this means
providing the child with particular materials when he or she is playing alone or
suggesting ways that the caregiver can use the activities to entertain the child
while the caregiver is participating in other activities. Functional activities may
also include suggestions for games or other activities that would incorporate
a child's learning objective into an exercise that a small group of children or a
whole class might enjoy. There are some instances, however, when the Proce-
dures and Classroom &. Functional Activities sections are combined because
there is no logical way to separate them.
• Criterion: T h e last section describes the criterion for skill mastery. These are
often stated in general terms such as frequently, several days in a row, and so
forth rather than in precise terms (e.g., 3 of 4 trials) because few programs are in
a position to keep that kind of data. In the final analysis, the interventionist
must use his or her judgment about whether a skill has been sufficiently mas-
tered so that the child can move on to the next skill in the sequence. Suffi-
ciently mastered should refer to skill generalization (i.e., the behavior should be
observed on more than one occasion and in a variety of different circumstances).
Step 2: Combine Several Curriculum Items

into One Activity or a Series of Related Activities
One curriculum item may cover up to a page in this volume in an attempt to define
the skill and provide a variety of suggestions for teaching it. It is not our intent, how-
ever, for you to work on each item in isolation. Children develop in a holistic fashion.
They learn cognitive, language, and self-help skills while engaging in motor activities
and motor skills as they follow their cognitive desire to explore and experiment with
the physical world. Thus, curriculum items (intervention objectives) for the child
should be embedded in activities that challenge the child in two or more domains.
Review the list of objectives and develop four to six activities that combine two
or more of these objectives. Use the curriculum items as a guide. An example of
combining objectives into one specific activity would be to teach a child to sort by
size (Item 6-IIa) by having him or her transfer large and small beads to two separate
containers using a spoon (Item 20c). Almost all motor items can be combined with
one or more cognitive and/or language items. Five or six items can be readily in-
cluded in a general activity such as reading, pretend play, outdoor play, or snack time.
Figure 4.1 illustrates the process for going from assessment to an intervention plan.
Assessment
Use the Assessment Log as you gather information from:
Observation
Interview
Parent
Teacher
One-to-one assessment
Fill in Developmental Progress Chart
Select Objectives
Make a list of "next skills"
With parent, select several from each major domain for learning objectives
Intervention Plan
Combine two or more objectives into several specific activities
and/or assign three to five objectives to general activities
(e.g., outdoor play, circle time, mealtime)
Figure 4 . 1 . Procedure for developing an intervention plan with the CCPSN.

CCPSN I N A C T I O N
Two case studies follow to demonstrate the process of moving from assessment re-
sults to intervention activities, as described within this chapter. The first includes
a Developmental Progress Chart (Figure 4.2) to illustrate the child's abilities and
lists only the skills chosen as learning objectives. T h e second omits the chart but
lists all of the next skills, starring those chosen as objectives. Note that the two in-
tervention plans address 21 and 18 curriculum items or objectives, respectively.
Jason
Jason is a 3 H-y ear-old boy with a complicated medical history. He was born 3
months prematurely and was hospitalized frequently during his first 2 years be-
cause of seizures, infections, and feeding problems. Jason has been cared for at home
and has had limited contact with other children. He is now medically stable but has
diffuse muscle weakness that is more pronounced on his right side. Jason can roll,
sit, pull to standing, and walk with assistance. He understands much of what peo-
ple say to him, but he does not talk—he communicates through body language, gen-
eral vocalization, and a few signs. Jason has just started preschool.
Assessment Results
Because Jason is not yet ambulatory, his gross motor skills cannot be assessed using
the chart from the C C P S N . This area was assessed using the C C I T S N . Jason's par-
ents and teacher reviewed the assessment. T h e y made a list of emerging skills and
the first skill in each sequence that Jason did not exhibit. From this list of potential
intervention items, they selected the following as being the most important for
Jason, as well as being activities that could be carried out at home as well as at
school.
Personal-Social
lb. Plays comfortably in a small group of children
Id. Puts away toys neatly when asked (may have to be reminded)
2a. Negotiates with peers about toys (may trade)
2g. Converses with peers
3b. Makes positive statements about self
Cognition
5b. Recognizes the covers of several books and labels them
6-IIa. Sorts by size (big and little)
7b. Assumes different roles in fantasy play
9a. Selects "just one"
Figure 4.2. Sample Developmental Progress Chart.
lOd. Selects objects/pictures that are "the same" or "like this"
lib. Uses at least 50 different words
12f. Sings complete nursery songs or says complete rhymes of four to six lines
Communication
14a. Asks simple questions with a vocalization or gesture
14c. Requests assistance
15a. Uses two-word utterances to indicate nonexistence and recurrence
Fine Motor
20a. Holds bowl and stirs
21c. Copies a circle with a circular scribble
Gross Motor from CCITSN
22-If. Steps sideways holding a support
22-Ih. Removes hands from support and stands independently
Intervention Activities
Jason's parents and teacher studied the list of selected intervention items and cre-
ated three activities that integrated the selected items into routines that occur nat-
urally at home and in school.
Storytime
Place Jason in a supportive chair and show him several familiar books. Ask him to
choose a book by signing or vocalizing (Item 5bI. As you go through the books, ask
him to identify pictures that are the same on each page. For example, say, "See the
dog here? Let's find the dog on the next page" (Item lOd). Ask Jason to use words/
signs for familiar pictures (Item 1 lb) and encourage two-word/sign combinations
(Item 15a). Using a book of nursery rhymes, engage him in a song, encouraging him
to use signs/words (Item 12f). Model asking simple questions, and show him how
to ask them himself (Item 14a). Follow this with a drawing session in which you
ask Jason to draw a picture involving copying a circle (Item 21c).
Kitchen Center
Engage Jason in pretend play with a small group of children (Item lb). Keep him in
a standing position, encouraging him to lift play items with both hands (CCITSN
Item 22-Ih), hold a bowl as he stirs (Item 20a), and take sideways steps around the
kitchen furniture (CCITSN Item 22-If). As the children play, support communica-
tion (Item 2g) and negotiation (Item 2a) among them. Help the children structure
role play (e.g., who will play what character) and exchange roles (Item 7b). Model
asking for help for Jason, using the sign for help me, and encourage him to ask for
help (Item 14c).
Cleanup Time
When it's time to pick up the toys and put them away, physically assist Jason in par-
ticipating in cleanup (Item Id). Assist him in sorting toys into the bins for large and
small toys (Item 6-IIa). Ask him to give you "just one" toy (Item 9a). If Jason has dif-
ficulty, again show h i m how to ask for help (Item 14c). When he's finished, com-
pliment him for helping, and show h i m how to sign big boy (Item 3b).
Summary
As Jason masters each skill, the next item in the sequence will be added to the in-
tervention plan. After 3 months, Jason will be reassessed on the entire curriculum
to see if a change of emphasis is needed.
Anna
l
Anna is 3 A years old and has been diagnosed with autism. She is an engaging, strong-
willed child who has presented with numerous behavioral challenges. For the first
2 years of her life, Anna was constantly on the go and often destructive. She has
made significant progress since occupational and speech therapy were initiated.
Anna has acquired enough language to express basic needs and desires using one- to
three-word phrases. She has developed some play skills and can sit and attend for
1 0 - 1 5 minutes at a time. Motor coordination is an area of relative strength. Anna
attends an inclusive preschool program.
Assessment Results
Anna was evaluated using the CCPSN, and a list was made of the first item in each
sequence that she had not passed. This list formed the basis of program planning,
helping the interventionist determine which skills to target next. In reviewing this
list with Anna's parents, a number of skills were selected, based both on their pri-
orities and Anna's current interest and readiness. An asterisk (*) indicates that the
item was chosen as an intervention objective. Activities were then developed that
would target several skill areas.
Personal-Social
le. Follows rules given by adults for new activities or simple games
*2a. Negotiates with peers about toys (may trade)
3d. Tells own first name
*4-Id. Pours liquid from one container into another
4-IId. Puts on all clothing unaided, except for fasteners
4-IIId. Washes and dries hands and face without assistance
4-1 Vb. Has bowel movement when placed on toilet
Cognition
\5b. Recognizes the covers of several books and labels them
6-Ib. Imitates block train

6-IId. Sorts by two characteristics
* 7a. Talks to dolls or animals and/or makes them interact with one another
8e. Answers at least one "why do" question correctly
*9d. Gives/selects two and three objects
* 10b. Follows directions including "in," "out," "on," and "off"
1 lb. Uses at least 50 different words
* 12d. Notices and reacts to changes in familiar rhymes, songs, or stories
Communication
* 13a. Follows two-part related commands in novel contexts

* 14a. Asks simple questions with a vocalization or gesture
* 15c. Uses " - s " on the ends of some words to form plurals
16c. Repeats a sequence of three numbers or three unrelated words
* 17d. Imitates simple finger plays (both hands doing similar actions)
Fine Motor
18g. Holds writing implement with fingers in tripod position
* 19g. Ties single knot
*20d. Spreads with knife
21 e. Makes continuous cuts across paper
Gross Motor
*22-Iy. Hops two to three times on preferred foot
*22-IIe. Walks three steps on balance beam and maintains balance
*22-IIIg. Throws 3-inch ball overhand to an adult who is 10 feet away
22-IVe. Pedals tricycle at least 10 feet
Intervention Activities
Dress-Up and Pretend Play
Dress-up and pretend play with dolls or stuffed animals offer a variety of opportuni-
ties for developing play, language, and motor skills. Engage Anna in playing dress-up
with another child. Encourage the children to select clothing to put on, and help
them get dressed up. Facilitate pretend play while they are dressed up (e.g., going to
a dance, having tea). After they have been playing for a while, suggest that they trade
clothes with each other (Item 2a). Comment on how the children are dressed before
and after the trade. Putting on clothes provides a good opportunity to practice tying
a simple overhand knot when putting on an apron or cape (Item 19g). It may be eas-
ier for the children to tie the clothes on each other rather than on themselves.
Toy dolls or animals also can be readily incorporated into this play. Model
telling the doll what you are going to do next (e.g., "It's time to eat"). Have Anna
tell her doll, too (Item 7a). Follow through with pretending to feed the dolls. As you
and Anna play with the dolls, look for opportunities to incorporate directions, such
as "in," "out," "on," and "off" as you play with the dolls (e.g., "Let's put the babies
in the stroller so that we can go for a walk"; Item 10b). Challenge Anna to follow
two-part commands as you expand the play (e.g., "Get the blue dress, and put it on
the clothesline"; Item 13a).
Story time
Select four or five books to read to Anna on a regular basis. Each time you read a
book, look at the cover with Anna and read the title. Then ask, "What do you want
to read?" If she does not respond, model the question and response, then try again.
As Anna is more successful, ask her to name the book without a prompt (Item 5b).
Include a book of nursery rhymes. After a rhyme becomes familiar, try changing the
order or inserting different words, and watch for a response. If needed, point out the
change to Anna (e.g., "Oh, that is so silly. Jack and Jill fell down the hill, not jumped
over the sill"; Item 12d).
Act out simple finger plays for Anna to copy while you read or recite a rhyme
with her (Item 17d). Count objects in pictures (e.g., "One duck, two ducks . . . " ) , and
listen for Anna to add an " - s " to words (Item 15c). Prompt her as needed. Model ask-
ing simple questions about pictures in the book. Prompt Anna to ask questions, too
(e.g. "What is the dog doing?"). Wait for her to repeat the question and then provide
the answer for her (Item 14a).
Snack Time
Serve toast, bagels, or crackers to Anna. Teach her how to spread peanut butter
or cream cheese on toast, providing physical or verbal prompts as needed (Item
20d). You can also put juice or water into a small pitcher for her to pour drinks
(Item 4-Id). Tell Anna to make you two or three crackers. Have other small edi-
ble items (e.g., small candies, carrot sticks, dried fruit) for her to pick up and put
on plates. Tell Anna to put two or three on each plate. Show her how to count as
needed (Item 9d).
Obstacle Course
Set up a simple obstacle course for Anna that involves hopping on one foot (Item
22-Iy), walking on a balance beam (Item 22-IIe), and throwing a bean bag in a con-
tainer (Item 22-IIIg). For example, you could place five beanbags at the beginning,
and tell Anna to pick up one and then hop on one foot to the balance beam. Hold
her hand if needed to provide stability. Then, have Anna walk across the balance
beam and step down on a stool at the end. When Anna is off of the balance beam,
have her throw the beanbag into a large container. Start with the container about 5
feet away and gradually increase distance. If Anna has difficulty with balance for
hopping or walking on the balance beam, try having her hold onto a Hula-Hoop that
you are also holding. T h i s provides less support than holding someone's hand and
encourages Anna to develop her balance skills. Substitute a ball for the beanbag as
Anna's throwing skills increase.
Summary
These activities based on Anna's current goals are incorporated into her school,
therapy, and home programs. As Anna participates in these activities, her progress
is monitored, and the activities are expanded and/or replaced as needed. When Anna
has achieved a goal, that goal may be replaced by the next goal in that particular se-
quence or by a goal from a different sequence on the original list may be selected.
At some point, the complete curriculum should be readministered with new goals
selected and intervention activities developed. Depending on Anna's progress, this
could be in 3 months, 6 months, or 1 year.
IMPLEMENTING THE INTERVENTION PROGRAM
When the intervention activities have been defined, the intervention process can
begin. Each of these activities can generally be described in a few sentences (as in
the preceding examples) as a reminder to the caregiver and/or teacher. These re-
minders might be written on record-keeping forms (see the following Assessing
Progress section and example) or simply may be given to a caregiver or teacher as
one list or several lists related to where (or when) the intervention procedures
should take place. For example, there might be a list of activities to incorporate into
mealtime activities, a list for outdoor activities, and so forth.
Assessing Progress
In order to maintain continuity, measure progress, and make program modifications,
it is essential to keep careful records for each child. T h e kinds of records that you
need to keep, however, will vary depending on the setting, characteristics, and cir-
cumstances of the child's family, caregivers, and teachers, as well as time and other
constraints on the assisting professionals.
A Simple Update
At the simplest level, record keeping will consist of entering the date when an item
was mastered in the column to the right of the last assessment in the Assessment
Log. When the next full assessment takes place, these items will, of course, not
have to be reassessed. Teachers can readily update the log in a few minutes each day
based on observations in the classroom. Some interventionists who make home vis-
its use the first 15 minutes of one visit a month to assess the child's progress on the
current goals in the intervention program, using both caregiver report and direct ob-
servations to update the Assessment Log. Other interventionists who work with
fairly sophisticated families leave the Assessment Log with the family so that they
can fill in the dates that any items have been mastered. Either way, there is an on-
going record and information to indicate a need to revise the activities for the child.
A Weekly Record of Activities

In center-based intervention programs and with certain families in home-based pro-
grams, more extensive records will be possible and will provide a clearer picture of
a child's progress. One approach is to have a form made up that will detail the
child's weekly activities. On this form, the caregiver or interventionist will have to
check whether the child had an opportunity to practice the skill and whether he or
she was successful. Figure 4.3 is an example of such a form.
C h a n g i n g Goals in a T i m e l y F a s h i o n
When developmental attainment goals are chosen for the IEP (or IFSP), it is impor-
tant to recognize that these are only initial goals. T h e intent of the C C P S N is for
children to work through the sequences, not just on particular items. Thus, as soon
as any item is mastered, interventionists should move on to the next item in that
sequence without waiting for a new IEP (or IFSP) to be developed.
T H E R O L E OF T H E CCPSN IN T H E ASSESSMENT AND IEP PROCESS
T h e Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 (PL 94-142) and subse-
quent legislation require that each child with special needs have a multidisciplinary
assessment. Although the C C P S N covers the domains that are generally evaluated
in a multidisciplinary assessment, it is not a shortcut to a multidisciplinary as-
sessment. Individual professionals are required to assess attributes of the child be-
yond the scope of this curriculum. For example, the physical, occupational, and
speech therapists will need to look at motor patterns, praxis, articulation, and other
characteristics that are not part of a developmental curriculum.
Likewise, the C C P S N is not a substitute for standardized assessment instru-
ments and cannot be used to determine eligibility in states where standardized test
scores are required for eligibility determination.
T h e provisions of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
Amendments of 1997 (PL 105-17) require that an IEP be developed for each child
who is receiving special education services and approved by the child's parents or
caregivers. T h e IEP must include a statement of the child's strengths and weak-
nesses and a list of educational goals for a given time period. T h e C C P S N was de-
signed to identify those strengths and weaknesses and provide appropriate educa-
tional goals. As a criterion-referenced assessment, however, it was not designed to
provide a single developmental level for each of the major development domains,
Name: Zaleen Week: 3/14-20
Location: Freechool
Opportunity to Observe Hate
Situation Coal = M r W Th r- Mistered
U s e s t o y s appropriately - - -
Negotiates with peers

- +/- +/-
about t o y s
Tells own first name - + +
Identifies object shown

+ + + 3/16
briefly
Circle time
S i n g s two or more songs
with group
- - -
Identifies b\qqest and

_ + +
sma/fest
Pours self a drink + + + 3/16

•W-.eaS time
S p r e a d s soft materials
with knife
-
Completes form boards + + + 3/16

:
Centers:
N e s t s three to four cups - +
Manipulative©
Builds block tower (6 blocks) -(3) ~(3) ~(5)
Art Makes circular scribble +/- +/- +/-
Names pictures ( 3 ) -(0) -0) -0)
Avoids obstacles
_ + +
when running
..Playground Walks three s t e p s on

+
balance beam
Climbs vertical ladder -
Figure 4.3. Sample weekly record for child learning objectives of the IFSP. A + indicates successful completion, a
+ /- indicates an inconsistent or emerging skill, and a - indicates a skill the child is unable to do. On this form, the ob-
server also noted any discrepancies with the criterion.
which is a requirement of many local programs. Yet, many intervention programs

are required to assign age levels in these broad categories to the children they serve
and find it difficult to do so using the Developmental Progress Chart.
Note: For more information on the assessment and IFSP process, please consult
pp. 4 8 - 4 9 in the third edition of The Carolina Curriculum for Infants and Toddlers
with Special Needs (Johnson-Martin, Attermeier, & Hacker, 2004).
Using the Developmental Progress

Chart to Estimate Developmental Levels
We suggest the following procedures if you wish to report age levels in the broad
domains:
1. Look on the left-hand side of the Developmental Progress Chart to identify
which sequences are included in each of the broad development domains:
personal-social, cognition, communication, fine motor, and gross motor. Three
sequences are included in both the cognition and communication domains be-
cause they are critical to both.
2. Examine the child's performance in each of the sequences included in a do-
main. In most cases, you will find that they cluster around one of the age lev-
els listed on the chart (e.g., 3 0 - 3 6 months). This gives you the best estimate of
a developmental age for that domain.
3. If instead of a range you must have only 1 month listed, you can estimate that
by looking at the percentage of items in that age range that the child has passed
(e.g., almost all passed in the 3 0 - 3 6 month range would be considered the 3 5 -
month level, about half would be the 33-month level, a quarter the 31 -month
level, and any fewer the 30-month level). It is important to recognize, however,
that this is only an estimate. It is not a score based on a standardized test. It is
also important to recognize that although standardized tests may provide more
accurate age levels (because they are based on larger and more representative
samples), these, too, are estimates. Age scores represent the mean age at which
a sample of children attained a certain score or passed a particular item on a
test. An age score of 36 months does not mean that the typical 3-year-old will
have that score. Rather, it means that within a group of children, some may
have achieved that score at 30 months whereas others may not have achieved
it until 40 months, but the average of their ages was 36 months. Age scores are
much less reliable (less stable) indicators of a child's developmental status than
are standardized scores (e.g., IQ scores, developmental quotients) that indicate
how a child compares with other children of the same age.
4. if the child's skills are widely scattered within a domain, it is not reasonable to
give one age level for that domain. Instead, indicate a range and provide an ex-
planation. For example, a child with autism might have vocal imitation skills
near the 60-month level, expressive vocabulary skills around the 26-month
level, and conversation and verbal comprehension skills near the 15-month
level. In such cases, it is not reasonable to assign one age level. Rather, language
skills should be described as being widely scattered from 2 4 - 6 0 months, with
strong verbal imitation skills but with significant and atypical delays in the
pragmatic understanding and use of language.
USING THE CCPSN IN CONJUNCTION WITH THE CCITSN
Although the C C I T S N and the C C P S N now have a 12-month overlap, there will
still be children who have such scattered skills that they cannot be fully accom-
modated by either curriculum alone. It is possible, however, to move smoothly
from one curriculum to the other because the sequences have the same numbers
and labels, and the items listed in the 24- to 36-month range are identical in the two
curricula. You will need to be alert, though, to the fact that the letters assigned to
these items are different in the two curricula (e.g., a sequence in the C C P S N with
items labeled a, b, c, and d in the 3 0 - to 36-month age range may have the same
items labeled r, s, t, and u in the 3 0 - to 36-month age range of the C C I T S N ) .
SUMMARY
With a little practice following the guidelines provided in this chapter, you will be
ready to observe and assess a child with confidence in one, two, or more sessions as
your time, the environmental conditions, and the child's state require. Just re-
member that the curriculum assessment is not a standardized test. It is an attempt
to understand what a child knows and can do now. Following the assessment, you
will have a list of the next skills the child needs to master so that you can discuss
these with the child's caregivers and the professionals working with the child and
decide together on appropriate educational objectives. In the sequences that follow
are the curriculum items that make suggestions for teaching each of the skills listed
in the Assessment Log. Identify those that match the objectives you have chosen.
You are free to make modifications in the activities suggested to suit the needs of
an individual child or educational setting. On the basis of the case examples in this
chapter (Jason and Anna), you also should be able to combine the activities sug-
gested in several items into one activity or situation so that a child is working on
several educational objectives at once. T h i s is the natural way to learn. T h i n k about
it. We rarely learn any skill in isolation from other skills. Most of what we learn
and do in our daily lives involves some combination of language, motor, social, and
cognitive skills. You are ready. Dive in!
REFERENCES
Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975, PL 94-142, 20 U.S.C. §§ 1400 et seq.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Amendments of 1997, PL 105-17, 20
U.S.C. §§ 1400 et seq.
Johnson-Martin, N.M., Attermeier, S.M., & Hacker, B. (2004). The Carolina Curriculum for
Infants and Toddlers with Special Needs (3rd ed.). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publish-
ing Co.
Wechsler, D. (2002). Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (3rd ed.). San An-
tonio: TX: The Psychological Corporation.
Assessment Log and
Developmental Progress Chart
I
for Preschoolers
with Special Needs
Child's name:
Child's date of birth:
Family's name and address:
Name of person(s) completing form:
DIRECTIONS:
Assessment Log: Insert the date of your assessment at the top of the column and insert a + in the box for
each mastered item, a +/- for an inconsistent or emerging skill, and a-for a skill the child is unable to do.
When working with a child with severe motor impairments, it is useful to add an A alongside the + or +/-
to indicate that the child accomplished the task with physical assistance.
Developmental Progress Chart: Each item on the Assessment Log is represented by a square on the
Developmental Progress Chart. Using a highlighter or other colored writing instrument, fill in the squares
associated with items marked with a +. Make a diagonal line through squares associated with items marked
with a +/- and color them in halfway. Those marked with a - should be left blank. Complete the chart by
filling in the squares preceding the age span in which all items were passed. When working with a child
with severe motor impairments, it is useful to add an A to the box to indicate that the child accomplished
the task with physical assistance.
The with Special

Carolina Curriculum for Preschoolers Needs, Second Edition, by Nancy M. Johnson-Martin,
Bonnie J. Hacker, & Susan M. Attermeier © 2004 Paul H, Brookes Publishing Co., Inc. Ail rights reserved.
A S S E S S M E N T LOG
Age i Date: Date: Date: Date:

Notes:
(months): Curriculum Sequences
Personal-Social
1. Self-Regulation & Responsibility
24-30 ; a. Avoids common dangers
I b. Plays comfortably in a small group of children
30-36 | c. Knows what toys can and cannot do

I and uses them appropriately
36-42 j d. Puts away toys neatly when asked

I (may have to be reminded)
[ e. Follows rules given by adults for

I new activities or simple games
Adapts readily to changes in routine
42-48 Answers questions related to safety
Shows care in handling small animals or

potentially breakable objects
48-54 Performs simple chores (may have

to be reminded or supervised)
Responds appropriately to instructions

given in a small group
54-60 Buys simple objects in store without help

(i.e., gets object or has clerk get object,
gives money, and waits for change)
Answers telephone appropriately

and calls person to telephone
2. Interpersonal Skills
24-30 \ a. Negotiates with peers about toys (may trade)
b. Shows awareness of social standards

(e.g., wants clothes changed when dirty,
brings broken toys to be fixed)
30-36 ! c. Works collaboratively toward a goal with peers
i d. Expresses affection and/or preference for some peers
j e. Expresses regret when another child is

j hurt or experiences unpleasantness
\ f. Requests permission
36-42 i g. Converses with peers
The Carolina Curriculum for Preschoolers with Special Needs, Second Edition, by Nancy M. Johnson-Martin,
Bonnie j. Hacker, & Susan M. Attermeier © 2004 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., Inc. All rights reserved.
i. Responds appropriately to social contact j |
j j
made by familiar adults I |
j. Separates easily from parent or caregiver

in familiar surroundings
j
j
1
| 1 i
k. Prefers interacting with peers to being with adults j j i i
Cooperates with peers to develop a theme

for imaginative play
42-48 Labels feelings of peers and responds to them
Plays group games with other children

without constant adult supervision
Plays simple board or card games with

other children with adult supervision
Negotiates conflicts verbally
Listens to peers and discusses ideas or observations
Demonstrates understanding that different

people have different feelings, attitudes, or
beliefs through role playing in pretend play
48-54 Asks permission to use other people's belongings
Shows awareness of other people's feelings
Uses terms such as "thank you," "please," and

"you're welcome" appropriately
Recognizes another's need for help

and gives assistance
Plays cooperatively with peers for extended

periods without requiring adult intervention
Plays familiar games with peers and follows

the rules without adult intervention
54-60 y- Identifies special friends
z. Spontaneously takes turns and shares
aa. Asserts self in socially acceptable ways
bb, Plans/creates games that have rules with peers
cc. Demonstrates an interest in people outside

of the family and immediate circle of friends
3. Self-Concept
24-30 | a. Shows pride in achievements
I b. Makes positive statements about self
) c. Knows age (tells or holds up fingers)
Bonnie J. Hacker, & Susan hi. Attermeier © 2004 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., Inc. All rights reserved.
Age Date: Date: Date: Date:
(months) Curriculum Sequences Notes:
_ -
30-36 d. Tells own first name !
*
i
e. Answers correctly when asked if he or
she is a boy or a girl
!
f. Is selective about what tasks he or she will
I
and will not try (recognizes limitations)
J j
1
g. Shows guilt or shame over accidents
or prohibited behavior i i 1
1 f I
36-42 h. Describes own feelings
i
i. Tells what eyes, ears, and nose are used for i i i

! t i
f ? i
42-48 J- Talks about own feelings in relation to events
k. Shows interest in own body 1.i

1
(asks questions about its functions)
48-54 1. Shows interest in own clothing and appearance
54-60 m. Seeks activities that challenge skills
n. Identifies own strengths and abilities

„
24-30
44.
a.
Self-Help: Eating
Begins to use fork
1
! . . . [ . . .
b. Drinks from small glass held with one hand

.. 1 ! . .
; r
c. Gets drink unassisted (turns tap on and off)
! i
30-36 d. Pours liquid from one container into another , L J
36-42 ! !
e. Swallows food in mouth before taking another bite
. „ i j
1 ] •
42-48 f. Independently fixes bowl of dry cereal with milk
i 1
... 11. .. .
g . Holds fork in fingers \
! ;
48-54 h. Independently drinks from water fountain
:. . j .
. „.
54-60 i.
Independently fixes sandwich !
_ _
4-11. S e l f - H e l p : Dressing
24-30 Removes shoes

I
I b. Removes coat
I c. Puts on simple clothing (e.g., pants, shoes, socks)

.j
30-36 -!! d.- Puts on all clothing unaided, except for fasteners
Undoes fasteners (e.g.,

large buttons, snaps, shoelaces)
36-42 f. Independently puts on coat
42-48 g. Buttons clothing
48-54 h. Dresses a n d undresses with little assistance
Age |
__ _ _ _ T T
Date:' Date: * Date:
T
Date:
(months) j Curriculum Sequences Notes:
54-60 i. Zips front-opening clothing
4-1 II. S e l f - H e l p : Grooming
24-30 a. Dries hands
30-36 b. Brushes teeth with assistance
r. Washes self with washcloth
36-42 d. Washes and dries hands and face without assistance
e. Uses napkin without prompting to wipe

messy face while eating
42-48 f. Brushes teeth independently
48-54 g. Runs brush or comb through hair
•• h. Gets tissue to wipe nose without reminder

I !
54-60 • i. Blows nose independently on request
4-IV. S e l f - H e l p : Toileting
24-30 ; a. Urinates when placed on toilet
b. Has bowel movement when placed on toilet
30-36 c. Usually indicates need to toilet

!
(rarely has bowel accidents) I f L... 1
ji d. Uses toilet
,. by self, except for cleaning i !:
! 1
\ after bowel movement 1 !
1 !
36-42 j e. Seldom has toileting accidents (may need ( ! i !
j help with difficult clothing)
42-48 f. C a r e s for self toilet (may need assistance

wiping after bowel movement)
48-54 g. T e a r s toilet tissue and flushes toilet after use
54-60 h. Wipes self after bowel movement
Cognition .
5. A t t e n t i o n £r M e m o r y : Visual/Spatial
Points to hand that is hiding a toy (both i

24-30 ! a.
>
when toy remains in that hand and when !
toy is transferred to the other hand, out of sight) : i
i j
! i
Recognizes the covers of
several books and labels them
i !
i
i
Recognizes familiar signs
1 ......4~
Identifies (points to) object or
picture shown briefly and shown i
again in an array of three
The Caro/mi curucu/um for Prcrchoc/ess w.ih Special Nerds, Second Edition, by Nancy M . johnscn-Martin.
Bonnie j. Hacker, & Susan M. Attermeier © 2CC4 Peul H. Ercokes Publishing Co., Inc. All rignts reserved.
Age ! Date: Date: \ Date: j Date:
(months) j Curriculum Sequences Notes:
30-36 ! e . Identifies (points to) object or picture shown

briefly and shown again in an array of four
f. Tells the name of object or picture shown

briefly in a group of two and then hidden
Remembers incidental information
36-42 1 h. Names one of several (four or more)

objects or pictures shown (or objects felt),
named, and then hidden
After observing three objects being

placed under separate covers, identifies the
cover under which a matching object is hidden
42- -48 j- Remembers and names which one of

three objects has been hidden
k. Describes from memory visual

characteristics of familiar objects
I. Matches both color and shape of one

object or picture seen only briefly
48- -54 m. Identifies two pictures seen briefly

in an array of four to six
n. Matches both color and shape of two

objects or pictures seen only briefly
0. Describes events that happened in the past
54- -60 P- Finds three pictures seen only

briefly in an array of 10-12
q. Remembers the place in an array

where a picture was s e e n only briefly
r. Finds hidden pictures
s. Can recall the names of 8-10 pictures

when shown an array of 18-20
6-1. Visual Perception: Blocks £r Puzzles
24-30 i a. Places round, square, and triangular

forms in reversed form board
Imitates block train
30-36 f c, Puts together two-piece p u z z l e s
1 d. Imitates block building
I e. Imitates block bridge

i Puts together puzzle with four
i f.
or five interconnected pieces
36-42 a. Imitates horizontal (flat on the table) block

patterns of two and three blocks (two colon
The Carolina Curriculum for Preschoolers with Special Needs, Second tdition, by Nancy M, Johnson-Martin,
Bonnie J. Hacker, & Susan M. Attermeier © 2004 Paul H, Brookes Publishing Co., Inc. All rights reserved.
Age | Date: f Date: I Date: I Date:
42-48 h. Imitates horizontal block patterns

of four to six blocks (two colors)
Completes 8- to 12-piece interconnected puzzles
48-54 | j. Imitates construction of a simple

visual pattern using parquetry blocks
k
I- Builds representationally with blocks
54-60 | I. Completes 15- to 25-piece interconnected puzzles
Reproduces simple block designs from memory
6-11. Visual Perception: M a t c h i n g & Sorting

[
24- -30 Sorts by size (big and little)
! a
- I I I
| b. Matches primary colors
Sorts by shape
j l l )
30- -36
t c
Sorts by two characteristics

j j l I
I d.
e Matches geometric designs (orientation irrelevant)
[ i l l
36- -42
1- f. Matches uppercase letters
i f f ]
I ! ! [
i g- Matches pictures based on relationships [ J J j _ _
42- -48 1 h. Matches at least eight geometric shapes

I I
i
Selects pictures to group with other
! i.
pictures based on functional relationships f 1 1 1
Matches numbers 0-9 (may confuse 6 and 9)
I 1 1 1
i
48- -54 | j k- Selects pictures to complete simple picture analogies
1- Matches lowercase letters
1 1 1 j
i '• i l l !
1
54- -60 Identifies object or picture that does
jm.
not belong in group of objects (by class),
and selects the object that does belong [_ _ j _ _
j Matches name and short words
j n. 1 1 1 1
7. Functional U s e of Objects & Symbolic Play
Talks to dolls or animals and/or makes

24-30 i a. them interact with one another
30-36 j b. Assumes different roles in fantasy play
Represents more complex events in play

| c.
d Uses different voices for different people in play
I-
36-42 I e. Pretend play includes a logical
sequence (with three to four parts)
that evolves as play proceeds
f. Uses materials to construct other objects
Bonnie J. Hacker, & Susan M. Attermeier © 2004 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., Inc. All rights reserved.
42-48 g. Uses dolls, stuffed animals, or puppets as

participants in play (gives dialogue to them)
h. Describes own activities during play
48-54 i. Builds large structures from blocks or

chairs and centers play around them
j. Cooperates with others in pretend play (discusses roles)
54-60 k. Uses toy animals or dolls to act out

"What would happen if. . . ? "
1. Engages in complex adult role playing
8. Problem Solving/Reasoning
24-30 a. Experiments with cause and effect when playing
b. Independently nests four containers,

or stacks rings or blocks of graduated sizes
c. Comments that something is not working

when expected effects are not produced
30-36 d. Independently explores objects to determine their

functions and/or shows other people how they work
e. Answers at least one "why do" question correctly
36-42 f. Identifies silly or wrong pictures or events
g. Finds items that go together when asked,

"Which one goes with this?"
h. Completes sequences of colors or shapes
i. Tells how an object is used when asked,

"What do you do with this?"
j. Answers two or more "what do

you do when" questions
42-48 k. Answers questions (or points to pictures)

to indicate where things come from or
what they are made of
1. Describes simple absurdities

seen in pictures or real life
m. Responds appropriately to "tell me how"

or "how do you" questions
n. Completes two analogies (i.e., sentences

involving comparisons, such as "Brother is
a boy, sister is a girl")
48-54 o. Identifies missing parts in pictures
p. Imagines and describes what will

happen next in unfamiliar story or picture
ahe Carclm.' Curr cuius* w fievhuokri u> ti if-o-/iVcecfe Stxcr.d tdmcr,, h h^nc, M jobir-on-Mart.r,
Bonnie J. Hacker, & Susan M. Attermeier © 2004 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., Inc. AH rights reserved.
Age ————-—-— Date: Date: Date: Date:
q. Reasons about experiences

and asks and answers questions
„
r. Describes new uses for familiar objects
54-60 s. Describes similarities between

two different objects
t. Reasons about future events
9. N u m b e r Concepts
— i
24-30 a. Selects "just one" —
!
b. Points and recites at least three numbers in f '
correct sequence when asked to count objects
30-36 c. Correctly answers "how many" for

one and two objects
d. Gives/selects two and three objects
e. Follows instructions including

"all," "none," and "not any"
36-42 f. When asked to count objects,

begins with, "one, two, three"
" " " " " " " " " "
g- Gives "one more"
i " ~
h. Compares two quantities and
tells which is more
i. Matches two objects (or a picture with two

objects) to a picture with the same quantity
of objects in an array that includes pictures of
two, three, four, and five objects
j- Matches pictures containing different

configurations of objects up through six
...j _
42-48 k. Counts up to six objects in a row

(one-to-one correspondence) i
j i
I. Counts 10 objects in a row ! !

(one-to-one correspondence)
i
m. Does not recount when asked how
many (quantities above four) I
T" !
n. Counts to tell how many and will deny that i
it is some other number when asked
0. Uses quantity terms spontaneously

\
48-54 P- Understands "same number" and can

sort a set into halves
j
q- Identifies penny, nickel, and dime when named
I. . . \
r. Correctly counts to 20
The Carolina Curriculum for Preschooler with ipeci;/ Neodi, Serene Celt/on, by llar.cy M. Johnson-Martin,
Bonnie j. Hacker, & Susan M. Attermeier © 2004 Paul H, Brookes Publishing Co., Inc. All rights reserved.
Age Date: ; Date: > Date: j Date:
(months); Curriculum Sequences Notes:
s. Matches three-part sequences of pictures

depicting quantities (or dice)
54-60 t. Gives the correct number of objects when

asked (si! numbers from 4 through 10)
u. Telis current age, age the previous year,

and age next year
v. Answers addition questions involving

adding 2 (up tc 10)
w. Identifies numbers 0 throuqh 9
x. Matches numbers to pictures of quantities

up to four (or assembles groups of objects to
match the number; the adult does not name
the number for the child)
10 Concepts/Vocabulary: Receptive
24-30 ; a. Selects pictures of actions (e.g., eating)
b. Follows directions including "in,"

"out," "on," and "off"
Selects a similar object/picture when shown

a sample and asked to find "another one"
d. Selects objects/pictures that are

"the same" or "like this"
Selects "biggest" and "littlest" (or "smallest") [

from a group of three objects/pictures :
30-36 I f. Selects objects/pictures to indicate an understanding!

of at least two relative concepts or comparisons j
g. Points to five or more colors on request I
h. Selects objects and pictures to indicate which j

are square and which are round \
Selects objects by usage
Understands part-whole relationships (e.g., :

points to the tail of the dog) I
36-42 Understands "up," "down," "top," and "bottom" <
Understands "under," "over," ;

"next to," and "beside" j
Follows directions or points to pictures tc

indicate an understanding of the pronouns
"he," "she," "him," "her," "thev," "their," "the
Understands "fast" versus "slow"
The Carolina Curriculum for Preschoolers vw'w SpecW Needs. Second Edition, by Nancy M. Johnson-Martin,
0. Understands "empty" versus "full"
42-48 P- Selects the one that is "different"

(or "not the same") !
q- Understands "around," "in front of," "in back of,"
r.
"between," "high," and "low"
Selects objects/pictures to indicate

i
an understanding of at least four
relative concepts or comparisons
j
s. Selects square, triangle, and circle
iL
•
t. Selects members of a class
48-54 u. Recognizes at least 10 uppercase letters
v. Understands "backward" and "forward"
w. Selects objects/pictures to indicate an

understanding of at least eight relative
concepts or comparisons
X. Recognizes most colors (including pink, gray, brown)
y- Distinguishes between letters and numbers

—
54-60 z. Understands "except"
aa. Answers questions or points to pictures to \

show an understanding that different activities j
occur in the daytime and at night I
bb. Understands time concepts i
cc. Understands qualitative concepts \
11. Concepts/Vocabulary: Expressive
24-30 a. Names six or more pictures of common objects \
b. Uses at least 50 different words
c. Names eight or more line drawings ;

of common objects
d. Uses "other" or "another" to refer to ;

additional or similar objects
30-36 e. Names most pictures and line drawings \

of familiar objects \
f. Listens carefully to new words (may ask for repetition) \
9' Repeats new words to self

! |
36-42 h. Names pictures of objects not in daily environment
!
i. Uses a variety of adjectives I

. , \, ..... . ....
j- Defines two or more simple words I

using at least one descriptor
. . . . .
Age Date: j Date: Date: j Date:
42-48 k. Defines five or more simple words

using at least one descriptor
I. Names objects by functions
m. Names examples in classes
n. Completes two analogies I

48-54 o. Asks word meanings or otherwise indicates
awareness that words have meanings
i „
p. Makes rhymes to simple words t
q. Uses new word in conversation soon

after hearing the word or having been
told the meaning of the word
r. Labels colors: red, green, blue, orange,

purple, yellow, black, brown, pink, and gray
54-60 s. Defines 10 or more words j j
t. Labels most uppercase letters i i j

" " ] " ' " "
u. Completes five analogies \ I

v. Names a class of objects from its members I
12. Attention & M e m o r y : A u d i t o r y
24-30 a. Joins in saying nursery rhymes I

(repeats parts of them) j
b. Says or sings at least two nursery rhymes

or songs in a group with an adult
30-36 c. Independently says or acts out parts i

of rhymes or songs !
d. Notices and reacts to changes in familiar

rhymes, songs, or stories ;
36-42 e. Completes lines of familiar rhymes or songs

„.j
f. Sings complete nursery songs or says
complete rhymes of four to six lines
.1
42-48 g. Sings songs or says rhymes of 10-15 lines

(some lines may be repeated)
i
h. Recalls one or two elements from an
unfamiliar story just read (without prompts)
48-54 i. Recalls three to four elements from an

unfamiliar story just read (without prompts)
j. Identifies the melody of a familiar

song (names the tune)
54-60 k. Recalls most of the essential elements in

an unfamiliar story just read
The Carolina Curriculum for Preschoolers with Special Needs, Second Edition, by Nancy fvl. Johnson-Martin,
Bonnie j. Hacker, & Susan M, Attermeier © 2004 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., Inc. All rights reserved.
Age Date: i Date:! Date: \ Date:
j I. Tells two familiar stories without pictures

• for help (includes all important parts)
Communication
13. Verba! Comprehension
24-30 | a. Follows two-part related commands in novel contexts
30-36 | b. Follows three-part commands (three objects

I and one action, three actions and one object,
\ or three objects related by activity)
36-42 Responds to yes/no questions with

appropriate words or gestures
\ d. Understands negatives
j e. Sorts by color on verbal direction (no sample)
42-48 j f. Follows two-step commands involving sequence
j g. Sorts by named categories
48-54 j h. Follows three-step instructions in sequence

{ involving two to three different objects
j i. Responds appropriately to statements or

j questions involving regular plurals
j j. Points to pictures or selects objects from a group

i based on object class and two characteristics
54-60 I k. On verbal direction (no sample), sorts objects

i on the basis of two characteristics
Follows directions including "before" and "after"
Follows instructions that include four elements
14. Conversation Skills
24-30 Asks simple questions with

a vocalization or gesture
b. Asks yes/no questions with

appropriate inflection
c. Requests assistance
d. Uses word or sign combinations

to describe remote events
30-36 e. Comments on appearance or

disappearance of objects or people
f. Sustains conversation for several turns
Reads books to others by making

multiple-word utterances
Bonnie j. Hacker, fr Susan M. Attermeier © 2004 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., Inc. All rights reserved.
Age | Date; I Date; I Date: i Date:
(months)! Curriculum Sequences Notes:
Responds appropriately to
"where" and "why" questions
36-42 ] i Changes speech depending on listener
Talks on telephone and waits for turn to respond
Uses words to describe attributes of

toys, foods, or other objects
Describes events occurring in the environment
Answers "what is," "whose," "who," and "how

many" questions appropriately (if not correctly)
42-48 ! n. Names three or more elements or describes what

is happening when asked to tell all about a
picture or storybook
Responds appropriately to "what do you do"

and "why do we" questions
Reads a story aloud to self or another person

while looking at pictures in a book
Describes functions of objects
48-54 J r. Communicates cause-and-effect relationships
| s. Asks questions related to another person's

statement in order to maintain a conversation
i t Creates interest in a listener by indirect references
! u
Communicates knowledge about the
world to peers and adults
54-60 1 v. Explains social conventions or rules to peers
I w. Asks and responds appropriately

to "how far" questions
15. Grammatical Structure
24-30 j a. Uses two-word utterances to indicate

I nonexistence and recurrence
b. Uses two-word utterances to indicate

specificity and characteristics
c. Uses "-s" on the ends of some words to form plurals
d. Uses auxiliary verbs, usually shortened

(e.g., "gonna," "wanna," "hafta")
30-36 e. Uses "-ing" on verbs
f. Uses negative terms
g. Uses personal pronouns
h. Uses prepositional phrases
Age Date: Date: 1 Date: Date:
i. Uses three-word phrases to specify, to

indicate rejection, and/or to describe
36-42 j. Uses three- to four-word complete sentences

that include subject-verb-object
j
k. Asks "wh" questions (e.g., "why," "what," "where") 1 i
1. Uses " 1 " instead of given name
m. U s e s o n ends of words to indicate possession j
42-48 n. Uses prepositional phrases in sentences
o. Uses most irregular past-tense verb forms correctly !

48-54 p. Uses correct verb forms, both irregular and !
\I
regular, for past, present, and future actions i
| j
i
q. Uses "and," "or," "but," or "because" i i
. .... I
\
to connect two sentences \
1 „ \• . „
r. Uses verbal nouns and/or verbal adjectives !
54-60 s. Uses complete sentence with correct word j

, ,
order in "wh" questions j
j
t. Uses a variety of adjectives to describe what j 1
has been seen, heard, or experienced
i . 1.
u. Uses endings on verbs or nouns to indicate the j
activity of a person or thing j
. i..... j
v. Uses comparatives \
..... ... _ i
16. Imitation: Vocal
24-30 a. Repeats novel two-word or two-number sequence
30-36 b. Repeats three-word sentences
36-42 c. Repeats a sequence of three numbers

or three unrelated words
42-48 d. Repeats four-word sentences including adjectives
48-54 i e. Repeats five- to six-word sentences

maintaining grammatical structure
54_50 ; f. Repeats novel sequences of four

• numbers or four unrelated words
Fine M o t o r
17. Imitation: M o t o r
24-30 j a. Imitates postures or actions

i that do not involve props
i
i 1 i J „ ..
i
30-36 ; b. Imitates sequence of two unrelated motor acts
Age Date: j Date: I Date:! Date:
36-42 I c. Repeats sequence of three unrelated

motor activities after being led through
these activities, one by one
42-48 j d. Imitates simple finger plays

j (both hands doing similar actions)
48-54 j e. Imitates finger plays (each

j hand doing different actions)
54-60 \ f. Imitates complex motor activities

i in songs and games
18. Grasp & M a n i p u l a t i o n
24-30 j a. Turns doorknob with forearm rotation
| b. Puts small object through small hole in container
30-36 j c. Builds tower of 8-10 blocks
36-42 j d. Makes simple forms with play dough
I e. Places 74-inch pegs in pegboard
| f. Turns wind-up key 90 degrees in one turn
42-48 I g. Holds writing implement with

| fingers in tripod position
i h. Places 10 pellets in a bottle in 30 seconds
48-54 | i. Holds one small object in palm of hand

I and then moves it forward to pincer grasp
j without assistance from other hand
54-60 j j. Places paper clips on paper
19. Bilateral Skills
24-30 | a. Demonstrates hand preference (typically in eating)
30-36 | b. Unbuttons large buttons
! c. Strings small beads
\ d. Screws on lids
36-42 j e. Laces card with large holes
I f. Demonstrates hand preference by picking

j up most materials with one hand (will
| cross midline of body)
42-48 j g. Ties single knot
I h. Laces two holes in shoes
48-54 | i. Does simple sewing
Holds deck of cards and sorts
Bonnie J. Hacker, Ex Susan M. Attermeier © 2004 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., Inc. All rights reserved.
k. Buttons '/2-inch buttons

•" "
54-60 1. Folds paper in half (no demonstration)

L . 1
m. Consistently uses same hand for skilled activities
20. Tool U s e
24-30 a. Holds bowl and stirs
Uses hammer to pound pegs in pounding bench
30-36 Transfers material with spoon

I
cl. Spreads with knife
„
e. Cuts with edge of fork
36-42 f. Uses rolling pin to flatten dough
42-48 g. Uses tongs to transfer materials |

48-54 h. Uses hammer to pound in nails
54-60 i. Uses clothespin to transfer small objects
j- Uses fork and knife to cut soft materials

!
.....
21. Visual-Motor Skills
24-30 a. Imitates horizontal stroke
b. Pretends to write
30-36 c Copies a circle with a circular scribble i

...
d. Snips with scissors
e. Makes continuous cuts across paper
36-42 f. Copies a circle

—
g- Copies a cross
h. Draws a person with a head and at least one feature
i. Cuts on a straight line, staying

within 72 inch of the line i
. .
42-48 j- Draws a person with a head and four features
k. Cuts out a 4-inch square
48-54 I. Copies a square
m. Draws simple representational pictures i
!
n. Cuts out a 4-inch circle
54-60 0. Traces outline of simple stencil
P- Draws a person with a

head and eight features
,
q- Cuts out pictures following general shape
i
. ! I
The Carolina Curriculum for Preschoolers v/ith Special Needs, Second Edition, by Nancy M. Johnson-Martin,
Bonnie J. Hacker, & Susan M. Attermeier © 2004 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., inc. Ail rights reserved.
Age Date; Date: Datf: Date:
Motor .
22-1- Upright: Posture €r Locomotion
24-30 ! a. Walks backward 10 feet

I
b
I' Walks on all types of surfaces without falling
I c. Uses heel-toe pattern (arms free to carry objects)
id. Takes three to four steps on tiptoes

i
I Runs at least 10 feet without falling
!
!
! Jumps down from 8-inch height (one foot leading)
;
i
Walks up three stairs, alternate pattern, with rail
30-36 I h Walks at least 20 feet on tiptoes

i
i .
Avoids obstacles when running
Walks up three stairs, alternate pattern, without rail
! k. Walks down three stairs,

same-step foot placement, without rail
Jumps over 2-inch hurdle
Jumps down from 16-inch to 18-inch

height (one foot leading)
n. Broad jumps 4 inches to 14 inches
36-42 I o. Walks 10 feet on tiptoes on 1-inch line

\
i Gallops five cycles
I p.
i Runs with some periods of flight
(both feet off of the ground)
! r
-
Hops once in place
! s. Walks up 10 stairs, same-step

pattern, without rail
i t.
Walks down 10 stairs, same-step
u. Jumps over 8-inch hurdle
V. Jumps down from 18-inch to 24-inch

height (feet together on takeoff and landing)
w. Broad jumps 14 inches to 24 inches
42-48 X, Skips five cycles, pausing between skips
y- Hops two to three times on preferred foot
z. Jumps down from 24-inch to 30-inch

height (feet together on takeoff and landing)
! aa. Walks down three stairs, alternate pattern, with rail
The Carolina Curriculum for Preschoolers with Special Needs, Second Edition, by Nancy M , Johnson-Martin,
Bonnie J. Hacker, & Susan M. Attermeier © 2004 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., inc. All rights reserved.
Age Date: Date: • Date: Date:
bb. Jumps over several 8-inch obstacles in succession
cc. Broad jumps 24 inches to 36 inches
48-54 dd. Walks down 10 stairs, alternate pattern, with rail
ee. Hops five times on preferred foot,

three times on nonpreferred foot
ff. Skips 5-10 cycles, coordinated step-hop

-
gg. Runs at least 50 feet in 10 seconds
hh. Jumps 3 inches beyond arms' reach
ii. jumps down from 32-inch height

(may land on one foot)
jj. Broad jumps at least 36 inches
54-60 kk. Skips at least 15 cycles with rhythmic

weight transfer (landing on toes)
II. Runs, changing direction 180

degrees within four to eight steps
mm. Hops forward 16 inches on preferred

foot, 12 inches on nonpreferred foot
nn. Walks down 10 stairs, alternate

oo. Jumps on floor, completing 180-

degree turn in one jump
22-11. Upright; Balance !

24-30 a. Stands sideways with both feet on
balance beam with stable posture
b. Walks 5 feet on balance beam with one foot

on the balance beam and the other on the floor
c. Walks along 10-foot line, following

the general direction of the line
30-36 d. Stands with stable posture on

one leg with hands on hips and
opposite knee bent (1-2 seconds)
e. Walks three steps on balance beam

and maintains balance
f. Walks along 10-foot line, keeping feet

on the line and maintaining balance
36-42 g. Balances with stable posture on

preferred leg with hands on hips and
opposite knee bent (5 seconds)
42-48 h. Stands on tiptoes with hands overhead for

2 seconds, maintaining stable posture
• - - -
Age Date:! Date:
Date:! Date:
(months) Curriculum Sequences I I Notes:
!
i. Stands on either leg, maintaining stable \ j
posture with hands on hips and opposite
1
knee bent (8 seconds)
.... J
48-54 j- Takes three to five steps on balance beam, 1
maintaining balance
k. Stands on tiptoes with hands overhead

for 8 seconds, maintaining stable posture | i
1. Does one somersault, keeping body moving forward
m. Walks full length of balance beam, i

maintaining balance
!
54-60 n. Stands on either leg, maintaining stable
!
posture with hands on hips and opposite i
!
!
.j „ ,. i.
! ... .
0, Does two somersaults in a row,
;
maintaining forward progression I
t
... L...
? i
P- Walks full length of balance beam with
!
hands on hips, maintaining balance i
.... .. i
22-111. Upright: Ball Play
j
—........ T
24-30 Throws 3-inch ball to an

adult who is 7 feet away
Throws 3-inch ball to an

30-36 Catches 8-inch ball with arms in front

of body from an adult who is 5 feet away
Kicks ball 4-6 feet
36-42 Throws 8-inch ball to

an adult who is 9 feet away
f. Catches 8-inch ball with elbows bent

from an adult who is 5 feet away
42-48 g. Throws 3-inch ball overhand to an

i h. Catches 3-inch ball with elbows bent

from an adult who is 5 feet away
Kicks ball 12-15 feet
48-54 j Throws 8-inch ball overhand to an

adult who is 10 feet away I
.
I ! : ]..„
k. Catches 8-inch ball with elbows bent and arms
at sides from an adult who is 6 feet away
I ! I ;
! i
54-60 I. Catches 3-inch ball with elbows bent and arms at
sides from an adult who is 7 feet away
i I !
! I I
Age | Date: » : !
(months) Curriculum Sequences ; Date: \ Date: j Date:)
j 1 i Notes:
22-1V. Upright: Outdoor Play L_ J _ _
_
- — " ~~ r~~ " " ~ " ] f ~ ~
24-30 a.
Runs on playground, pausing at surface changes j ...j.. i i...
b. Climbs on low jungle gym bars and j i ! !

will drop several inches to the ground j
c. Climbs vertical ladders
30-36 d. Walks on movable surfaces using some hand support
36-42 e. Pedals tricycle at least 10 feet
I f. Moves actively in play areas
42-48 j g. Enjoys unsteady surfaces and

j tries to make them move
h. Runs vigorously in play areas
48-54 i. Pumps swing
j j. Invents cooperative games involving equipment
54-60 I k. Rides two-wheel bicycle
Bonnie J, Hacker, & Susan M. Attermeier © 2004 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., Inc. All rights reserved.
DEVELOPMENTAL PROGRESS CHART
Dates
Ol. Child:
O2. Interventionist:
O l _
0 4.
Curriculum Sequence 24-30 Months 30-36 Months 36-42 Months
?. Seh'-Regulauon 6 Responsibility f
^ L Interpeisonal Skills
3. SoleCorKcpt
4-1. Self Help: Eating
4-li. Set? Htfip: U n k i n g
4-111. Self-Help: Grooming
44V. Self Help: luiHmq
5. Attention & Memoiy: Visual/Spatial L2
()-}. Visual Pprci-ptkm: Bk;»As & Pu/4es
641. Visual Perception: Matching & Sorting
Pones ionai Use Object; <r Symbolic Plav
8. Problem Solving/Reasoning
'K Numboi < oniopl'.
M 1 l iTT
II J O . Concepts/Vocabulai y: Receptive g h
1L ., CpOieptVVoc^hiiuiry: r p ! o w _
X
J A - i s U e m i C T & , MemorxTVudUpry
13. Verbal Comprehension
,vjjnymaiio!iikills
fs" 111:
aZEI
Gfdmmntiral Stiuskir?
16. Imitation: Vocal
! ? . Imitation: Motor
18. Grasp & Manipulation
R BtUerai Skills nzr
JJ, y i w h M g i P ; SkjHs
224= L i p i i g M i J M s toiiiJmmMiiitL b c d e f JT opp I q j r j s j t j u j v | w
22-W. Upiight. PS-MQ'^ n o
22-111. Upright: Ball Play
224V, Uptight: Outdoor Play IZIZi
P i e CdH'linj Cuiiiciilum fa h^diookis whh Specu/ Needs, Second DM\m, by Nancy M . Juhnsor.-Miirtin, Bonnie j Hacker, &• Susan M. Atietmeic-i
© 2004 Paul H. Biookes Publishing Co., Inc. All rights icseived.
Curriculum Sequence 42-48 M o n t h s 48-54 Months 5 4 - 6 0 Months
1. Self-Regulation 6 Responsibility h
•g "• -i "•' • •• • J k
L I _
2. Interpersonal Skills r
lrTT~n~ro p Iq! s Pt~]~u" V1W1X y ! z fa
.. 3. Self-Concept i k | HI |a J bb n1 cc
4-1. Self Help: Eating f g h i
-
4-11. Seif-Heip Diessing g h i
4-111. Self-Help: Grooming f
g 1 h i
4-!V- Self-Heip: Toileting • " f 9 h
5. Attention & Memory: Visual/Spafia! j | k | i m | n | o p | q r [ s
J k i !'f!
b-\ Viy.a! HCUI'WMP. Binds 6 Puzzles
6-11. Visual Perception: Matching & Sorting
h I i I j k 1
m n
7. functional Use of Objects b Symbolic Piay g | !•« i J k i
8. Problem Solving/Reasoning o p q r s t
9. Nu.T-'bei Concepts
k ~ | r | r T Tn ~ n0 ~ p q f s j V | W ) X
k | 1 m t j U
10. Concepts/Vocabulary: Receptive

p q r s t u j v | w | x | y
z aa bb cc
11 (onceptb/Vocabiiiary Lxpsesj've k 1 1
m { n
o | P j q j r
s • t u- ' V
12. Attention & Memory: Auditory 1
gi h ' 1 i k
13. Verbal Comprehension
•i: 9
9 h j i j j k | I | m
14. Conversation Skills n | o
15. Grammatical Structure
p I q r j s | t | u
v | w
n 0
P 1 Q 1 f
S | !. j 11 | V
16. Imitation: Vocal d e f
17. imitation: Motor d e t
18. Grasp & Manipulation g ^ i
19. Bilateral Skills
h
h
j
g ...! 1 . J 1 k
I rn
20. Tool Use q h i j
j k
2 1 . Visual-Motor Skills
1 | m j n o j p J q
22-1. Upright Posture & Locomotion
aa | bb j cc dd ee| | ff | gg | hh | ii j jj kk~| ii [™rnm~] nn | oo~
6 22-11. Upright Balance- h • | k | 1 | in n ] 0 j
_f—
22-111. Upright Ball Play h
22-IV. Upright Outdoor Piay

~gg T 1 b' j 1 k
!
j i 1 J
k
The Carolina Curriculum for Preschoolers with Special Needs, Second Edition, by Nancy M. Johnson-Martin, Bonnie j . Hacker, & Susan M. Attermeier
© 2004 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., Inc. All rights reserved.
I
IP 1
I
Curriculum
Sequences
I
I
1
Self-Regulation
6r Responsibility
P reschoolers demonstrate increasing adaptability and self-regulation. By the

time children are kindergarten age, they are expected to be able to adapt read-
ily to new environments, play independently or with friends, care for basic
self-help needs without assistance, and assume responsibility for their own behavior.
T h e ability to assume responsibility for one's behavior is an important part of
the growing-up process. When children are developing typically, they often seem to
demand the right to take responsibility (e.g., "I want to do it myself!"). T h e y are
also more likely to explore actively and get themselves into situations in which
adults have to teach them about dangers and taking care of belongings (e.g., playing
outside independently, fixing their own snack, going on outings). Children with dis-
abilities frequently have fewer of these experiences, so their caregivers may feel
more protective of them. Children with disabilities may grow up rather passive and
unable to assume any responsibility for themselves or others unless their parents or
caregivers make a conscious effort to teach them. It is important that parents and
caregivers make this effort. Although children with physical disabilities may not
be able to ran out into the street, for example, it is still important for them to know
that streets are dangerous and that there are precautions that people must take when
crossing.
This sequence suggests ways to teach responsibility through direct control of
one's behavior and through knowing the rules of safety, caring for property, and
functioning in the community.
T h e amount of responsibility a child can assume may be limited by his or her
disabling conditions. It is very important, however, to avoid limiting the child ad-
ditionally by overprotecting him or her. Self-esteem is usually higher in children
who are given responsibilities within a family and in other settings. Thus, care-
givers should encourage as much responsibility as a child is physically and cogni-
85
86 PERSONAL-SOCIAL
Lively able to assume. As you work through this sequence, modify items as neces-
sary to reach that goal for each child.
ADAPTATIONS
Children with Motor Impairments

Several items in this sequence require motor responses to facilitate active explo-
ration and self-initiated movement away from the caregiver. If children with motor
impairments are unable to make these responses; the focus will have to be on help-
ing the children comfortably separate from their primary caregiver and make choices
between adult-determined activities. For example, a child may be shown two pic-
tures, one of an indoor play area and the other of a swing, and asked if he or she
wants to play inside or go outside and swing. T h e child chooses his or her next ac-
tivity by pointing to or looking at one of the pictures.
Children with Visual Impairments

Children with visual impairments tend to be slower to develop self-reliance and
independence. Caregivers need to be careful not to step in too quickly to rescue
a child, thereby allowing him or her the opportunity to develop his or her own
strategies. Verbal cues will be very important in teaching the child how to help
him- or herself. Maintain a consistent environment with toys neatly organized and
kept in the same place so that the child can learn to find the toys on his or her own.
Furniture should also remain in consistent places with clear paths that are easy to
negotiate.
Children with Hearing Impairments

When speaking to children with hearing impairments, make sure that they are
looking directly at you. If a child has a significant hearing impairment, it is helpful
to begin pairing manual signs with speech to facilitate his or her understanding of
instructions. Demonstrate expected activities for the child to imitate.
1. SELF-REGULATION & RESPONSIBILITY
a. Avoids c o m m o n dangers
b. Plays comfortably in a small group of children
c. Knows what toys can and cannot do and uses them appropriately
d. Puts away toys neatly when asked (may have to be reminded)
e. Follows rules given by adults for new activities or simple g a m e s
f. Adapts readily to c h a n g e s in routine
g. Answers questions related to safety
h. Shows care in handling small animals or potentially breakable objects
i. Performs simple chores (may have to be reminded or supervised)
j. Responds appropriately to instructions given in a small group
k. Buys simple objects in store without help (i.e., gets o b j e c t or has clerk get object,
gives money, and waits for c h a n g e )
I. Answers t e l e p h o n e appropriately and calls person to t e l e p h o n e
1a. Avoids common dangers

(e.g.. broken glass, high places, busy streets, big animals)
MATERIALS None required
PROCEDURES
Talk to the child a b o u t being careful as you do activities together. For example, as you ap-
proach a street during a walk say, "We have to be careful that no cars are c o m i n g . Look
both ways. Do you see a car c o m i n g ? No? Okay, now we can cross the street."
Be sure to always give reasons for prohibitions (e.g., "I don't want you to do that be-
cause you might fall and get hurt," "Some dogs are friendly, s o m e are not. Because we
don't know that d o g , we won't try to pet him").
If the child starts to do something dangerous, calmly but firmly stop her and explain
why she must not do that. If the child persists, a c o n s e q u e n c e (e.g., time-out) is in order.
It is important to c o m m u n i c a t e to the child that you expect her to be responsible and that
you notice and c o m m e n t when she is responsible.
Don't always stop the child before she has a c h a n c e to decide on an appropriate ac-
tion. For example, if you (or t h e child) break something m a d e of glass, don't immediately
pick up the child. Wait to see if she starts to approach it. If the child moves away, says "uh-
oh," or takes another appropriate action, say, "That's g o o d thinking. Leave it there, and I
will clean it up so you won't get hurt."
CLASSROOM & FUNCTIONAL ACTIVITIES
In a classroom, take time to reinforce rules of safety. You may want to devote a few min-
utes every week to a quick review of safety rules at school (e.g., "What do we do in the hall?
Do we run? No, we walk. Sam, why don't we run? Because we might fall and get hurt").
87
88 PERSONAL-SOCIAL
N o t e : S o m e children are, by nature, highly active and impulsive. They are much
more likely to do dangerous things without thinking a b o u t t h e m . It is especially impor-
tant to be vigilant to keep these children safe. It is also important to remain calm, to con-
tinue telling t h e m the reasons for rules, and to be very attentive to them when they do
m a n a g e to o b e y the rules.
CRITERION The child avoids common dangers most of the time—that is, you do not have to
stop the child and retrieve her from a bad situation more than once a week.
1 b. Plays c o m f o r t a b l y In a small g r o u p of children
PROCEDURES
Start with a small group of two or three other children for short periods of time. If the
child is hesitant, it may help to have a parent stay close by and for the child to bring a fa-
vorite toy with him. At this stage, the child is not likely to play with the other children.
The goal is that the child is comfortable being around other children and is able to en-
g a g e in parallel (near, but separate) play.
N o t e : Children without siblings may find this more challenging at first than children
with siblings.
If the child is not in a group care setting, the parents may want to consider weekly in-
volvement in a small playgroup or mother's morning out program. Or, consider ex-
changing child care with a friend who has a child of similar age.
CRITERION The child is comfortable playing in a small group of children for at least 30 min-
utes on several different occasions.
1 c. Knows w h a t toys can

a n d c a n n o t d o a n d uses t h e m appropriately
MATERIALS A genera! assortment of appropriate playthings
PROCEDURES
When the child gets a new toy, visits another child who has different toys than the ones
at home,, o! encounters a new toy in a classroom, take time to show the child what the toy
is used for and how it works. Talk about it as you show the child.
The child may be curious and experiment with other ways to use the toy. Or. she may
be unable to use the toy In the way intended and will try to do something Inappropriate
with it. Do net interfere unless the experimentation is clearly inappropriate or dangerous
SELF-REGULATION & RESPONSIBiLIT / 89
(e.g., throwing something breakable, trying to pull the toy apart). At those times, say
something such as, "That toy is not for throwing. It will break. You see, it works like this."
Help the child use it appropriately.
If a toy is not a g e appropriate for the child, remove it and interest her in another toy.
As you go about your daily activities, you may want to involve the child in simple tasks,
showing her how different things work. This is a g o o d opportunity to teach practical skills,
such as sweeping with a small b r o o m , putting groceries away, or putting m o n e y in a
piggy bank.
CRITERION The child almost always knows what toys can and cannot do and uses them ap-
propriately. The child may experiment with new toys but will be careful. She does not break the
toy or do something highly inappropriate with it in her experimentation.
I d * Puts away toys neatly

when asked (may have to be reminded)
PROCEDURES
Make it a routine that the child helps you put away toys when he is finished playing with
t h e m . Often, children are overwhelmed if there are too many objects to pick up at once.
If a child has a hard time getting started, ask him to help you pick up. Praise the child for
his help. The child will learn to c o m p l e t e the task if you stay with or near him and if you
offer him e n c o u r a g e m e n t and praise.
It is helpful to have clear designations for where toys b e l o n g . For example, group similar
toys together. Use containers and low shelves that make it easy for the child to put away
his toys neatly. If the child has a lot of toys, consider rotating the toys. Divide the toys into
two to four groups, and leave only o n e group of toys out at a time. Be sure to also leave
available any of the child's favorite toys.
In a classroom, it is very helpful to teach the children to always put away something
when they are finished with it, unless another child has asked to play with it. When it is
time to clean up, everyone should be involved. Give a lot of praise to children as they
clean up. Pay special attention to those who are cleaning up rather than n a g g i n g those
who are not helping (e.g., "I like the way Sam and Maria are cleaning up"). You may want
to put stars on a chart for "good citizens"—those who help keep the room neat. (If you
make such a chart, c o m m e n t only on those who get stars. Do not say anything about those
who do not.)
CRITERION The child usually puts away toys neatly when asked (may be reminded one or two
times).
90 PERSONAL-SOCIAL
1 e. Follows rules given by adults

for n e w activities or simple g a m e s
MATERIALS Simple games (e.g., Hi Ho! Cherry-0)
PROCEDURES
When you are g o i n g someplace new that requires s o m e rules, always tell the child the rules
ahead of t i m e . Repeat the rules several times to be sure she understands (e.g., "We're g o i n g
into a store with a lot of pretty things. You may look, but you must not touch," "When we
go into t h e mall there will be a lot of people. You must hold my hand so we can stay to-
gether"). Play simple games with the child (e.g., Slap Jack—give equal numbers of cards
to players w h o turn over a card onto a central stack. Whenever a jack is turned up, every-
o n e tries to slap it. The person who slaps the most jacks wins; Hi Ho! Cherry-0 or other
very simple board games—in which the adult can help count if the child has difficulty).
The child is expected to follow the rules of the g a m e after they have been explained
and d e m o n s t r a t e d . It may take several practice sessions for the child to understand. If t h e
child d o e s not attempt to follow the rules, it is important to determine if the child is de-
liberately uncooperative or if she does not understand the rules.
Try very s i m p l e g a m e s with children in a classroom or other group setting. For example,
Duck, Duck, Goose; Animal Lotto (or other simple matching games); and g a m e s that re-
quire the g r o u p to imitate the leader.
CRITERION The child follows rules given by adults for new activities or simple games. The child
must regularly attempt to follow the rules.
1 f. Adapts readily to changes in routine
PROCEDURES
Children thrive on a regular routine, which should be a part of their typical h o m e and
school e x p e r i e n c e . At the same time, children need to develop the flexibility to adapt to
c h a n g e s in their routines. When there is a c h a n g e in the plans or routine, advise the child
of the u p c o m i n g c h a n g e (e.g., telling the child the day before that there is no school t h e
next day, telling the child that when he is picked up from school he will not be g o i n g
straight h o m e because M o m needs to run s o m e errands). It is expected that the child will
adapt t o c h a n g e s in the routine without crying or "falling apart."
Children will vary in their flexibility. S o m e children relish c h a n g e s and new experi-
ences, while others will need more preparation. The expectation at this a g e is that t h e
child will accept changes in his routine if given a little warning. It may help to review the
SELF-REGULATION & RESPONSIBILITY 91
plans for the day or for a particular outing. A calendar is helpful for s o m e children—either
a daily calendar that depicts the routines of the day or a weekly calendar that shows the
major activities in that week (e.g., school, Dad is home, gymnastics class).
A calendar to count down to an anticipated event (e.g., birthday, holiday, vacation) can be
very helpful in teaching a child to understand time and anticipate change. A calendar in
the classroom can be used to show classes or activities that occur only once or twice a
week and/or upcoming special events.
CRITERION The child readily adapts to changes in routine if given brief preparation.
1g. Answers questions related to safety

(e g., " W h y shouldn't you play with knives?"
s
"Why should you look before crossing the street?")

PROCEDURES
Look for opportunities throughout the day to explain various safety rules to the child
(e.g., "It is important to stop and look both ways before crossing the street to make sure
no cars are c o m i n g . You must always hold a grown-up's hand when crossing the street.
Cars are big and move very fast and will hurt you if they hit you"). Always explain the rea-
sons for a safety rule. Occasionally check out the child's understanding of the rules by ask-
ing her questions about them (e.g., " W h y don't you . . . ? " "Why do you . . .?").
Read stories in which a character does not follow a safety rule. Use the story as a basis for
discussion. For children with significant difficulty, develop simple social stories that ex-
plain what you should and shouldn't do in a given situation. Repeat the story frequently.
Then ask the child to tell you the story.
CRITERION The child answers five or more questions related to safety.
1h. Shows care in handling

small animals or potentially breakable objects
PROCEDURES
When opportunities arise, allow the child to pet baby animals or to handle objects that
might break. Talk to him about being careful. Show the child how to be gentle and care-
92 PERSONAL-SOCIAL
ful. If n e e d e d , talk a b o u t the difference between a hard touch and a soft touch. Make a
box out of thin paper or use an eggshell. Show how holding it gently is okay, but hold-
ing it too hard crushes it. Let the child practice.
Bring objects such as an old birds' nests, old hornets' nests, or other relatively fragile o b -
jects to the h o m e or classroom for nature study. Show them to the child(ren) and talk
about how they are made. Let the child(ren) practice handling t h e m .
A pet in t h e h o m e or live animals in the classroom offer regular practice in learning
to treat animals in a gentle and caring way.
CRITERION The child usually shows care in handling small animals or potentially breakable ob-
jects, and the caregiver feels comfortable allowing the child to touch and handle them.
1L Performs simple chores

(may have to be reminded or supervised)
PROCEDURES
This item expands on the earlier established skills of putting away toys. By a g e 2 - 3 years,
most children enjoy helping with simple household chores. By the a g e of 4 years, they
can usually perform simple tasks independently, although you will need to give reminders
and supervise as n e e d e d . Typical chores at this a g e could include feeding the d o g , put-
ting away silverware, folding washcloths, or bringing in the mail. The expectation that the
child will be a contributing part of the h o m e or classroom helps to build feelings of c o m -
petence and responsibility. Begin by demonstrating a chore for the child and then do the
chore with the child on several occasions. When you feel she can handle the chore inde-
pendently, reduce your involvement.
It is often helpful to have a j o b chart at h o m e with j o b s indicated by pictures showing who

is responsible for what j o b . A calendar on which the child can put a check or star each day
when she completes her chore is also a helpful tool.
In the classroom, it is helpful to assign a particular chore to each child for a week and
then rotate t h e chores. In addition to teaching responsibility, this avoids s o m e of the com-
petition and feelings about favoritism when children raise their hands to volunteer for par-
ticular j o b s . A picture chart is helpful here as well.
CRITERION The child will assume responsibility for at least one daily chore (reminders and su-
pervision may be required).
SELF-REGULATION & RESPONSIBILITY 93
1j. Responds appropriately to

Instructions given In a small group
PROCEDURES
Invite other children to your h o m e or to go with you on outings, or take your child some-
where that he can be involved in a group setting, where you or another adult will be giv-
ing instructions to several children at o n c e (e.g., Sunday school, gymnastics class, music
group). Always provide simple instructions to the group of children, and check their un-
derstanding by asking questions.
In a classroom, there are numerous opportunities for group instruction. It is helpful to

make sure that everyone is attending to you before giving the instructions. Circle time is
often the logical time for group instruction. There are rarely opportunities for group in-
struction at h o m e ; therefore, it is important that the child be involved in group activities
outside of the h o m e to develop this skill.
CRITERION The child responds appropriately to instructions given in a small group most of the
time (i.e., listens, answers questions related to the instructions, and follows the instructions).
1k. Buys simple objects

in store without help (i.e., gets object or
has clerk get object, gives money, and waits for change)
MATERIALS Money
PROCEDURES
When you go shopping, take the child. Let her observe how you pay for objects and get
change. Give the child a small amount of money (e.g., $1.00) and let her precede or fol-
low you through the checkout line with her money and something that she wishes to pur-
chase (e.g., gum, fruit, candy, crackers, a small toy). If the child does not know how to give
the money and the item to the clerk and wait for change, instruct her. Gradually give less
help. It is often helpful to frequent small neighborhood stores when teaching this activity.
In a classroom or at home, you can set up a play store for children with play money and
cans or boxes to be bought. Have o n e child act as the storekeeper and others as shoppers.
CRITERION On three occasions, the child buys something in a store without help (i.e., gets ob-
ject or has clerk get object, gives money, and waits for change).
94 PERSONAL-SOCIAL
11. Answers telephone

appropriately and calls person to telephone
MATERIALS Telephone
PROCEDURES
Let the child talk to people who call you on the telephone. Have him practice answering
a play telephone. Then, allow the child to answer your telephone when someone calls.
Prompt the child as to what to say (e.g., "Hello. This is Johnny. Do you want to talk to my
mother?"). It is often helpful to have s o m e o n e you know call specifically for the child to
practice answering the telephone. Be sure to teach the child to call for an adult or go and
get them to continue the t e l e p h o n e call. It is important to teach the child not to give out
personal information (e.g., the family's last name, address, the fact that the caregivers
have left the child with a babysitter) over the telephone.
Include two or more telephones in the housekeeping center (or other appropriate areas)
in the classroom.
Play t e l e p h o n e with the child using a realistic-looking toy telephone, and take turns
making the call and answering the call. Consider having a friend or relative call the child
at a regular time each day or week to provide the child with practice answering the tele-
phone appropriately.
CRITERION The child answers the telephone appropriately and calls the correct person to the
telephone on five different occasions.
P E R S O N A L - SOCIAL
2
Interpersonal Skills
M ost of human learning and development takes place within a social con-
text. Children's social responses to their caregivers not only provide in-
formation about what children are thinking, feeling, and learning but
also reward the caregivers for the time and energy they devote to the children.
When a child has an impairment (e.g., a form of severe cerebral palsy, a severe sen-
sory impairment) that interferes with his or her ability to communicate positive
feedback to caregivers and peers, caregivers and peers may unwittingly begin to pay
less attention to the child, and the child, in turn, may further reduce his or her ef-
forts to interact. This may lead to fewer and fewer opportunities for positive social
interactions.
In developing an intervention plan for a young child, the interactions between
the caregiver and the child must be the primary focus until those interactions are
well established. Then, the emphasis should shift to helping that child initiate
social interactions and respond to social overtures of peers and a broader range of
adults.
ADAPTATIONS

If a child has very limited movement and motor control, you will need to be sensi-
tive to subtle cues of social engagement, especially eye gaze and smiles.
Seek help from the child's occupational and/or physical therapist to find opti-
mal positioning for the child to observe other children and to participate in group
activities.
Children with severe motor impairments may be able to operate toys by us-
ing switches. Such toys can be effective in engaging other children's attention
and interest and can provide opportunities for sharing, turn taking, and other social
interactions.
95
96 PERSONAL-SOCIAL

Children with severe visual impairments will probably be especially sensitive to
sound and to nuances of approval and disapproval in the voices of those who pro-
vide care. It is even more critical than with other children to talk to these children
frequently and to be alert to what you may be communicating by tone or volume
of voice.
Children with severe visual impairments will need special help in learning
to interact with other children. T h e y may need physical guidance to hand things to
someone else or to play simple games. Peers without visual impairments may have
to be coached in ways to play with children who are visually impaired.

Children with significant hearing impairments may miss many social cues, partic-
ularly the verbal cues indicating that one should pay attention to a person or activ-
ity. It may be necessary to touch the child and give some gesture to indicate where
you want his or her attention to be directed. Both gross and fine motor activities are
effective ways to promote social interactions that do not depend on verbal inter-
changes. If the child is learning signs to communicate, teach the signs to other chil-
dren as well. Children usually love singing songs with signs as well as words.
2. INTERPERSONAL SKILLS
a. Negotiates with peers about toys (may trade)
b. Shows awareness of social standards
c. Works collaboratively toward a goal with peers
d. Expresses affection and/or preference for s o m e peers
e. Expresses regret when another child is hurt or experiences unpleasantness
f. Requests permission
g. Converses with peers
h. Takes turn most of the time if reminded
i. Responds appropriately to social contact m a d e by familiar adults
j. Separates easily from parent or caregiver in familiar surroundings
k. Prefers interacting with peers to being with adults
I. Cooperates with peers to develop a t h e m e for imaginative play
m. Labels feelings of peers and responds to them
n. Plays group g a m e s with other children without constant adult supervision
o. Plays simple board or card g a m e s with other children with adult supervision
p. Negotiates conflicts verbally
q. Listens to peers and discusses ideas or observations
r. Demonstrates understanding that different people have different feelings, attitudes,

or beliefs through role playing in pretend play
s. Asks permission to use other people's b e l o n g i n g s
t. Shows awareness of other people's feelings
u. Uses terms such as "thank you," "please," and "you're w e l c o m e " appropriately
v. Recognizes another's need for help and gives assistance
w. Plays cooperatively with peers for extended periods without requiring adult inter-
vention
x. Plays familiar g a m e s with peers and follows the rules without adult intervention
y. Identifies special friends
z. Spontaneously takes turns and shares
aa. Asserts self in socially acceptable ways
bb. Plans/creates g a m e s that have rules with peers
cc. Demonstrates an interest in people outside of the family and immediate circle of
friends
97
98 PERSONAL-SOCIAL
2a. Negotiates with peers about toys (may trade)

PROCEDURES
Recruit another child to play with the child who has special needs. Have a variety of toys
for t h e m , but be sure to have only o n e of several toys that are highly prized by most chil-
dren (e.g., o n e riding toy, o n e pair of tongs, o n e paint brush and easel). As they play, o b -
serve how they share and how they handle a situation where they both want the s a m e toy.
Prompt taking turns and trading toys as appropriate. Comment on sharing and coopera-
tion, letting the children know you appreciate it.
Demonstrate to the child how to negotiate with peers by having him and t h e other chil-
dren take turns or trade toys whenever a conflict arises. Emphasize using words to solve
problems rather than g r a b b i n g , hitting, or other physical means. Notice when children
share and play cooperatively. Comment on it.
CRITERION The child negotiates with peers and/or siblings about toys two or three times a day
over several days.
2b. Shows awareness of social standards (e.g., wants

clothes changed when dirty, brings broken toys to be fixed)
PROCEDURES
As you play with the child, watch for signs that the child is aware of social standards. If
there are few opportunities to observe this, you may create s o m e by deliberately includ-
ing a broken toy in the materials you are using for play, by spilling s o m e of your drink,
by giving the child s o m e paper o b j e c t that is fragile and likely to be d a m a g e d , and so
forth. Observe the child's reactions. If she shows distress, acknowledge her distress, but
treat the event in a matter-of-fact manner (e.g., "I know you did not mean to do that. Let's
fix it").
A child learns social standards by observing the adults and other children around her. En-
courage this learning by talking to the child a b o u t why you do things (e.g., "That dress
has gotten pretty dirty. Let's c h a n g e it before we go to the store," "Oops, you spilled your
milk. Let's clean it up," "That's broken. Let's see if we can fix it," "Oh, dear, you tore
Danny's paper. Tell him you are sorry.")
I N T E R P E R S O N A L SKILLS 99
CRITERION The child shows awareness of two or more different social standards, such as a de-
sire for clean clothes, the need to repair items that are broken, the necessity of saying "I'm sorry"
when having an accident, and so forth.
2c. Works collaboratively toward a goal with peers

PROCEDURES
Recruit o n e or two other children to play with the child. Suggest a project for them to do
together. S o m e possible projects are to build a train out of chairs and pretend to go for a
ride, to construct a block building, or to make roads for cars by placing blocks end to end.
If you are doing block activities, provide each of the children with a pile of blocks, mak-
ing it more likely that all children will participate. If any child plays independently with
his blocks, tell him that all of the blocks are n e e d e d to make a really big house (or long
road). Praise the children when they cooperate with o n e another in the task.
Provide experiences for the child to interact with other children at home, in religious
schools, in child care, or in other settings. If he does not spontaneously join into collabo-
rative play, recruit another child to play with you and him. Select materials that especially
e n c o u r a g e collaboration, such as blocks or other construction materials.
In a classroom, e n c o u r a g e the children to take turns adding blocks to a tower to see
how tall they can make it or to build a road together so they can run cars on it, and so
forth. Participate as much as necessary to get them started and then gradually withdraw.
If conflicts occur, e n c o u r a g e compromise. Comment on how well the children work to-
gether and what they accomplish together.
CRITERION The child works collaboratively toward a goal with one or more peers on three or
more occasions.
2d. Expresses affection and/or preference for some peers

PROCEDURES
Children learn to express affection by experiencing affection from their families and other
caregivers. Freely express affection for the child in whatever manner is appropriate for her
culture. For example, smile at her, pat her gently, hug and kiss her on occasion, and tell
her that you care for her. Also express affection for others in the child's presence.
100 PERSONAL-SOCIAL
In a classroom, give t h e children kisses, hugs, pats, or other culturally appropriate indica-
tions of affection. Encourage them to help each other and comfort each other when hurt.
Use circle time or other group time to e n c o u r a g e the children to talk about what things
people do to let them know they are loved.
CRITERION The child expresses affection and/or preference for some peers. This should be a
common occurrence, although frequently it will vary according to the opportunities available.
Some sign of affection or preference should be seen each time the child is with other children.
2e. Expresses regret when another

child is hurt or experiences unpleasantness
PROCEDURES
Model being sensitive to other people's misfortunes. Help t h e child when he gets hurt,
be sympathetic when he is frustrated or unhappy, and help him find solutions to prob-
lems. Encourage the child to help other family m e m b e r s or other children (e.g., "Johnny
hurt his finger. Come help me kiss it and make it better," "Joshua's house fell down. Can
you help him fix it?").
Engage the child in pretend play with dolls, animals, or puppets that involves o n e
character caring for another when hurt.
Always let the child know you appreciate it when he is sympathetic to another child.
A classroom will provide many opportunities to e n c o u r a g e this behavior.
CRITERION The child expresses regret when another child is hurt or experiences unpleasant-
ness, five or more times. At this level, the child need not spontaneously try to help the child but
should either tell the adult to help or will help when asked by the adult.
2f. Requests permission

(e.g., "Johnny go out?" "I turn it?")
PROCEDURES
Divide up a group of toys or other objects between you and the child. Label them as yours
and hers. After a few minutes, ask the child if you can play with (or use) o n e of her o b -
jects for a few minutes. Play with it momentarily and then return it. Identify an object in
your group that is particularly interesting and do something with it. If the child reaches
I N T E R P E R S O N A L SKILLS 101
for it but does not ask permission to use it, say "Do you want my [object]? Ask me for it
nicely." If necessary tell him to ask, "Please, may I have it?" You can do a similar activity
using snack foods, with a different kind for each of you.
Demonstrate respect for family or classroom rules and personal property by requesting
permission to use things that b e l o n g to others. Ask the child if you may have a piece of
her cookie or play with her toy. Likewise, ask other family m e m b e r s these kinds of ques-
tions. Listen for the child to begin asking permission to do activities. Respond positively
to these requests. If the requests cannot be granted, tell the child why not and, if appro-
priate, when they can be granted (e.g., "You can't go outside now. It's too rainy. We'll go
out when the rain stops").
CRITERION The child requests permission from an adult or another child three or more times
without being prompted.
2g. Converses with peers

PROCEDURES
Observe the child with o n e or more children. If he is not conversing with them (respond-
ing to or answering question, offering information), select o n e of the children to be a con-
versational partner with the child. Begin a conversation with another child a b o u t s o m e
o n g o i n g activity. Try to draw the child into the conversation by asking questions, sug-
gesting he tell you a b o u t s o m e experience, and so forth. Withdraw your assistance if the
two children begin conversing on their own.
Spend a lot of time talking and listening to the child. Give him opportunities to be with
peers for extended play periods.
When you are with a group of children, be sure to converse with t h e m . Encourage
them to talk with o n e another by suggesting activities or topics (e.g., "Matthew, show Tina
your doll house," "Here's a b o x of clothes. Do you want to dress up?")
In a classroom, various centers (e.g., housekeeping, dress-up, construction) will en-
courage conversations a m o n g children. Observe what the children do, and participate as
necessary to e n c o u r a g e them to plan and talk together.
CRITERION The child converses with peers (three or more exchanges) on two or more occasions.
2h. Takes turn most of the time if reminded

102 PERSONAL-SOCIAL
PROCEDURES
Play with the child, and ask her to let you have a turn with some toy she has chosen. If
she refuses, ask again, offering to trade another toy and/or telling her that you will give
it back as soon as you have had a turn.
Bring out a new toy and play with it, making it as enticing as possible. If the child
asks for it, tell her that she can have a turn but then she must give it back to you. After
you let her play with it for 5 minutes or so, tell her that now it is your turn again. Do not
force the issue, but continue modeling turn taking and praising the child whenever she
gives you a turn, whether spontaneously or in response to your request.
Emphasize and attend to sharing in general activities throughout the day. If the child is at
home with adults only, it is easy to neglect to teach her how to take turns. Adults should
emphasize taking turns with children (e.g., "May l have a turn playing with your truck?"
"I get to choose what we watch now. You'll have your turn to choose when this program
is over").
Taking turns is an essential part of classroom participation for young children. Attend
to those children who take turns readily (e.g., thank them, give them a hug, comment
about them to the other children), rather than pointing out or scolding the children who
do not.
CRITERION The child takes turns with other children most of the time if reminded. She may
make a face or otherwise look unhappy but, nevertheless, complies with the request to take turns.
2i. Responds appropriately

to social contact made by familiar adults
PROCEDURES
Always greet the child in a socially appropriate way, and prompt him to greet other fa-
miliar adults (e.g., "Say hello to Aunt Margaret," "Shake hands with Mr. Zog").
Demonstrate appropriate greetings and interactions with other adults and with children.
Give the child opportunities to interact with your friends and visitors, prompting the chil-
dren to say appropriate greetings and farewells, respond to handshakes or "high fives,"
and so forth.
In a classroom, introduce the children to each other's parents. Invite visitors. Have the
visitors move about the room and talk to the children.
CRITERION The child responds appropriately to social contact made by familiar adults on most
occasions (e.g., smiles when approached, answers or asks questions, shows the adult something
interesting).
INTERPERSONAL SKILLS 103
2j. Separates easily from parent

or caregiver in familiar surroundings
PROCEDURES
Observe what happens when the child's parents or caregivers leave her in your care. Be
sure to ask t h e parents or caregivers what happens in other situations when they are sep-
arated from the child. If the child clings to the parent or caregiver or cries for more than
a few minutes after the parent or caregiver leaves, discuss the situation, reminding the
parents or caregivers that children separate more easily if their parents or caregivers act
confident that the child will do well without t h e m . Thus, it is important for parents and
caregivers to act confident as they leave their child, to tell their child that they are leav-
ing and when they will return, to tell their child to have fun, and then to leave. Good-byes
should be minimized. If the child cries, t h e parent or caregiver should say something such
as, "I'll be back soon. You're g o i n g to have fun," and then leave. If the child cries for an
extended period after the parent or caregiver leaves, it may be necessary to approach
separations gradually (e.g., leave the child for only 15 minutes several times, then 30 min-
utes, then 45 minutes, and then 60 minutes; then, increase by 6 0 - m i n u t e blocks).
Encourage those who care for the child when the parent or caregiver leaves to try
to distract the child with an interesting toy or activity. If the child will allow, it may help
to hold her hand, pick her up, or otherwise provide physical contact. It is important that
parents and caregivers are cheerful and do not act worried or distressed by the child's
crying. It is also important to verbalize the child's feelings ("I know you want to see
M o m m y . . .") and reassure her ("but she will be back soon, and we're going to do a lot
of fun things while we wait for her"). If necessary, the person caring for the child should
reassure her frequently that her parents or caregivers will return, being specific a b o u t the
time of return using terms the child will understand (e.g., "After we have our naps and go
outside, your M o m m y will c o m e back").
Follow the procedure outlined above in the classroom and in all other situations requir-
ing separation.
CRITERION The child separates easily from her parent or caregiver in familiar surroundings.
She does not cry and quickly becomes involved in other activities.
2k. Prefers Interacting with peers to being with adults

104 PERSONAL-SOCIAL
PROCEDURES
This step in interpersonal development cannot be taught in any direct fashion but can be
e n c o u r a g e d by giving the child a m p l e opportunities to be with other children. Parents/
caregivers and teachers should monitor what g o e s on between the child and other chil-
dren to ensure that he has rewarding experiences with his peers. Sometimes it will be nec-
essary to select o n e or m o r e socially mature peers and coach them on ways they can in-
teract with a child who has a condition that impairs speech, movement, or an ability to
read social cues. Young children recognize differences and are curious but usually are not
judgmental a b o u t t h e differences. Typically developing children respond well to coaching
and are usually gratified by the responses they get from children with impairments.
CLASSROOM 6- FUNCTIONAL ACTIVITIES
Expose the child to new groups of children as he b e c o m e s comfortable with a familiar

group. Monitor what happens between the child and the other children, intervening as
necessary in the ways described in the Procedures section to make it a successful experi-
e n c e for t h e child.
CRITERION On three or more occasions, the child demonstrates a preference for interacting
with peers over interacting with adults by changes in participation, affect, and/or lengthened
attention.
21. Cooperates with peers to

develop a theme for imaginative play
PROCEDURES
Select a socially c o m p e t e n t child to be a partner in play with the child. Provide t h e chil-
dren with whatever materials seem likely to stimulate fantasy play, given your previous
observations of the child and the play partner. If t h e child does not participate in devel-
oping a t h e m e for play, ask questions to elicit s o m e of the child's ideas, and e n c o u r a g e
the other child to follow through with t h e m .
Provide the child with many opportunities to play with other children. Have materials that
invite imaginative play readily available in the child's playroom at h o m e or in the centers
of a classroom (e.g., dress-up clothing, cooking utensils, blocks and other construction
materials, paper and markers).
If the child is not included in developing t h e m e s for imaginative play, make sugges-
tions to the group that will include the child (e.g., "It looks like you are playing house.
Why don't you ask Tanika what she wants to b e ? " ) .
CRITERION The child frequently cooperates with peers to develop a theme for imaginative
play (i.e., makes suggestions, assumes a role, and so forth).
2m. Labels feelings of peers and responds to them

PROCEDURES
E n g a g e the child in pretend play with dolls, animals, or puppets. Set up a situation such
as having a doll fall down and skin her knee. Ask the child how the doll would feel and
then what should be d o n e to help her. If the child does not give appropriate answers, de-
scribe how you think the doll feels and what you would do for her. Set up other situations
to assess other feelings.
Read stories to t h e child. Stop occasionally to ask her how a character is feeling.
Observe the child with other children. If something g o o d or bad happens to one of
the other children, ask t h e child how she thinks that other child is feeling.
Make a point of labeling your own feelings and the feelings of others who are with you
and the child (e.g., "I am frustrated because I c a n ' t make this fit," "Daddy's very tired.
Let's let him rest," "Jack is angry that you took his toy. Please give it back and say you're
sorry," "Ying is sad b e c a u s e her car is broken. Let's try to fix it," "I'm so happy. We got a
letter from Grandma!"). Model being sensitive to other people's feelings. Be sure to cheer
for the child when she is successful and happy, help her when she gets hurt, be sympa-
thetic when she is frustrated or unhappy, and help her find solutions to problems when
she can't figure out what to do. You should also e n c o u r a g e the child to help other fam-
ily m e m b e r s (e.g., "Josie is sad b e c a u s e she dropped her cookie. Will you please get her
another one?").
Label the feelings of t h e children in a classroom and demonstrate empathy for t h e m .
Encourage group m e m b e r s to pay attention to the feelings of others. Comment on their
helpfulness.
CRITERION The child labels two or more feelings of other children and responds appropriately
to them.
2n. Plays group games with other children

(e.g., tag, hide-and-seek) without constant adult supervision
PROCEDURES
Recruit two other children to play with the child. Join the three children in a g a m e of tag
or hide-and-seek. Once the children are playing reasonably well, tell them you have some-
thing else to do for a few minutes, but e n c o u r a g e them to keep on playing. Observe what
106 PERSONAL-SOCIAL
happens without your participation. Intervene only as much as necessary so that the chil-
dren continue to play for 5 minutes or so without your participation.
CLASSROOM 6> FUNCTIONAL ACTIVITIES
Play g a m e s with the child so that he understands following rules and taking turns. Give
the child opportunities to play with small groups of children. Organize simple group
g a m e s that have only a few rules (e.g., tag, hide-and-seek, d o d g e ball). Be sure that the
children know and understand t h e rules, and provide only as much supervision as n e e d e d
to settle disputes and keep t h e children safe.
CRITERION The child plays group games with other children without constant adult super-
vision (i.e., he participates, follows rules, and is not disruptive to the games). This must be ob-
served on three or more occasions.
2o. Plays simple board or card games

with other children with adult supervision
MATERIALS Simple board or card g a m e s (e.g., Candyland, Chutes and Ladders, Old Maid,
1 Spy Preschool Game)
PROCEDURES
Recruit o n e or two other children to play g a m e s with the child. Teach the children to play
a simple g a m e , and play with them for a while. Then, suggest that the children continue
to play on their own. Observe and intervene only if necessary.
Play simple board or card g a m e s with the child. There are several preschool g a m e s
(e.g., the I Spy Preschool Game) in which everyone wins—these may be particularly g o o d
to use when introducing t h e child to games. You can find other simple g a m e s in toy stores
or on preschool g a m e web sites.
When playing g a m e s in which o n e person wins, do not plan to always lose or always
win. The child needs to learn that she will sometimes win and sometimes lose. When you
lose, model being a g o o d loser. Make it fun, not serious.
Make sure the child has opportunities to play g a m e s with other children. You may
need to supervise to be sure the children are following the rules or to help children re-
solve their disputes.
In a classroom, plan simple board or card g a m e s for the group. You can use card
g a m e s that require matching to teach both matching and g a m e playing. Board g a m e s
teach counting in a much more enjoyable way than simple memorization. Build lesson
plans around g a m e s .
CRITERION The child plays simple board or card games with other children with constant adult
supervision. The child must follow the rules and engage in socially appropriate behavior. This
should be observed on several different occasions.
2p. Negotiates conflicts verbally

PROCEDURES
The most important way to teach children to negotiate conflict verbally is to demonstrate
for them how you do it when conflicts arise between you and the child, between you and
other children, between you and other adults, and so forth.
When the child begins to grab, hit, or otherwise deal with conflict in unacceptable
ways, either at h o m e or in the classroom, tell him, "Use your words." Separate two chil-
dren who are fighting and, when they are calm e n o u g h , get them to talk about what has
happened. Help the children negotiate a solution by talking with each other (e.g., "I will
play with it until lunch, and you can have it after lunch").
Follow the above procedures in all settings.
CRITERION The child negotiates a conflict verbally, without adult prompting, on three or more
occasions.
2q. Listens to peers and discusses ideas or observations

PROCEDURES
Recruit a play partner for the child. Provide the children with a few toys and/or art sup-
plies and observe how they interact.
Take the children on a walk or to s o m e interesting place (e.g., park, zoo). Listen to
their conversation. If the child is not listening to her play partner or conversing with her,
ask questions and otherwise prompt appropriate interactions. Provide no more help than
necessary.
Discuss your observations and thoughts (e.g., a b o u t why something works the way it does,
about what kinds of g a m e s you like, a b o u t your favorite colors or foods) with the child.
Listen carefully to what she has to say. Show interest in her ideas, questions, observations,
feelings, and so forth. When other children are around, demonstrate the s a m e kind of in-
terest in their ideas, observations, feelings, and so forth.
In a classroom, suggest activities for the child and o n e or more peers that will en-
courage them to discuss their ideas and observations. Various science projects are espe-
cially g o o d for promoting discussion. For example, put sugar in water, stir it until it is dis-
solved, and ask the children what they think happened (e.g., "Where did the sugar g o ?
108 PERSONAL-SOCIAL
Will the water taste sweet?"). Take the children for a walk and have them collect things
they find outside (e.g., leaves, sticks). Encourage them to tell each other about what they
collected, why they think it looks like it does, what they think it is for, and so forth.
CRITERION The child listens to peers and discusses ideas or observations on three or more oc-
casions (three or more interchanges with another child or a group of children each time).
2r. Demonstrates understanding

that different people have different feelings,
attitudes, or beliefs through role playing in pretend play
MATERIALS Dress-up clothes; dolls, stuffed animals, or puppets
PROCEDURES
Using dolls, stuffed animals, or puppets, play with the child assuming different roles and
demonstrating different feelings or reactions to situations. For example, o n e doll might be
mad that another doll got to eat the last cookie. Or, Baby Bear might be sad that M o m m y
Bear left for t h e afternoon. As t h e child gets comfortable role playing different situations,
let him take more and more of the lead in creating t h e story and action.
In a classroom, construct a simple puppet stage out of a large packing box. Demonstrate
doing a simple play with two puppets who have very different personalities (e.g., a gruff
giant who wants to be friendly and a timid little boy who is afraid of the giant). Then, in
groups of two or three, have the children take turns putting on a play. Suggest a simple
t h e m e if the children do not wish to create o n e on their own.
Observe the child playing imaginatively with other children. Does he take different
roles and demonstrate different feelings, attitudes, or beliefs through his role taking?
CRITERION The child demonstrates an understanding that different people have different feel-
ings, attitudes, or beliefs through role playing in pretend play on three or more occasions.
2s. Asks permission to use other people's belongings

MATERIALS Various objects that interest the child
PROCEDURES
Select materials for a project that you believe will interest the child. Divide the materials
into two piles or containers, o n e for you and o n e for the child, making sure that s o m e spe-
cial objects are only in o n e group and s o m e other special objects are only in t h e other
group. For example, in both piles you might have paper and pencils, but o n e pile could
have scissors and red, blue, and yellow markers, and the other pile could have paste and
green, purple, and orange markers.
Suggest to t h e child that you each make a picture. Early in the process, ask the child
permission to use something she has that you do not have (e.g., "I don't have any scis-
sors, may I use yours?"). Promptly return what you use, and continue working. Try to make
your special materials look particularly interesting. If the child does not ask to use any of
t h e m , offer o n e to her. Ask to use another of hers.
If the child just reaches for o n e of your materials without asking, prompt her to ask
permission and then let her use it.
Try this process with other materials and activities.
Children learn to ask permission by observing others doing it. In the classroom and at
home, adults should model asking permission to use other people's belongings. It is es-
pecially important to respect the child's b e l o n g i n g s and ask her if you can use (or move,
or share) her things. If t h e child takes something of yours without asking, explain that she
must ask. Talk a b o u t the need to respect other people's property (e.g., "We can't take the
gum without paying for it. It b e l o n g s to the store," "Don't take Daddy's paper away until
you ask him if he is through with it," "Ask Missy if you can play with her bear").
Notice when the child or any of her peers asks permission appropriately and com-
ment on their respectful behavior.
CRITERION The child usually asks permission before using other people's belongings.
2t. Shows awareness of other people's

feelings (e.g., "He's mad," "Are you sad?")
PROCEDURES
This item is similar to Item 2m (Labels feelings of peers and responds to them) but re-
quires a more sophisticated awareness of facial expression and body language. In Item
2m, the child j u d g e s the feeling of another person by observing what happened to the
other person. For this item, the child must be able to discern t h e feelings of others by how
they behave.
The child must be a b l e to observe adults being sensitive to the feelings of others in
order to b e c o m e aware of the importance of other people's feelings. As opportunities nat-
urally occur in daily interactions with the child, be sure to share with him your observa-
tions (e.g., "You look sad. What is making you sad?" "Mary is very angry," "Daddy looks
really happy. Let's ask him why").
Comment on t h e feelings of the characters in television shows or in stories that you read.
Ask the child questions such as, "How do you think he feels a b o u t that?"
Choose stories to read that will elicit a discussion of sadness, fear, anger, and happiness.
110 PERSONAL-SOCIAL
In a classroom, e n c o u r a g e children to talk a b o u t feelings. Note when s o m e o n e looks

sad, angry, afraid, and so forth, c o m m e n t on your observation, and see if there is s o m e
way to help that person. Listen for the child to begin making these comments.
CRITERION The child shows an awareness of other people's feelings by labeling those feelings.
He should be able to label at least three different feelings.
2u. Uses terms such as "thank y o u / '

"please," and "you're welcome" appropriately
PROCEDURES
Model these behaviors in your interactions with t h e child and all others in the environ-
ment. Ask the child to say, "please" when asking for something. Similarly, prompt her to
say, "thank you" and "you're welcome," as appropriate. Tell the child that it is important
to say these things to be polite and to make other p e o p l e feel g o o d . Attend to t h e child's
efforts to use these terms and respond positively to t h e m .
CLASSROOM b FUNCTIONAL ACTIVITIES
In a classroom, prompt these behaviors from all of the children. Call attention to those
children who use them appropriately.
CRITERION The child frequently and appropriately uses "thank you," "please," "you're wel-
come," and/or other terms commonly used in her culture. The child should not have to be re-
minded more than two or three times a day.
2v. Recognizes another's need for help and gives assistance

PROCEDURES
When you are interacting with the child, try to set up situations in which you need him
to help you to accomplish a task. For example, you might need him to open the door be-
cause both of your hands are full, hold o n e side of a sack while you hold the other and
try to stuff something into it, or pick up something you dropped because your hands are
full. Ask for help as you need it, but begin to wait before asking to see if he will notice
you need help and offer it spontaneously. Always thank t h e child for any help he provides.
Model how to provide help when the child or anyone else in the household or classroom
is having difficulty (e.g., "is that zipper giving you trouble? May I help you?''' "Here, let
me help you untangle that"). Use circle time or other group time to talk about the im-
portance of helping each other (e.g., when you help s o m e o n e , he or she will probably
want to help you when you need help; everyone in a group is usually happier when group
m e m b e r s help each other). Ask the child for help when you need it. Praise him and dis-
play affection when he is helpful.
Encourage children in a group to help o n e another (e.g., "Bill is having difficulty with
the puzzle. Ask him if he would like s o m e help").
In a classroom, plan a circle time in which you ask, "What would you do i f . . ." ques-
tions. Describe various situations in which people are in trouble (e.g., "What would you
do if the e g g s fell out of your father's grocery sack and spilled all over the floor?" "What
would you do if the baby lost his ball under the couch?"). You can liven up this activity
by showing pictures from magazines to illustrate the problems.
CRITERION The child recognizes another's need for help and gives assistance (without being
asked to help) on two or more occasions.
2w. Plays cooperatively with peers for

extended periods without requiring adult intervention
2x. Plays familiar games with peers and

follows the rules without adult intervention
MATERIALS Puzzles and simple g a m e s
PROCEDURES
Give the child many opportunities to play with other children. Be available, but do not or-
ganize the play or intervene unless necessary. Have materials available for simple indoor
and outdoor games. If the children never choose to play a game, suggest that they play
one. If necessary, play with them for a few minutes to get them started and then withdraw.
In a classroom, playing familiar board g a m e s is a g o o d activity when you would like for
a group of children to settle down prior to meals or naps.
CRITERION Zw The child plays cooperatively with peers for extended periods (e.g., 15-30
minutes) without adult intervention. This should occur at least once a day in a classroom or child
care setting.
CRITERION 2x On three or more occasions, the child plays familiar games with peers, follow-
ing the rules without adult intervention.
112 PERSONAL-SOCIAL
2y. Identifies special friends

PROCEDURES
Talk with the child a b o u t the children she plays with. Let her talk freely a b o u t w h o m she
likes and does not like. If she does not spontaneously indicate any special friends, ask her
whom she likes to play with t h e most. Ask over several days to see if there is any stability
in her choices.
Let t h e child choose w h o m to invite to her house to visit. Also, talk to the child a b o u t the
p e o p l e you know. Stress t h e positive characteristics of people, but let her know that cer-
tain people are your special friends. Plan activities with those friends.
In t h e classroom, preferences will probably be evident. Allow the child to d e m o n -
strate them in choices of playmates for activities, but try to arrange the environment to
avoid the exclusion of certain children.
CRITERION The child identities special friends, either through responding to a question about
friends or by requesting particular playmates.
2z. Spontaneously takes turns and shares

PROCEDURES
Recruit another child to play with the child. Provide each of t h e m materials for an art proj-
ect or for other activities, identifying s o m e of the objects as b e l o n g i n g to o n e child and
s o m e objects to the other. Observe as they play. If the children do not share or take turns,
join the play with materials of your own, and model sharing your materials and request-
ing turns with theirs.
Demonstrate taking turns and sharing within the family and/or classroom. Praise t h e child
or otherwise respond positively when he takes turns and shares. Plan circle time or other
group time to talk a b o u t sharing and how sharing gives everyone a chance to play. Use
examples of g o o d sharing you have observed in the classroom. Ask the children if they
can give you examples of their own (be sure to steer them away from examples of some-
o n e who is not sharing; emphasize the positive).
CRITERION The child takes turns and shares without being told to do so by an adult. This
should occur on a fairly regular basis, although occasional refusals to cooperate can be expected.
2aa. Asserts self in socially acceptable ways

PROCEDURES
It is important for the child to see adults and other children being assertive without being
aggressive. Adults should model this behavior through their language by using "I" state-
ments (e.g., "I would like to . . . ," "I want you to . . . ," "I don't like it when you . . . ," "I
would like to have the [object] when you are through with it, please"). Respond positively
when the child asserts herself in a similar manner. It may be necessary to deny her what
she requests, but this should be d o n e by first recognizing her wishes (e.g., "I know that
you really want to play with Mary right now . . .") and then setting the stage for negoti-
ation ("but we have to finish this project first. When we are though, you can play").
Prompt children to assert themselves in socially a c c e p t a b l e ways and negotiate disagree-

ments throughout t h e day in t h e classroom and other settings. Model this behavior for
the children.
CRITERION The child asserts herself in socially acceptable ways (e.g., by asking directly for ob-
jects, by negotiating to get what she wants). The child rarely becomes involved in a fight or cries
to get her needs met.
2bb. Plans/creates games that have rules with peers

PROCEDURES
Give the child many opportunities to play with peers without an adult organizing the ac-
tivities. Observe to see whether the child participates in planning or creating g a m e s with
rules. For example, the children may mark out boundaries or bases for a ball g a m e , de-
cide how many times a player gets to hit a ball, and so forth. Similarly, they may play a
familiar card g a m e , agreeing to modify rules. If the child does not participate in planning,
intervene to the extent of asking him for ideas, encouraging him to share them with the
other children, and encouraging the other children to include his ideas in their plans.
In a classroom, it is important for there to be free play time in which the teacher(s) allow
the children to organize their own g a m e s and activities.
CRITERION On two or more occasions, the child participates with peers in the planning or cre-
ation of games with rules.
114 PERSONAL-SOCIAL
2cc. Demonstrates an interest in people

outside of the family and immediate circle of friends
MATERIALS Books a b o u t different cultures, various professions, and so forth
PROCEDURES
Demonstrate an interest in other people. Read books to the child about people in other
cultures or in occupations unfamiliar to the child. Take the child to places where she will
see a variety of people. Simply visiting a mall will provide opportunities to point out a
guard or police officer, people in clothing that indicates specific occupations, older adults,
people with babies, and so forth. Talk about what you see in a positive way. Listen for the
child to begin asking questions about the people she sees. Respond to her questions, let-
ting her know you appreciate her interest.
In a classroom, field trips offer g o o d opportunities to meet other people (e.g., a fire
fighter, a farmer, older adults in a retirement center). Reserve time for the children to dis-
cuss what they have seen when they return from a field trip.
Invite parents/caregivers to c o m e to the classroom to talk about their j o b s . This may
be d o n e on an individual basis or on a special day, depending on what is possible for the
caregivers. Also, invite s o m e o n e from another culture (preferably in a style of clothing un-
familiar to the children) to talk to the children about that culture. Encourage the children
to ask questions of all of these visitors.
CRITERION On three or more occasions, the child asks questions about people outside of her
usual environment or makes observations about them indicating that she has noticed them and
is interested in them.
Self-Concept
person's sense of self (self-concept) includes a sense of identity (e.g., who

you are, how competent you arc, how you appear to others, how you fit
J*. J L i n t o the family and community) and feelings or value judgments about that
identity. T h e years from birth to age 5 lay the foundations for the experience of self
for the rest of an individual's life (Turner, 1994). It is especially important that
young children feel valued by their caregivers and peers in order for young children
to value themselves. When young children feel good about themselves, they are
often more enthusiastic about trying challenging tasks and are usually able to cope
with failure.
This sequence includes the components of a healthy self-concept. It will, how-
ever, be up to caregivers to provide the affection and enthusiasm that will make
the curriculum activities effective. Children are quick to pick up on adult attitudes
and feelings. If an adult values and accepts the child with special needs, siblings and
other children will be likely to do so as well.
Note: It is important to recognize that some aspects of a healthy self-concept
may provide special challenges to caregivers. These include the child making un-
desirable choices, refusing to follow commands, showing determination in pursu-
ing a goal, becoming possessive about toys and other objects, and competing with
peers for toys or attention. These behaviors, which blossom in the 18- to 30-month
developmental range, are what define the "terrible twos." Although these behaviors
can be irritating and may last longer in a child who is developing slowly, they
should be valued as important indicators of the child's growing sense of indepen-
dence. Caregivers can help a child channel his or her growing sense of independence
into socially acceptable behavior by having consistent rules, giving the child fre-
quent opportunities to choose between acceptable alternatives (rather than just
telling him or her what to do), and focusing on teaching the child favorable behav-
iors. In all activities, the child should experience more success than failure and
more positive than negative feedback from his or her caregivers and peers.
115
116 PERSONAL-SOCIAL
ADAPTATIONS
It is difficult for children with severe motor impairments to develop the sense of
competence that arises from becoming independent and being able to compete with
peers. T h e challenge for caregivers is to identify activities in which the child can
have success. Adaptive equipment, including communication devices and toys, op-
erated with switches may be helpful. Seek the guidance of the child's therapists.

T h e items that involve looking in mirrors and at photographs should be omitted
for children with severe visual impairments. These children will find other ways of
identifying themselves and others. For example, they may compare themselves
with others by touch, by hearing the voices and footsteps, by odors, and so forth.
Few other adaptations are needed for these children beyond prompting them to use
tactile information to supplement whatever residual vision they do have.

For children with severe hearing impairments, consult a communication specialist
about appropriate aids for communication, such as using signs or some communi-
cation device.
3. SELF-CONCEPT
a. Shows pride in achievements
b. Makes positive statements about self
c. Knows a g e (tells or holds up fingers)
d. Tells own first n a m e
e. Answers correctly when asked if he or she is a boy or a girl
f. Is selective about what tasks he or she will and will not try (recognizes limitations)
g. Shows guilt or s h a m e over accidents or prohibited behavior
h. Describes own feelings
i. Tells what eyes, ears, and nose are used for
j. Talks about own feelings in relation to events
k. Shows interest in own body (asks questions about its functions)
1. Shows interest in own clothing and a p p e a r a n c e
m. Seeks activities that challenge skills
n. Identifies own strengths and abilities
3a. Shows pride in achievements

PROCEDURES
Show excitement and praise the child for her accomplishments (e.g., clap your hands, hug
her, and say, "You m a d e a beautiful picture. We'll hang it on the wall"). Praise the child
and show off her accomplishments to other children or adults. Watch for the child to bring
accomplishments to you for approval, to show them to others, and to repeat an accom-
plishment over and over.
Encourage everyone in the child's environment to notice and reinforce the child's accom-
plishments, regardless of how small they are.
CRITERION The child regularly shows pride in her accomplishments by bringing them to the at-
tention of others, repeating a difficult task several times after the first mastery, or by other means.
3b. Makes positive statements about self

117
118 PERSONAL-SOCIAL
PROCEDURES
When you are interacting with the child, c o m m e n t on the things he does well and how
hard he tries. Be as specific as possible (e.g., "You are such a g o o d helper," "I like the way
you are sharing," "You look so h a n d s o m e in that sweater," "You're so smart to get that puz-
zle together").
Also, make positive statements about the child to other children and adults in t h e
child's presence.
Listen for the child to begin making positive statements a b o u t himself (e.g., "I big,"
"I run fast"). Let him know you accept and appreciate such statements (e.g., smile, nod,
verbally a g r e e with him).
Comment on the child's g o o d behaviors throughout the day. Children will think positively
a b o u t themselves and be more likely to make positive statements about themselves if they
hear adults saying positive statements a b o u t t h e m . Likewise, they will think negatively
a b o u t themselves if they hear negative statements. If a child misbehaves and needs to
be away from the group for a short period, focus on the deed (e.g., "We do not hit. Tell
[child's n a m e ] you are sorry and sit over here for a few minutes until you are ready to play
again," or "None of us like to hear you scream. You must stay in your room until you stop
screaming"). As soon as possible after a child is reprimanded, look for something g o o d to
c o m m e n t on. It is important for him to hear more positive than negative statements.
CRITERION On three or more occasions, the child makes a positive statement about himself.
3 c. Knows age (tells or holds up fingers)

PROCEDURES
Ask the child, "How old are you?" If she does not reply or replies incorrectly, tell the child
her a g e and help her hold up the correct n u m b e r of fingers, counting them for her. Ask
the s a m e question every few days until she begins to answer correctly.
Make a point of talking about a g e at the celebration of the child's birthday and at the cel-
ebrations of birthdays for family m e m b e r s and friends. Although the child will have no
real c o n c e p t of t h e meaning of the numbers associated with birthdays, she will learn that
a g e is a part of who a person is and will be more prepared to answer the frequently asked
question, "How old are you?"
Celebrate birthdays in the classroom as well. After the birthday child has told his or
her age, have the others tell you their ages, prompting as necessary.
Occasionally ask the child how old she is and then prompt her so that she answers
appropriately. When s o m e o n e else asks her, "How old are y o u ? " wait for her to answer on
SELF-CONCEPT 119
her own. If she d o e s not, prompt her by saying the a g e and showing t h e correct n u m b e r
of fingers.
CRITERION On three or more occasions, the child states the correct number or holds up the
correct number of fingers in response to the question, "How old are you?"
3d. Tells own first name

MATERIALS Puppets or dolls
PROCEDURES
Play make-believe with the child. Have a doll, puppet, or animal approach the child and
say, "My n a m e is Lin. What is your n a m e ? " If the child does not answer, ask him if he is
[some n a m e other than his]. If he does not give his name, say, "Oh you must be [correct
n a m e ] . " Repeat with another doll, puppet, or animal until he readily says his name.
Frequently address the child by his name. When s o m e o n e asks the child his name, prompt
the child to answer (e.g., "Tell Mrs. Liu your name," "Tell her your n a m e is Tad").
In a classroom, introduce "Mr. Mix-up" during circle time. He can be a puppet, an
animal, or a doll. He always gets information wrong and must be corrected. For example,
he will say to J o s e , "Oh, I r e m e m b e r you. You are Antwan." All of the children will prob-
ably laugh and then you can say for him, "You're not Antwan. Well then, who are you?"
Alternate Mr. Mix-up's getting n a m e s incorrect with getting other information incorrect.
It is a g o o d way to get children to listen and think about what they have heard.
CRITERION The child will tell his first name when asked, "What is your name?" "Who are you?"
or the equivalent on three or more occasions without prompting by an adult.
3e. Answers correctly when

asked if he or she is a boy or a girl
MATERIALS Several dolls, s o m e dressed as boys and s o m e dressed as girls
PROCEDURES
Play with the child, giving roles to the dolls (e.g., daddy, little boy, m o m m y , little girl).
Give the child instructions that involve having a boy or a girl doll do something (e.g., "Let
the boy sit in the chair"). Let the child give you instructions as well. After a few minutes
of play, ask the child, "Are you a boy or a girl?" If she does not reply say, "Are you a girl?"
Regardless of her answer ask, "Are you a b o y ? "
120 PERSONAL-SOCIAL
Use the designation "boy" or "girl" when you praise or talk to the child about herself (e.g.,
"You are a big girl," "What a beautiful girl you are today," "That's M a m a ' s smart girl"). Sim-
ilarly, identify other m e m b e r s of the family or other children in a group care setting. Occa-
sionally playfully ask the child, "Are you a boy?" "Am I a b o y ? " "Is Daddy a b o y ? " Correct
the child's errors.
In a classroom, you can ask the girls to do o n e activity and the boys to do another as
a way of seeing how well the children identify their own genders.
CRITERION The child answers correctly the questions, "Are you a girl?" and "Are you a boy?"
on two or more days.
3f. Is selective about what tasks he

or she will and will not try (recognizes limitations)
MATERIALS A variety of puzzles (ranging from very easy to very difficult), other toys/
tasks that vary in difficulty
PROCEDURES
Tell the child this is puzzle day. Give him a puzzle to do that you are sure will be easy for
him. Praise his accomplishment and then present a harder puzzle to him. Continue in-
creasing the difficulty of the task, and observe the child's reactions. Does he lose interest
as the task b e c o m e s too difficult to master readily? Does he request help? Does he refuse
to try when the puzzle is far beyond his capabilities?
In the course of daily activities, observe how the child reacts when encountering a new
and challenging activity. Does he initially seem excited but on finding it difficult leave it
for another activity? Does he ask you for help? On another day, will he ignore it and go
back to a more familiar activity on which he has previously had success?
N o t e : The goal of this item is for the child to recognize that he has limitations and
that there are s o m e tasks that are t o o difficult to accomplish without help. A child with a
healthy self-concept will c h o o s e activities that are a little challenging but can be mastered.
He will either avoid or ask for help on tasks that are t o o difficult for his current skills.
CRITERION On one or more occasion, the child demonstrates recognition that some tasks are
too difficult for him by avoiding them or seeking help.
3g. Shows guilt or shame over

accidents or prohibited behavior
SELF-CONCEPT 121
PROCEDURES
T h e goal of this item is not to teach a child to experience guilt or shame. Such emotions
develop naturally in a child from experiencing caregiver disapproval and punishment for
particular acts. T h e goal of this item is to prompt caregivers to be alert to signs that the
child is beginning to e x p e r i e n c e these e m o t i o n s and to respond appropriately. Guilt and
s h a m e are important indicators that the child is developing a conscience; that is, she is be-
ginning to incorporate the behavioral standards proscribed by her caregivers.
There should be simple but consistent rules for the child, regardless of her disability.
Generally accepted rules include prohibitions against deliberately breaking things, wast-
ing materials (e.g., pulling all of the toilet paper off t h e roll, squeezing out all of the
toothpaste), and harming other p e o p l e or their belongings. T h e child will probably learn
that breaking these rules results in disapproval and c o n s e q u e n c e s (e.g., time-out) before
she is a b l e to inhibit her impulses to e n g a g e in t h e m . Thus, as soon as the child sees what
she has done, she may expect disapproval or punishment and try to hide t h e evidence,
clean up, or go to another location, hoping that whatever she did will not be associated
with her. All of these behaviors are signs that the child is experiencing guilt or shame.
When such events occur, it is important for caregivers to react calmly, acknowledge
that the child has d o n e something she should not have done, and provide appropriate
consequences, such as having t h e child finish the cleanup, apologize, go to time-out for
a few minutes, and so forth. It is important, however, to focus on the d e e d and the natu-
ral c o n s e q u e n c e s of that deed (e.g., "You broke J i m ' s truck. You must tell him you are sorry
and help me try to fix it") and not attribute evil intent or generalized behavior character-
istics to the child (e.g., do not say, "What a naughty girl you are" or "You are mean"). Reg-
ularly hearing such negative adjectives may cause them to b e c o m e a part of the child's
i m a g e of herself and lead to further unacceptable behaviors.
In classrooms and all other settings it is important to have consistent rules and provide ap-
propriate c o n s e q u e n c e s for both appropriate and inappropriate behaviors. This will help
the child develop a sense of what is acceptable and unacceptable. In these settings, watch
for signs of guilt or s h a m e when the child breaks the rules. Respond appropriately as de-
scribed in the Procedures section above.
CRITERION The child shows guilt or shame on at least one occasion by hiding messes she has
made, bringing something that is broken to a caregiver while looking distressed, "trying to look
innocent" when caught doing a prohibited activity, or other similar behaviors.
3h. Describes own feelings

PROCEDURES
When you notice that the child is feeling angry, happy, sad, or excited, label the feeling for
him and respond appropriately (e.g., "It looks like you're feeling pretty sad. Do you need
122 PERSONAL-SOCIAL
an extra hug?"). Also, make a point of labeling your own feelings for the child (e.g., "I'm
so happy that it is nice and warm so that we can go to the park," "I am angry with you be-
cause you did not follow directions," "I'm crying because I'm sad that Grandma is leaving").
If the child does not spontaneously begin to label his own feelings, check his ability to iden-
tify them by asking questions such as "How are you feeling?" "Are you angry?" "Are you
sad because Daddy's g o n e ? "
In a family or group setting, help the children identify feelings by noticing, labeling, and
responding to the feelings of each m e m b e r of the group. Use statements a b o u t feelings
to describe and explain the behaviors of the m e m b e r s of t h e group.
In a classroom, plan a lesson a b o u t feelings for circle time. Make faces on paper
plates or construction paper that demonstrate anger, sadness, or excitement. Describe a
situation in o n e or two sentences, and ask t h e children how the person would feel. Let
them find the face that shows that feeling (e.g., "Jane had a d o g she loved very much.
One day the d o g ran into t h e street and was hurt by a car. How does J a n e feel?").
CRITERION The child identifies at least three different feelings either by labeling them or by re-
sponding appropriately (e.g., saying "yes/no") to a question asking him about a specific feeling.
3i. Tells what eyes, ears, and nose are used for
PROCEDURES
Point to your ears and ask the child, "What is this?" Then say, "That's right, it is my ear,
and here are your ears. Why do we have ears? What do we use them for?" If the child
does not answer, tell her that we use them to hear and to listen to the birds sing and to
what people say. Ask her what kinds of things she likes to hear. Repeat the procedure for
eyes and nose. If the child is interested, go on to include other body parts (e.g., mouth,
hands, tummy, feet).
Talk to the child about the functions of the various parts of the body as you help her dress
or bathe. When you take a walk, mention the parts of the body that aid in that exploration
(e.g., "Smell this rose. Put your nose up closer so you can really smell it," "Shut your eyes so
you can't see. Now open your eyes. What do you s e e ? " "Use your ears. You have to listen").
When you look at or read books with the child, c o m m e n t on how the characters use
their eyes, ears, and noses (e.g., "The fox smelled the gingerbread, cooking and when the
gingerbread boy started running away, the fox could smell him and chased him.")
Look for or make up songs or rhymes that focus on eyes, ears, and noses. For ex-
ample, to the tune of Head, Shoulders, Knees, and Toes you can sing, "eyes, ears, mouth,
and nose," touching each part as you say the word. Then, you can begin to alternate
singing, "eyes, ears, mouth, and nose" in o n e verse and, "see, hear, eat, and smell" in the
SELF-CONCEPT 123
next, continuing to point as you sing. Encourage the child to sing along and imitate the
motions. Provide physical prompts as necessary.
In a classroom, prepare "surprise sacks" that contain something that can be identified
by sound or smell. Let each child listen or smell and try to guess what is inside. Talk a b o u t
using the nose and ears for smelling and listening. Also, have something in a sack that
you really can't identify by sound or smell—something you have to see. When the chil-
dren can't identify it, show it to them and talk a b o u t having to use our eyes to see it in
order to know what it is.
CRITERION The child answers questions about the use of the eyes, ears, and nose. The child
must be able to specify the use of all three and must be able to respond to questions in at least
two different forms (e.g., "Why do we have a nose?" "What do you do with your nose?").
3j. Talks about own feelings in relation to events

PROCEDURES
Once the child can describe his own feelings (as in Item 3h), talk about and respond ap-
propriately to the child's feelings, your feelings, and other people's feelings in order to
relate the feelings to certain events (e.g., a parent leaving, seeing a scary movie, reading
a b o o k about monsters, having a grandparent visit). Also, ask t h e child questions about
feelings.
When you read to the child or watch a television program with him, c o m m e n t on what
you think the characters might be feeling. Ask the child what he thinks they might be feel-
ing and why.
CRITERION In a week's period, the child talks two or more times about his own feelings in re-
lationship to something that happened. This can occur spontaneously or in response to ques-
tions (e.g., "What happened?" "Why are you crying?"), but the child must specify a feeling and
an event associated with it.
3k. Shows interest in own body

(asks questions about its functions)
PROCEDURES
Talk to the child about her body when doing different activities. For example, when the
child is eating, talk about the food going in her mouth and down into her stomach so that
124 PERSONAL-SOCIAL
the body can get what it needs to grow and be strong. Act as if you are interested in how
bodies work. Be willing and ready to answer any question the child has a b o u t her body
in a simple, accurate way that she can understand. Sit with the child to watch children's
television shows that present simple ideas a b o u t science and the body. Ask the child ques-
tions a b o u t what you have seen. Listen for her to ask questions. Answer t h e m .
In the science center in a classroom, have models of the body (e.g., the "visible man" or
"visible woman") or pictures that show the digestive system, the ear, or other parts of the
body. These will prompt questions by the children.
Plan group activities in the classroom around models or pictures of s o m e part or sys-
tem of the body. For example, you might show pictures of a duck's foot and a person's
foot and talk a b o u t how the duck's foot makes it easier for it to swim and t h e person's
foot makes it easier to walk and run.
Invite a nurse, a doctor, or a science teacher to visit the child's classroom and talk
about why people sneeze and cough or something else that seems relevant to the children.
N o t e : It is important for teachers and other professionals to be sensitive to the care-
giver's attitudes and beliefs a b o u t what the child should be told as well as t h e child's need
to have questions answered. Particularly for children in the 4- to 5-year a g e range, teach-
ers should have parent meetings to discuss these issues before they actually arise in t h e
classroom. S o m e questions are sensitive (e.g., "Where do babies c o m e from?") but can be
handled by answering in a truthful but simple way with a suggestion that the child may
wish to talk a b o u t it further with his or her primary caregiver (e.g., "Mothers carry babies
inside of their bodies near their hearts until t h e babies are big e n o u g h to be born. Then,
they c o m e out. You might want to talk a b o u t this m o r e with your mother or father").
CRITERION The child asks two or more questions about her own body. These may be simple
or complex questions. The goal is that the child demonstrates an interest in her body and how
it works.
31. Shows interest in own clothing and appearance

PROCEDURES
Engage in pretend play with the child, preparing dolls, puppets, or animals for a visit to
Grandma's or a trip to the store. Include g r o o m i n g routines and explanations of them as
you play (e.g., c o m b the doll's hair, brush the bear's teeth). Pause periodically, and ask
the child questions such as, "Why should you (or the doll) c h a n g e clothes before going to
see Grandma?" "Why do you (or the doll) c o m b your hair?" Praise the child when he re-
quests clean clothes, tries to brush his hair, wants to pick out his own clothes to wear, or
shows other indications of being concerned a b o u t his appearance.
SELF-CONCEPT 125
When g o i n g through daily g r o o m i n g routines, talk to the child a b o u t why people do

these activities (e.g., "We need to take a bath so that we will be clean and smell nice," "We
need to c o m b our hair so that we will look presentable").
Comment regularly on the child's appearance, as appropriate. Note that certain col-
ors look especially g o o d on him or that his hair looks especially nice after his haircut.
CRITERION The cMd answers several questions about why he should be well groomed, indi-
cating a concern about his appearance; he shows particular care in picking out his clothes; or he
otherwise indicates a desire to be attractive to others.
3m. Seeks activities that challenge skills

PROCEDURES
Observe the child to see if she routinely chooses activities that are easy for her or if she
chooses ones that are somewhat difficult and require s o m e effort. If the child always
chooses easy activities, encourage her to try more difficult tasks, and be particularly re-
sponsive to her successes on these. If the child gets discouraged quickly with difficult tasks,
give her enough help to stay with the task to completion, but do not do it for the child. If you
provide help, be sure that the child does the last step so that she can have a sense of ac-
complishment. For example, on a difficult puzzle, you may need to turn the piece so it will
readily go into the hole, but let the child put the piece in. Or, if the child needs help get-
ting on a t-shirt, help her get her arms and head in the correct holes, but let her pull it on.
In a classroom, select e n o u g h activities for the different centers so that there will be some-
thing easy and something that will challenge each child in the classroom. If a child always
chooses easy activities, you can remove that activity from the center before she enters it.
Talk to the group about the importance of trying your best, and be sure to pay special at-
tention to children who try new activities that are challenging, whether the children are
fully successful or not.
CRITERION The child chooses at least three activities a week that present a challenge. The chal-
lenge may be mental, physical, or both (e.g., building a bigger tower than she has ever built be-
fore, choosing a puzzle that has given her trouble in the past, selecting a difficult picture to color).
3n. Identifies own strengths and abilities

126 PERSONAL-SOCIAL
PROCEDURES
Frequently c o m m e n t on the child's particular skills (e.g., "You draw very nice dinosaurs,"
"You do an especially nice j o b of cleaning up," "I love to hear you sing"). Although it is
g o o d for children to hear positive c o m m e n t s a b o u t themselves, you will usually have a
greater effect on the child's self-concept if you label particular skills rather than simply
making general positive c o m m e n t s . For example, if you say, "Thank you. You really did a
g o o d j o b helping me clean up the table" instead of, "Thank you. You are such a g o o d
boy," you give the child a better understanding of what he does well.
Within the family or within a classroom, talk about the fact that everyone has things they
do well and things that are difficult for t h e m . When adults describe tasks that are easy for
them and tasks that are difficult, it helps a child with impairments recognize that other
people have strengths and challenges, t o o . It helps further if an adult c o m m e n t s a b o u t
t h e strengths of a child with an impairment in the presence of other family m e m b e r s or
classmates. If t h e child has a severe impairment, these c o m m e n t s may have to relate more
to personal characteristics rather than skills (e.g., "See how patient J a s m i n e is. She is watch-
ing us and waiting for her turn," "Dante has such a nice smile. He makes everybody
happy").
Occasionally ask the child, "What are you g o o d at?" or "What do you do well?" This
may be an individual inquiry when you are a l o n e with the child, or it may be a part of a
group exercise in which the children are asked in turn to n a m e something they like a b o u t
themselves.
CRITERION The child identifies one or more abilities or characteristics he considers to be his
strengths (these may or may not be what you consider to be his strengths, but the point is that
he identifies abilities and appears to be proud of them).
REFERENCE
Turner, P. (1994). Child development and early education. Boston, MA: Allyn &L Bacon.
[ . - S O C I A L
4-1
Self-Help: Eating
I ndependent feeding skills represent an important achievement in a child's

progress toward self-reliance. During the preschool period, feeding skills are re-
fined as fine motor abilities develop, and children learn to eat in a socially ac-
ceptable manner. To encourage children's emerging independence, it is helpful to
allow them to prepare simple foods (e.g., fixing a bowl of cereal, spreading jelly on
a piece of toast).
When children are learning to feed themselves, it is helpful to serve food that
is easy to manage at first. Try to serve a variety of food, exposing the child to di-
verse tastes and textures. At the same time, avoid battles over eating. When a child
refuses a food that has been served, just remove the food, and leave the child to wait
until the next meal or snack.
Children with developmental disabilities may demonstrate a variety of feed-
ing difficulties that require intervention from an occupational therapist or speech-
language pathologist. Difficulties may include
1. Poor oral-motor control that can lead to difficulty coordinating chewing and
swallowing
2 . Excessive drooling
8. Oral defensiveness that results i n avoidance o f many textures o f food
4. Poor control of hands and arms, making utensil use poor
ADAPTATIONS

When working on the development of self-feeding skills, it may be necessary to use
adaptive equipment for children with motor impairments to facilitate self-feeding.
An occupational therapist should be able to offer suggestions on how to adapt eat-
127
128 PERSONAL-SOCIAL
ing utensils for each child. For children with severe motor impairments, indepen-
dent self-feeding may never be an option. In this case, make sure that these children
are active participants in the feeding process by allowing them to choose what they
want to eat.
C h i l d r e n w i t h Visual I m p a i r m e n t s
Encourage children with visual impairments to use their fingers to explore food and
utensils. Colorful foods and good lighting will help children who have some func-
tional vision. Be consistent about where you place food on a child's tray or table
(i.e., always place the cup in the same place), and encourage the child to do the
same. Start to use spatial clues to help children find food, starting with top and bot-
tom and later adding left and right.

Children with hearing impairments need few adaptations when developing eating
skills. Be sure to pair speech with demonstrations when needed.
4-1. SELF-HELP: EATING
a. Begins to use fork
b. Drinks from small glass held with o n e hand
c. Gets drink unassisted (turns tap on and off)
d. Pours liquid from o n e container into another
e. Swallows food in mouth before taking another bite
f. Independently fixes bowl of dry cereal with milk
g. Holds fork in fingers
h. Independently drinks from water fountain
i. Independently fixes sandwich
4-la. Begins to use fork

MATERIALS Fork, plate, easily speared food (e.g., cut-up pancakes, scrambled eggs,
casseroles)
PROCEDURES
Place plate with food on it and a fork in front of the child. Show him how to stab food
with the fork and place it in his mouth. Tell the child that it is now his turn to eat with the
fork. If the child does not pick up the fork, place it in his hand (if child has demonstrated
a hand preference, use that hand; otherwise, place it in either hand). At this age, most
children will hold a fork in a gross grasp with forearm pronated (i.e., palm down). Give
the child physical assistance as needed to stab the food and to bring it to his mouth. De-
crease your physical assistance as quickly as possible.
Practice is important; let the child feed himself with a fork for a n u m b e r of consecutive
meals o n c e s o m e success has b e e n achieved. Be sure to serve the child foods that are easy
to eat with a fork.
CRITERION The child eats some foods with a fork.
4-lb. Drinks from small glass held with one hand

MATERIALS Small glass or cup (e.g., juice size), liquid that the child enjoys
PROCEDURES
Fill a small glass about o n e third of the way full. Place it in front of the child at a time
when she is likely to be thirsty (e.g., meal or snack time). Encourage the child to pick up
the cup and to take a drink. If needed, place the cup in the child's hand and help her to
129
130 PERSONAL-SOCIAL
bring it to her mouth. Children often learn to pick up a cup and to bring it to their mouths
before they learn to set t h e cup back on the table. It may be necessary to catch the child's
hand as she removes the cup from her mouth to help the child guide the cup to the table
and set it down. Pair this with a verbal c o m m a n d (e.g., "Put the cup on the table"). Then
fade t h e physical prompt while still using the verbal c o m m a n d .
Mealtimes are typically t h e best opportunity to practice independent cup drinking. Use
small cups with no lids for all liquids given at mealtimes. Away from h o m e or child care,
it is often more practical to use a cup with a lid and straw.
CRITERION The child drinks from a small glass held with one hand.
4-lc. Gets drink unassisted (turns tap on and off)

MATERIALS Accessible sink (e.g., child size or standard with sturdy step stool), small cup
PROCEDURES
Show the child how to turn on the cold water tap, to fill up a cup, and then to turn off
the water. Have him practice this activity, providing any assistance n e e d e d . Children who
have difficulty turning on the tap may need practice with activities in S e q u e n c e 18 (Grasp
& Manipulation). Before children are allowed to get a drink independently, the hot water
tap should be deactivated or the water temperature reduced to avoid accidental burns. As
the child demonstrates success, fade any verbal or physical cues that you may have been
using.
Allow the child to obtain his own drink as appropriate. It may be helpful to provide a small
step stool in front of the sink to facilitate independence.
CRITERION The child gets a drink of water unassisted, turning tap on and off.
4-ld. Pours liquid from one container into another

MATERIALS Small pitcher with liquid, cup
PROCEDURES
Place a pitcher with liquid and a cup in front of the child. Show her how to pour liquid
into the cup. Usually, children will need to hold the pitcher handle in o n e hand and sup-
port it from underneath with the other hand as they pour. At first, only put the amount
of liquid in the pitcher that will fit in the cup. Later, the child can learn to stop pouring
before the cup is full. When older, the child can hold the pitcher with o n e hand and the
cup with the other.
S E L F - H E L P : EATING 131
Allow the child to pour her own liquid from a small pitcher at meal and snack time. Prac-
tice pouring skills by pouring sand or beans from o n e container into another.
CRITERION The child pours liquid from one container into another.
4-le. Swallows food in mouth before taking another bite

MATERIALS Food typically served at meal or snack time
PROCEDURES
Observe the child while he is eating. If he swallows food in his mouth before taking a next
bite, you can skip this item.
If the child tends to cram food into his mouth, try serving food that requires him to
use a utensil, and ask the child to put the utensil down on the table after each bite. Serv-
ing small amounts of food at o n e time may also help. If the child continues to overstuff
his mouth, it may be related to poor sensory awareness, and a consultation with an oc-
cupational therapist or speech-language pathologist is r e c o m m e n d e d .
Practice this skill at all snacks and meals. Provide reminders as needed; however, the goal
is for the child to swallow food before taking the next bite without needing any cues.
CRITERION The child swallows food in his mouth before taking another bite.
4-If. Independently fixes bowl of dry cereal with milk

MATERIALS Box of cereal, bowl, small pitcher or carton of milk
PROCEDURES
Show the child how to pour cereal into a bowl, filling the bowl about halfway full. Then,
add milk, teaching the child to stop pouring about 2 inches before reaching the top of the
bowl. It is much easier to begin with controlled amounts. For instance, use a little box of
cereal and have the child pour milk from her glass of milk. You may need to open the box
of cereal for the child because many boxes are difficult for young children to manage.
Depending on the classroom or family's routines, it may be helpful to keep dishes, cereal,
and milk on shelves that are accessible to the child. S o m e classrooms have an area where
the snack is available, and the children are free to help themselves to a snack whenever
they are hungry.
CRITERION The child fixes a bowl of cereal independently, pouring the milk and cereal by herself.
132 PERSONAL-SOCIAL
4-lg. Holds fork in fingers

MATERIALS Fork, plate, appropriate food (e.g., meat, casseroles, pancakes)
PROCEDURES
Place a plate with food on it and a fork in front of the child. Observe how he holds the
fork. If the child does not hold the fork between his t h u m b and first two fingers (i.e., sim-
ilar to the pencil grip), reposition the fork in his hand. If the child reverts to his old pat-
tern, give occasional verbal reminders (e.g., "Turn your hand the other way"). Children
who have a lot of difficulty with this may need further skill development in S e q u e n c e 20
(Tool Use).
Practice is important. Let t h e child feed himself with a fork for a n u m b e r of consecutive
meals o n c e he has achieved s o m e success. Be sure to serve the child foods that are easy
to eat with a fork. Fork use can be practiced with small pieces of play dough.
CRITERION The child consistently holds a fork in his fingers.
4-Ih. Independently drinks from water fountain

MATERIALS Accessible water fountain (e.g., child size or standard with sturdy stepstool)
PROCEDURES
Show the child how to turn and keep on the water fountain while taking a drink. If the
child has difficulty, break this task into steps. First, teach the child to take a drink while
you press the button. Be sure that the child is drinking directly from t h e water, without
her mouth touching the fountain. This can also be practiced outside, drinking from a hose.
Then, teach the child to turn on the water for you to get a drink, or have her fill up a
water cup. When t h e child is able to perform both of these steps, have her try to get her
own drink from the fountain. Have the child practice this activity, providing assistance as
n e e d e d . Children who have difficulty turning handles may need practice with activities in
S e q u e n c e 18 (Grasp & Manipulation). As the child demonstrates success, fade any verbal
or physical cues that you may have b e e n using.
Look for opportunities to practice this skill on outings. Be sure the child is a b l e to drink
from fountains without touching it with her mouth before allowing her to drink from pub-
lic fountains.
CRITERION The child drinks from a water fountain independently.

S E L F - H E L P : EATING 133
4-li. Independently fixes sandwich

MATERIALS Butter knife, plate, firm bread, appropriate ingredients (e.g., soft butter or
mayonnaise, lunch meats, peanut butter and jelly)
PROCEDURES
Show t h e child how to make a sandwich. (Use the spreading skills found in Item 20d.)
Teach the child to put different ingredients on different pieces of bread to make the
process easier (e.g., peanut butter on o n e slice and jelly on the other). Encourage the
child to spread the ingredients to t h e e d g e s of the bread. Show him how to cut the sand-
wich in half (some children may not have success with cutting).
Have the child fix crackers, spreading peanut butter or jelly on top of t h e m . Let him make
sandwich cookies by spreading soft frosting on o n e cookie and then topping with a sec-
ond cookie.
CRITERION The child fixes a sandwich independently.

ONAL-SOCiAl
4-11
Self-Help: Dressing
B y the age of 5, most children have learned to dress and undress themselves,
including handling simple fasteners. Children should be encouraged to be as
independent as possible, even though the process may be very slow initially.
When children are learning to dress themselves, it is recommended that they wear
simple clothing that is easy to put on and remove (e.g., pants with elastic waist-
bands, pullover shirts). As children demonstrate success and confidence, you can in-
troduce more challenging clothing. Encourage children to pick out what they want
to wear on most days, or at least allow them to pick between two or three choices.
In the classroom, you can reinforce dressing skills by allowing children to use dress-
up clothes and simple costumes for pretend play.
Dressing skills, particularly the ability to handle fasteners, depend on the de-
velopment of fine motor skills (see Sequence 18: Grasp &. Manipulation and Se-
quence 19: Bilateral Skills). Focusing specifically on the development of fine motor
skills sets the foundation for greater success in dressing skills.
ADAPTATIONS
Children w i t h M o t o r I m p a i r m e n t s
You may need to make some clothing adaptations (e.g., use Velcro closures rather
than buttons or snaps) for children with significant motor impairments. Loose fit-
ting clothing may promote independence, as it is often easier to put on, especially
for children with increased muscle tone or limited range of motion.
A child with severe motor impairments may always have extreme limitations,
perhaps to the point of only being able to cooperate in the dressing process. When
assisting a child in the dressing process, it is very important to talk to him or her
about what is happening. Make comments about the clothing's color, how nice a
given article of clothing may look on the child, and so forth, in order to engage the
child cognitively in the dressing task, even if he or she does not actively participate.
135
136 PERSONAL-SOCIAL
An occupational therapist can assist in the development of dressing skills and

adaptations for children with motor limitations.
Children w i t h Visual I m p a i r m e n t s
Encourage children with visual impairments to identify a piece of clothing by feel-
ing it. Place a shirt, shorts, and socks next to the child and ask him or her to find
one of the items. To increase independent dressing skills, buy clothing based around
a color t h e m e and make all shorts and pants solid color. Then, any shirt and pants
combination the child selects will match.
Children w i t h Hearing Impairments

Children w i t h hearing impairments need few adaptations when developing dressing
skills. Be sure to pair speech with demonstration when needed. Most children will
learn these skills from daily practice.
4-11. SELF-HELP; DRESSING
a. Removes shoes
b. Removes coat
c. Puts on simple clothing
d. Puts on all clothing unaided, except for fasteners
e. Undoes fasteners
f. Independently puts on coat
g. Buttons clothing
h. Dresses and undresses with little assistance
i. Zips front-opening clothing
4-1 la. Removes shoes

MATERIALS Shoes that are easy to remove
PROCEDURES
Tell the child to remove her shoes, ideally at a natural time (e.g., before nap). If the child
has difficulty, slip o n e of the shoes off of her heel, and ask the child to finish removing
the shoe. Repeat this process with the other shoe. Assist the child as needed in removing
her shoes, then gradually fade assistance. If the child has difficulty, start with loose-fitting
shoes such as slippers or moccasins.
Provide a variety of shoes and boots for dress-up. Large shoes will offer easy practice re-
moving shoes.
CRITERION The child independently removes her shoes.
4-1 lb. Removes coat

MATERIALS Coat that the child typically wears (should fit the child or be slightly large)
PROCEDURES
Ask the child to remove his coat, ideally at a natural time (e.g., when coming into the
classroom). Undo any fasteners if the child is not able to undo them yet. If the child has
difficulty, slip the coat down slightly past his shoulders, and ask the child to finish re-
moving it. If the child still has difficulty, help him remove o n e arm and then ask him to
finish taking off the coat. Gradually fade your assistance.
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138 PERSONAL-SOCIAL
In the classroom, provide hooks marked with the child's picture and name. Encourage
each child to remove his or her coat and hang it on the proper hook.
CRITERION The child independently removes his coat.
4-llc. Puts on simple clothing (e.g., pants, shoes, socks)

MATERIALS Pants with an elastic waistband, t u b e socks, slip-on shoes
PROCEDURES
Place an article of clothing in front of the child, and ask her to put it on. If the child does
not know how to put on a piece of clothing, teach the child by sitting behind her and pro-
viding physical assistance. Give simple verbal descriptions as you help the child (e.g., "First
put one leg in, now the other leg, now pull your pants up"). Teach the child by initially put-
ting on the clothing halfway and then asking her to finish (e.g., roll up a sock, place it over
the toes, and ask the child to finish pulling on the sock). Gradually fade your assistance.
Children like to play dress-up with adult clothes and simple costumes. Provide a variety of
shoes, shirts, skirts, scarves, and hats.
CRITERION The child independently puts on simple clothing (e.g., pants, shoes, socks).
4-IId. Puts on all clothing unaided, except for fasteners

MATERIALS Simple, loose-fitting clothing (e.g., shirt, dress, sweater)
PROCEDURES
Place an article of clothing in front of the child, and ask him to put it on. If t h e child does
not know how to do this, teach t h e child by sitting behind him and providing physical
assistance. Provide simple verbal descriptions as you help the child put on the clothing
(e.g., "First put the shirt over your head, now put o n e arm in o n e sleeve, now the other
arm in t h e other sleeve"). Have the child do as much of the process as possible, gradually
fading your assistance (e.g., the child may be able to pull a shirt over his head but may
need help getting his arms in).
Provide loose-fitting dress-up clothing for children to wear in pretend games. Have them
practice trying them on.
CRITERION The child independently puts on ail clothing (e.g., shirt, dress, sweater).
SELF-HELP: DRESSING 139
4-IIe. Undoes fasteners (e.g., large buttons, snaps, shoelaces)

MATERIALS Dressing doll; dressing boards with large, easy-to-handle fasteners; clothing
PROCEDURES
Present the child with a dressing doll or board. Tell the child to unbutton the buttons. If
she does not know how to approach this task, slowly demonstrate it two or three times.
Then, offer physical assistance. The child should hold and lightly pull cloth next to the
hole with o n e hand and grasp the button and push it through the hole with the other
hand. It often will be easier for the child to learn this activity on a buttoning board first,
where the buttons can be seen easily, before learning to unbutton the clothing he is wear-
ing. Repeat the procedure with other types of fasteners.
Play dress-up with very simple clothing that has easy-to-handle fasteners. At this age, the
goal would be for children to undo fasteners and to remove clothing independently. In
another year, the focus will be on independently fastening the clothing.
Buttoning boards that have a surprise picture hidden under the material can be fun
to use with a group of children so that they can then share what they found.
CRITERION The child independently undoes fasteners (e.g., large buttons, snaps, shoelaces).
4-lIf. Independently puts on coat

MATERIALS Coat or jacket
PROCEDURES
It is generally easiest for most children to learn how to put on a coat by flipping it over
their heads. Lay the coat on the floor in front of the child with the neck of the coat at the
child's feet, button/zipper side facing up. Prompt the child to bend over and place his
arms into the coat sleeves. As he stands up, help him to extend his arms over his head.
As he does this, the coat sleeves will slide on to his arms, as the coat passes over his head
and falls into place. As the child masters this procedure, teach him how to lay down the
coat correctly (with the neck of the coat at his feet and the button/zipper side facing up)
so that he b e c o m e s independent in putting on his coat.
When buying a coat for the child, make sure it fits appropriately so that he can put his
coat on independently. It is better to have the coat a little big than t o o small. Encourage
the child to put on his coat in preparation for an outing.
CRITERION The child independently puts on his coat on several occasions.

140 PERSONAL-SOCIAL
4-IIg. Buttons clothing

MATERIALS Coat, dress, or shirt with easy-to-handle front buttons (can use dressing vest
for practice)
PROCEDURES
Have the child put on an appropriate g a r m e n t and ask her to button it. Start with the but-
ton at the bottom of t h e g a r m e n t that will be easier for the child to see while manipulat-
ing. If the child d o e s not know how to button, demonstrate t h e task slowly two or three
times. Physically assist the child, and then gradually fade your assistance. It is generally
easier to stand behind the child when giving assistance so that your hands and arms are
moving in the s a m e direction as his (see S e q u e n c e 1 8 : Grasp & Manipulation for further
suggestions).
Play dress-up with simple clothing that has front buttons.
CRITERION The child buttons several articles of clothing that have easy-to-handle buttons.
4-llh. Dresses and undresses with little assistance

MATERIALS Clothing that t h e child typically wears
PROCEDURES
Place an article of clothing in front of the child and ask him to put it on. At this point, the
child should be familiar with most of the tasks required for dressing. Show him how to
tell the front of his clothes from the back (e.g., tag in back). When the child is first dress-
ing independently, select clothes that are easy to put on. You should e n c o u r a g e the child
to dress and undress independently at home. It is often easiest for children to begin by
taking off and putting on pajamas. Gradually add more c o m p l e x clothing, such as those
with various fasteners.
Provide a dress-up b o x with a variety of clothing to expand the child's dressing skills. Dress
dolls in simple clothing.
CRITERION The child dresses and undresses with little assistance and can tell the difference be-
tween the front and back of clothing. The child undoes and fastens buttons, snaps, and zippers.
SELF-HELP: DRESSING 141
4-IIL Zips front-opening clothing (e.g., jacket)

MATERIALS Jacket with front zipper
PROCEDURES
After the child puts on her jacket, ask her to zip it up. Show the child how to hold the bot-
tom of the zipper with o n e hand and how to guide the other side of the zipper in with
the other hand. If the child has difficulty with this task, try stabilizing the bottom of the
jacket for her while she inserts the zipper. Remind the child to hold the bottom of the zip-
per with o n e hand while pulling up the tab with the other. Practice this task with the child
when she is not wearing the jacket.
Provide dress-up clothing with a front zipper to provide extra practice. Zip-up vests are a
g o o d alternative—the a b s e n c e of sleeves provides greater arm mobility and may facilitate
the child's independence.
CRITERION The child zips front-opening clothing, such as a jacket, several times.
E R S O N A L - S O C i A L
4-111
Self-Help: Grooming
G ood grooming skills and habits of cleanliness are important to establish

during the preschool period. Children who are not encouraged to develop
these skills before the age of 6 may have difficulty ever incorporating these
habits into their daily routine. Good grooming is particularly important for children
with developmental disabilities, due to society's tendency to judge people by their
appearances. T h e child with special needs who appears clean and well groomed
is seen to have one less strike against him or her when trying to fit into a "typical"
peer group.
At school, mealtime provides a good opportunity for the child to develop and
reinforce good grooming skills. Children can be expected to wash their hands be-
fore and after eating. Regular hand washing is also an important practice for reduc-
ing the spread of germs, which is problematic in groups of small children. By hav-
ing personalized toothbrushes, children can brush their teeth after meals. For some
children, this may be the only time their teeth are brushed.
ADAPTATIONS
If a child has physical disabilities that require him or her to depend on others for
grooming and personal hygiene, it is important for those people to talk to the child
about the grooming activities as they take place. T h e young child with a motor lim-
itation should not feel that someone is doing something to him or her but that
someone is engaging in important activities with him or her for very specific bene-
fits. An occupational or physical therapist can provide consultation regarding opti-
mal positioning for various activities.
143
144 PERSONAL-SOCIAL
Talk to children with visual impairments about what you are doing. Keep supplies
consistently in the same place (e.g., have a specific place on the sink for soap and
toothpaste), and keep bath toys in a container that is always in the same place and
within the child's reach.
Children with Hearing I m p a i r m e n t s

Children with hearing impairments will need few adaptations when developing
grooming skills. Be sure to pair speech with demonstrations when necessary. Most
children will learn these skills from daily practice.
4-IH. SELF-HELP: GROOMING
a. Dries hands
b. Brushes teeth with assistance
c. Washes self with washcloth
d. Washes and dries hands and face without assistance
e. Uses napkin without prompting to wipe messy face while eating
f. Brushes teeth independently
g- Runs brush or c o m b through hair
h. Gets tissue to wipe nose without reminder
i. Blows nose independently on request
4-llla. Dries hands

MATERIALS Water, towel
PROCEDURES
Hand the child a towel and ask him to dry his hands. Show the child how to rub the towel
over the front and back of his hands. At first, it may be easier for the child to use a small,
lightweight towel, such as a dishtowel or a washcloth. Also, show the child how to dry his
hands by using part of a towel that is hanging up. Give the child physical assistance as
n e e d e d , then gradually fade your assistance.
Incorporate hand washing and drying as a routine procedure before and after each meal
or snack, after any messy play, and after toileting.
CRITERION The child regulady dries his hands independently.
4-IIIb. Brushes teeth with assistance

MATERIALS Toothbrush, a comfortable place to stand in front of a sink and mirror
PROCEDURES
Place the child in front of a mirror, and tell her it is time to brush her teeth. Show the
child the toothbrush and how you put toothpaste on it. Hand t h e child the toothbrush,
and tell her to brush her teeth. It may be helpful to demonstrate brushing your own teeth
at the s a m e time. Provide physical assistance as n e e d e d . At this stage, the child is only ex-
pected to make s o m e contact with her teeth using the toothbrush. An adult will then need
to complete the tooth brushing to make sure that all teeth are brushed adequately.
145
146 PERSONAL-SOCIAL
Establish tooth brushing as a routine practice after each meal. Encourage the child to prac-
tice brushing a favorite doll or stuffed animal's teeth. A puppet with a mouth that o p e n s
and has teeth works well to help children learn about brushing teeth.
CRITERION The child holds the toothbrush and brushes at least some teeth independently
most of the time.
4-Illc. Washes self with washcloth

MATERIALS Two washcloths (or washcloth puppets), soap, water
PROCEDURES
During bath time, give t h e child o n e washcloth while you use the other. Show the child
how to rub soap on the washcloth and then rub t h e washcloth on his body. Provide phys-
ical assistance as n e e d e d . Encourage him to hold the washcloth in the right hand to wash
his left arm and then switch t h e cloth to his left hand to wash his right arm. Use of a wash-
cloth puppet may be both easier and m o r e enticing. This item is designed to begin teach-
ing the child how to wash himself; however, the adult will still need to provide follow-up.
Provide t h e child with a small cloth or s p o n g e to wash play dishes or wipe the table. En-
c o u r a g e the child to wash a baby doll with a washcloth.
CRITERION: The child frequently holds washcloth and attempts to wash himself during bath
time.
4-lIld. Washes and dries hands and face without assistance

MATERIALS Water, soap, towel
PROCEDURES
Model washing your face for the child. (It may be best to teach face washing without
soap, to avoid accidentally getting soap in eyes.) Tell the child to wash her hands and face.
The child may wash her face with wet hands or with a wet cloth. Give the child verbal di-
rections and physical assistance as n e e d e d . Remind the child to dry her hands and face,
giving assistance as n e e d e d . Gradually fade assistance, as the child gains skills and inde-
pendence. Expect the child to wash her own hands and face whenever n e e d e d ; however,
you may still need to supervise and/or touch-up.
SELF-HELP: GROOMING 147
Establish a routine of washing hands and face after each meal. Encourage independence
by providing easy access to a sink, soap, and towels. Use a set of steps so that the child
can reach the sink comfortably.
CRITERION The child independently washes and dries her hands and face most of the time.
4-IIIe. Uses napkin without

prompting to wipe messy face while eating
MATERIALS Food for snack or meal, napkin
PROCEDURES
When appropriate, tell the child that he has food on his face. If he does not spontaneously
wipe the food off with his napkin, demonstrate how you wipe your face. Physically assist
the child in wiping his face, if needed. When eating messy foods, teach the child to wipe
his mouth after every few bites. For s o m e children, it may be helpful to place a small mir-
ror on the table so that they can check their face as they are eating.
Encourage the child to place a napkin at each person's place for meal or snack time. Dis-
cuss how we need napkins to wipe our faces when they are messy. Ask the child to look
at your face and tell you if you need to wipe your face.
CRITERION The child wipes his face without prompting with a napkin on several occasions dur-
ing a meal.
4-IIIf. Brushes teeth independently

MATERIALS Water, toothbrush, toothpaste
PROCEDURES
Model brushing your teeth for the child. Tell the child to brush her teeth. You may still
need to put toothpaste on the toothbrush for the child at first. Give the child physical
assistance and verbal directions as needed throughout the activity. Gradually fade your as-
sistance. The child will probably need s o m e assistance or follow-up for s o m e time. S o m e
children will do a better j o b brushing their teeth using an electric toothbrush and may be
motivated to brush longer. A visual timer can also be useful to e n c o u r a g e the child to per-
sist in brushing her teeth for at least 2 minutes. Expect the child to brush her own teeth
whenever needed; however, you may still need to supervise and/or touch up.
148 PERSONAL-SOCIAL
Establish tooth brushing as a routine practice after each meal. Encourage t h e child to prac-
tice brushing a favorite doll or stuffed animal's teeth. A puppet with a mouth that opens
and has teeth is another alternative that works well to help children learn a b o u t brushing
teeth.
CRITERION The child brushes her teeth independently most of the time.
4-Illg. Runs brush or comb through hair

MATERIALS C o m b or brush, mirror
PROCEDURES
Model brushing your hair for t h e child. Tell the child to brush his hair. Give the child phys-
ical assistance and verbal directions as n e e d e d , then gradually fade your assistance. An
easy-to-care-for haircut can be useful to e n c o u r a g e the child to brush his hair indepen-
dently. Expect the child to brush his own hair whenever needed; however, you may still
need to supervise and/or touch up.
S o m e children enjoy brushing doll hair or an adult's hair. A willing family pet (typically a
dog) may also enjoy being brushed by t h e child.
CRITERION The child brushes his own hair most of the time.
4-lllh. Gets tissue to wipe nose without reminder

MATERIALS Box of facial tissue
PROCEDURES
Observe when the child needs a tissue. If t h e child does not spontaneously get a tissue,
prompt her to do so (e.g., "Your nose is running. You need to get a tissue and wipe your
nose"). Many children at this a g e will opt for the quick convenience of their sleeve. Be
ready to quickly hand a tissue to the child when she needs o n e to begin to establish the
habit. As the child achieves greater success in using a tissue, you should expect her to re-
trieve o n e from a tissue b o x without prompting.
As the child demonstrates greater success using a tissue, try having her carry a tissue in
her pocket or tucked under a wristband so that she will have o n e readily available if she
needs one.
CRITERION The child usually gets a tissue without prompting to wipe her nose.
SELF-HELP: GROOMING 149
4-1 Hi, Blows nose Independently on request

MATERIALS Facial tissue
PROCEDURES
Demonstrate how to blow air out through your nostrils. Hand the child a tissue and tell
him to blow his nose. If the child has difficulty in doing this task, try holding the tissue to
the child's nose for him, and then again demonstrate blowing out through the nostrils.
Remind the child to close his mouth, if n e e d e d . Gradually fade any physical assistance.
Teach the child to throw the tissue away after use.
As the child demonstrates greater success using a tissue, try having him carry a tissue in
his pocket or tucked under a wristband so that he will have o n e readily available if he
needs one. In the height of cold season, it may be helpful to periodically hand out tissues
to all children in a classroom, asking them to blow their noses. Prompt children to throw
their tissues into the trash can and then wash their hands.
CRITERION The child blows his nose independently on request.

11
i
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11 P E R S O N A L - SOCIAL
4-IV
Self-Help: Toileting
T he typical timetable for achieving toilet training is highly variable, with

some children being fully trained by 2 years, while others are not trained
l
until 3~3 A years. Boys are often somewhat older than girls before they have
the physical maturation for toilet training.
T h e widespread use of disposable diapers and training pants has probably con-
tributed to late toilet training for many children, as disposable diapers and training
pants do not allow children to experience the discomfort of wet clothing. Nighttime
wetting may persist throughout the preschool period for some children.
Children with developmental disabilities are often delayed in toilet training. A
developmental psychologist can be helpful in establishing a toilet training program
for an older child who is still in diapers. Children with disabilities may need adap-
tive equipment for toileting. An occupational or physical therapist can assist in de-
termining what would be useful. Note that in some conditions such as spina bifida,
toilet training may not be an appropriate goal due to the child's lack of bowel and
bladder sensation and control.
ADAPTATIONS

Children with significant balance difficulties may need an adaptive toilet seat that
provides trunk and foot support. An occupational or physical therapist can assist in
determining what adaptations will be needed for a child with motor impairments
to use a toilet.

Children with low vision will probably need few adaptations in learning toileting
skills, although young boys may need extra instruction to learn to urinate into the
151
152 PERSONAL-SOCIAL
toilet in a standing position. For children with little or no vision, it will be impor-
tant to allow them to feel the toilet and discuss it. Be sure to teach the child that
the toilet is not water to play in. Learning to wipe completely after a bowel move-
ment may be an extra challenge. Using a wet wipe after the toilet tissue can be an
effective measure.

It is important for children with hearing impairments to establish a way to com-
municate the need to go to the bathroom. Depending on the child's developmental,
motor, and hearing abilities, this may be accomplished through the use of formal
sign, a gesture, or spoken language. Everyone who works with the child needs to be
aware of how the child communicates the need to toilet.
4-IV. SELF-HELP: TOILETING
a. Urinates when placed on toilet
b. Has bowel m o v e m e n t when placed on toilet
c. Usually indicates need to toilet (rarely has bowel accidents)
d. Uses toilet by self, except for cleaning after bowel m o v e m e n t
e. Seldom has toileting accidents (may need help with difficult clothing)
f. Cares for self at toilet (may need assistance wiping after bowel movement)
g. Tears toilet tissue and flushes toilet after use
h. Wipes self after bowel movement
4-IVa. Urinates when placed on toilet

MATERIALS Child-size toilet or potty chair
PROCEDURES
A child is generally ready to begin toilet training when her diapers are dry for 2 - 3 hours
at a time. At regular periods throughout the day, place the child on the potty chair or toi-
let, and tell her that it is time to go to the bathroom (using whatever terminology is de-
scriptive and customary in your family or setting). It is important to use an appropriate
size potty chair for the child so that her feet rest comfortably on the floor. S o m e children
may be able to use an adaptive seat on a regular toilet if you place a step stool in front
of the toilet to aid in getting on the toilet and to provide secure footing while sitting on
the toilet. Give positive reinforcement when the child is successful. In addition to the nat-
ural times for toileting, it is important to pay attention to a child's physical or verbal cues
that she might need to go to the bathroom. By taking her at these times, the child will
begin to associate the physical signs with the need to use the toilet. Encourage the child
to tell you when she needs to go to the bathroom. Both boys and girls usually first learn
to urinate sitting down.
It can be very helpful to use a doll that can wet to demonstrate urinating on the toilet.
The modeling effect of other children using the toilet will be helpful for a child who is
just beginning to toilet train.
CRITERION The child frequently urinates when placed on toilet.
4-IVb. Has bowel movement when placed on toilet

153
154 PERSONAL-SOCIAL
PROCEDURES
A child is generally ready to begin bowel training when bowel movements occur at a pre-
dictable time during the day. Often, this occurs in the first hour after a meal. Also, most
children give some indication through body language or facial expression when they are
ready to have a bowel movement. Place the child on the toilet when you see any indica-
tion of the need to go or at the time the child typically goes. Be prepared to spend some
time waiting for the child to go. It may be helpful to have books available to read to him
while he is sitting on the toilet.
You may find it useful to use a resource (e.g., the book Everyone Poops by Taro Gomi) for
children who are reticent to use the toilet. It is sometimes helpful to dump the contents
of a dirty diaper in the toilet in front of the child, telling him that that is where it belongs.
CRITERION The child has a bowel movement when placed on toilet.
4-IVc, Usually indicates need

to toilet (rarely has bowel accidents)
PROCEDURES
This item is an extension of Items 4-IVa and 4-IVb, with the child demonstrating increased
awareness of the need to go to the bathroom. Check with the child periodically through-
out the day, asking, "Do you need to go to the bathroom?" Watch for nonverbal cues and
give feedback to the child. "It looks like you need to go to the bathroom." Then take the
child to the bathroom. Give positive reinforcement when she is successful. A psychologist
can be helpful in developing a program for children who are resistant to toilet training.

Be sure that everyone working with the child is aware that the child is toilet training and
is alert to the child's verbal and nonverbal cues that she may need to go to the bathroom.
Be sure the child has ready access to a toilet. If traveling, it is often helpful to take a potty
chair with you.
CRITERION The child usually indicates the need to toilet and rarely has bowel accidents.
S E L F - H E L P : TOILETING 155
4-IVd. Uses toilet by self,

except for cleaning after bowel movement
4-IVe. Seldom has toileting accidents

(may need help with difficult clothing)
4-IVf. Cares for self at toilet

(may need assistance wiping after bowel movement)
MATERIALS Child-size toilet or potty chair, pants that are easy to remove
PROCEDURES
After the child is having s o m e regular success in toileting, keep him in training pants and
easy-to-pull-down outer pants. When the child is not rushed to go to the toilet, encour-
a g e him to pull down his own pants. After using the toilet, hand him several pieces of
toilet tissue and ask him to wipe himself. Children usually need assistance in wiping after
bowel movements for s o m e time. When finished, encourage the child to pull up his pants
and then wash hands.
Gradually fade any physical assistance you have been giving. When the child is dem-
onstrating s o m e independence, e n c o u r a g e him to go to the bathroom alone, having you
c o m e in when he is finished to assist with cleanup.
Continue to be alert to the child's verbal and nonverbal cues that he may need to go to
the bathroom. Children sometimes b e c o m e a b s o r b e d in playing and ignore their body
signals. Be sure that the child has ready access to a toilet that he can use independently.
In group settings, the ability to go to the toilet by oneself is often reinforced by observ-
ing other children's independence who have already achieved this step.
CRITERION 4-IVd The child regularly uses the toilet by himself, except cleaning after bowel
movement.
CRITERION 4-IVe The child seldom has toileting accidents.
CRITERION 4-lVf The child cares for himself at toilet; however, he may still need some assis-
tance wiping after bowel movement.
4-IVg. Tears toilet tissue and flushes toilet after use

MATERIALS Toilet that is accessible to child (some children may be able to use a regu-
lar toilet while others may need an adapter seat on the toilet)
156 PERSONAL-SOCIAL
PROCEDURES
Show the child how to tear off a few sheets of toilet paper at a time. Teach the child how
to flush the toilet after using the toilet paper. Remind her to flush only once. If needed,
give the child physical assistance and then fade that assistance as soon as possible.
Flatten the toilet paper roll before hanging it so that the roll's rolling ability will be slowed
down and the child won't use a large amount of toilet paper.
CRITERION The child regulady tears toilet tissue that she can use and flushes the toilet after use.
4-IVh. Wipes self after bowel movement

MATERIALS Toilet, toilet paper, wet wipes
PROCEDURES
After a bowel movement, tell the child to take s o m e toilet paper and wipe himself. It is
best to teach the child to reach his hand around back and to wipe from front to back (to
avoid any possibility of urinary tract infection). The child may have the best success if he
stands up to wipe. Encourage the child to wipe several times, using new pieces of toilet
paper. Have s o m e type of wet wipe available if needed for final wiping.
Learning to wipe after a bowel movement is challenging because the child must have a
g o o d awareness of his body without the use of visual feedback. A g o o d preparatory ac-
tivity is to clip clothespins to the back of the child's clothing and ask him to remove t h e m .
CRITERION The child successfully wipes himself after a bowel movement on most occasions.
:; N
5
Attention €r Memory:
Visual/Spatial
T he focus of this sequence is to develop children's abilities to attend to visual

stimuli, remember those stimuli, and act on the basis of those memories.
These skills lay the foundation for remembering letters and numbers, re-
membering the sequences of letters in words, and using past visual information to
solve current problems. Within this sequence is a mixture of items focusing on at-
tention span, short-term memory, and long-term memory. T h e items also vary as
to the extent to which either motor acts or speech are used to demonstrate mem-
ory. Children vary as to the kind of memory tasks that arc difficult for them. Some
children will move smoothly through this sequence, but others will stumble over
certain kinds of items and will need additional help and practice. For example, a
child may do well on items requiring recognition memory (e.g., recognizing and se-
lecting pictures seen previously) but may have difficulty with recalling what has
been seen (e.g., cannot describe or name what has been seen although he or she has
the appropriate vocabulary).
ADAPTATIONS
Children with M o t o r Impairments

T h e primary motor requirements of these items are those involved in making an in-
dicator response (pointing) and talking. Thus, few adaptations are required unless
the child has a severe impairment. In the case of a severe impairment, seek the help
of a physical and/or occupational therapist to determine the most effecrhe indi-
cator response for the child, and modify the few items requiring matching so that
they can be done with just an indicator response. T h e child may also need an aug-
mentative and alternative communication system in order to deal with the verbal
items.
157
158 COGNITION

T h e primary adaptations for children with visual impairments involve working in
well-lit places and using objects and pictures that are large, especially colorful, or
bright. It is helpful to seek advice from the child's ophthalmologist or vision spe-
cialist in order to choose the most appropriate toys and pictures.
If a child has a severe visual impairment, many of these items will be inappro-
priate. To help the child develop the memory skills needed for learning to read, un-
derstanding numbers, and solving problems, it is more appropriate to stress tactile
and auditory memory tasks. Many of the items in this sequence can be made into
tactile memory tasks by using different materials. For example, instead of placing
four pictures down and having the child select the one he or she saw previously,
place four blocks or cards of different textures in front of the child, and have him or
her select the one that was given previously (wallpaper sample books are a good
source of different textured paper). T h i s practice will help prepare the child for
learning Braille. Auditory memory tasks are included in Sequence 12 (Attention &
Memory: Auditory).

If a child with a hearing impairment has limited speech, the items requiring the
child to describe or name objects of pictures may need to be omitted. If the child
does not understand verbal instructions, more demonstrations may be necessary.
Otherwise, no adaptations are needed.
5. ATTENTION & MEMORY: VISUAL/SPATIAL
a. Points to hand that is hiding a toy (both when toy remains in that hand and when
toy is transferred to the other hand, out of sight)
b. Recognizes the covers of several books and labels them
c. Recognizes familiar signs
d. Identifies (points to) o b j e c t or picture shown briefly and shown again in an array of
three
e. Identifies (points to) o b j e c t or picture shown briefly and shown again in an array of
four
f. Tells the name of object or picture shown briefly in a group of two and then hidden
g. R e m e m b e r s incidental information
h. Names o n e of several (four or more) objects or pictures shown (or objects felt),
n a m e d , and then hidden
i. After observing three objects being placed under separate covers, identifies the cover
under which a matching object is hidden
j. R e m e m b e r s and n a m e s which o n e o f three objects has b e e n hidden
k. Describes from m e m o r y visual characteristics of familiar objects
I. Matches both color and shape of o n e object or picture seen only briefly
m. Identifies two pictures seen briefly in an array of four to six
n. Matches both color and shape of two objects or pictures seen only briefly
o. Describes events that happened in the past
p. Finds three pictures seen only briefly in an array of 1 0 - 1 2
q. R e m e m b e r s the place in an array where a picture was seen only briefly
r. Finds hidden pictures
s. Can recall the n a m e s of 8 - 1 0 pictures when shown an array of 1 8 - 2 0
5a. Points to hand that is hiding a toy

(both when toy remains in that hand and
when toy is transferred to the other hand, out of sight)
MATERIALS Several small toys that can be enclosed completely in your hand
PROCEDURES
Show the child a small toy in your hand. Put both hands behind you momentarily. Bring
them back out with the toy completely hidden in the same hand and ask, "Which hand
is [the toy] in?" After the child points, open the hand so that he can see if he was correct.
If he is not correct, open the other hand and let him see the toy. Repeat the activity. Al-
ternate hands so that the child does not always find the toy in the s a m e hand.
159
160 COGNITION
When the child routinely points to the correct hand, transfer the toy on s o m e occa-
sions from o n e hand to the other behind your back. See if the child will then point to the
other hand. If he does not, show it to him. Repeat.
Let the child be the o n e who hides the toy in his hand. Make errors sometimes so the
child can have the fun of fooling you.
Use this g a m e to entertain the child while the two of you are waiting in line at the gro-
cery store or in a similar situation. Teach older children to play the g a m e with the child.
In a classroom, e n c o u r a g e pairs of children to play this g a m e with each other.
CRITERION The child regulady selects the hand in which the toy was hidden (when the toy is
left there), and he finds the toy when the adult has passed it to the other hand out of the sight
of the child.
5b. Recognizes the covers of several books and labels them

MATERIALS Nine or ten sturdy storybooks with large, colorful pictures
PROCEDURES
Gather together four or five books, s o m e that you have frequently read to the child and
s o m e that are new. Allow her to look through them and select the b o o k she wants you to
read to her. Listen for her to say something that identifies a familiar b o o k (it need not be
the title of the book; it can be something associated with the content). If she does not
label the books spontaneously as she looks through t h e m , ask her to find a particular o n e
(e.g., "Where's the b o o k a b o u t Spot?"). If she does not find it, show it to her.
DAILY ROUTINES & FUNCTIONAL ACTIVITIES
Spend time each day looking at books with the child. Give the child a choice between two
or three books for you to read to her. If the child will sit still, read the story as written. If
she is too active to sit still that long, abbreviate the story, making it fit with the pictures.
To maintain her interest, read with animation. Use different voices for different characters
or different sounds for different animals.
Have the books available to the child on a low shelf so that she can explore them by
herself. Watch for the child to begin looking through the books to find a specific o n e for
you to read and for her to say something that identifies the book.
CRITERION The child looks through books to find the cover of a favorite book and labels it.
She should be able to identify and label at least three different books.
ATTENTION & M E M O R Y : VISUAL/SPATIAL 161
5c. Recognizes familiar signs

(e.g., restaurants, traffic lights, stop signs, labels on food)
MATERIALS Magazines with pictures containing familiar signs, labels (or parts of labels)
from food or j u i c e containers (not a label with pictures of the contents, but a label with
words and/or a logo). Depending on the child's experience, s o m e possible examples are
the top half of a Cheerios b o x or other cereal boxes (with the n a m e of the cereal and the
color of the box evident but no picture of a bowl of cereal); Kool-Aid packages; and la-
bels from various kinds of juice, chips, or cracker packages.
PROCEDURES
Look through a magazine with t h e child and ask, "What's that?" when you see an adver-
tisement that shows a familiar logo.
Collect a group of labels that should be familiar to the child. Glue them into a note-
book, and leaf through the pages with the child. Ask what each o n e is. If he does not
know, tell him. S e e if he r e m e m b e r s the next t i m e you look through the book.
When preparing the child a snack or a meal, show him the labels of the packages you are
using. Similarly, when you are shopping with the child, show him the things you are tak-
ing off of the shelves and n a m e them for him.
When driving in the car, point out stop signs and signs of stores or fast-food places
you visit frequently.
Watch and listen for the child to point at o n e of the food labels or signs saying some-
thing that indicates he recognizes the sign, whether it is a brand n a m e or something that
the child associates with that name. For example, the child would get credit for saying
"McDonald's" when he sees the arches, but he also would get credit for saying "fries."
In the classroom, set up a play store with e m p t y food containers that have labels and/
or include these in the housekeeping center. Occasionally pick up on of the containers and
ask the child what it is. You can also label the children's cubbies, different centers in the
classroom, and various objects around t h e room in clear black letters. Occasionally, use
circle time to show the children cards with these s a m e labels on them to see if they rec-
ognize t h e m . Many preschool children recognize the printed n a m e s of all of their class-
mates before they can identify all of the letters of the alphabet.
CRITERION The child recognizes and labels five different familiar signs or words (these may in-
clude his own name or names of others).
162 COGNITION
5d. Identifies (points to) object or picture

shown briefly and shown again in an array of three
5e. Identifies (points to) object or picture

shown briefly and shown again in an array of four
MATERIALS Eight to ten pairs of identical pictures (e.g., pictures cut from magazines, cards
from Animal Lotto, cards from Memory Game), eight to ten pairs of identical objects
PROCEDURES
Play a g a m e with the child in which you place three objects or pictures in front of her,
and cover them with a box, a piece of paper, or a cloth. Then show the child an object/
picture that matches o n e of the three objects/pictures that are covered in front of her. Take
that object/picture away and remove the cover from the three objects/pictures in front of
her and ask, "Where's the o n e we just saw?" If the child makes an incorrect choice, show
her the object/picture again. Have her point to the o n e just like it. Hide it again, and ask
the child to point to the o n e that was just shown. Then try with a different set of objects/
pictures. Occasionally, let her play the part of the "teacher" if she wishes to do so.
At the beginning, select three objects/pictures that are very different from o n e an-
other (e.g., car, horse, and spoon). Gradually make the task more difficult by selecting o b -
jects or pictures that are similar or in the same class (e.g., knife, fork, and spoon; horse,
dog, and cat).
When the child is doing well with choosing a m o n g three objects/pictures, begin
using four, following the s a m e procedure.
This g a m e also can be played in the classroom by pairs of children, having the chil-
dren take turns being the person who shows the objects/pictures to be r e m e m b e r e d and
being the person who finds t h e m .
At h o m e or in the classroom, look for opportunities throughout the day to challenge the
child to r e m e m b e r something she has seen (e.g., "What was that animal that ran across
the street, a cat or a dog?"). Or, if you are driving or out for a walk, point out the stop
sign. When another c o m e s into view, ask the child if she can find another stop sign like
the o n e she saw previously.
CRITERION 5d The child finds an object or picture shown briefly in a group of three on at least
five consecutive trials (different objects/pictures each trial).
CRITERION 5e The child finds an object or picture shown briefly in a group of four on at least
five consecutive trials (different objects/pictures each trial).
ATTENTION & MEMORY: VISUAL/SPATIAL 163
5f. Tells the name of object or picture

shown briefly in a group of two and then hidden
MATERIALS A collection of interesting objects and pictures
PROCEDURES
Play a g a m e in which you show the child two familiar objects or pictures briefly. Then,
put o n e object/picture behind your back, under a box, or somewhere else out of sight.
Leave the other o n e in sight and ask the child, "What did I hide?" If he answers incorrectly,
bring out the object/picture and show him, saying, "This is what I hid. What is it?" Then
try again with another two objects/pictures. You should also let the child be the o n e to
hide something and have you tell what is hidden.
This activity can be d o n e in a classroom during circle time. Show the children the o b -
jects, hide one, and then call on a child to tell you what you hid. If he is incorrect, call on
another child. Repeat with other pairs of objects.
Children may also enjoy playing this g a m e in pairs, taking turns being the o n e to
hide a toy.
Look for opportunities throughout the day to check the child's m e m o r y of something he
looks at only briefly. For example, if you m e e t s o m e familiar person while shopping, ask
the child a minute or so later whom it was that he just saw.
CRITERION The child names one object or picture shown briefly in a group of two that is then
hidden. He should be able to do this on five or more different occasions, rarely making errors.
5g. Remembers incidental information

(e.g., "What did you see at the zoo?")
PROCEDURES
Talk to the child about her experiences (e.g., what she has seen, where she went, what she
did, what she liked), and always act very interested in what she has to say. Take her for a
walk outdoors, and point out things you see along the way. When you return, ask her to
tell another person what she saw or what happened. Prompt her if she has difficulty.
When the child g o e s with o n e parent or caregiver to do something, another parent or

caregiver should ask, "What did you s e e ? " or "What h a p p e n e d ? " when the child returns.
If the child is unable to recall what she saw, the adult who was present with the child
should prompt her with leading questions (e.g., "Did you see a fire truck?").
164 COGNITION
In a classroom, plan brief field trips for the children or invite s o m e o n e in to show
them something interesting. Afterward, talk a b o u t t h e experience to see what the chil-
dren recall. Begin with very general questions, such as "What did we see at the fire sta-
tion?" Then, ask m o r e specific questions to help t h e children r e m e m b e r more of their
experiences.
CRITERION On at least three occasions, the child remembers and tells about two or more ob-
jects, events, or experiences when asked a general question about a recent occurrence.
5h. Names one of several (four or more) objects

or pictures shown (or objects felt), named, and then hidden
MATERIALS A collection of interesting objects and pictures, cover (e.g., cloth, cardboard)
PROCEDURES
Place four objects or pictures in front of the child, naming each o n e as it is placed. Im-
mediately cover the objects or pictures with a cloth or hide them by placing a cardboard
screen in front of t h e m . Ask the child, "What did you just s e e ? " If he can't r e m e m b e r any
of the objects/pictures, show t h e m to him again for a few seconds. Cover them and ask
again. Try with several different groups of items. You can also let the child hide a group
of objects/pictures for you to r e m e m b e r . Make it fun!
In a classroom, do this activity at circle time with all of the children, calling on different
children to answer. Keep calling on children until all of t h e objects/pictures are identified.
Then, let the children take turns being the "teacher," hiding the objects and asking the
others what they r e m e m b e r .
CRITERION On two or more occasions, the child names four or more objects or pictures shown,
named, and then hidden.
5i. After observing three objects

being placed under separate covers, identifies
the cover under which a matching object is hidden
MATERIALS A collection of interesting small toys and covers large e n o u g h to hide them
(e.g., cloths, cans, bowls)
PROCEDURES
Prior to beginning this hiding g a m e , be sure that the child understands the direction,
"Where is the o n e just like this o n e ? " Put three toys in front of her. Then, present a toy
identical to o n e of t h e toys in front of the child and ask her to give you (or touch) the
toy just like it. If the child does not select the appropriate toy, show her which o n e it is.
Mix up the toys and select a different o n e for her to match. When the child is able to fol-
low that instruction, place three covers in a row in front of the child and tell her you're
g o i n g to play a hiding g a m e with her. Then, place a different toy under each cover, being
sure the child sees what toys you are hiding. Wait for a brief period of time (silently count
to 10 slowly) and then show t h e child a toy identical to o n e of the three that are hidden.
Ask the child to show you (or remove) the cover hiding the o n e just like the toy you are
showing her.
If the child selects the wrong cover, suggest that she try another o n e until she finds
the matching toy. Then try again with another group of toys.
This is a g o o d g a m e for a small group of children in the classroom, letting the children
take turns identifying the correct cover.
To address the skills of different children in a classroom, you can make this g a m e
more or less challenging by varying the kinds of discriminations the child must make. The
task is more difficult if the covers are the same size, color, and shape. It is also more dif-
ficult if the toys are similar. For example, it is easier to r e m e m b e r that a car is hidden
under a particular cover if a car, a ball, and a cup have b e e n hidden than it is to re-
m e m b e r where the blue car is when cars of other colors are under the other covers.
CRITERION After observing three objects being placed under separate covers, the child iden-
tifies the cover under which a matching object is hidden. This should happen on three or more
different trials using different objects.
5j. Remembers and names

which one of three objects has been hidden
MATERIALS Small toys and/or other familiar objects, covers (e.g., books, cardboard, paper)
PROCEDURES
Place three toys on the table in front of the child. Call his attention to each o n e and n a m e
it for him. Then, put a screen (e.g., a book, a piece of cardboard, paper) between the child
and the toys. Remove o n e toy, then remove the screen. Ask the child, "Which o n e is g o n e ? "
If the child does not know or guesses incorrectly, let him see the toy that you removed
and play with all three toys briefly. Then, hide the toys again, take away one, show the re-
maining two, and ask the child to guess which o n e is missing. You should also let the child
have turns hiding the toys and having you guess.
In a classroom, this is a g o o d g a m e to play with all of the children at circle time, letting
the children take turns being the "teacher" after you have played the g a m e with them sev-
eral times. It is also a g a m e you can e n c o u r a g e two or more children to play, taking turns
as the "hider" and the "identifier."
166 COGNITION
Provide a space in the classroom with materials for hiding g a m e s including pictures,
containers, and objects so that the children can play on their own, perhaps making up
their own g a m e s .
CRITERION The child rarely makes errors in remembering and naming which object from a
group of three is missing.
5k. Describes from memory

visual characteristics of familiar objects
PROCEDURES
Ask the child questions to e n c o u r a g e her to think a b o u t and describe objects that she can-
not see. It is particularly useful to do this when t h e child has mentioned the o b j e c t , indi-
cating an interest in talking a b o u t it. For example, if the child said, "Grandma gave me a
new teddy bear," you might say, "Tell me about it. What does it look like?" Then, if nec-
essary, ask other questions such as, "What color is it?" "Is it b i g g e r than your red puppy?"
Ask only as many questions as necessary to help her describe the object.
In a classroom, use show-and-tell activities and other group sharing times to e n c o u r a g e

children to talk about things that they have at h o m e or have seen somewhere else. You can
also begin a simple form of the "20 Questions" g a m e in which you ask yes/no questions,
such as, "I am thinking of something you like to play with that is [description] (e.g., round
and red). Can you guess what it is?" After s o m e o n e guesses correctly, ask o n e of the chil-
dren to think of something and describe it so that the other children can guess. Show the
children how to ask appropriate questions, such as, "Is it bigger than this block?" Asking
these kinds of questions will teach the other children how to ask questions to get more in-
formation and will teach t h e child who is thinking of the object to visualize and talk about
it more precisely.
CRITERION The child describes three or more familiar objects from memory using several dif-
ferent descriptive terms. These descriptions may be in response to questions.
51. Matches both color and shape

of one object or picture seen only briefly
MATERIALS A collection of pairs of objects or pictures that vary by shape and color
(e.g., red and blue blocks that are round or square, toy vehicles of different colors [e.g., cars,
trucks, motorcycles], pictures of geometric shapes that vary in color)
PROCEDURES
Place a covered box containing six to seven objects in front of the child (or place six to
seven pictures in front of him and cover them with a piece of paper). The box (or pictures)
should contain objects that are t h e s a m e shape but a different color than the sample, o b -
jects that are the same color but a different shape, and o n e or more objects that are iden-
tical to the sample. For example, you may show the child a red cylinder block. In his box
should be red and blue cylinders, red and blue square blocks, and red and blue o b l o n g
blocks. Or, you may show the child a red car. In his b o x should be two similar cars (one
red and one blue), two trucks (one red and o n e blue), and two bicycles (one red and o n e
blue). Show the child o n e o b j e c t (or picture) for a few seconds (silently count to 1 0 ) . Put
it behind your back, open the box (or uncover the pictures), and ask the child to find o n e
that is just like the o n e you showed him. After he makes his choice, show him the sample
and either show him that he m a d e the right choice or pick out the matching block and
tell why it would have b e e n a better choice.
In a classroom, you can do this activity with all of the children at circle time if you pre-
pare a box of blocks for each child. If o n e or more children select the incorrect object,
you have a g o o d opportunity to show the sample again and talk a b o u t its characteristics.
CRITERION On three or more occasions, the child matches both color and shape of one object
or picture seen only briefly, making no errors.
5m. Identifies two pictures

seen briefly in an array of four to six
MATERIALS Matched sets of pictures from commercially m a d e m e m o r y g a m e s or cre-
ated from magazines or other sources
PROCEDURES
Place four to six pictures on the table in front of the child and cover t h e m after the child
has had a chance to see t h e m . Show her two pictures that match two of those on the table.
Slowly, count to 10 silently as she looks at the pictures. Place the pictures behind your
back, uncover those on the table, and ask the child to find the two you just showed her.
If she makes an error, show her the pictures, hide them, and let her try again. Repeat with
other sets of pictures.
In a classroom, make this a g a m e for a group of children, each having a set of the same
pictures. Also e n c o u r a g e the children to play together in pairs, taking turns as the "hider"
and the "finder."
CRITERION On three or more occasions, the child identifies two pictures seen briefly from an
array of four to six.
168 COGNITION
5n. Matches both color and shape

of two objects or pictures seen only briefly
PROCEDURES/CLASSROOM & FUNCTIONAL ACTIVITIES
Follow those in Item 51. W h e n the child is a b l e to r e m e m b e r and match color and shape
for o n e o b j e c t seen briefly, make t h e g a m e harder by showing him two objects or pic-
tures, hiding t h e m , and then asking him to find ones that match (including both color and
shape).
CRITERION On three or more occasions, the child matches both color and shape of two ob-
jects or pictures seen only briefly, making no errors.
5o. Describes events that happened

in the past (e.g.. yesterday, last week)
PROCEDURES
Talk to the child about things you have d o n e together in the past. Ask the child questions
a b o u t what she did in t h e past (e.g., "What did you do at Mary's house yesterday?" "What
happened at school today?"). Also tell the child about activities that you have d o n e alone
or with s o m e o n e else. T h e child will probably especially enjoy hearing about things you
did when you were her age. In this way you will model talking a b o u t things in the past.
Listen for the child to share her experiences. Always act interested and ask questions to
e n c o u r a g e the child to talk more.
In a classroom, devote circle time to having the children share their experiences during a
holiday or a weekend away from the group. Ask each child to tell a b o u t o n e activity.
CRITERION On two or more occasions, the child describes an event that occurred in the past
(including two or more elements in the description) without being asked questions.
5p. Finds three pictures seen

only briefly in an array of 10-12
MATERIALS Matched sets of pictures from commercially m a d e m e m o r y g a m e s or cre-
ated from magazines or other sources
ATTENTION & MEMORY: VISUAL/SPATIAL 169
PROCEDURES
Place 1 0 - 1 2 pictures on t h e table in front of t h e child and cover them after the child has
had a c h a n c e to see t h e m . Show the child three pictures that match three of those on the
table. Slowly count to 15 silently as he looks at the pictures. Place the three pictures be-
hind your back, uncover those on the table, and ask the child to find the three you just
showed him. If he makes an error, show him the pictures, hide t h e m , and let him try
again. Repeat with other sets of pictures.
In a classroom, make this a g a m e that you play with t h e children at circle time or in small
groups.
CRITERION On two or more occasions, the child identifies three pictures seen briefly in an array
of 10-12.
5q. Remembers the place in an array

where a picture was seen only briefly (e.g., 5 seconds)
MATERIALS A commercially m a d e m e m o r y g a m e , or two decks of regular playing cards,
Old Maid cards, or Animal Lotto cards that have at least 16 matched pairs of cards
PROCEDURES
Play a modification of Concentration with the child. Place 16 different cards face down
on the table, four rows of four cards each. Have 16 matching cards in a pile. You take o n e
card from the pile and place it on the table. Select o n e card in the array of 16 and turn
it over. If it matches the card from the pile, remove it and make a pair that you keep. If
it does not match, turn it face down again and place the card you drew on the bottom of
the pile. Then the child takes a turn. The o b j e c t is for the players to r e m e m b e r where the
cards are that they have seen so that they can find those cards again to make pairs. If the
child has no success, reduce the n u m b e r of cards in the array to nine and give the child
hints to help her r e m e m b e r .
Play this g a m e in a classroom with a group of two to four children.
CRITERION The child finds the card in the array that matches the card she drew three or more
times in each memory game.
5r. Finds hidden pictures (e.g., "I Spy" books)

MATERIALS A collection of hidden pictures (Some newspapers publish o n e on the chil-
dren's p a g e each week. Inexpensive books of hidden pictures are available from Scholas-
170 COGNITION
tic Press. More colorful and elaborate ones are included in the "I Spy" series available at
most bookstores. There is also an I Spy Preschool G a m e that encourages both finding hid-
den pictures and matching puzzle shapes.)
PROCEDURES
Spend time with the child looking at hidden pictures, naming the picture he should try
to find or showing him a sample picture. Give him hints about the location if he is having
difficulty finding it.
In a classroom, e n c o u r a g e two or three children to look at a picture together to try to find

the hidden pictures and show them to each other.
CRITERION The child finds three or more objects in three or more different hidden pictures.
5s. Can recall the names of

8-10 pictures when shown an array of 18-20
MATERIALS Books that include pictures of many objects on o n e page, sheets of paper
on which have been glued 1 8 - 2 0 pictures
PROCEDURES
Tell the child you are g o i n g to see how well she can r e m e m b e r what she sees. Show her
a p a g e in a book that has only five or six objects or pictures on it. Ask the child to look
at the pictures and let you know if she knows the n a m e s of all of t h e m . Then take the b o o k
away, and ask her to tell you the n a m e s of all of the pictures she remembers. As she gets
better at r e m e m b e r i n g what she has seen, gradually increase the n u m b e r of pictures on
the p a g e until there are 1 8 - 2 0 , and give her 2 minutes to study t h e m .
Do not play the g a m e more than two times at o n e sitting, and use different pictures
for different sittings. Continue until the child is able to recall 8 - 1 0 pictures.
In a classroom, do the s a m e activity with a group of children, having them call out what
they remember. This gives them all practice in r e m e m b e r i n g . It also exposes them to the
m e m o r y strategies of the other children.
CRITERION On at least one occasion, the child recalls the names of 8 - 1 0 pictures after being
shown an array of 18-20 for 1 minute.
6-1
Visual Perception
Blocks 6r Puzzles
T hese activities require children to interpret and organize information about

form and space. In learning about form and space, it is very helpful for chil-
dren to learn about moving their own bodies through space and around ob-
stacles (e.g., furniture) in everyday life. Refining this knowledge through manipula-
tion of objects and learning how to relate objects to each other further develops
concepts of form and space. Developing these skills provides a foundation for later
developing academic skills. Math, particularly geometry, is dependent on a good
understanding of form and space—that pieces can be put together to create a whole
and that different shapes have different relationships to each other. Reading and writ-
ing require an understanding of space that is organized from top to bottom and left
to right. Even before they have labels for these concepts, children learn to hold a
book right side up and to turn pages moving from the front to the back of the book.
It is important that classic children's toys, such as blocks and puzzles, be made
readily available to young children. They need both structured experiences, in which
building ideas and assembly are demonstrated, and unstructured exploration, in
which they will achieve greater mastery over space. Provide a variety of puzzles
and building materials, including large cardboard boxes, that can be used as pretend
houses, trains, and so forth.
ADAPTATIONS
Children with significant motor and visual impairments may have greater difficulty
understanding spatial concepts due to their limited opportunities for experiencing
space (e.g., climbing under, over, and around objects). Be sure to include ways to
help these children physically experience space in order to lay the foundation for
developing better spatial perception.
171
172 COGNITION

Some children with severe motor impairments will not be able to place forms in
boards or shape sorters. Forms with a large knob handle may be easier for children
with motor impairments to place, or these children may be able to indicate through
eye gaze where the shape belongs. For this sequence, it is helpful to have a form
board or shape sorter with openings arranged in a single row.
Blocks with Velcro may be helpful for children with poorly controlled hand
and/or arm movements. Also, try various sizes and weights of blocks to see what
works best for the children.
Help children with visual impairments feel the various objects. Describe them in
terms of shape, size, and texture. Use materials with interesting textures. For block
designs, a model that has been glued together may be helpful.
Due to the heavy emphasis on visual information in this sequence, these ac-
tivities are less appropriate for young children with severe visual impairments. Al-
though activities can be modified with tactile cues provided, it is likely that chil-
dren with visual impairments would achieve these at an older age.

Children with hearing impairments will require no adaptations to these items be-
cause the items are strongly visually based. Be sure to accompany any verbal in-
structions with demonstrations as needed.
6-1. VISUAL PERCEPTION: BLOCKS £r PUZZLES
a. Places round, square, and triangular forms in reversed form board
b. Imitates block train
c. Puts t o g e t h e r two-piece puzzles
d. Imitates block building
e. Imitates block bridge
f. Puts t o g e t h e r puzzle with four or five interconnected pieces
g. Imitates horizontal (flat on the table) block patterns of two and three blocks (two colors)
h. Imitates horizontal block patterns of four to six blocks (two colors)
i. Completes 8- to 1 2 - p i e c e interconnected puzzles
j. Imitates construction of a simple visual pattern using parquetry blocks
k. Builds representationally with blocks
I. Completes 1 5 - to 2 5 - p i e c e interconnected puzzles
m. Reproduces simple block designs from m e m o r y
6-Ia. Places round, square, and

triangular forms in reversed form board
MATERIALS Round, square, and triangular forms; a form board that has round, square,
and triangular cutouts
PROCEDURES
Present the child with a form board that has various shapes already in place. Remove the
shapes o n e at a time, and place them on a table below the matching opening in the form
board. Rotate t h e board 1 8 0 degrees, and place it in front of the child (i.e., above the
shapes). Ask the child to put t h e shapes back into the form board. If the child has diffi-
culty in doing this, demonstrate it for her. Encourage the child to look carefully. Use ap-
propriate word labels. For instance, when the child is holding the round shape, say, "You
have a circle. Put it in the circle (round) hole. Where does the circle g o ? "
Keep a simple shape box or puzzle on a low shelf so that the child can play with it frequently.
CRITERION The child places round, square, and triangular forms in correct holes when the
form board is reversed. Using trial and error is acceptable.
6-lb. Imitates block train

MATERIALS Ten 1-inch blocks
173
174 COGNITION
PROCEDURES
Place 10 blocks on the table in front of the child. Tell the child that you are g o i n g to make
a train with the blocks. Align four of the blocks in a straight line. Place a fifth block on
top of the first block. Push the train that you have created with the blocks along the table
while making a train sound. Then ask the child to use the rest of the blocks to make a
train like yours. Leave your train in sight but out of reach. Demonstrate this activity sev-
eral times, and give the child physical assistance, if necessary.
At h o m e or in the classroom at playtime, help the child use large wooden or cardboard
blocks to make trains as well as other vehicles. Reinforce language and spatial concepts
by making and talking about trains of different sizes and lengths.
CRITERION The child imitates a block train on several different occasions.
6-lc. Puts together two-piece puzzles

MATERIALS Simple pictures on cardboard (some cut in half diagonally, others cut in half
vertically)
PROCEDURES
Make several puzzles by gluing clear, simple pictures on square pieces of cardboard, each
about 6 inches by 6 inches, then cut the board in half, either vertically or diagonally.
(Allow the child to help select and glue the pictures. If the cardboard is lightweight, the
child may be able to cut the puzzle himself.) Place o n e of the pictures in front of the child,
and correctly put it together. Then, take the picture apart, partially rotating pieces. Ask
the child to put the puzzle back together. Encourage him to focus on the picture to be
completed (i.e., "Can you fix the car? Try to put it back together"). If the child has diffi-
culty, show him how to put the puzzle together, then take it apart for him to do again. If
he is unsuccessful, try putting o n e half in the correct orientation, and tell him to finish the
puzzle. Physically assist him if n e e d e d .
Provide regular opportunities for the child to play with these puzzles. You may be able to find
some simple two- or three-piece commercially made puzzles that are designed for toddlers.
CRITERION The child is able to correctly put together two different two-piece puzzles. Using trial
and error is acceptable.
6-lcL Imitates block building

VISUAL PERCEPTION: BLOCKS & PUZZLES 175
PROCEDURES
Place 10 blocks on a table in front of the child. Tell the child that you are g o i n g to m a k e
a building with the blocks. Align four of the blocks horizontally and place a fifth block on
top of the second block. Then ask the child to use the rest of the blocks to make a build-
ing like yours. Leave your building in sight but out of reach. Demonstrate the activity sev-
eral times and give physical assistance if necessary.
At h o m e and in the classroom, e n c o u r a g e children to use blocks of various shapes and

sizes to make buildings that include both horizontal and vertical parts. Show a small group
of children (two or three) a block structure you have created. See if they can recreate it to-
gether or each o n e do it separately. Try different structures.
CRITERION The child imitates a block building.
6-le. Imitates block bridge

MATERIALS 1-inch blocks
PROCEDURES
Place blocks on the table in front of the child. Tell the child that you are g o i n g to make a
bridge with the blocks. Place two blocks on the table with a small space between t h e m .
Place a third block on top of the two blocks, forming a bridge. With a pencil, demonstrate
going under the bridge to draw the child's attention to the open g a p . Then ask the child
to make a bridge like yours. Leave your bridge in sight but out of reach. Remind the child
that a car needs to be able to pass under the bridge, so she should leave a space between
the bottom two blocks. Demonstrate this activity several times and give physical assistance
if necessary.
At h o m e or in a classroom, help the children build a network of roads and bridges with
large wooden blocks for small cars to drive on, over, and under.
CRITERION The child imitates a three-block bridge.
6-lf. Puts together puzzle

with four or five interconnected pieces
MATERIALS Several puzzles with four or five pieces that interconnect
176 COGNITION
PROCEDURES
Give the child an assembled puzzle. Encourage him to look at the picture and tell you
what it is. Ask t h e child to remove the pieces. Then tell him to put t h e puzzle back to-
gether. If he has difficulty, put in s o m e of the pieces, and ask him to put in t h e last o n e
or two pieces. Remind the child to turn or rotate puzzle pieces, if n e e d e d , in order to make
them fit. When the child learns to c o m p l e t e o n e puzzle, try a different one. Allow the child
to have success with a n u m b e r of four- and five-piece puzzles before moving to m o r e com-
plex ones.
Store puzzles where the child can easily reach them on his own. Because it is important to
offer the child a variety of puzzles, be sure to rotate t h e puzzles you make available to the
child. Once a child has mastered a puzzle, it no longer provides a learning challenge. In
s o m e communities, the public library may have children's puzzles available for check out.
CRITERION The child puts together several different puzzles with four or five interconnected
pieces. Using trial and error is acceptable.
6-lg. Imitates horizontal (flat on the table)

block patterns of two and three blocks (two colors)
6-lh. Imitates horizontal block

patterns of four to six blocks (two colors)
MATERIALS 2 0 - 2 4 blocks equally divided between two colors of high contrast (e.g., blue
and yellow, red and yellow, green and white)
PROCEDURES
Tell the child that you are going to play a g a m e in which you will build something with
the blocks and she will try to build o n e like it. Begin with patterns you have seen her build
(e.g., a tower, a bridge). Then, tell her that you are g o i n g to try a different kind. Give her
two blocks of o n e color and o n e of another. Take three identical blocks for yourself and
place them in a row with the odd block on o n e end. Tell the child to build it. If she gets
the pattern correct but has the odd block on the wrong end, show her how it must match
yours by putting it on top of yours. Mix up the blocks and tell her to try it again.
Introduce other patterns of three to six blocks depending on how well the child is im-
itating the patterns.
Make a g a m e of building block patterns. Take turns with the child in constructing the
model the other person is to copy.
In a classroom, prepare cards that have block patterns drawn on t h e m , and keep
them in a box near the blocks so that the children can make patterns at first by placing
VISUAL P E R C E P T I O N : BLOCKS & PUZZLES 177
blocks on top of a card to match the pattern. Once they can do this, they should be able
to begin to make the structure by just looking at the pattern.
CRITERION 6-lg The child imitates several horizontal block patterns of two and three blocks
using two colors.
CRITERION 6-lh The child imitates several horizontal block patterns of four to six blocks using
two colors.
6-li. Completes 8- to 12-piece interconnected puzzles

MATERIALS Several puzzles with 8 - 1 2 pieces that interconnect
PROCEDURES
Give the child an assembled puzzle. Encourage him to look at the picture and to tell you
what it is. Tell the child to remove the pieces and then put the puzzle back together. If the
child has difficulty doing this, put in s o m e of the pieces and let him put in the last two or
three. Remind the child to turn or rotate the puzzle pieces, if needed, in order to make
them fit. When the child learns to c o m p l e t e o n e puzzle, try a different one. Allow the child
to have success with a n u m b e r of puzzles with 8 - 1 2 pieces before moving on to more
c o m p l e x ones. Select puzzles that have b e e n cut logically, so that they are relatively easy
to put together. Try the puzzles yourself, particularly if the child is having difficulty. S o m e
wooden puzzles are surprisingly difficult due to the way the pieces have been cut.
This is a g o o d stage to make use of the inexpensive cardboard frame puzzles that are read-
ily available in a variety of stores. Place puzzles where the child can easily reach them on
his own. Because it is important to offer the child a variety of puzzles, be sure to rotate
the puzzles you make available to the child. Once a child has mastered a puzzle, it no
longer provides a learning challenge. In s o m e communities, the public library may have
children's puzzles available for checkout.
CRITERION The child puts together several different puzzles with 8-7 2 interconnected pieces
Using trial and error is acceptable.
6-lj. Imitates construction of a

simple visual pattern using parquetry blocks
MATERIALS Two matching sets of 8 - 1 0 parquetry blocks (e.g., squares, triangles, diamonds)
PROCEDURES
Place o n e set of blocks in front of the child and the other set in front of you. While the
child is watching, place together four or five blocks forming a simple pattern or design.
178 COGNITION
Tell the child to copy your pattern, making her design look just like yours. If the child has
difficulty, begin with a simple pattern of two blocks. If the child is still having difficulty
with two blocks, try having the child duplicate your design by building her blocks directly
on top of yours. Gradually expand the n u m b e r of blocks and type of blocks used.
Make a g a m e of the activity. After the child copies your pattern, let her make a pattern
for you. Continue to take turns with this activity.
In the classroom, have a set of parquetry blocks with paper patterns that the children
can readily have access to.
CRITERION The child imitates construction of several simple visual patterns of four to five
blocks.
6-lk. Builds representationally with blocks

MATERIALS Set of wooden blocks that includes a variety of shapes
PROCEDURES
Have blocks readily available for the child to play with. A g o o d set of wooden blocks is
o n e of t h e most versatile toys and will give the child many years of creative play. Observe
the child to see if he uses blocks to build buildings, roads, fences, and so forth. If not, play
with him, and show him how to construct various items. Add toys that the child is inter-
ested in. For instance, if the child likes animals, use the blocks to set up a zoo for toy an-
imals. Gradually fade your physical assistance to provide only verbal prompts, if n e e d e d .
Store blocks where they are readily accessible, and e n c o u r a g e regular use for both boys
and girls. Boys generally gravitate to blocks and are quick to build roads and buildings.
Encourage them to expand their repertoire. For girls, it is often helpful to bring in other
pretend elements (e.g., building a house for dolls or a farm for animals).
CRITERION On several occasions, the child builds block structures that he identifies as build-
ings, trains, fences, and so forth.
6-11. Completes 15- to 25-piece interconnected puzzles

MATERIALS Several puzzles with 1 5 - 2 5 pieces that interconnect
PROCEDURES
Give the child an assembled puzzle. Encourage her to look at t h e picture and tell you what
it is. Tell the child to remove the pieces and then put the puzzle back together. If the child
has difficulty in doing this, put in s o m e of the pieces and then let her c o m p l e t e it herself.
VISUAL PERCEPTION: BLOCKS & PUZZLES 179
If the puzzle has definite sides and corners, show the child how to find those pieces and
put them in first. Encourage the child to look at pictures and colors in the puzzle pieces
and match t h e m to t h e puzzle, rather than depending on trial and error. Remind her to
turn or rotate puzzle pieces, if n e e d e d , in order to make them fit. W h e n the child learns
to c o m p l e t e o n e puzzle, try a different one.
O n c e a child has c o m p l e t e d a puzzle several times, it loses much of its educational
value, as children tend to memorize where the pieces b e l o n g . Therefore, a wide variety of
puzzles is r e c o m m e n d e d . To keep costs down, consider making s o m e of your own puzzles,
swapping puzzles with other families, or checking with the local library to see if they have
puzzles available for checkout.
In a classroom, children may work in small groups to put together a large floor puzzle.
CRITERION The child puts together several different puzzles with 15-25 interconnected pieces.
Using trial and error is acceptable.
6-lm. Reproduces simple block designs from memory

MATERIALS Two matching sets of 1-inch colored blocks ( 8 - 1 0 blocks each), sheet of paper
PROCEDURES
Place o n e set of blocks in front of the child and the other set in front of you. While the child
is watching, place together two to three blocks to form a simple pattern or design. Gener-
ally, it is best to focus either on a sequence of blocks of different colors so that the child is
focused on r e m e m b e r i n g the colors or to make a design with blocks of the same color, with
the focus being on r e m e m b e r i n g block placement. Tell the child to r e m e m b e r what it looks
like so that he can build it himself. Cover the design with a sheet of paper, and tell the
child to make a design just like yours. If the child has difficulty, begin with a single block.
Gradually expand the n u m b e r of blocks and the complexity of the design.
Make a g a m e of t h e activity. After the child copies your pattern, let him make a pattern
for you. Continue to take turns with this activity.
In a classroom, have children take turns creating a pattern for others to r e m e m b e r
and imitate.
CRITERION The child reproduces from memory several simple block designs of at least three
blocks.
6-11
Visual Perception:
Matching €r Sorting
B efore children can know that a square is a square, that a circle is a circle, or
that an " A " is an " A , " they must be able to distinguish a square from a cir-
cle and an "A" from a " B , " and so forth. In addition, they must develop a con-
cept of "squareness," "roundness," and "A-ness" so that size, color, or other char-
acteristics do not interfere with the understanding of a particular shape. Early
experiences with form boards and simple puzzles help children develop these dis-
crimination and conceptual skills. At first, children approach the task of complet-
ing a form board in a purely trial-and-error manner. Gradually, they begin to see the
relationship between the shape of the block and the shape of the hole and become
more efficient in completing the boards. These experiences lay the groundwork for
the ability to match, sort, and draw conclusions on the basis of visual characteris-
tics. T h i s sequence is separated from sequence 6-1 (Visual Perception: Blocks & Puz-
zles) because the tasks in this sequence require fewer motor skills and are more cog-
nitive in nature.
T h e Visual Perception sequence is divided into two categories because many
children progress at very different rates through the visual perception tasks with
significant motor requirements and the visual perception tasks with minimal
motor requirements. It is important to be able to document this difference as it
may suggest a need for specific intervention (e.g., occupational therapy for motor-
planning problems) or for modifications in the child's curriculum.
ADAPTATIONS

It is usually easier for children with mild to moderate m o t o r impairments to match
and sort t h a n it is to complete puzzles or block patterns. F o r sorting, materials c a n
181
182 COGNITION
be modified to be easier to pick up (e.g., by attaching large knob handles) or boxes

can be attached to the edge of a table so that the child can simply push an object in
the box rather than have to pick up the object.
Children with severe motor impairments may need to indicate through a gross
pointing response or eye gaze which picture or object is the correct match or where
a picture/object should be placed in a sorting task.
Many children with visual impairments need no modifications beyond having ma-
terials with brighter colors and/or with greater contrast to the background. Chil-
dren with severe visual impairments, however, may need to learn to match and sort
using different characteristics than some included in this sequence. They can be
taught to sort by size and shape by feeling the objects. They are unlikely to be able
to sort by color. Sorting by texture would be more adaptive.

Children with hearing impairments will require no adaptations to these items as
the items are strongly visually based. Be sure to accompany any verbal instruction
with demonstrations as necessary.
6-11. VISUAL PERCEPTION: MATCHING & SORTING
a. Sorts by size (big and little)
b. Matches primary colors
c. Sorts by shape
d. Sorts by two characteristics
e. Matches geometric designs (orientation irrelevant)
f. Matches uppercase letters
g. Matches pictures based on relationships
h. Matches at least eight geometric shapes
i. Selects pictures to group with other pictures based on functional relationships
j. Matches numbers 0 - 9 (may confuse 6 and 9 )
k. Selects pictures to c o m p l e t e simple picture analogies
I. Matches lowercase letters
m. Identifies object or picture that does not b e l o n g in group of objects (by class), and
selects the object that does b e l o n g
n. Matches n a m e and short words
6-lla. Sorts by size (big and little)

MATERIALS Similar toys that are of distinctly different sizes (e.g., large and small cars,
large and small stuffed animals)
PROCEDURES
Use the terms "big" and "little" frequently as you talk about or show objects to the child.
Occasionally, collect s o m e toys together, and tell the child that you want him to place the
toys in two piles—one pile for the big toys and o n e pile for the little toys. Put an exam-
ple of each item in the two locations. If there is a toy of intermediate size, talk about the
fact that m a y b e it is a big object because it is much larger than the smallest o n e but that
it might also be a little object because it is littler than the biggest one. Let the child de-
cide where it should g o .
When cleaning up or sorting laundry, get the child to help by sorting clothing according
to size (e.g., "Daddy's big socks go here, and your little socks go there").
CRITERION Given examples, the child sorts big and little objects.
183
184 COGNITION
6-llb. Matches primary colors

MATERIALS Objects and containers in primary colors
PROCEDURES
Present the child with a red container filled with red objects (e.g., blocks) and a blue con-
tainer filled with blue objects. Dump them out and mix up t h e objects. One at a time,
begin putting them back into the proper-color containers, each time saying the color
n a m e and holding the o b j e c t in front of t h e container to show the child how it matches.
Then hand an o b j e c t to the child, and observe where she puts it.
Or, create two piles of objects that are different colors (e.g., a pile of blue objects and
a pile of yellow objects). Then, as you pick up another o b j e c t to add to the pile, identify
each o b j e c t by color, and place it in the appropriate pile. If the child begins placing t h e
objects in the correct pile but then makes an error, ask, "Oops, does that go t h e r e ? " and
help t h e child correct the error. If the child begins by randomly putting the objects in the
container, however, let her finish, then dump out the objects, and demonstrate t h e process
again. If the child still does not match t h e objects by color, wait until another day and try
two other primary colors or black and white.
When t h e child easily sorts two colors at a time, add a third, perhaps reducing t h e
n u m b e r of items of each color to avoid having too many objects for the child to sort.
N o t e : A child who is colorblind may be able to match only black and white or a dark
color and yellow. If you observe that the child is regularly successful with these combina-
tions but not with any of the others, continue to n a m e colors, but do not keep repeating
this activity. Refer the child to an eye specialist.
Talk to the child about different colors or objects throughout the day. Point out what col-
ors she is wearing. Find objects in the environment that match what she is wearing, and
point out that they are the same color. When getting dressed, show her an o b j e c t of a
specific color, and ask her to find a shirt that matches. Sort socks into matching piles.
In a classroom, store crayons so that all of the red are in o n e container, all of t h e
blue are in another, and so forth. Have the children sort the crayons when replacing them
after use.
CRITERION The child matches primary colors on several occasions.
6-IIc. Sorts by shape

MATERIALS Several matching sets of circles, squares, and triangles (These items should
be the s a m e size and color.) Paper shapes can be used.
VISUAL P E R C E P T I O N : MATCHING & SORTING 185
PROCEDURES
Place a circle and a square in front of the child. Using a second set of shapes, show him
how to match the shapes, placing the shapes directly on top of the matching items. Say
the n a m e of the shape as you place the item. For example, "Here is a circle. It is just like
your circle, so I am going to place it on top." It may help the child understand the con-
cept more easily if you have several identical items of each shape to match. When the
child is successful at matching two shapes, try three.
Pretend that you are cooking with the child. All of the circles (cookies) go on o n e plate,
all the squares (toast) go on another, and so forth.
CRITERION Given examples, the child sorts three basic shapes on several occasions.
6-lld. Sorts by two characteristics

MATERIALS Several matching sets of circles in two different sizes and three primary col-
ors. Paper shapes can be used.
PROCEDURES
Place a large and small circle of two different colors in front of the child. Using a second
set of shapes, show her how to match the size and color, placing the shape directly on top
of its matching item. Point out the characteristics of the item as you consider where to
place it. For example, say, "Here is a big blue circle." Hold it next to each shape it does
not match, and c o m m e n t on why it does not b e l o n g there (e.g., "This is a circle, but it is
a small circle, so it does not match"). After you have demonstrated matching each shape,
hand the shapes to the child, o n e at a time, and ask her to match t h e m . Provide physical
prompts and verbal cues as n e e d e d .
Encourage the child to sort other objects using two characteristics as the guideline. Help
her sort cars or stuffed animals by size and color. Have the child help with laundry, put-
ting all of the big blue towels in o n e pile and all of the small blue washcloths in another.
CRITERION Given examples, the child sorts objects by two characteristics on several different
occasions.
6-He. Matches geometric designs (orientation irrelevant)

MATERIALS Two sets of cards with matching designs (one card with a square, o n e card
with a square and an X in the middle, o n e card with a square and a diagonal line through
it, and o n e card with a square with the bottom half darkened)
186 COGNITION
PROCEDURES
Make two sets of four cards using the designs described in the Materials section. Place o n e
set of cards in a line in front of the child, and shuffle the remaining set of cards. One at
a time, hand the cards to t h e child. Tell him to place each card on top of the o n e that is
the s a m e in his line of cards. If the child has difficulty, demonstrate matching all of t h e
cards. Then, tell the child to try again. If he still has difficulty, present only two design
cards at a time. When the child can successfully match the designs with a choice of two,
try three, and then four different designs.
In the classroom, play matching g a m e s with children's Go Fish cards. They often c o m e in
a variety of designs. At this age, t h e child is unlikely to play a g a m e of cards but may enjoy
matching cards together.
CRITERION The child matches at least four geometric designs.
6-1 If. Matches uppercase letters

MATERIALS Two sets of cards with the uppercase alphabet
PROCEDURES
Place four cards in front of the child. Initially, select letters that are very different in ap-
pearance (e.g., A, 0, L, S). Then, hand the child a second card with o n e of these four let-
ters on it. Tell t h e child to place it on the letter that is the same in her line of cards. If the
child has difficulty in doing this, demonstrate matching the four cards and then repeat the
procedure. If necessary, begin with matching only two cards at a time, then three, and
then four. When the child can readily match for dissimilar letters, try matching with let-
ters that are similar (e.g., P, B, R, D).
At home, place magnetic letters on the refrigerator. Let the child attach letter cards to the
refrigerator, using the correct magnetic letter.
In a classroom, hang a chart on the wall that shows all of the letters of the alphabet
with pockets beneath each letter. Shuffle alphabet cards and distribute them to the chil-
dren (each child may have several cards). Point to the first letter and ask the person who
has the card that matches to bring it up and place it in the pocket below the correct let-
ter. Continue this activity until the alphabet is c o m p l e t e d .
CRITERION The child correctly matches all uppercase letters without errors.
6-Ilg. Matches pictures based

on relationships (e.g., foot goes with sock)
MATERIALS Several sets of pictures of things that bear a relationship to each other
(e.g., foot/sock, hand/glove, hammer/nail, paints/paint brush, head/hat, b o n e / d o g , car/
garage)
PROCEDURES
Place two pictures in front of the child (e.g., foot and hand). Hand the child the picture
of the glove and ask him, "Where does this g o ? " If the child does not correctly place the
picture on the hand, say, "This is a glove. It belongs on your hand. Put it on the picture
of a hand." If n e e d e d , physically guide the child in placement. Then, hand him the pic-
ture of the sock and repeat the procedure. As t h e child is successful, increase the n u m b e r
of card choices placed before him at o n e time.
At circle time or another group time, give each child a picture that b e l o n g s to a set. Then,
hold up the other pictures in that set, o n e at a time. The child whose picture g o e s with
the o n e you are holding should c o m e forward to make the match. A more challenging ac-
tivity is to pass out a picture to each student and have the students find the child with the
picture that g o e s with theirs.
CRITERION The child matches pictures based on relationship for at least five different sets of
items on three different occasions.
6-llh. Matches at least eight geometric shapes

MATERIALS Shape puzzle with at least eight shapes, or two sets of matching cards with
at least eight different shapes drawn on them
PROCEDURES
Place a puzzle in front of the child. Remove all of the shapes and place them above the
puzzle. Tell the child to put the shapes back into the puzzle. If she has difficulty, demon-
strate how to put the shapes into the puzzle. Then, remove the shapes again and tell the
child to complete the puzzle. If she is still unsuccessful, start with four c o m m o n shapes
such as the circle, square, triangle, and star. When the child is successful, add o n e shape
at a time until she is able to do eight different ones. When adding each new shape, point
out to the child how it is different from similar shapes (i.e., circle and oval). The goal is
for the child to match the shape visually, not through trial-and-error placement.
You can also try this with a set of cards with at least eight different shapes. Spread
o n e set of cards in front of the child. Then hand the matching cards to the child o n e at a
time. Tell the child to put it on the shape that matches it.
188 COGNITION
At home, use a large vertical flannel board with shapes on it. Hand the child a shape and
tell her to put it on t h e matching shape. In the classroom, make this a group activity in
which shapes are passed out to all of the children and they take turns putting them on
the matching shapes.
You can also make various shapes using cookie cutters and either play dough or
cookie dough. Talk a b o u t the different shapes.
CRITERION The child matches at least eight geometric shapes.
6-1II. Selects pictures to group with

other pictures based on functional relationships
MATERIALS Pictures of objects that can be grouped by function—pictures from maga-
zines mounted on cards work well (e.g., crayon, pencil, pen, and marker; coupe, sedan,
and station wagon; bulldozer, fork lift, dump truck, and grader; train, city bus, school bus,
and trolley car; envelope, paper, stamp, and postal carrier), additional pictures of objects
and people in different uniforms
PROCEDURES
Place two or three pictures related by function (e.g., crayon, pen, marker) in front of the
child and say, "These pictures go together." Then, place three or four additional pictures
below them (e.g., pencil, flashlight, and collapsed umbrella). Ask, "Which o n e of these
pictures g o e s with the others?" If the child does not choose the pencil, explain to him why
the pencil g o e s with the other pictures (e.g., a pencil is something you write with just like
the other pictures were of things you write with). Try again with other pictures.
A m o n g the pictures the child chooses to go with the samples should be pictures
of objects that are of a similar shape but different function, are in the s a m e category
(e.g., vehicle) but serve a different function (e.g., carrying many people versus carrying
a few people), or are otherwise making the child think a b o u t what he has observed. For
example, you could have choices of a postal carrier, a doctor, and a fire fighter with paper,
envelope, and stamp.
In a classroom, this is an activity that works well with a small group using a flannel board
to show the pictures. This provides a g o o d opportunity to talk about t h e choices, giving
the children the words to go with the concepts they have formed by observation.
CRITERION On several occasions, the child selects a picture to go with a group of pictures
based on functional relationships.
6-1 Ij. Matches numbers 0-9 (may confuse 6 and 9)

MATERIALS Two sets of cards with numerals 0 - 9
PROCEDURES
Place four n u m b e r cards in front of the child. Then, hand the child a second card with
o n e of these four numbers on it. Tell the child to place it on the n u m b e r that is the same
as o n e in her line of cards. If the child has difficulty in doing this, demonstrate matching
the four cards and then repeat the procedure. If necessary, begin with matching only two
cards at a time, then three, and then four.
At home, place magnetic numbers on the refrigerator. Let the child attach playing cards
to the refrigerator, using the correct magnetic n u m b e r for each card.
In the classroom, you could do the s a m e activity and attach the cards and numbers
to a file cabinet or other metal surface.
CRITERION The child is able to correctly match numbers 0-9.
6-IIk. Selects pictures to complete simple picture analogies

MATERIALS A variety of small pictures that relate to each other in various ways. They
may b e l o n g to the s a m e category (e.g., flowers, vehicles, things that fly, domestic animals,
wild animals), they may have the s a m e shape, they may have the same color, or they may
be used together (e.g., needle and thread, hat and head, shoe and sock).
PROCEDURES
The goal of this item is to teach the child to identify the relationship between two pictures
so that he can form a similar relationship with a second set of pictures. To teach this con-
cept, place two pictures of cars in front of the child, side by side. Place a third picture of
a car in a second row. Well below these pictures, place four additional pictures (e.g., truck,
car, airplane, cow). Pointing to the cars, say, "These two things go together." Pointing to
the row of four cards, say, "Which o n e of these cards g o e s with this o n e ? " (The child should
point to the third car.) If the child makes a mistake, correct it, and say, "These go together
because they are both cars. These also go together because they are both cars." Then, try
again with a different set of cards, perhaps using a horse and cow with a duck and choices
between a chicken, a dog, a cat, and a mouse. S o m e other examples include having two
different kinds of cars and an airplane with a helicopter, a car, a truck, and a train for
choices; a hand, a glove, and a foot with a sock, a mitten, a scarf, and pants for choices;
and a car, a bus, and a bicycle with a train, a truck, a tricycle, and an airplane for choices.
190 COGNITION

In the classroom, this can be used as a small-group or circle activity, mounting the pic-
tures on a flannel board and letting the children take turns completing the analogies. Dis-
cuss the reasons for t h e choices.
CRITERION The child selects pictures to complete several simple picture analogies.
6-1II. Matches lowercase letters

MATERIALS Two sets of cards with the lowercase alphabet
PROCEDURES
Place four cards in front of the child. Initially, select letters that are very different in ap-
pearance (e.g., a, o, I, s). Then, hand the child a second card with o n e of these four let-
ters on it. Tell the child to place it on the letter that is the s a m e in her line of cards. If the
child has difficulty in doing this, demonstrate matching the four cards and then repeat the
procedure. If necessary, begin with matching only two cards at a time, then three, and
then four. When the child can readily match for dissimilar letters, try matching with let-
ters that are similar (e.g., p, b, q, d).
At home, place magnetic letters on the refrigerator. Let the child attach letter cards to the
refrigerator, using the correct magnetic letter.
In a classroom, hang a chart on the wall that shows all of the letters of the alphabet
with pockets beneath each letter. Shuffle alphabet cards and distribute them to the chil-
dren (each child may have several cards). Point to the first letter and ask the person who
has the card that matches to bring it up and place it in the pocket below the correct let-
ter. Continue this activity until the alphabet is completed.
CRITERION The child correctly matches lowercase letters.
6-IIm. Identifies object or picture

that does not belong in group of objects
(by class), and selects the object that does belong
MATERIALS Blocks of different colors, sizes, and shapes; playing cards; a variety of small
toys
PROCEDURES
Make a set of four objects or pictures in which o n e m e m b e r does not b e l o n g (e.g., show
the child three large, red, square blocks and o n e large, red, round block; show the child
three jacks of spades and o n e jack of clubs). Also, provide choices for the child that in-
clude the similar objects so that he can replace the o b j e c t that does not b e l o n g with the
o b j e c t that does. Ask the child to remove the o b j e c t that does not b e l o n g . Then, tell him
to c h o o s e the o n e that does to replace it. When a child makes choices a b o u t which item
does or does not b e l o n g , ask why he m a d e that choice. Talk about why you might make
that choice or another.
In the classroom, you can make this a g a m e at circle time, perhaps imitating the Ses-
a m e Street song, "One of These Things" (is not like the others). Have o n e child choose
which o n e does not b e l o n g and replace it with o n e that does. Talk about both correct and
incorrect choices to help the whole class understand.
This can be d o n e easily in a group setting using a large grid, such as a flannel board. Place
a picture in each of the four grids, with three pictures that go together in some way
(e.g., all show transportation, all show animals) and o n e that is different. Lay out a number
of pictures in front of the board, and ask the children to find the one that does not belong.
Select one child to c o m e forward and remove the one that does not belong and replace it
with the one that does. Repeat this activity until each child has had at least o n e turn.
CRITERION On five different trials, using different materials, the child identifies an object that
does not belong in a set and finds one that does belong using two or three characteristics
(e.g., size, shape, color, number, object class). The child passes a trial if he gives a valid reason
for the choice, even if it is different than yours.
6-Iln. Matches name and short words

MATERIALS Two sets of cards with child's n a m e and a variety of short words
PROCEDURES
Place four word cards in front of the child. Show the child her n a m e card, and tell her
what it says. Initially, select words that are very different in appearance (e.g., "Bonnie,"
"cat," " g o , " "fish"). Then, hand the child a second card with o n e of these four words on
it. Tell the child to place it on the word that is the s a m e as the o n e in her line of cards. If
the child has difficulty doing this, demonstrate matching the four cards and then repeat
the procedure. If necessary, begin with matching only two cards at a time, then three,
and then four. When the child can readily match four dissimilar words, try matching
with words that are similar (e.g., "cat," "car," "hat," "sat"). If this is too difficult, the child
may need more experience with a variety of visual-perceptual tasks (e.g., puzzles, build-
ing with blocks, copying simple block designs) before she is ready to discriminate subtle
differences.
In the classroom, use circle time to hold up each child's n a m e on a card, o n e at a time.
Tell each child to take his or her n a m e card and put it in the pocket on the wall that also
bears his or her name.
CRITERION The child is able to match her name and several other short words.
Functional Use of
Objects & Symbolic Play
B etween the second and fifth birthdays, typically developing children progress
from understanding the appropriate uses of objects to using those objects as
symbols, that is, to imagine that one object is another. Flattened play dough
becomes a cookie, a toy dinosaur comes to life and gobbles up marbles, or a stick
becomes a clarinet. Adults who are concentrating on teaching the child about "real
life" often undervalue such imaginative play.
Imagination or symbolic play, however, plays a major role in the development
of language, in understanding social interactions through role playing, and in learn-
ing to think about the ways in which problems might be solved. It is important for
adults to encourage imaginative play through participating in a child's pretend play
(e.g., pretending to eat mud pies), providing materials for dress-up, reading fantasy
stories, and generally demonstrating an interest in the themes of the child's play.
ADAPTATIONS

It is particularly difficult for children with severe motor impairments to participate
in the usual forms of imaginative play. It is especially critical that these children
have some form of communication so that others can engage them in their play
through conversations. An adequate communication system will also allow chil-
dren with severe motor impairments to suggest themes for play and assume differ-
ent roles.
Children with severe visual impairments may need help in becoming an active par-
ticipant in imaginative play with other children. You may need to coach the child's
193
194 COGNITION
peers on ways to include the child in their games. It may also be helpful to talk to
the children without visual impairments about what it might feel like to not be
able to see well. At circle t i m e or other group time, ask for volunteers to put on
blindfolds and explore toys or try to walk around the room. You might ask the child
with a visual impairment to coach the volunteers on how to identify objects or nav-
igate around obstacles. T h i s usually leads other children to want to volunteer and,
in the process, they usually get a better sense of what their peers with visual im-
pairments experience, along with the special skills they have.

Beyond using whatever form of communication is familiar to a child while playing
with him or her, few, if any, modifications are needed for most children with hear-
ing impairments. Children using signs for communication often work them natu-
rally into their pretend play, and these should be counted as speech. Item 7d may
need to be omitted for children with severe hearing impairments.
7. FUNCTIONAL USE OF OBJECTS & SYMBOLIC PLAY
a. Talks to dolls or animals and/or makes them interact with o n e another
b. Assumes different roles in fantasy play
c. Represents more c o m p l e x events in play
d. Uses different voices for different people in play
e. Pretend play includes a logical s e q u e n c e (with three to four parts) that evolves as play
proceeds
f. Uses materials to construct other objects
g. Uses dolls, stuffed animals, or puppets as participants in play (gives dialogue to

them)
h. Describes own activities during play
i. Builds large structures from blocks or chairs and centers play around them
j. Cooperates with others in pretend play (discusses roles)
k. Uses toy animals or dolls to act out "What would happen i f . . . ? "
I. Engages in complex adult role playing
7a. Talks to dolls or animals and/or

makes them interact with one another
MATERIALS A variety of toys that stimulate imaginative play (e.g., dolls, doll bed, bot-
tles, small dishes, cars, trucks, toy animals, puppets, doll clothing)
PROCEDURES
Place a puppet on each hand, and make the puppets talk to each other (or stand two
stuffed animals up and provide them with a brief conversation, e.g., "Hello, Mr. Bear.
What do you want for dinner?" "I would like s o m e ice cream," "Okay, let me get you
some"). Then, give the child o n e of the puppets or animals, and try to get her to speak
for it as you play together.
Try giving the child two animals or puppets while you have one. Observe to see if she
will have the two interact with each other as well as with the animal you have.
Frequently play pretend with the child. Hug and kiss a baby doll or toy animal, take o n e
for a ride in a car or truck, talk for it, and so forth. Encourage the child to participate
(e.g., "The poor bear is hungry. Can you feed him s o m e supper?" "Oh, dear. The bear fell
down. He is crying. B o o hoo").
Pretend play is a g o o d way to play with a child when you have time to devote your-
self to the play, but it is also an excellent way to entertain a child when you are busy doing
something else. You can e n c o u r a g e the child to take dolls or animals on trips, to get the
o n e that is lonely and needs s o m e company, and so forth.
195
196 COGNITION
At h o m e and in t h e classroom, watch for the child's spontaneous use of fantasy play
in which she talks to animals or dolls or has the animals or dolls interact with o n e another.
N o t e : S o m e adults are uncomfortable with little boys playing with dolls. If this is true
for a family you are working with, e n c o u r a g e the family to use stuffed animals or male
action figures in pretend play with the child. Fantasy play usually begins as an imitation
of the actions of adults and the ways they interact with children and o n e another.
CRITERION On three or more occasions, the child spontaneously engages in imaginative play
during which she talks to toy animals or dolls or has the animals/dolls interact with one another
(animals fighting one another is common fantasy play for some children).
7b. Assumes different roles in fantasy play

7c. Represents more complex
events in play (e.g., plays doctor with doll
or animal, shops using a wagon as a shopping cart)
MATERIALS Dolls, stuffed animals, wagons or other wheel toys, e m p t y food boxes, play
dishes and utensils, pencils and paper, a collection of old shoes and hats or other cast-off
adult items that the child could use for play
PROCEDURES
Play with the child, modeling different roles. For example, pretend to be a baby and have
the child feed you or otherwise take care of you. You can also suggest a different role for
the child (e.g., "Let's pretend you're M o m m y and you're g o i n g off to work. What do you
need?").
Encourage more c o m p l e x fantasy play by modeling this kind of play for the child and
participating with him if he tries to involve you (e.g., take t h e role of t h e storekeeper if
the child c o m e s and says he is shopping). Occasionally make suggestions without actually
structuring the play for the child (e.g., "This bear has hurt its leg. It needs a doctor," or "I
see you have your wagon. Are you going shopping today?").
Participate in the child's pretend play when he tries to involve you. In a classroom, have
a dress-up and housekeeping center as well as materials that will suggest being a store-
keeper (e.g., cash register), a doctor (e.g., Band-Aid boxes, toy stethoscope), and so forth.
If the children do not spontaneously assume roles, suggest s o m e ("Who would like to be
the doctor?" "Who wants to be the postal carrier?")
CRITERION 7b The child assumes at least three different roles in play. This may be done spon-
taneously or in response to a suggestion from someone else, but the child must indicate some
understanding of each role by the use of different props or by different behaviors (e.g., sucking
a bottle or crying for baby, putting on a hat for Daddy, using a stethoscope for doctor).
FUNCTIONAL USE OF OBJECTS & S Y M B O L I C PLAY 197
CRITERION 7c On at /east three occasions, the ch/7d spontaneously represents complex events
in fantasy play (e.g., assumes a role and follows through a sequence of activities, such as pre-
tending to cook and then serve a meal; using a wagon as a shopping cart, pretending to buy
food, taking the food home, and putting it away; saying that a truck is broken, pretending a
block is a tool, repairing the truck, and then having it run again).
7d. Uses different voices for different people in play

MATERIALS Dolls, puppets, stuffed animals, or other toys that facilitate role playing
PROCEDURES
When you are e n g a g i n g in pretend play with the child, use a different voice for each role
you assume. For example, use a high-pitched voice and "baby talk" when you are the
baby, use a low-pitched voice when you are the daddy, and use a big roaring voice if you
speak for a lion.
Listen to the child as she takes different roles. Is she also changing voices?

When you read to the child, use different voices for the different characters. When the
child b e c o m e s familiar with a story, let the child tell it to you as she looks at the pictures.
Listen to see if the child also uses different voices for the different characters.
Observe the child's spontaneous play and the times she looks at books. Does she use
different voices for different characters?
CRITERION The child alters her voice to portray the role of a puppet, doll, or story character
on two or more occasions.
7e. Pretend play includes a logical sequence

(with three to four parts) that evolves as play proceeds
MATERIALS Dolls, stuffed animals, wagons or other wheel toys, empty or full cans or
boxes of food, pots and pans, real or play tools
PROCEDURES
Engage the child in make-believe activities that involve a s e q u e n c e of acts. For example,
give him s o m e play dough, and ask him to make lunch for you. Or, provide him with sev-
eral dolls or animals, and tell him to get them ready to go shopping. Encourage him to
talk about what he is doing. Observe his spontaneous pretend play and note whether it
includes a logical s e q u e n c e of actions.
198 COGNITION
Make a point of talking a b o u t s e q u e n c e s in daily activities with t h e child (e.g., "First we

get the pan hot and then we put in the e g g . We turn it over when it is d o n e on that side
and then we put it on the plate," "We are g o i n g to the store. First we need to make a list
so we won't forget anything, then I'll have to get my keys and my purse").
In the classroom, pay attention as the children play freely in the dress-up center or
other areas where they are e n g a g i n g in pretend play. Occasionally ask t h e m to describe
what they are doing. Ask questions or make c o m m e n t s to promote sequential activities.
CRITERION The child demonstrates a logical sequence (with three to four parts) in fantasy play
on two or more occasions.
7f. Uses materials to construct other objects

MATERIALS Blocks, scraps of cloth, boxes, lids, plastic containers, e m p t y spools
PROCEDURES
Give the child time to play with materials that lend themselves to construction activities
(e.g., blocks, plastic containers). Do not interfere with the way the child uses these mate-
rials, but observe and talk to her a b o u t what she is doing (e.g., "What are you making?
You're stacking them up high. Is that a tower?"). Occasionally play alongside the child and
create simple objects yourself (e.g., a snake from pop beads, a house of blocks or boxes,
a car of spools and a b o x ) . Be sure to explain to the child what you are doing.
In the classroom, provide construction materials in an area where children are free to g o .
Encourage two or three children to make something together. Listen to t h e children's con-
versation about what they are constructing. Occasionally ask them to show you their con-
struction or show other children in the classroom and tell everyone a b o u t it.
CRITERION The child frequently uses materials to construct other objects and communicates
what the object is. Communication may be verbal or through actions (e.g., hooking two boxes
together and pushing them, saying, "choo, choo").
7g. Uses dolls, stuffed animals, or puppets

as participants in play (gives dialogue to them)
MATERIALS Dolls, stuffed animals, or puppets
PROCEDURES
Model for the child integrating dolls, stuffed animals, or puppets into play (e.g., talk for
the characters, hold a conversation with t h e m , have them participate in whatever activity
FUNCTIONAL USE OF OBJECTS & SYMBOLIC PLAY 199
you are doing). This is a g o o d way to prepare a child for an activity. For example, if t h e
child is g o i n g to the doctor, you might have o n e puppet or doll be a doctor and another
a little boy. The little boy is scared, but the doctor is nice. The doctor listens to his heart
and look in his ears. The doctor tells him what a big boy he is.
Be sure to observe and listen to the child as he plays. If the child continues to play
without dialogue or uses only o n e character (e.g., doll, animal) in play, occasionally join
t h e play with another toy and introduce dialogue and a different role.
In a classroom, maintain a dramatic play area and allow children of all different fantasy
play ability levels to play together. Create a simple puppet stage from a sturdy packing
case where the children can do puppet shows for the other children. Observe each child
to determine his or her progress.
CRITERION The child gives dialogue and/or different roles to stuffed dolls, animals, or puppets
in play on two or more occasions.
7h. Describes own activities during play

PROCEDURES
Listen to t h e child. If she does not describe her own activities either to herself or to you,
e n c o u r a g e this by c o m m e n t i n g on t h e m yourself (e.g., "It looks like that truck is carry-
ing a big load"), by asking questions a b o u t what she is doing (e.g., "Where is the truck
g o i n g with such a big load?"), and by modeling this behavior during your own activities
(e.g., "Let's see, I think I'll dig all t h e holes before I put the flowers in").
In the classroom, listen to the children's conversations. A child may be more likely to de-
scribe what she is doing when she is with a peer than when she is with an adult.
CRITERION The child frequently describes her own activities spontaneously during play (not in
response to questions).
7i. Builds large structures from blocks

or chairs and centers play around them
PROCEDURES
Demonstrate for the child how you can build a play house or a private place. Make a room
from a few old towels or sheets draped over chairs or a table, or simply arrange chairs to
200 COGNITION
separate spaces. Let the child play with what you have created and c h a n g e it as he wishes.
If limited space is available, set aside special times (e.g., rainy days) when you bring out
materials that will e n c o u r a g e this kind of activity. If the child does not readily respond,
you may suggest s o m e play activities (e.g., "This is the doll's house, and this is your house.
M a y b e you can go and visit and have s o m e cookies").
In t h e classroom, help the children use chairs or blocks to construct a road, a train, or sep-
arate rooms. Allow and e n c o u r a g e this kind of activity during free play.
CRITERION On two or more occasions, the child builds large structures and centers play
around them without adult suggestion (he may do this alone or with other children),
7j. Cooperates with others in pretend piay (discusses roles)

PROCEDURES
Model how to cooperate with others in your play with the child. For example, suggest that
you will be the baby and t h e child will be t h e parent, and then say, "Am I g o i n g to be a
crying baby or a happy b a b y ? " Respond to any of t h e child's efforts to involve you in her
pretend play. Sometimes, play a role in an unexpected way to see if she will correct you
and tell you the way you should play the role.
Pretend play is a natural activity for small groups of children in a classroom. Observe the
children as they play together. If they do not spontaneously discuss roles, e n c o u r a g e them
to do so by asking questions or making suggestions.
CRITERION The child cooperates with others in pretend play and discusses roles with them on
three or more occasions.
7k. Uses toy animals or dolls to

act out "What would happen if . . . ? "
MATERIALS Toy animals, dolls, and/or puppets
PROCEDURES
Encourage the child to think a b o u t the way o n e event follows another by playing with him
using dolls, puppets, or animals. Have something happen to o n e character that requires
s o m e action (e.g., your doll falls and scrapes its knee). Ask t h e child what will happen next
(e.g., "Oh dear, the baby scraped her knee. What is she going to do?"). Act out what t h e
FUNCTIONAL USE OF OBJECTS & SYMBOLIC PLAY 201
child tells you, or give him the doll to act it out. If t h e child does not tell you or act out
the part, suggest what might happen and act it out.
Observe t h e child carefully while playing a l o n e or with other children to determine
if he is b e g i n n i n g to use fantasy play to act out solutions to problems or to consider dif-
ferent o u t c o m e s for a situation.
In a classroom, observe the child playing with a group of children to see if he participates
in s e q u e n c e s of play that involve anticipating c o n s e q u e n c e s or taking care of something
that might happen. For example, a peer might crash a car and pretend its driver is hurt
and the child may grab a stuffed animal and say, "Here's the doctor. He'll fix it." If this
does not happen spontaneously, try to prompt the child to react to such situations by ask-
ing questions such as, "What is g o i n g to h a p p e n ? " or "What should you do now?"
CRITERION The child uses dolls or toys to act out "What would happen if. . .?" on two or
more occasions.
71. Engages in complex adult role

playing (e.g., plays house with other children
and solves problems as adults would solve them)
PROCEDURES
Model role playing for t h e child as you e n g a g e in fantasy play with her. That is, assume
different roles (e.g., "I'm the M o m m y g o i n g off to work"), suggest problems (e.g., "Oh,
dear, the car won't start. What should I do?"), and try to get the child to act out solutions
to the problems. Be sure the child has opportunities to play and practice these behaviors
with other children.
In any classroom equipped with appropriate dress-up, housekeeping, and other materi-
als, c o m p l e x adult role playing naturally e m e r g e s . Observe the child to see how much she
participates. Does she just go along with the other children, or does she genuinely take
roles and carry out t h e m e s in play? If she is not actively participating, try to prompt her
by suggesting or demonstrating what she might do.
CRITERION The child engages in complex adult role playing with adults or other children on
three or more occasions.
8
Problem Solving/Reasoning
F rom birth,, children actively seek to understand their world. For their first
2 years, children devote themselves to exploring the physical properties of
objects and how they can be used. Through trial-and-crror experimentation,
they learn to solve concrete problems (e.g., how to obtain things beyond reach, how
to overcome barriers). In the period between 2 and 5 years, children's experiments
become more sophisticated. They draw conclusions from one experience and test
those conclusions. Like adults, their conclusions are sometimes inaccurate based
on limited information. For example, a child may stamp a foot at the same time
the furnace comes on and assume that he or she caused the furnace's action. When
the furnace goes off, the child may stamp again, listening expectantly. Or, the child
may stamp in front of the refrigerator or other device to make a similar sound when
it comes on. T h e child may try several times before modifying his or her initial
conclusion.
With the dramatic increase of language skills that occurs in the preschool pe-
riod, children begin to communicate their conclusions and test them against those
of peers and adults; this is the beginning of verbal reasoning. T h e purpose of this se-
quence is to help children to observe the effects they have on the objects around
them and, as language emerges, to be able to discuss perceptions and conclusions
with adults. Another goal is to help children develop confidence and pleasure in
their efforts to understand the world around them.
ADAPTATIONS
To the extent possible, adapt materials for children with motor impairments to suit
their capabilities. You should consult a child's physical and/or occupational therapist
for advice about how to maximize the child's interactions with the environment.
203
204 COGNITION
When a problem naturally occurs for a child with motor impairments, try to
think of a way that the child might solve the problem using his or her specific ca-
pabilities, rather than trying to teach the child to solve the problem in the typical
manner. You should demonstrate that solution for the child.
Be creative when devising tasks for children with severe motor impairments so
that the tasks will challenge but not overwhelm the children's motor capabilities.
Communication is especially important for the development of reasoning
skills. Seek help from a communication specialist if a child's motor impairment in-
terferes with his or her speech.
Expose children with motor impairments to children who are solving problems
in the environment. Talk about what they are doing. Encourage the other children
to place their toys in front of a child with motor impairments and show him or her
how they work.
Choose materials for children with visual impairments that will not only challenge
both residual vision and tactile and motor capacities but will also provide enough
sound or other effects to maintain interest.
If a child has a severe visual impairment, many items in this sequence will be
very difficult to master. T h e child will need a great deal of hand-over-hand help in
exploring objects to understand their characteristics.

T h e only modification needed for children with hearing impairments is to commu-
nicate with the child in his or her preferred mode communication, using signs or
other augments to speech if the child is using them. Consult with the child's audi-
ologist and speech-language therapist.
8. PROBLEM SOLVING/REASONING
a. Experiments with cause and effect when playing
b. Independently nests four containers, or stacks rings or blocks of graduated sizes
c. Comments that something is not working when expected effects are not produced
d. Independently explores objects to determine their functions and/or shows other peo-
ple how they work
e. Answers at least o n e "why do" question correctly
f. Identifies silly or wrong pictures or events
g. Finds items that go together when asked, "Which o n e g o e s with this?"
h. Completes sequences of colors or shapes
i. Tells how an object is used when asked, "What do you do with this?"
j. Answers two o r more "what d o you d o when" questions
k. Answers questions (or points to pictures) to indicate where things c o m e from or what
they are m a d e of
I. Describes simple absurdities seen in pictures or real life
m. Responds appropriately to "tell me how" or "how do you" questions
n. Completes two analogies (i.e., sentences involving comparisons, such as "Brother is

a boy, sister is a girl")
o. Identifies missing parts in pictures
p. Imagines and describes what will happen next in unfamiliar story or picture
q. Reasons about experiences and asks and answers questions
r. Describes new uses for familiar objects
s. Describes similarities between two different objects
t. Reasons about future events
8a. Experiments with cause and effect when playing

MATERIALS Empty gift-wrap or paper towel tubes, small toys, a funnel, jar lids
PROCEDURES
Gather together s o m e c o m m o n household items such as those listed above. Sit with the
child, and show him s o m e things you might do with these objects. For example, you could
put a toy car in a tube and watch it roll out the other end when you place the t u b e at an
angle, you could pour liquid into a funnel and watch it drain into a glass, or you could
spin a j a r lid on its side. After performing these tasks in front of the child, let him explore
and play with the objects on his own. Observe to see if he imitates activities you have tried
or tries variations on t h e m .
205
206 COGNITION
Make it clear to t h e child that you are interested in how everything works (e.g., when giv-
ing the child a bath, show him how heavy toys sink to the bottom of the tub and how
light o n e s float; show him how cars and trucks stay still on a level surface but roll down-
ward when the surface is tilted). Provide many objects for free play that will lend them-
selves to experimentation (e.g., blocks, cars, paper tubes, containers of different sizes).
Observe the child when he is playing a l o n e or with other children. Watch for activi-
ties that indicate that he is either experimenting with the ideas that you have shared with
him or experimenting on his own.
In a classroom, have t h e children collect rocks, sticks, or leaves when out walking. Put
t h e m , o n e by one, in a tub of water to see what floats and what sinks. Also, have each
child bring in something in order to show others how it works-—encourage parents to pro-
vide s o m e sturdy household items so that the children can experiment with them (e.g.,
an old-fashioned e g g beater that will make b u b b l e s in the water if a little soap is added).
CRITERION The child experiments with some materials or objects, apparently trying to under-
stand how they work, on three or more occasions.
8b. Independently nests four containers,

or stacks rings or blocks of graduated sizes
MATERIALS Nesting cups (six or more), set of five or six blocks of graduated sizes, stack-
ing rings (the center column should be in the form of a c o n e rather than a cylinder so that
not all of the rings will fit unless placed in the proper order)
PROCEDURES
Show the child a set of nesting cups, separate them, and then show the child how they all
fit together. Take them apart again and give them to the child to see if she can put them to-
gether properly. Do not provide help unless she begins to show signs of frustration. Take out
any cup that has been placed incorrectly, and point to the o n e that it should go in. Give as
much help in this way as necessary to complete the task. Let the child continue to play with
the cups if she wishes, but do not insist on it. When doing the task yourself, use size words
to emphasize what you are doing, and help the child master these concepts (e.g., "That o n e
is too big to fit in there," "Put the little one in last"). In the same manner as the cups, show
the child how the rings can all fit on the pole.
Stack the blocks with t h e largest on the bottom and the smallest on top. Knock them
down, and e n c o u r a g e the child to stack t h e m . Do not correct the child unless she requests
help or gets frustrated. Unless the blocks fall down, she may not see the point of attend-
ing to their sizes. You can e n c o u r a g e her, however, to attend to the sizes by making a
tower with o n e set of blocks and asking her if she can make o n e just like it, giving verbal
hints (e.g., "Find the biggest one, and put it on the bottom").
PROBLEM SOLVING/REASONING 207
Keep these materials available for the child to explore on her own when she is inter-
ested. Many children find the challenge of these stacking and nesting toys irresistible and
are delighted when they finally master t h e m on their own.
At h o m e and in the classroom, look for opportunities in the environment to help t h e child
attend to the relative sizes of objects. For example, when putting groceries away, show that
you put the little can on top of the big can. At another time you should ask the child
which of two cans you should put down first.
When the child tries to put something into a container that is too small, provide a
larger container and, perhaps, show how o n e container fits into t h e other.
CRITERION The child nests or stacks at least four objects of graduated sizes without help,
8c. Comments that something is not

working when expected effects are not produced
MATERIALS Battery-operated toys or other toys that can be m a d e inoperable but are
readily fixed (e.g., a truck with wheels that can be snapped in and out)
PROCEDURES
Present the child with s o m e familiar toys that have b e e n rendered inoperable (e.g., re-
move the batteries from a battery-operated toy). Observe what the child does when he
tries to play with a toy and it does not work in t h e expected fashion. Does he describe it
as broken or not working? Does he ask you to fix it?
There are many opportunities in the course of t h e day for a child to learn that something
is not working properly and needs to be fixed. When the battery in a toy runs down, the
child may push the buttons harder or do other ineffective things to make it work. Be alert
to these situations and talk about them (e.g., "It's not working. I wonder why. M a y b e it
needs new batteries. Let's see if that helps").
Whenever anything does not work for t h e caregiver or teacher, he or she should
make a c o m m e n t such as, "It's broken" or "It's not working. What can we do to fix it?" If
the problem is irreparable or requires help beyond what the caregiver can provide, it is
important to c o m m u n i c a t e that as well (e.g., "Let's wait for M o m m y and see if she can fix
it," "I guess we'll have to call the plumber so he can fix it," "I don't think we can fix it.
Let's throw it away and play with something else").
CRITERION The child comments on two or more occasions when a toy or something else is not
working and seeks to fix it or asks for help.
208 COGNITION
8d. Independently explores objects to determine

their functions and/or shows other people how they work
MATERIALS A few novel toys or other objects
PROCEDURES
Present the child with s o m e novel toys or other objects, and allow her to explore them on
her own. If she asks for help, suggest she try different actions with them or ask her what
she thinks the objects might be used for. Try to avoid demonstrating what to do with t h e
o b j e c t so that the child will be challenged to experiment independently. Do not frustrate
the child, however. Provide e n o u g h help for her to feel successful.
When the child does achieve s o m e effect with an o b j e c t , c o m m e n t on it, and get her
to show you how she did it.
Observe throughout t h e day what the child does with toys or other objects. Does she im-
mediately take t h e m to s o m e o n e to ask what to do with t h e m , or does she begin exper-
imenting to see what happens with t h e m ? If she immediately asks for help or a dem-
onstration, do not show her; rather, make suggestions to e n c o u r a g e her to explore m o r e
effectively on her own.
Occasionally present the child with s o m e c o m m o n household o b j e c t that is not dan-
gerous and see what she does with it (e.g., old-fashioned e g g beater, turkey baster, pli-
ers, potato masher, flashlight). Also provide opportunities for the child to play with play
dough or other art materials that e n c o u r a g e exploration.
Both at h o m e and in a classroom, e n c o u r a g e the child to show another person (child
or adult) how a toy or other o b j e c t works.
N o t e : Typically, curious children will attempt to explore and use objects that may be
dangerous for them. It is important to avoid punishing the child for her exploration but also
to teach her that certain things in the environment are dangerous and must be left alone.
CRITERION On three or more occasions, the child independently explores objects to determine
their functions and/or shows other people how they work.
8e. Answers at least one "why do"

question correctly (e.g., " W h y do we have umbrellas?")
PROCEDURES
As you interact with t h e child, ask him s o m e "why d o " questions, such as "Why do we have
shoes?" "Why do we have stoves?" "Why do we have eyes?" If he does not answer, tell him
the answer and then ask the question again. Move on to another question. After a few
days, ask t h e s a m e questions to see if the child remembers. Also try new ones. It may help
if the questions are related in s o m e way to s o m e objects t h e child is playing with or to an
event that is happening (e.g., if it is a rainy day, ask, "Why do we have umbrellas?").
Talk about why you do different chores in your daily routine. Provide reasons for many of
the requests you make of the child (e.g., "You need to put on your boots to keep your feet
dry. It is cold and wet out there"). When the child begins to ask, "Why?" provide an an-
swer. Occasionally ask questions and then answer t h e m yourself in order to model ap-
propriate responses (e.g., "Why do we drink our milk? Because we want to get big and
strong"). Then, gradually begin to ask the child "why" and "why d o " questions.
A discussion of h o m e or classroom safety rules provides a g o o d opportunity to prac-
tice "why" and "why d o " questions. When reading stories to the child or a group of chil-
dren, stop and ask "why" and "why do" or "why did" questions.
N o t e : Do not focus on a child's motives when asking these questions. That is, don't
ask the child, "Why do you hit your sister?" or "Why do you color on the walls?" Children
of this a g e have little understanding of their motives. For this item, the issue is encour-
aging the child's understanding of the world around him.
CRITERION The child correctly answers three or more "why" or "why do" questions.
8f. Identifies silly or wrong pictures or events

MATERIALS A collection of toys, books with pictures of funny or unusual events (e.g., Dr.
Seuss books), typical household or classroom objects
PROCEDURES
Deliberately do something wrong or silly to see if t h e child notices (e.g., give the child
her plate upside down, and act as if you are going to put food on it; start to put the child's
coat, hat, or other clothing on yourself). If t h e child notices and either fixes the error or
laughs, say something like, "Oops, that was funny. I shouldn't do that." If she does not pay
attention to the error, point it out and laugh a b o u t it.
Talk about pictures in books as you read t h e m , trying to identify unexpected or silly
occurrences. (The Dr. Seuss books give many opportunities for this.)
Laugh often with the child. When you make mistakes that create spills or have other minor
consequences, point them out to the child, saying something such as, "Silly me. I wasn't
watching what I was doing. Look at that mess!" Also, describe the child's mistakes as silly
(e.g., "You're being silly by trying to put that great big block in that little hole").
If you have m a d e it clear to the child that you also make mistakes and can laugh
a b o u t t h e m , she should be able to accept her own errors and laugh a b o u t t h e m , too. The
child also will be more aware of what she is seeing and doing and will be able to think
better a b o u t how to do certain activities.
210 COGNITION
In a classroom, play a g a m e with a small group of children in which you ask them to
fix what is wrong or silly. To do this, collect a group of toys and present two or three at a
time, doing something unusual with each toy. Ask who can fix it or make it right. For ex-
ample, you might hold a b a b y doll in your arm as if to feed it but then suck on the bottle
yourself. Or, you might put a toy cow in the front seat of a truck and a driver in the back.
Bring a sense of humor into the classroom so that t h e children can laugh a b o u t their
own and others' mistakes. Be sure the children know the difference between laughing
along with s o m e o n e and making fun of s o m e o n e .
CRITERION The child identifies silly or wrong pictures or events on two or more occasions. Iden-
tification may be in the form of pointing and laughing, fixing what is wrong, or talking about it.
8q. Finds items that go together

BB# •w' tarn'
when asked, "Which one goes with this?"

MATERIALS Objects that relate to each other in a functional way (e.g., nail and hammer,
needle and thread, s h o e and sock)
PROCEDURES
Place four or five objects in front of the child. Hold up an o b j e c t that "goes with" o n e of
them and ask the child to find the o n e that g o e s with it. If he does not select the correct
one, do not tell him he is wrong—ask him why he m a d e that decision. This will help you
understand his thinking. Depending on the reasons he has given you, you might say
something such as, "Yes, those can go t o g e t h e r b e c a u s e they are both the s a m e color, but
I think there might be another o n e that g o e s with this because we use them together. Can
you find that o n e ? "
Talk a b o u t your daily activities with the child. Make a point of showing him how certain
objects are used together. Ask the child to bring you the thread when you are sewing or
to get you the h a m m e r when you have a nail to fix something.
Occasionally display three or four objects and say to the child, "I'm g o i n g to use this
(e.g., the h a m m e r ) . Which o n e g o e s with this?"
In a classroom, have a collection of tools and other objects. Give o n e to each child
and see if he or she can tell what it is. If not, see if the other children can identify it. Then,
put out a pile of objects that would logically go with those items you distributed, and ask
the children to find the o n e s that go with what they are holding (e.g., screwdriver and
screw, h a m m e r and nail, j a r and lid, shoe and sock, canned food and can opener, needle
and thread, paperclip and paper, fork and plate).
Another g o o d classroom g a m e is to pass out objects to the children. Then, ask each
o n e to find the child who has the o b j e c t that g o e s best with theirs.
CRITERION The child can find items that go together when asked, "Which one goes with this?"
for six or more common objects.
8h. Completes sequences of colors or shapes

MATERIALS Blocks of various shapes and colors, poker chips of two or more colors,
heavy construction paper of several different colors cut into squares and circles
PROCEDURES
Tell the child that you are g o i n g to play a g a m e to see if she can guess what c o m e s next.
Place a pile of five red and five blue square blocks on the table. Then, place s o m e in a
row on t h e table and say something such as, "First I put a red one, then a blue one, then
a red one, then a blue one. Now, what block c o m e s next?" If the child selects a blue block,
ask her why she chose that one. Then explain that you are making a pattern of red, blue,
red, blue, so the next block should be red. Then, try again using red and yellow blocks.
You should also try this activity with o n e or two colors of poker chips or two colors of
paper squares.
Once the child can select the next color in a two-color sequence, suggest that she
c o m p l e t e the pattern until she has used up the blocks. When she is a b l e to do this, try the
task with shapes rather than colors (e.g., alternate five circles and five squares that all are
the s a m e color).
Finally, increase t h e difficulty of the task by using three colors or three shapes. When
the child makes an error in selecting the next color or shape to use, always ask why she
thinks that o n e should go next. This helps you understand the child's thinking process so
that you can make better explanations.
Sometimes have t h e child produce a s e q u e n c e that you are supposed to complete.
You may not be a b l e to perceive any pattern. If so, acknowledge that it is a hard o n e and
ask for an explanation.
This activity can be fun for a group of children at h o m e or in a classroom. Once they un-
derstand the process, they can take turns creating sequences and completing the ones
others have created. They can use more c o m p l e x materials, perhaps mixing color, func-
tion, and shape.
CRITERION The child completes three or more sequences that include three colors or shapes.
8i. Tells how an object is used

when asked, "What do you do with this?"
MATERIALS Common objects
PROCEDURES
The goal of this item is for the child to be able to put into words (symbols) what he knows
about how to use various objects. Help him begin to do this by talking a b o u t objects as
212 COGNITION
you use them (e.g. "I must stir with this big spoon when I put the flour in," "I will pound
the nail in with the hammer"). Later, hand the child an object you talked about previously
and ask, "What can you do with this?" If the child demonstrates rather than telling you, say,
"I want you to use your words to tell me what you do with it." Prompt him as necessary.
When the child is a b l e to tell you how an o b j e c t is used when he is actually holding
or seeing the object, begin showing him pictures of objects and asking what they are used
for. If this presents no difficulty to t h e child, begin just naming the o b j e c t and ask what
it is used for (e.g., "What do you do with a h a m m e r ? " "What do you do with a bicycle?").
Telling how objects are used can b e c o m e a g a m e to play in the car or at other times when
you wish to keep t h e child entertained. Take turns with t h e child naming an o b j e c t and
telling its uses. Vary the g a m e by telling the use and asking t h e child to guess the o b j e c t
(e.g., "I know something that is long and we use it to spread butter on bread. What is it?").
In the classroom, help a group of children play a g a m e during circle time in which
they remove an o b j e c t from a b o x and describe what can be d o n e with it. Or, have t h e m
take turns thinking of objects and having the other children give the uses or thinking of
uses and having the other children guess the objects.
CRITERION The child tells how three or more objects are used and does this whether he sees
the object, sees a picture of the object, or just hears the object by name.
8j. Answers two or more "what do you do w h e n "

questions (e.g., "What do you do when you are tired?")
PROCEDURES
Ask the child a "what do you do when" question (e.g., "What do you do when you are
hungry?" "What do you do when you are sleepy?"). If she does not answer, model for her
how to answer the question (e.g., "Well, when I am hungry, I eat"). Then, ask another
question, providing an answer if she does not. Ask the s a m e questions on another day,
mixed in with new questions, perhaps related to feelings (e.g., "What do you do when you
are happy, angry, sad?").
Talk frequently to the child a b o u t how you feel and why you do the actions that you do
(e.g., "When you're tired, you need to go to bed"; "When you're hungry, it is time to eat").
Use the same terms when talking about t h e child's needs and actions (e.g., instead of ask-
ing the child, "Do you want s o m e water?" ask, "Are you thirsty?" and then supply the
water). Ask the child "what do you do when" questions within the context of daily activi-
ties. For example, ask t h e child, "Are you hungry?" When she answers in t h e affirmative
say, "Well, now, what do you do when you're hungry?" If you get no response, say, "I think
you need to eat something. Would you like a cracker?"
In a classroom, use part of circle time for several days to talk about feelings or
experiences and what one does about them. For example, one day talk about being
hungry—what it feels like, what everyone in the group likes to eat, and so forth. You might
also bring some different foods in for the children to taste or bring in various foods that
animals eat (e.g., oats, grass, sunflower seeds) and let the children feel and/or taste them.
At the next circle time, you can say, "Yesterday we talked about being hungry. W h o
can tell me what we do when we are hungry?" After several children answer, say, "Today
we're going to talk about being thirsty. What does it feel like to be thirsty?" Devote other
days to other topics (e.g., being tired or sleepy, being dirty, being sad).
Sing a variation of If You're Happy and You Know It, making up verses, such as, "If
you're hungry and you know it, eat your lunch."
CRITERION The child answers two or more "what do you do when" questions without any
prompts.
8k. Answers questions (or points to pictures) to

Indicate where things come from or what they are made of
MATERIALS Books, pictures
PROCEDURES
Look at a book or magazine with the child, and ask him questions about the origins of dif-
ferent pictured objects. For example, if there is a picture of someone drinking milk, say,
"She's drinking milk. Where does milk come from?" If there is a picture of shoes, say, "Look
at those shoes. What do you think they are made out of?" Provide answers when the child
does not know. If the child says something like, "Milk comes from the store," say, "That's
right, but the store had to get the milk from somewhere. Where do you think it came from?"
When you provide answers about what things are made of, it may be helpful to ex-
plain that different materials may be used for making objects such as shoes—sometimes
leather, sometimes plastic, sometimes cloth. Show the child examples so that he can ex-
perience the qualities of the different materials.
Talk to the child about where the items in his daily environment come from and how they
are made. For example, at mealtime, talk about the cows that make the milk, the trees that
produce the oranges that are squeezed for juice, the farmer that raises the vegetables, and
so forth. At the next meal, ask him if he remembers where the milk (or juice, or vegeta-
bles) comes from. Note that you buy them all in the store but that they were made some-
where else.
When you cook, let the child watch and participate. Talk about the materials that go
into making bread, cake, cookies, casseroles, and so forth.
Read books to the child about farm animals, about how things grow, and so forth. Ask
the child to point to the animal that gives us milk or the person who plants the vegetables.
214 COGNITION
If possible, visit a farm or a place where some kind of goods are manufactured. After
each of these experiences, ask the child questions to see if he can tell you where some-
thing comes from or what it is made of.
Classroom field trips are ideal for helping children understand how things are made,
the different jobs people do, and so forth. Discussions after these trips lend themselves to
asking the children questions to determine their understanding of where things come
from and what they are made of.
CRITERION The child answers five or more questions indicating an understanding of where
common materials in his environment come from or what they are made of.
81. Describes simple absurdities seen

In pictures or real life (e.g., adult sucking thumb)
MATERIALS A collection of toys, books with pictures of funny or unusual events (e.g., Dr.
Seuss books), typical household or classroom objects
PROCEDURES
Play a "Guess what's silly" game with the child. Do something unusual with a toy and ask,
"What is silly or funny about that?" For example, stand a doll on its head in a doll chair,
turn a wagon upside down and load toys on it to pull, or put Mr, Potato Head's feet on the
top of his head. After a child tells you what is wrong, let her fix it or tell you how to fix it.
Read stories to the child that include absurd pictures (many Dr, Seuss books qualify
for this). Ask the child to point to what is funny and then tell you about it.
Play the "guess what's silly" game during circle time in a classroom, using objects or pic-
tures. Vary the difficulty to challenge the different abilities of the children.
CRITERION The child tells you what is silly or wrong in several pictures or events (she must tell,
not just point).
8m. Responds appropriately to

"tell me how" or "how do you" questions (e.g., "Tell
me how to make a sandwich," "How do you take a bath?")
PROCEDURES
Engage the child in pretend play. Create a theme that will allow you to ask "tell me how"
or "how do you" questions. For example, assume the role of an animal (or a person) visit-
ing a family. This character does not know how to do things and wants to learn. The char-
acter says to the child's puppet, "I want to have a sandwich but I don't know how to make
it. Tell me how to make a sandwich." You could also say, "Well I got pretty messy making
that sandwich. 1 think I need to take a bath. How do you take a bath in this family?"
Prompt the child if he is unable to give complete answers.
Show the child how you do various activities and talk to him as you do them (e.g., "I'll
make you a sandwich. First we'll g e t the bread. Then we'll spread the mayonnaise on, like
this. Then we will put on s o m e cheese. Put this piece of bread on top of that one, and
there it is!"). Allow the child to help and participate whenever possible. Another time, tell
the child you are g o i n g to make a sandwich but that you want him to tell you how to do
it. Follow his directions exactly as he tells you so that he will get feedback about how well
he is describing the process.
There will be many opportunities in a classroom, to demonstrate and talk about how
to do art projects or other activities. Occasionally give instructions to o n e child, let him
c o m p l e t e the project himself, and then have him tell another child how to do it as you lis-
ten and clarify if necessary.
CRITERION The child responds appropriately to two or more "tell me how" or "how do you"
questions. It is not necessary that the child be able to describe every step correctly, but the gen-
eral idea needs to be clear.
8n. Completes two analogies (i.e., sentences involving

comparisons, such as "Brother is a boy, sister is a girl")
PROCEDURES
Tell the child you are g o i n g to play a g a m e , and you want to see if she can finish what
you say. Begin with concepts familiar to the child. For example, say, "My coat is red. Your
coat is . . ." or "John is a boy. You are a . . . ." Proceed to other concepts, such as "Fire is
hot. Ice is cold." Provide the answers for those the child does not know.
When riding in the car or in other situations in which you are entertaining the child by
talking to her, play a g a m e of opposites. Make up a sentence based on something you
have just seen or that you are talking a b o u t to help the child think more a b o u t these con-
cepts. For example, you might see a spider and say, "Look at that spider. A spider is little.
An elephant i s . . ." (wait for the child to fill in the word). If she does not supply the word,
supply it and repeat the two sentences, emphasizing the differences. Then, try another
comparison of the s a m e sort (e.g., "The baby is little. Daddy is . . . " ) .
When reading books to the child, watch for comparisons that will lend themselves to
analogies. For example, after reading the story of Goldilocks and the Three Bears say, Daddy
bear's chair was too hard, M a m a bear's chair was too . . ." (wait for the child to fill in the
word).
216 COGNITION
In a classroom, read books to the group and create analogies for the children to com-
plete. You can also do this as part of teaching many concepts (e.g., "This block is a circle,
this o n e is a [different s h a p e ] , " "Mary's dress is green but George's shirt is [different color]."
CRITERION The child completes three or more analogies involving different comparisons on
two different occasions.
80. Identifies missing parts in pictures

MATERIALS Toys or objects with removable parts, commercially m a d e books that in-
clude pictures of objects with parts missing, h o m e m a d e pictures with parts missing,
paper, crayons/markers
PROCEDURES
Collect several toys with missing parts (or remove parts from toys) and/or a variety of pic-
tures with missing parts. You can use commercially m a d e books of missing parts pictures
or create s o m e of your own by cutting off parts of pictures and pasting the pictures in a
n o t e b o o k . You can also simply draw figures. For example, draw a stick figure with only
o n e arm or without a mouth, and ask the child what is missing. Show each o n e to the
child and ask, "What is wrong with this? What is missing?" If the child cannot identify the
missing part, n a m e it and show him where it is missing. Start with easy discriminations
(e.g., a doll with o n e arm missing or a truck with no front wheels) and move on to m o r e
complicated ones (e.g., a picture of a dog with o n e leg missing).
When you find a toy or object that has a part missing, show it to the child and say, "This
is broken. What is missing?" Help him repair it. Identifying missing parts of toys and of pic-
tures is also a g o o d classroom activity. Let the children create their own pictures with miss-
ing parts and show them to other children, asking them to find the part that is missing.
CRITERION The child identifies the missing parts of five or more pictures.
8p. Imagines and describes what will

happen next in unfamiliar story or picture
MATERIALS Storybooks or pictures
PROCEDURES
When reading a familiar story, stop partway into the story and ask the child, "What hap-
pens n e x t ? " When she is able to answer the question for a familiar story, begin to read a
new story, stop midway, and ask, "What do you think will happen next?" If the child can-
not respond, suggest s o m e options, and see which the child thinks might happen.
Look for pictures in magazines or books in which something is happening that lends
itself to asking, "What will happen n e x t ? " (e.g., a child has played in t h e mud, people are
walking in the rain, a man is getting into a car). If the child d o e s not answer you, tell what
you think might happen next.
E n g a g e the child in pretend play. Create a scenario, and then ask, "What is going to
happen next?" Follow whatever suggestions the child provides. If she provides none, make
several, and let her c h o o s e one.
In a classroom, read a story and stop to ask, "What will happen n e x t ? " Let as many of the
children express their ideas as are willing to do so. The children will stimulate each other's
imaginations as they present different ideas a b o u t what might happen next.
CRITERION On three or more occasions, the child responds appropriately to the question
"What will happen next?" when an unfamiliar story is interrupted or when looking at pictures.
The answers should be logically related to the pictures or to the story, although they may not
be accurate for the story or what you would propose for the pictures.
8q. Reasons about experiences and asks and answers

questions (e.g., " W h y can't I ? " "What will happen if . . . ? " }
PROCEDURES
The best way to teach a child to reason a b o u t his experiences is to talk about your expe-
riences and his. For example, you might say, "The last time I put the trash out at night, an
animal tore open t h e sack before the trash collector came. This time, I think I'll wait until
morning," "Let's put this up high so that the d o g won't knock if off the table like he
knocked off your j u i c e this morning," or "What happened when we put s o m e water in the
freezer? Now, what do you think would happen to this banana if I put it in the freezer?
Let's try it and see."
Give the child reasons for the decisions you make and explain why events happen a
particular way. On the basis of what happened in o n e situation, ask t h e child what she
thinks might happen in another (e.g., "If you fill that sack too full, what might happen
when we try to carry it?").
Listen to and answer the child's questions.
In a classroom, always give reasons for rules and decisions. To help the children reason
a b o u t their experiences, e n c o u r a g e t h e m to bring objects of interest to share with the
other children. Collect materials yourself to bring, looking particularly for ones that will
promote a discussion a b o u t how items work or the ways in which animals behave. For ex-
ample, a bird nest could lead to a discussion of how the e g g s are protected and kept warm
so that they can hatch, why the nest needs to be up high away from predators, and so
218 COGNITION
forth. As children bring items to the group to share, ask a lot of questions to try to get the
children to give their perceptions and reasons before you share with them what you know.
CRITERION The child demonstrates reasoning about his experiences by either asking or an-
swering questions on three or more occasions.
Br. Describes new uses for familiar objects

MATERIALS Common objects
PROCEDURES
Gather a few common objects, sit down with the child, and tell her that you are going to
think about the ways things can be used. Present one object, such as a spoon, and ask her
what she thinks it could be used for other than eating. Expand on her answer by telling her
and showing her that it could be used to poke down in a hole to retrieve a small object,
that it could be used to extend your reach to get an object, that it could be used as a cat-
apult (put a small object in the bowl of the spoon, rest the middle of the handle on a knife
and then hit the end of the handle, sending the small object into the air), and so forth. Pre-
sent another familiar object and ask her to think of different ways she could use it.
This activity is always more fun in a group, so it is ideal for a classroom. Each child's imag-
ination will be stimulated by the ideas of the other children. It is important to stress that
there is a proper use for each of the objects and that one must take care not to damage
objects when using them in unconventional ways but that discovering new uses for things
is one of the ways people invent things.
CRITERION The child describes at least one unconventional use for three or more objects.
8s. Describes similarities between two different objects

PROCEDURES
Tell the child that you are going to play another game in which he finishes what you say.
Begin with one or two analogies that you are sure he knows. Then, change to sentences
that will help the child think about similarities between objects, such as, "A car and a bi-
cycle both have [wheels]" or "A glass and a cup are both used for [drinking]."
If the child completes these kinds of sentences, tell him that you are going to try a
new game. You want him to figure out how things are alike or the same. At first, choose
things that have many similarities (e.g., "How are a dog and a cat alike?" "How are a
chicken and a robin alike?"). Then, move on to things that have similar uses (e.g., a brush
and a comb, a spoon and a fork) and then to things that share only a few characteristics
(e.g., snow and rain, hammer and screwdriver). Expand on the child's answers, and
demonstrate that there are many ways to think about how things are similar (e.g., usage,
size, color, class).
CLASSROOM fr FUNCTIONAL ACTIVITIES
Use the previous activity as a way of entertaining the child when you are standing in line,
riding in the car, and so forth. This kind of activity is more fun in a classroom with a group
of children who will stimulate each other's thinking. Let them take turns selecting two
things for the rest of the children to consider for similarities.
CRITERION The child describes similarities between three or more different pairs of objects,
using at least two different ways to describe similarities (e.g., one pair might be described as the
same color, another as having a similar usage).
8t. Reasons about future events

MATERIALS Watercolor paints, paint brush
PROCEDURES
This is an extension of Item 8q. The difference here is that the child is able to form a hy-
pothesis or make a guess about something that is different from anything she has yet ob-
served. Encourage this reasoning by talking about what you are doing and the predictions
you make (e.g., "If I hammer the nail in here, it may go crooked because there is a knot
and the wood in the knot is usually harder than the other wood. Let's see what happens").
Give the child opportunities to experiment with the environment. For example, let
her mix colors of watercolor paints to see what new colors she can make. After she has
mixed two, get her to guess what will happen if she mixes three different colors. Ask ques-
tions occasionally as she paints to discern what conclusions she has drawn from her ex-
perience mixing the paints.
In a classroom, prepare a science center with objects you and the children collect. Help the
children do simple experiments. For example, fill a glass with water and then try placing
different objects in it to see what will make it overflow. Ask the children to anticipate what
will happen before each object is placed. Also, ask them to give reasons for their answers.
CRITERION The child demonstrates reasoning about future events on three or more occasions
by answering questions such as "What will happen if you (we) . . .?" The answers need not be
correct predictions but should be appropriate to the questions.
1
1
Number Concepts
A
effort to
child's ability to understand n u m b e r s begins during the toddler years w h e n
the child has concrete experiences w i t h objects and hears others use words
such as "mom," 'less/' "just one," a n d so forth. T o o often,
prepare children for school, t h e focus is o n counting rather than o n under-
however, i n an
standing quantity. T h u s , a child m a y be able to count to 20 before he or she has any

idea that the n u m b e r n a m e s relate to quantities—that "I" is a different quantity
from "2." Of course, the child needs to be able to say n u m b e r s in sequence before
it is much more important for the child to learn to
h e or she c a n count objects, b u t
count objects by moving bis or her finger from one object to the next (one-to-one
correspondence) than it is to simply say the numbers. I t i s a l s o i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e
child to be developing other concepts related to quantity (e.g., "more," "less,"
"lots," "few"). A l t h o u g h an adult takes these concepts for granted, a child must
learn t h e m through concrete experiences and through conversations w i t h adults.
M a n y preschool classrooms have beautiful and expensive materials for teach-

i n g n u m b e r s (e.g., a n a b a c u s , n u m b e r rods). T h e s e m a t e r i a l s a r e h e l p f u l b u t n o t n e c -
essary. A c h i l d e n c o u n t e r s opportunities to count and to consider the m e a n i n g of
numbers every day without any special materials. Parents and caregivers simply
need to s h o w an interest in n u m b e r s and use the materials available to engage the
interest of the child.
ADAPTATIONS

Children w h o s e m o t o r i m p a i r m e n t s prevent b o t h speech and reaching to touch ob-
jects m a y n o t be able to do s o m e of the i t e m s in this sequence as t h e y are w r i t t e n .
Children with motor impairments can learn and demonstrate mastery of number
concepts t h r o u g h eye gaze, b u t their progress m a y be slower. A c t i v e m a n i p u l a t i o n
of materials greatly enhances the mastery of concepts of quantity.
221
222 COGNITION

Children with visual impairments may need materials modified so that they are
larger, have more contrast with the background, or have different colors.
It is much more difficult for children with severe visual impairments to de-
velop a sense of quantity because people's first number concepts are usually very vi-
sual in nature. It may be necessary to teach children with severe visual impair-
ments to move an object from one place to another as they say a number when
counting rather than to point or touch.

Use signs to teach these items for children who use signs to supplement (or replace)
speech.
9. NUMBER CONCEPTS
a. Selects "just o n e "
b. Points and recites at least three numbers in correct sequence when asked to count
objects
c. Correctly answers "how many" for one and two objects
d. Gives/selects two and three objects
e. Follows instructions including "all," "none," and "not any"
f. W h e n asked to count objects, begins with "one, two, three"
g. Gives "one more"
h. Compares two quantities and tells which is more
i. Matches two objects (or a picture with two objects) to a picture with the same quan-
tity of objects in an array that includes pictures of two, three, four, and five objects
j. Matches pictures containing different configurations of objects up through six
k. Counts up to six objects in a row (one-to-one correspondence)
I, Counts 10 objects in a row/ (one-to-one correspondence)
m. Does not recount when asked how many (quantities above four)
n. Counts to tell how many and will deny that it is some other number when asked
o. Uses quantity terms spontaneously
p. Understands "same number" and can sort a set into halves
q. Identifies penny, nickel, and dime when named
r. Correctly counts to 20
s. Matches three-part sequences of pictures depicting quantities (or dice)
t. Gives the correct number of objects when asked (all numbers from 4 through 10)
u. Tells current age, age the previous year, and age next year
v. Answers addition questions involving adding 2 (up to 10)
w. Identifies numbers 0 through 9
x. Matches numbers to pictures of quantities up to four (or assembles groups of objects

to match the number; the adult does not name the number for the child)
9a. Selects "just one"

MATERIALS Five or six toys (e.g., small cars, blocks, animals), a box or other container
PROCEDURES
Give a group of objects to the child to explore and piay with. After a few minutes say,
"May I have just one of your [toys]?" Other instructions, for example, might be to put just
one in a box or to give just one to Mommy. Hold out your hand when asking for the ob-
223
224 COGNITION
ject, and continue to hold it out for a few seconds after the child has placed one object in
it to be sure that she understands "just o n e " and is not going to continue placing objects
in your hand.
Focus the child's attention on numbers by counting out loud at every opportunity
(e.g., when getting the dinnerware to set the table, when getting mittens or socks for the
child to put on). Hold up your fingers as you count. For example, hold up two fingers and
say, "I need two socks." Then count the socks, one (hold it up), two (hold the second o n e
up). Concentrate on the numbers up to 5, as these are the numbers that will first b e c o m e
meaningful. After concentrating on the numbers, begin giving instructions that involve
"just o n e " (e.g., "You can have just o n e cookie," "Bring me just o n e spoon"). Always cor-
rect errors by counting (e.g., "Whoops, you took three cookies. See, one, two, three. I said
just one. Here is o n e cookie"). Play finger g a m e s or sing songs that involve counting and
showing the quantity with fingers.
In a classroom, pass around the container of scissors, hunks of clay, or markers with
the instruction to take "just o n e . " Always correct errors by counting the objects o n e by one.
CRITERION The child selects "just one" on three or more occasions without errors.
9b. Points and recites at least three numbers

in correct sequence when asked to count objects
MATERIALS Groups of objects
PROCEDURES
Place five objects in a row in front of the child. Be sure to leave at least 1 inch between o b -
jects. Say, "Let's count these [objects]. One, two, three, four, five. Now you do it. One
Touch an object each time you say a number. Encourage the child to point to the objects
as he imitates your counting. Prompt the child as much as necessary to get him to say the
numbers.
After the child has b e g u n to say two or three numbers in s e q u e n c e without prompt-
ing, begin asking the child to count the objects before you model the behavior. If he does
not begin counting say "one . . ." to see if that will get him started.
Many children will learn the correct s e q u e n c e of numbers but always wait for the
adult to say "one" before adding "two, three, four." Do not try to correct the child, but
continue to model counting appropriately yourself.
N o t e : It is easier for a child to count if you place the objects in a row rather than in
other configurations. Do not expect the child to touch the objects in an orderly s e q u e n c e
as he is learning to count. Show that you are happy he is touching them and continue
modeling touching them in sequence.
NUMBER CONCEPTS 225

Count various objects (10 or fewer) as opportunities arise throughout the day. Point with
your finger as you count. Encourage the child to point as you count and to say the num-
bers with you.
CRITERION On three different occasions the child correctly says a sequence of any three num-
bers when asked to count a group of objects (e.g., two, three, four; four, five, six). Ii is permis-
sible for the adult to begin the count.
9c. Correctly answers "how many" for one and two objects
MATERIALS Various interesting objects or toys
PROCEDURES
Place one object in front of the child and say, "How many [objects] are there?" If she does
not answer, say, "There is one [object]. How many?"
When the child is reliably identifying one object, begin placing two and asking, "How
many?" Correct errors.
Frequently ask the child number questions during the course of the day (e.g., "How many
cookies do you have?" "Look at this bear. How many eyes does he have?"). If the child
does not answer correctly, count aloud for her while pointing to the objects in question
(e.g., "One, two. He has two eyes"). Then, move on to another similar question (e.g., "Now,
how many eyes does Mommy have?").
In a classroom, use snack time as well as other activity times to ask questions about
numbers. If there is a group of children, make sure that each child has a chance to re-
spond before another child answers the question for him or her. Get the group to count
together to check an answer (e.g., "Let's see if John is right. Let's count the cookies. One,
two, three . . .").
CRITERION The child correctly answers three or more questions involving "one" and correctly
answers three or more questions involving "two."
9d. Gives/selects two and three objects

MATERIALS A box of blocks
PROCEDURES
Give the child a box of blocks. Tel! him you are going to make something. Ask him to give
you two blocks. If he gives you some other number, count them as you point to them and
say, "That's not two, it is [number of] blocks. Here are two blocks." Begin constructing a
226 COGNITION
tower and then ask for two more blocks. Continue building and asking for two until he is
selecting two reliably. Follow the same procedure in asking for three blocks.
Build this into daily routines such as setting the table ("Please give me two forks"), serv-
ing snacks ("You may take three cookies"), and cleaning up ("You pick up three toys, and
I'll pick up three toys").
In a classroom, let the children take turns handing out crayons or other objects
(e.g., "Give everyone two pieces of paper," "Give everyone three cookies").
CRITERION The child selects two and three objects without error on at least five occasions.
9e. Follows instructions

1
including "all/ "none," and "not any"
MATERIALS Blocks and other small toys
PROCEDURES
Put a group of toys in front of the child and give instructions involving "all," "none," and
"not any." For example, "Put all of the blocks in the box," "Pick up the cars until there are
not any left on the table," "One of these boxes has some blocks in it, one has none. Show
me the box that has none."
If the child makes errors, correct her using the words or phrases again.
Use the words "all," "none," and "not any" as you talk about what you are doing with the
child (e.g., "Let's gather up all of the toys. Oops, we missed one. Let's get all of them. Now
we've done a good job. There are not any toys left"). Look for opportunities throughout
the day to ask the child to bring you (or pick up or give you) all of a group of objects
(e.g., "Put all of the spoons in the dishwasher"). Also, look for opportunities to say things
such as, "I don't have any. You see, there are none there." Also, pay attention to these
words as you read stories or nursery rhymes (e.g., Old Mother Hubbard: "and then the
poor dog had none").
In a classroom, use the terms "all," "none," and "not any" as appropriate to describe
daily activities (e.g., "1 want all of the girls over here and all of the boys over there," "There
are not any blocks on the shelves. Please put all the blocks on the shelves"). Also, look for
stories to read that include these words. Put your finger on the picture to show that "all"
includes everyone. Make it clear that when objects are all gone, there are "none." Give in-
structions to individual children that involve giving you all of the crayons and putting all
of the toys on the shelf.
CRITERION The child correctly follows instructions involving "all," "none," or "not any" on
three or more different occasions.
NUMBER CONCEPTS 227
9f» When asked to count

objects, begins with "one, two, three"
MATERIALS Blocks or other objects (e.g., toy cars, spoons, crayons) that can be lined up
and counted, books with number themes (e.g., Bears on Wheels by Stan and J a n Beren-
stain, My Very First Book of Numbers by Eric Carle)
PROCEDURES
Place five to six blocks or other objects in a row, leaving at least 1 inch between objects.
Count them out loud, placing your finger on each one as you count (e.g., "One, two,
three, four, five, six. We have six blocks. Now you count them"). At first the child will prob-
ably repeat each number after you, but always give him a chance to count independently
at first.
Throughout the day, count objects as appropriate. For example, count the people w h o will
be having lunch. Count the plates, forks, and other dishes as you set the table. Ask the
child to help you count.
CRITERION The child Independently and consistently counts correctly up to three when asked
to count objects. You cannot begin the count. The numbers after three can be in any order.
9g» Gives "one more"
9h. Compares two quantities and tells which is more

MATERIALS Blocks or other objects that can be lined up and counted
PROCEDURES
Place a group of blocks (or other objects) between you and the child. Place two blocks di-
rectly in front of the child and three directly in front of you, counting them as you place
them. Then say, "You need one more" as you place the third block in front of the child.
Then give the child another block, Look at your blocks and say, "Now I need one more.
Will you please give me one more?" Correct the child if she gives you more than one.
Then, push all of the blocks together and divide them into two groups, one much larger
than the other (e.g., three blocks in one group, six in the other). Put the small pile in front
of you and the large pile in front of the child and ask, " W h o has more blocks, you or m e ? "
If she answers incorrectly, count the blocks in each pile and say, "See, you have more."
Exchange the piles of blocks so that the large pile is in front of you and the small pile
is in front of the child. Say, "Now who has more blocks? Do you have more or do I have
more?" Again, count to correct an error.
Do not repeat this activity more than two times at one sitting.
228 COGNITION
At snack time or other appropriate times, tell the child she can take one more cracker,
cookie, piece of fruit, and so forth. Similarly, ask her to give one more to you or one of
her friends or siblings,
Discuss the concept of "more" while doing other activities. For example, while the
child is playing with blocks, ask her if she has more yellow blocks or more blue blocks; if
she is playing with toy vehicles, ask her if she has more cars or more trucks. Help the child
determine which group has more by lining up the objects and seeing which group makes
the longest line.
N o t e : Young children often learn that having more is desirable before they under-
stand the concept. Thus, they will say they have more toys even when it is clear that you
have more. Help the child master the idea of "more" by lining up objects to show which
group has more. You may also need to have the child compare two groups of objects that
are not identified as "yours" or "mine."
CRITERION 9g On three or more occasions, the child gives "one more" when asked to do so
(and rarely gives more than one).
CRITERION 9h On three or more occasions, the child compares two quantities and identifies
which one is more.
9i. Matches two objects (or a picture with two objects)

to a picture with the same quantity of objects in an array
that includes pictures of two. three, four, and five objects
9j. Matches pictures containing

different configurations of objects up through six
MATERIALS A deck of playing cards, pictures showing various quantities of objects (up
to six), books with number themes, homemade cards with various numbers of circles or
squares glued or drawn on them
PROCEDURES
Play a matching game with the child in which the object is to match by quantity. Place
two objects on the table along with pictures of two, three, four, and five objects. Ask the
child to pick the picture that has the same number of objects as are on the table. If he
makes an error, help him place one of the objects on each object in the picture, demon-
strating either that there are some left over or that there are not enough.
Try the same activity, but place a 2 of spades on the table along with the 2, 3, 4, and
5 of clubs. Ask him to find the card that has the same number of objects.
W h e n the child readily matches quantities of two, begin working on other numbers.
If the child is able to match quantities up through six with playing cards, make the task
more difficult by using homemade cards with different configurations of dots. For exam-
NUMBER CONCEPTS 229
pie, have o n e set of cards with two, three, four, or five dots in a row. Make another set
with two, three, four, or five dots scattered randomly around the card or arranged in di-
agonals, triangles, squares, and so forth.
In a classroom, give a small group of children playing cards to sort by number, ignoring
the color. Teach them to play Go Fish with a standard deck of cards so that they are match-
ing by number. You can also make your own Go Fish g a m e with cards that have randomly
arranged spots on t h e m . This is also a g o o d g a m e to play with the child individually at
home.
W h e n you read books to the child, look for pictures that will allow him to match by
quantity.
CRITERION 9i On three or more occasions, the child matches two objects (or a picture of two
objects) to a picture with pictures of the same quantity of objects in an array that includes pic-
tures of two, three, four, and five objects.
CRITERION 9j The child routinely matches pictures of quantities up to six even when the quan-
tities are arranged in different configurations. Errors should be rare.
9k. Counts up to six objects

in a row (one-to-one correspondence)
91. Counts 10 objects in a row (one-to-one correspondence)
9m. Does not recount when

asked how many (quantities above four)
9n. Counts to tell how many

and will deny that it is some other number when asked
MATERIALS Objects that can be lined up and counted
PROCEDURES
Place six objects in a row in front of the child. Ask, "How many are t h e r e ? Can you count
t h e m ? " Correct any errors t h e child makes, and help her point to o n e block at a time as
she counts if such help is necessary. After she has counted the objects say, "So, how many
are t h e r e ? " If she counts again say, "Yes. That's right. There are six. Let's try s o m e more."
When the child is able to count six objects in a row, place 10 objects in a row in front
of the child and repeat the process above. Try other quantities as well.
When the child no longer has to recount when you ask how many there are, test her
understanding by adding or subtracting o n e to the n u m b e r she has stated to see if she
will count again or Immediately correct you. For example, when the child counts and says
230 COGNITION
that she has six, ask her, "Do you have seven?" She may a g r e e that seven is correct, re-
count to confirm her initial count, or immediately deny that she has seven. If she agrees
that seven is right without checking this, have her recount, and tell her she was right t h e
first time.
From time to time, add or subtract o n e from the n u m b e r t h e child has counted to
see both how confident she is of her counting and how much she understands that a quan-
tity does not c h a n g e without an object being added or subtracted.
Ask the child "how many" questions throughout the day as opportunities arise. Also, ask
the child to bring you specific quantities of things (e.g., "We need seven napkins. Will you
please count out seven napkins and bring them to me?")
In a preschool classroom, there are many opportunities to have the children count
objects and answer questions a b o u t quantities (e.g., counting how many children are in
the class [or classroom center] and telling how many cups are n e e d e d for snack time,
counting out snacks).
CRITERION 9k On three different occasions, the child counts at least six objects in a row, point-
ing to each as she counts.
CRITERION 91 On three different occasions, the child counts at least 10 objects in a row, point-
ing to each as she counts.
CRITERION 9m After the child has counted quantities above four, she does not recount when
asked questions such as, "So how many are there?" She does this on three or more occasions.
CRITERION 9n On three different occasions, the child counts to tell how many and will deny
that it is some other number when asked.
9o. Uses quantity terms spontaneously

(e.g., "some," "many," "most," "all," " f e w " )
PROCEDURES
Use quantity terms when you talk to the child. Ask him questions and give instructions that
use these terms (e.g., "You may have s o m e jelly beans. Whoops, that's too many! You can
only have a few so close to dinner. How about three? Let's count t h e m , one, two, three").
Ask the child questions that are likely to elicit the use of quantity terms as you read books
and look at pictures. Combine counting objects with the use of these words (e.g., "Please
put s o m e of the candy back in the jar," "Put the rest of your clothes in the hamper," "Who
has the most spaghetti?"). Listen for the child to use the words spontaneously.
In a classroom, use the quantity terms with other classroom activities, such as passing out
snacks, pouring juice, picking up, and so forth. Combine these words with other counting
NUMBER CONCEPTS 231
activities. For example, show two pictures of objects. Have the children count them and
then ask which picture has the most objects, which has just a few, and so forth.
Listen to the child, and note whether he uses these quantity words spontaneously.
CRITERION The child uses at least three different quantity words on a fairly regular basis,
9p. Understands
"same number" and can sort a set into halves
MATERIALS Any objects that can be easily manipulated and counted
PROCEDURES
Use t h e idea of a fair division of materials to teach the child to sort a group of objects into
halves and to understand "same number." For example, bring out a plate of four cookies
and say, "We are each going to have the s a m e n u m b e r of cookies. Count them out—one
for you and o n e for me, another o n e for you and another o n e for me. Now, how many
cookies do you have? How many do I have? We both have two, we have the same num-
ber." Then, give the child four cookies (or blocks or other objects) and ask her to give the
s a m e n u m b e r to herself and to you. Help the child count them out loud. Once she is able
to reliably divide four into halves, try having her divide six and then eight. Always correct
errors and have the child repeat the activity when an error occurs.
In a classroom, divide the children into pairs and let them practice dividing snacks, cray-
ons, or other materials between themselves after you have demonstrated how. You can
also help generalize the skill by having a child pass out cookies or other snacks o n e at a
time until all are gone, and then have each child count his or her own to see if everyone
has the s a m e n u m b e r of cookies.
CRITERION On three or more occasions, the child correctly divides sets of four, six, and eight
objects into halves and states (or agrees) that the halves include the same number of objects.
9q. Identifies penny, nickel, and dime when named

MATERIALS Pennies, nickels, dimes
PROCEDURES
Children are usually fascinated with money. When you go to the store, put money in a
parking meter, or make other use of money, show the coins to the child and n a m e t h e m .
Put loose c h a n g e on the table and let him choose a penny for his bank or a nickel to take
to the store. Let the child sort the pennies, nickels, and dimes into different containers.
Correct errors and point out differences in size and color that help identify the coins.
232 COGNITION
In a classroom, prepare a group lesson on money. Show the different coins and talk a b o u t
the differences in size and color. Put a few coins on the table, and let the children take
turns sorting and identifying t h e m .
Buy s o m e plastic play coins that are t h e s a m e sizes and colors as g e n u i n e coins. Have
the children use these to "go shopping" in a center where you have set up materials as a
store.
CRITERION On three or more occasions, the child correctly selects a penny, nickel, and a dime
from a group of coins (or correctly names them).
9r. Correctly counts to 20

PROCEDURES
Continue counting in daily activities and when reading books. After the child masters
counting to 1 0 , work with her on counting to 11 and 1 2 , then 1 3 through 2 0 . Work up
gradually and always point to objects as you count. The child will have a difficult time un-
derstanding that each word stands for o n e m o r e o b j e c t unless this is reinforced regularly.
In a classroom, have the children count objects with you to see how many there are. The
children may have more fun (and a better understanding of numbers) if each child stands
up when you say a n u m b e r so that you can point at the child. You may also help children
count by having them count off the days from the beginning of the month to the current
date. You should be pointing to the spaces on the calendar as they count.
CRITERION On three or more occasions, the child counts correctly to 20 without help.
9s. Matches three-part sequences

of pictures depicting quantities (or dice)
MATERIALS Dice, playing cards, or other cards displaying different quantities with con-
sistent configurations for each quantity
PROCEDURES
Place three cards (or dice) on the table in a row creating a sequence of three different quan-
tities (e.g., 5, 1 0 , and an ace of clubs). Give the child five cards of the same color (e.g., 4,
5, 9, 1 0 , and ace of spades). Tell him to make a row of cards just like yours. If he chooses
the correct cards but puts them in the wrong order, point out the order, correct it, give the
N U M B E R CONCEPTS
child back the cards, and ask him to try again to make it just like yours. Then, let the child
c h o o s e three cards to put in a row. You copy his pattern. Continue taking turns until you or
the child is tired of the g a m e .
If t h e child frequently reverses the order of the cards, it may help to create the se-
q u e n c e s on sheets of paper with a colored heavy line on the left-hand side. Always place
your first card next to the line and point out that it is next to the line. Help the child start
by choosing the card that g o e s next to the line, then the next one, and the next. The goal
of this item is to teach both direction and sequence.
In a classroom (or at h o m e if another child is present), e n c o u r a g e pairs of children to take

turns making and matching s e q u e n c e s of cards. The more advanced children may wish to
create s e q u e n c e s that contain five, six, or seven cards.
CRITERION The child matches three or more sequences of three cards, dice, or pictures that
depict quantities.
9t. Gives the correct number of objects

when asked (all numbers from 4 through 10)
MATERIALS Any objects that can be easily manipulated and counted
PROCEDURES
Continue to increase the n u m b e r of objects that you ask a child to get for you. When she
reliably selects four, begin asking for five, then six, and so forth up to 1 0 .
Do this as a part of daily activities at h o m e or in t h e classroom (e.g., "Please bring me five

spoons so we all can have s o m e ice cream"). If the child gives the wrong number, help
her count the o n e s that she brought and correct the error.
CRITERION The child gives 4-10 objects when requested to do so; she must be successful at
least twice for each number.
9u. Tells current age,

age the previous year, and age next year
PROCEDURES
Talk a b o u t the child's a g e and the a g e s of other people in the family or classroom. En-
courage him to respond to the question, "How old are y o u ? " both by saying the number
234 COGNITION
and by holding up the correct n u m b e r of fingers. When birthdays c o m e up, talk a b o u t

being 1 year older, holding up another finger, and counting. Also, talk about how old he
(or another child) was before his birthday and how old he will be on his next birthday.
Have the child use his fingers to show you the various ages. You can also count birthday
candles for siblings or friends, and emphasize the a g e last year, this year, and next year.
Prompt friends to ask the child these questions a b o u t his age.
This concept is often easier to learn in a classroom where birthdays occur more frequently.
Coach the children to report how old they were the day before their birthday, how old
they are now, and how old they will be when they have another birthday.
CRITERION On three or more occasions, the child correctly tells current age, age the previous
year, and age next year (holding up the correct number of fingers is an acceptable response).
9v„ Answers addition questions involving adding 2 (up to 10)

MATERIALS Any objects that can be manipulated and counted
PROCEDURES
Place several objects in front of the child and ask her to count t h e m . Place two more and
ask, "Now how many are t h e r e ? " If the child does not know or answers incorrectly, ask her
to count the objects.
Once the child can add with the objects present, begin asking questions without t h e
objects present (e.g., "If you have two cookies and I give you two more, how many will
you have?"). Whenever the child cannot answer the question, bring out concrete objects
for her to count or show her how to "count up" on her hand (e.g., hold up five fingers
and count them), raise up two more, and continue the count (e.g., 6 and 7 ) .
Look for opportunities throughout the day to ask the child questions where she has to add
two.
CRITERION The child correctly answers two or more questions involving adding two to num-
bers 2-8.
9w. Identifies numbers 0 through 9

MATERIALS Two sets of cards with the numbers 0 - 9 printed on them (one n u m b e r to
each card), books with numbers in them
NUMBER CONCEPTS 235
PROCEDURES
Check to make sure that the child is able to match numbers correctly (Item 6-1 Ij). Place
number cards on the table for the numbers 0 - 5 . Give the child o n e of the matching num-
bers and ask him to find the o n e just like it (e.g., "Here is a 3. Can you find another 3?").
If he matches all of the numbers in that group, try another group including the numbers
4 - 9 , always n a m i n g each n u m b e r as you ask him to match it. Then, place n u m b e r cards
0 - 9 on the table in a row but in a random order, and ask the child to find the 0, the 1,
and so forth. If he does not choose the correct number, say, "That's not quite right. This
is the [correct n u m b e r ] . " Be sure to hold up the matching card for him to see, but then
put it down in a different spot. Then say, "Now, can you find the [number]?"
Numbers appear on many items found in typical h o m e s and classrooms. Call attention to
the numbers, saying, "There are s o m e numbers. Show me the 5 . "
In a classroom, divide the children into pairs and ask each pair to look for all of the
examples they can find of a particular n u m b e r and call you to check as they find t h e m .
CRITERION The child correctly identifies each of the digits from 0 through 9 on three or more
occasions. Some remaining confusion about 6 and 9 is acceptable.
9x. Matches numbers to pictures of quantities

up to four (or assembles groups of objects to match the
number; the adult does not name the number for the child)
MATERIALS Number cards for the numbers 1 - 5 , pictures containing o n e to five objects,
books devoted to counting and quantities
PROCEDURES
Place five pictures in front of the child, each representing one, two, three, four, or five an-
imals, objects, dots, and so forth. Show the child the n u m b e r 4 and say, "Do you remem-
ber what this n u m b e r is?" If she says the n u m b e r incorrectly, correct her saying, "No, this
is a 4. Now, can you find the picture that has four things in it?" If she does not find it cor-
rectly, show her, count the objects, and say, "See, this n u m b e r 4 g o e s with the picture of
four things." Proceed with t h e other numbers in the same fashion. Then, begin present-
ing the n u m b e r card without naming it or asking the child to n a m e it. Ask the child to
find the right picture to go with that number.
You can also give the child a n u m b e r card and ask her to get the right number of
blocks, cars, spoons, and so forth to go with the number.
In a classroom, create a g a m e in which you pass out numbers to the children and have
them assemble the correct n u m b e r of objects to match the number. Ask them to show
each other their numbers and the objects they assembled.
236 COGNITION
You can also send children on errands with a n u m b e r card. For example, hand the
child a n u m b e r card and tell her to get you "this many" cups. If she brings back the cor-
rect number, praise her. If she d o e s not bring back the correct number, tell her the n a m e
of the n u m b e r and count the objects so that she can correct her error.
CRITERION Without having the adult name the numbers, the child matches numbers to pic-
tures of quantities up to four, or assembles groups of the correct number of objects to match the
numbers. The child should correctly represent each number two or more times.
0 G N I T S 0 N / C 0 M M U N ! C AT i 0 N
10
Concepts/Vocabulary:
Receptive
T h i s sequence is concerned w i t h children's understanding of verbal labels. A

child's understanding of verbal labels increases dramatically b e t w e e n the
ages of 2 and 5 years. T y p i c a l l y developing children often learn to under-
stand several n e w w o r d s each day.
Before labels c a n be learned, h o w e v e r , a c h i l d m u s t be able to m a k e certain dis-
c r i m i n a t i o n s . A s a general r a l e , a c h i l d i s able t o m a t c h before h e o r she can sort,
sort before select, and select before n a m i n g on the basis of abstract characteristics.
For example, a c h i l d m a y be able to m a t c h colored discs to pictures of colored discs
before he or she c a n sort a c o l l e c t i o n of blocks into separate piles based on color.
T h e c h i l d m a y b e able t o sort t h e blocks into piles based o n color before h e o r she
c a n select a red b l o c k f r o m a p i l e o f m i x e d blocks. Finally, the c h i l d m a y b e able t o
m a t c h , sort, a n d select but still not be able to n a m e the colors of the blocks. S o m e
children appear to go through these four steps almost simultaneously; others pro-
gress f r o m one to the other s l o w l y . B e c a u s e it is necessary to k n o w w h e t h e r a c h i l d
is able to discriminate objects on the basis of abstract characteristics before trying
to teach labels for those characteristics, several of the i t e m s in this sequence are
cross-referenced w i t h m a t c h i n g and sorting tasks i n Sequences 6 - 1 and 6-II.
Please note that this sequence provides o n l y a sampling of the words a c h i l d
should be able to understand at various ages. A n y g i v e n c h i l d m a y learn these ver-
bal concepts in an entirely different order t h a n that listed. M u c h depends on the
child's e n v i r o n m e n t , especially the v a r i e t y of words h i s or her parents or caregivers
use and the stories they read to the c h i l d .
237
238 COGNITION/COMMUNICATION
ADAPTATIONS

C o n s u l t w i t h children's p h y s i c a l and/or occupational therapists to determine the best
position and adaptive equipment to a l l o w the children to point to or select pictures/
objects. If necessary, use eye gaze or a y e s / n o response to identify the object a c h i l d
is choosing. L i k e w i s e , it is possible to do sorting activities by h a v i n g the c h i l d i n -
dicate through pointing, eye gaze, or a y e s / n o response w h e r e the objects are to
be placed. See A p p e n d i x D for a description of an object board that m a y be used
for sorting activities a n d s o m e suggestions for increasing the reliability of eye-gaze
responses.

H e l p children w i t h severe v i s u a l i m p a i r m e n t s to feel objects carefully in order to
get a sense of size, shape, and other characteristics. T a l k about these characteristics
as the children explore the objects. Select objects that emphasize the particular
characteristics y o u w a n t the children to notice. D e p e n d i n g on the extent of the i m -
p a i r m e n t , it m a y be impossible for s o m e c h i l d r e n to d i s c r i m i n a t e colors. If a c h i l d
is able to m a t c h and sort on the basis of size and shape (through tactile cues) but
cannot m a t c h or sort colors, he or she w i l l not be able to label colors. It is, h o w e v e r ,
important to c o n t i n u e to use color n a m e s . As the c h i l d gets older, he or she w i l l
k n o w that grass is green and the s k y is blue e v e n though he or she w i l l not h a v e the
same m e n t a l constructs for those words as people w i t h v i s i o n do.

Be sure that a c h i l d w i t h a hearing i m p a i r m e n t is l o o k i n g at y o u w h e n y o u speak
to h i m or her. L o o k directly at the c h i l d and speak clearly. C o n s u l t with the child's
audiologist and/or speech-language therapist about other suggestions for c o m m u n i -
cation. L e a r n the signs that are being taught to the c h i l d if signs are encouraged by
his or her therapist.
10. CONCEPTS/VOCABULARY: RECEPTIVE
a. Selects pictures of actions
b. Follows directions including "in," "out," "on," and "off"
c. Selects a similar object/picture when shown a sample and asked to find "another o n e "
d. Selects objects/pictures that are "the s a m e " or "like this"
e. Selects "biggest" and "littlest" (or "smallest") from a group of three objects/pictures
f. Selects objects/pictures to indicate an understanding of at least two relative concepts

or comparisons
g. Points to five or more colors on request
h. Selects objects and pictures to indicate which are square and which are round
i. Selects objects by usage
j. Understands p a r t - w h o l e relationships
k. Understands "up," "down," "top," and "bottom"
I. Understands "under," "over," "next to," and "beside"
m. Follows directions or points to pictures to indicate an understanding of the pronouns

"he," "she," "him," "her," "they," "their," "them"
n. Understands "fast" versus "slow"
o. Understands "empty" versus "full"
p. Selects the o n e that is "different" (or "not the same")
q. Understands "around," "in front of," "in back of," "between," "high," and "low"
r. Selects objects/pictures to indicate an understanding of at least four relative concepts

or comparisons
s. Selects square, triangle, and circle
t, Selects m e m b e r s of a class
u. Recognizes at least 10 uppercase letters
v. Understands "backward" and "forward"
w. Selects objects/pictures to indicate an understanding of at least eight relative con-

cepts or comparisons
x. Recognizes most, colors (including pink, gray, brown)
y, Distinguishes between letters and numbers
z. Understands "except"
aa. Answers questions or points to pictures to show an understanding that different ac-
tivities occur in the daytime and at night
bb. Understands time concepts
cc. Understands qualitative concepts
239
10a, Selects pictures of actions (e.g., eating)

MATERIALS Books, magazines
PROCEDURES
Look at a b o o k with the child and say, "Look at this page. W h o is sleeping?" (There should
be at least o n e other person or animal doing something else on the same page.) Or, say,
"Let's look through this b o o k and see if you can find s o m e o n e who is running." Point out
pictures the child omits. Repeat this activity often using a variety of books.
CLASSROOM 6r FUNCTIONAL ACTIVITIES
Read often to the child using colorful picture books. Talk about the pictures as you read
the story. Once the child is familiar with the book, begin asking him to show you who is
doing s o m e action, such as eating, sleeping, or j u m p i n g .
When you sit to look at a magazine, e n c o u r a g e the child to sit with you. Talk about
the ads and what the people are doing in t h e m . Ask the child to point to people or ani-
mals doing various activities.
CRITERION The child selects (by pointing, touching, naming) action pictures of people or an-
imals. The child should be able to identify at least three different actions.
10b. Follows directions

including " i n , " "out," " o n , " and "off"
MATERIALS Typical household or classroom objects and containers
PROCEDURES
Place s o m e small toys or blocks and a container in front of the child. Give her instructions
that include "in," "out," "on," and "off." For example, tell the child, "Put the car in the box,"
"Take the blocks out of the box," "Put the ball on the chair," "Take the ball off the chair."
Correct errors by demonstrating the action you requested. Then repeat the instruction. Use
hand-over-hand assistance if necessary to help the child understand instruction. Always
praise the child for accomplishing the task even if it is with your assistance.
Think a b o u t these prepositions as you give children instructions. Give special emphasis to
them (e.g., "The blocks go in the box, and the books go on the shelf," "Please take the
b o o k out of the b o x , " "Please take your elbows off of the table"). Use these words to talk
about what you are doing, and play g a m e s with the child that will involve these words.
For example, hide something and say, "Can you find the [object]? Look in the drawer; look
on the table."
In a classroom, set up simple obstacle courses that require the children to go into,
crawl out of, and climb onto various pieces of furniture or play equipment. As they are
CONCEPTS/VOCABULARY: RECEPTIVE 241
doing this ask, "Hey everybody, where is Nell? There she is in t h e tunnel. Now she's c o m -
ing out!" Give instructions including these words to individual children as well as to the
group to assess whether each child has mastered the concepts.
CRITERION The child follows instructions that require an understanding of "in," "out," "on,"
and "off." The child must demonstrate an understanding of each word in at least two different
instructions (e.g., "Put the block in the box," "Take the spoons off the table," "Put the book on
the shelf," "Take the shoes out of the box").
10c. Selects a similar object/picture

when shown a sample and asked to find "another one"
10d. Selects objects/pictures

that are "the same" or "like this"
MATERIALS Picture books; picture cards from a m e m o r y g a m e ; c o m m o n objects found
in a home, classroom, outdoors, or elsewhere
PROCEDURES
Give the child a collection of 8 - 1 0 objects/pictures representing three or more classes,

such as cars, trucks, airplanes, blocks, spoons, and so forth. Have o n e representative from
each of the classes for yourself. Hold out o n e of your objects and say, "I have o n e [object].
Can you find me another o n e ? " If he does not give you another object of the s a m e class,
help him look through his objects to find one. If he gives you s o m e other object, describe
how it is similar to or different from the o b j e c t you have, and help him find the object in
the s a m e class as yours (e.g., "That is sort of like a car because it has wheels, but it is a
truck. I need another car").
Give the child another collection of objects in which there are exact duplicates of the
objects you have. Hold up o n e of your objects, and tell him to find o n e that is just like or
the s a m e as the o n e you have. If he gives you o n e that is in the s a m e class but is not ex-
actly the same, tell him that he did a g o o d j o b of looking but that he needs to find o n e
that is just the same. Help him find it. Put t h e two next to each other and say, "See, these
are just the same. They are alike." Try again with other objects.
Follow similar procedures using pictures instead of objects. An animal m e m o r y or
lotto g a m e will provide g o o d pictures. Practice until the child understands that "another
o n e " is less specific than "one just the s a m e " or "one just like this."
Children learn concepts of similarity and difference from daily exposure to t h e m . When
helping t h e child play with blocks, ask him to find "another one." Or, looking at a b o o k
say, "There's a d o g . Can you find another o n e ? " If the child selects something different
than you have in mind (e.g., a cow instead of a d o g ) , talk to the child a b o u t how the two
things are the s a m e (both animals) and how they are different (e.g., size, shape, sounds
they make).
Proceed to more difficult discriminations in which you ask the child to find "one just
like this" or "the s a m e as this one." For example, show the child a picture of four different
dogs, and ask him to find the o n e that is the s a m e as o n e of the dogs.
CRITERION 10c On three or more occasions, the child follows directions to find "another one"
when shown a sample. Remember that "another one" is less specific than "same" or "just like"
(e.g., the other dog may look quite different from the one you first selected).
CRITERION lOd On three or more occasions, the child finds one that is "the same" and one
just "like this," when shown a sample.
10e. Selects "biggest" and "littlest"

(or "smallest") from a group of three objects/pictures
MATERIALS Various objects of different sizes or pictures of objects of different sizes
PROCEDURES
Lay out three objects or find pictures that have three objects of different sizes, and ask the
child to point to the biggest and the littlest. Correct the child if she makes an error. Try
another set of three objects or pictures.
Use the terms "biggest" and "littlest" (or "smallest," depending on your preference) in ad-
dition to just "big" and "little" as you describe things in the environment (e.g., "I'm g o i n g
to give you the biggest cookie. I will save the littlest cookie for me").
As you read books or look at the pictures in books, describe the objects in size terms.
An especially g o o d b o o k to use for this item is The Three Billy Goats Gruff.
N o t e : Although this item emphasizes "biggest" and "littlest" because "big" and "lit-
tle" tend to be the first size terms children use, it is a g o o d idea to introduce a variety of
terms such as "large," "tiny," "small," and so forth.
CRITERION The child identifies the "biggest" and the "littlest" (or "smallest") among three or
more different sets of three objects or pictures.
10f. Selects objects/pictures

to indicate an understanding of at least
two relative concepts or comparisons (e.g., "soft/hard,"
heavy/light," "rough/smooth," "fat/skinny," "thick/thin,"
'short/tall," "tiny/large," "short/long," "bumpy/smooth")
MATERIALS A variety of objects (e.g., stuffed animals, blocks, pillows, chairs, rocks, pre-
school and school-age crayons, containers of different sizes and shapes) that differ in the
above characteristics and pictures of objects that differ in these characteristics
PROCEDURES
For each of the relative concepts being taught, present t h e child with two objects/pictures
that are very different. For example, show the child a stuffed animal and a rock for teach-
ing "soft/hard," a rock and a feather for teaching "heavy/light," a ruler and a yardstick for
teaching "long/short," cylinders of different widths for teaching "thick/thin," and sand-
paper and a scrap of satin for teaching "rough/smooth." Encourage the child to feel, lift,
and explore t h e objects as appropriate as you talk a b o u t their characteristics.
After the child appears to understand a comparison with o n e set of materials, try an-
other set in which the contrast is not quite so great. When the child regularly identifies
the characteristics in two objects that he can manipulate, try to find pictures that exem-
plify these characteristics (e.g., a picture of a brick and a pillow), and ask him to identify
which of the objects is soft, hard, heavy, light, and so forth.
R e m e m b e r to use words to describe the characteristics of objects throughout the day and
to select books that help to reinforce the ideas. For example, the story Goldilocks and the
Three Bears gives an opportunity to talk about "hard," "soft," "hot," "cold," "big," and "little."
Have children collect materials while they are outside or have t h e m each bring some-
thing from h o m e to show to the other children. Pick out objects to c o m p a r e on varying
characteristics (e.g., "rough/smooth"), and e n c o u r a g e the children to identify other objects
that could be c o m p a r e d using the s a m e characteristic.
Line up dolls and/or stuffed animals, and have the children pick out s o m e that are
tall, short, fat, or skinny or have clothes that are rough or smooth. During snack time, dis-
cuss "hot," "cold," "warm," and "cool."
CRITERION The child selects objects/pictures to indicate an understanding of at least two rela-
tive concepts on two or more occasions.
10g. Points to five or more colors on request

MATERIALS Objects of different colors
PROCEDURES
Before trying to get the child to point to colors when you n a m e them, be sure that the
child is able to match colors (see Item 6-llb). If the child is not yet pointing to colors cor-
rectly after mastering matching tasks, begin teaching by naming the color of an object
you are holding and asking the child to find another o n e that color. Go on to other col-
ors and then c o m e back to the first and ask the child to find something that color with-
out showing her a matching item.
Give instructions frequently in the h o m e or classroom that involve colors (e.g., "Please
bring me the red cup"). When working with a group of children, ask them to point to
s o m e o n e whose shirt is blue, whose ribbon is red, and so forth. Or, have the children look
around the classroom and find something that is green, for example, and then let each
child tell what he or she has found.
CRITERION The child points to objects to demonstrate an understanding of five or more col-
ors (each color should be identified three or more times).
10h. Selects objects and pictures to

indicate which are square and which are round
MATERIALS A variety of square and round objects (e.g., blocks, balls, square and round
pieces of construction paper) and pictures of square and round objects
PROCEDURES
Before trying to get the child to point to shapes when you n a m e t h e m , be sure that the
child is able to match and sort shapes (see Item 6-llc). If he is not yet pointing to varying
shapes correctly after mastering sorting and matching, begin teaching by showing him a
round o b j e c t and asking him to find another round o b j e c t . Repeat with square objects.
Then ask for something round or square without having an example. Once the child is
a b l e to give round and square objects on request, show him pictures of round and square
objects and circles and squares. Ask him to point to something round and square. Go back
to having him find a "round o n e like m i n e " if he is unable to make the transition from o b -
jects to pictures.
Describe objects as square or round (e.g., point out signs when shopping, traveling, or
walking outdoors). Ask the child to give you the shapes by n a m e (e.g., "This is a round
dish. Can you find me a round lid?" "I need a square block to go on this tower. Can you
find me a square o n e ? " ) .
In a classroom, incorporate the learning of shape n a m e s into cleanup activities or art
work (e.g., say, "Put all of the round blocks in this b o x and all of the square blocks in this
one," have different colored circles and squares and say, "Let's make a picture using just
round circles." Then make another out of just squares).
Play a g a m e in which you ask each child to find something square (or round) in the
classroom. Work individually with children who have difficulty with the concepts.
CRITERION The child selects at least five square and round objects and at least five pictures of
such objects from groups containing both shapes.
101. Selects objects by usage

(e.g., "Show me what we drink out of")
MATERIALS A variety of functional objects
PROCEDURES
Talk a b o u t objects as you use them (e.g., "Let's drink out of the blue cup today," "I'm
going to cut the paper with these scissors"). Occasionally place three or four objects in
front of the child and say, "Show me the o n e that we . . ." (e.g., drink out of, cut with,
use to wash our face, carry money in).
In a classroom, bring a collection of interesting objects to circle time, and ask the children
to tell you their uses. Tell and show the children t h e uses of the objects that they do not
recognize. Let t h e m use or pretend to use the objects. On t h e next day, bring out the o b -
jects again, and ask the children to identify them by use (e.g., "Show me the o n e we use
to pound in the nails," "Show me the o n e we throw").
N o t e : It is important to use varying instructions so that t h e child can accomplish this
task when asked to "show me," "point to," "give me," and "find the."
CRITERION The child selects five or more objects by usage.
10j. Understands part-whole

relationships (e.g., points to the tail of the dog)
MATERIALS Toys, pictures, c o m m o n household objects
PROCEDURES
Give the child two stuffed animals or pictures of two animals. Say, "Show me the tail of
the [animal]," "Show me the nose of the [animal]," and so forth.
Give the child a car, a truck, and a train (or pictures of various vehicles). Tell her to
show you the wheels of the train, the door of the car, or the window of the truck. Follow
a similar procedure with other pictures and objects. Praise the child for pointing correctly.
Correct errors and ask the child to show you again.
When you and the child are e n g a g e d in reading a story or s o m e other c o m m o n activity,
c o m m e n t about the different parts of objects or pictures (e.g., "Look at that squirrel's tail,"
"That truck has big wheels," "That is the cat's paw. You have hands and feet; the cat has
paws"). Occasionally ask the child to show you a part of an o b j e c t or picture. Help her
point to the right place if she makes an incorrect choice.
Increase the difficulty of the task by choosing two or more similar objects, and ask
the child to show you a part on o n e of t h e m . For example, present her with a toy dog and
a toy cat (or pictures of a dog and a cat), and ask her to show you the dog's tail. This en-
sures you that the child is attending to both parts of the question (the object and the part).
CRITERION The child identifies a part of an object or a picture on five or more occasions. At
least two of these must be in situations in which she must choose both the correct object and
the correct part.
10k. Understands " u p / * " d o w n / ' " t o p / ' and "bottom"

101. Understands "under/' "over/* "next to/* and "beside"
MATERIALS N o n e required
PROCEDURES
Tell the child that you are g o i n g to play a g a m e with him. Explain that you will take turns
telling each other what to do in order to see if the other person can do it. When you give
instructions, be sure to use the words above (e.g., "Hold the ball up. Now put it down,"
"Put the block on top of the b o x , " "Touch the bottom of your foot"). Each time the child
make an error, repeat the instruction as you show him what he should have done. Do this
in a cheerful "oops, not quite right" manner, not in a stern "that was wrong" manner. Also,
if the child gives you instructions, get s o m e of them wrong so that he needs to correct
you. It must be clear to the child that it is all right to make mistakes.
Try several different instructions for each of the above words to be sure the child un-
derstands t h e m in a variety of contexts.
Use these direction words when talking to the child about what you are doing, what
he is doing, or what you both are seeing. Think about contrasts in your descriptions
(e.g., "You are g o i n g up, now you're c o m i n g down," "This is the top of the b o x and this
is the bottom"). Check the child's understanding by giving instructions using these words
(e.g., "Please bring me the b o o k from the bottom shelf," "Please take this box up the
stairs") or by asking questions (e.g., "Are you going up or down?").
Similarly, use the words "under," "over," "next to," and "beside" when giving the child
instructions or telling him where to find something. These words are more useful to him
than pointing or simply getting things for him.
In a classroom, use songs and finger plays during circle time that include these words
(e.g., Itsy, Bitsy Spider). You can also play a g a m e in which the o b j e c t is for children to
follow an instruction as quickly as possible (e.g., "Susie, get on top of the table. Bill, touch
the bottom of your foot").
CRITERION 10k The child demonstrates an understanding of "up," "down," "top," and "bot-
tom. " He must demonstrate each by following two or more appropriate instructions for each
word or by using the words appropriately.
CRITERION 101 The child demonstrates an understanding of "under," "over," "next to," and "be-
side" by either following instructions or using each of the words appropriately on two or more
occasions.
CONCEPTS/VOCABULARY; RECEPTIVE 247
10m. Follows directions or points to

pictures to Indicate an understanding of the pronouns
" h e , " "she," "him," "her," "they," "their," and "them"
PROCEDURES
When you read to the child or look at pictures, ask questions or give directions that in-
volve the use of pronouns. For example, if there are two p e o p l e of different sexes on the
page, ask, "Where is s h e ? " Or, ask, "What is she d o i n g ? " "What is he d o i n g ? " If there is a
picture (or two) that shows o n e person doing something and a group of people doing
something else, ask, "What are they d o i n g ? "
Give instructions within the h o m e or classroom using these pronouns. Note whether the
child understands the pronouns even if she does not follow all of the instruction correctly.
Listen for the child to use pronouns.
CRITERION On two or more occasions, the child follows directions or points to pictures to in-
dicate an understanding of each of the following pronouns: "he," "she," "him," "her," "they,"
"their," and "them."
10n. Understands "fast" versus "slow"

MATERIALS W h e e l e d toys
PROCEDURES
Play with cars with the child. Talk about making yours go fast and slow. Ask him to make
his go fast and then slow. Make a g a m e of it to see if he can c h a n g e speeds when you say
the words at irregular intervals.
Think of ways throughout the day to integrate these words into activities that you are
doing with the child or in the child's presence (e.g., "You're running too fast for me.
M o m m y is slow").
Have a group of children play a g a m e outside in which children run, stop, go fast,
and go slow on c o m m a n d .
CRITERION The child demonstrates an understanding of "fast" and "slow" by following two or
more instructions including each of these words.
lOo. Understands "empty" versus "full"

MATERIALS Toy cars, various containers, materials to fill t h e containers
PROCEDURES
Play with the child using toy cars, have yours stop, and say that it can't go any more be-
cause the gas tank is empty. Pretend to fill it up and pronounce it full before running the
car again.
Present two cups to t h e child, o n e full of crackers, t h e other empty. Give the full o n e
to the child and say, "Your cup is full of crackers. Mine is empty. May I have o n e of yours?"
Repeat with other objects in other containers.
Check the child's understanding by presenting her with two containers and asking
which o n e is full and which o n e is empty.
Snack or lunchtime at h o m e or in a classroom is a g o o d time to talk to t h e child or to a

group of children a b o u t containers (e.g., plates, glasses) being empty or full.
CRITERION The child demonstrates an understanding of "empty" and "full" by following two
or more instructions.
10p. Selects the one that is "different" (or "not the same")
MATERIALS Picture, objects found in a typical h o m e or classroom environment
PROCEDURES
Place four objects in front of the child, three of them identical and o n e different (e.g., three
cars and o n e block, three spoons and o n e fork). Say, "One of these things is not like the
others; it is not the same. Which o n e is it?" If t h e child correctly picks up the o b j e c t that
is different, say, "That's right. That o n e is not t h e same, it is different." If he makes a mis-
take, correct it by saying, "No, that o n e is just like this o n e and this o n e and this one. They
are all the same. It is this o n e that is different, that is not t h e same." Try again with a dif-
ferent group of objects. Begin with objects that are very different (e.g., block and car) and
work up to objects that have similar functions or appearances (e.g., fork and spoon).
If a child is slow to learn, use only two terms (e.g., "same," "different") until they are
mastered. Then introduce "alike" and "not alike" or "not the s a m e " so that the child c o m e s
to understand that they are interchangeable with "same" and "different," respectively. For
children who are learning more rapidly, you can use t h e terms interchangeably through-
out teaching.
Throughout the day at h o m e or in the classroom, call the child's attention to objects that
are alike (or the same) and different (not the s a m e ) .
In a classroom, prepare for every child a sack that contains four identical objects in it
(make sure each sack has different objects). Then, e x c h a n g e o n e o b j e c t from each sack
with something from another sack. Give each child a sack of objects (three will be the
s a m e and o n e will be different). Ask everyone to take the o b j e c t that is different out of
their sacks and put it in the middle of the table. Once they have d o n e this, ask them to
find an o b j e c t on the table that is the s a m e as those in their sack and put it in their sack.
Then ask them all to d u m p their sacks out so that everyone can see what they have. At
this point you can correct any errors and talk further about s a m e and different.
CRITERION On three or more occasions, the child selects the one that is different or not alike
from a group of three or four. The child must be able to make the choice whether the term "dif-
ferent" or "not the same" is used.
10q. Understands "around/' "in front of/'

"in back of," "between," "high," and "low"
MATERIALS Toys and other objects found in typical h o m e or classroom environments
PROCEDURES
Play with the child with a group of objects demonstrating these concepts, and ask the
child to follow directions that include them (e.g., "I'm putting the boy in front of the barn.
You put the cow in front, t o o , " "Let's put our crackers up high so the d o g won't get t h e m , "
"We'll put the water down low for the kitty").
Check the child's understanding on another day by giving her instructions using these
terms when you have not demonstrated their meanings. Provide additional demonstration
for any that the child does not appear to understand.
Teach these concepts throughout t h e day as opportunities arise.

In the classroom, have the children sit in a circle with a variety of small toys. Give in-
structions to the children, o n e by one, using these terms (e.g., "Joe, put the string around
Bill's hand," "Maria, go sit behind Jake"). Lining up in the classroom, putting away toys,
and finding objects are also g o o d opportunities to teach these concepts and to determine
which children know t h e m .
Organizing an obstacle course in the classroom or on the playground is another way
to teach these concepts. As the children are making their way through the obstacle course,
say, "Stop where you are!" Then ask the children to point to s o m e o n e who is in front of
or behind s o m e object, s o m e o n e who is between two objects, or s o m e o n e who is up high
or down low.
CRITERION The child demonstrates an understanding of "around," "in front of," "in back of,"
"between," "high," and "low" on two or more occasions by following instructions including these
words or by pointing to pictures, people, or objects that demonstrate the concept.
10r. Selects objects/pictures

to indicate an understanding of at least
four relative concepts or comparisons (e.g., "soft/hard/"
"heavy/light," "rough/smooth/' "fat/skinny/' "thick/thin,"
"short/tall," "tiny/large," "short/long/' "bumpy/smooth")
a b o v e characteristics and pictures of objects that differ in these characteristics
PROCEDURES/CLASSROOM 6r FUNCTIONAL ACTIVITIES
See instructions for Item 10f.
CRITERION The child selects objects/pictures to indicate an understanding of at least four rel-
ative concepts on two or more occasions.
10s. Selects square, triangle, and circle

MATERIALS Blocks in the form of squares, triangles, circles; paper cut-outs of these
shapes; books with pictures of these shapes
PROCEDURES
Check to make sure that the child can match these forms (see Item 6-llc). Place a square,
a triangle, and a circle in front of the child. Ask him to show you the circle, then the
square, and then the triangle. If he cannot, take out a second circle and say, "This is a cir-
cle, find me another circle." Repeat with the square and triangle. Then ask for each shape
again without showing a sample.
Look for these shapes in t h e books you read or in the environment. Comment on t h e m .
Ask the child to show them to you.
In the classroom, plan a lesson in which you bring large shapes cut from paper or
cardboard and talk a b o u t them (e.g., a circle is round, a square has four sides, a triangle
has three sides). Ask a child to look around the room and find all of the circles that he
can find. Ask another child to find all of the squares and another to find all of the trian-
gles (be sure you have taped s o m e up in unlikely places to add to those occurring natu-
rally to make it a g a m e ) .
CRITERION On three or more occasions, the child points to or otherwise indicates a square, tri-
angle, and circle.
10t. Selects members of a class

(e.g., animals, toys, food, things to ride)
MATERIALS Picture books ("l Spy" books are useful), magazines, pictures
PROCEDURES
When looking at a b o o k or magazine with the child, ask her to find all of the animals she
can. Then, ask for all of the food. Try all of the categories that are appropriate for the ma-
terials you have, introducing new words now and then (e.g., "A vehicle is something you
can ride in. A car is a vehicle. Now, find me all of the vehicles you can").
Give the child hints in order to increase her ability to scan (e.g., "Look down in this
corner. I think I see one"). Point out the m e m b e r s of the class that the child omits.
In a classroom, there are usually many pictures on the wall as well as toys that readily fall
into classes of objects. Ask o n e child to find all of the animals she can in 1 minute. Set a
timer and have the children count together as she points to each one. Then, have another
child find all of the flowers (or whatever is appropriate).
CRITERION The child identifies four to six members of three or more common classes of ob-
jects without errors.
lOu. Recognizes at least 10 uppercase letters

MATERIALS Uppercase alphabet letters printed individually on cards, books with large
letters, alphabet books, magnetic letters
PROCEDURES
Check to be sure the child is able to match uppercase letters (Item 6-llf). Place six mag-
netic letters or cards with letters printed on them in front of the child. Ask him if he can
find various letters. If he is unable to do so, show him a sample letter, tell him what it is
called, and ask him to find it. If it is necessary to teach the n a m e of every letter, do not
try to do more than five in o n e sitting. Check the child's m e m o r y on those the next day
before trying to teach more. S o m e children will not be able to m a n a g e more than o n e or
two a day.
It is important to start with letters that are quite dissimilar (e.g., 0, Z, P, A, E) before
moving on to letters that are more similar (e.g., 0, C, D, Q; N, M, W, V)
Read alphabet books to the child that have large letters, and demonstrate the sound each
letter makes. Ask the child to point to specific letters when reading other books that have
large letters.
In a classroom, the children may learn letters well by learning to recognize each
other's n a m e s on the cubbies. You can also plan a group activity in which you write each
child's n a m e on a card. Show them o n e by o n e to the group, and have each child claim
his or her n a m e card and recite t h e letters in it. Then, have another child point to the let-
ters in the n a m e as you say t h e m .
CRITERION The child correctly selects or points to at least 10 uppercase alphabet letters. Each
letter should be correctly identified three or more times.
10v. Understands "backward" and "forward"

PROCEDURES
Tell the child you are going to play a g a m e to see how well she listens. Then, give a vari-
ety of instructions, s o m e including the words "backward" and "forward." For example, say,
"Run fast, walk slow, walk backward, walk forward, j u m p , clap your hands, move forward"
and so forth. If the child makes an error, repeat t h e instruction, showing her what to do.
Use these words when giving instructions to t h e child and when describing activities or
events (e.g., "Your shirt is on backward," "You're walking backward!" "Move forward a lit-
tle bit"). Check the child's understanding by giving her specific instructions that include
these words.
In a classroom or on the playground, play a g a m e in which the children move on
c o m m a n d (e.g., run, walk, go backward, go forward, touch the ground).
CRITERION The child follows two or more instructions that include "backward" and "forward."
10w. Selects objects/pictures to

indicate an understanding of at least eight
relative concepts or comparisons (e.g., "soft/hard,"
"heavy/light," "rough/smooth," "fat/skinny," "thick/thin,"
"short/tall," "tinyflarge," "short/long," "bumpy/smooth")
above characteristics and pictures of objects that differ in these characteristics
See instructions for Item 10f.

CRITERION The child selects objects/pictures to indicate an understanding of at least eight rel-
ative concepts on two or more occasions.
10x. Recognizes most

colors (including pink, gray, brown)
MATERIALS Blocks of various colors, crayons, markers, scraps of fabric
PROCEDURES
Place an array of colored objects or pictures in front of the child including red, yellow,
green, blue, purple, and o r a n g e as well as pink, brown, gray, and black. Ask the child to
show you (or give you) the colors as you n a m e t h e m . If he makes an error, correct it with
a noncritical statement such as, "That's t h e o n e we call pink."
When dressing the child, c o m m e n t about the color of his clothes or ask him to fetch some-
thing by color (e.g., "Bring me your red shirt, please"). Talk about the fact that s o m e col-
ors are hard to n a m e because they are a mixture (e.g., " S o m e people call that color green,
and s o m e call it blue because it is halfway between").
In a classroom, play a g a m e in which you ask everyone who is wearing a certain color
to stand up. As appropriate, use s o m e less c o m m o n color n a m e s as well to introduce these
to the children (e.g., aqua, mauve, lilac).
At h o m e or in the classroom give the child an opportunity to paint with tempera
paints or watercolors. Show him what happens when he mixes paint. N a m e the colors of
the mixed paints.
CRITERION When they are named for him, the child correctly identifies all of the following col-
ors: red, blue, yellow, green, orange, purple, black, pink, gray, and brown.
10y. Distinguishes between letters and numbers

MATERIALS Cards with numbers ( 0 - 9 ) and letters on them (one per card), magnetic let-
ters and numbers
PROCEDURES
Place cards or magnetic numbers 0 - 9 and a selection of 10 alphabet letters (either upper-
or lowercase) in front of the child. Ask her to put all of the letters in o n e pile and all of
the numbers in another pile (or into two separate containers). When she is finished, go
through each pile to see if there are any errors. If so, make any corrections, explain the
correction, and have the child try again.
When looking at books or other objects with print on them (e.g., cereal boxes, food cans)
ask the child to see how many numbers she can find.
Have a selection of magnetic letters and numbers on the refrigerator for the child to
manipulate while you are preparing meals. Ask her to group them by letters and numbers.
In the classroom, divide t h e group into t e a m s for s o m e activity by passing out a
n u m b e r or letter to each child. Tell all of the numbers to gather in o n e place and all of
the letters to gather in another.
CRITERION The child routinely distinguishes between letters and numbers (i.e., sorts them,
points correctly to a letter or a number when asked).
10z. Understands "except"

MATERIALS A variety of objects or pictures
PROCEDURES
Place five to eight objects in front of the child. Ask him to give you all of them except o n e
(e.g., "Give me all of the toys except the bear"). If he gives you all of the toys (or, perhaps
just the bear), put the toys back on the table and say, "Now I am going to give you all
the toys except the cup" (a different o b j e c t than in the first instruction). Emphasize the
word "except." Pick up the toys around the cup in such a way that you make it clear you
are excluding it. Tell the child to put all of the toys on. the table again, mix them up, and
then ask him to give you all except the o n e you name. Stop this activity after three or four
trials and try it again another day.
Make a point of giving instructions that include "except" in the course of daily activities.
Listen for the child to begin using the word.
In a classroom, give each child a small collection of toys, each collection including a
block and a car. Set a timer for 3 minutes while they explore the collection. When it
buzzes, tell them to pass all of their toys except the car to the next child. Correct errors.
Set the timer again and tell them to pass all except the block to the next child.
CRITERION The child correctly follows three or more instructions that include the word "except."
10aa. Answers questions or points

to pictures to show an understanding
that different activities occur in the daytime and at night
MATERIALS Books or magazines with pictures that show night and day scenes, pictures
of a moon and stars and the sun
PROCEDURES
Look at pictures with the child or read stories in which there are scenes that show daytime
and nighttime activities. Ask the child to show you the picture of nighttime or the picture
of daytime. Ask her to point to activities you do in t h e daytime and ones you do at night.
Prompt her as necessary to help her master these concepts.
During the course of the day, talk about the time of day and the activities you are doing,
(e.g., "It is morning, so it is time to eat breakfast," "It is nighttime, time for b e d , " "We can't
do that tonight. We'll do it tomorrow in the daytime").
In a classroom, ask t h e children to share with the others their favorite thing to do in
the daytime and their favorite thing to do at night. Ask questions such as "When do we
go to b e d ? " "When do we have lunch?"
CRITERION On three or more occasions, the child points to pictures or answers questions in-
dicating an understanding of the words "day" (or "daytime") and "night" (or "nighttime") and
that different activities take place at the two times.
10bb. Understands time concepts

(e.g., "yesterday," "today," "tomorrow")
PROCEDURES
Use these words when you talk to the child and give instructions to him. Be sure to ex-
plain the concepts to him (e.g., "You are going to school tomorrow," "When it is nighttime
you will go to bed and sleep. When you wake up it will be tomorrow").
Test the child's understanding by giving instructions or asking questions (e.g., "Do
you go to school today?" "Is your birthday tomorrow?").
In a classroom, plan to begin each day by looking at a calendar. Talk about what day it
is, what day it was yesterday, and what day it will be tomorrow. Describe the activities that
took place or will take place on these days.
CRITERION The child follows directions or answers questions (or spontaneously uses the words)
to indicate an understanding of "yesterday," "today," and "tomorrow" (at least two examples of
each concept).
10cc. Understands qualitative concepts

{e.g., "longest," "shortest," "short and
stubby," "long and thin," "pointed," "tall and skinny")
MATERIALS Books, pictures, objects of various sizes and shapes
PROCEDURES
Look at a b o o k or magazine with the child, and tell the child to find pictures that go with
the qualitative concepts listed above and/or others appropriate to the materials you are
using. Be sure to include superlatives (i.e., adjectives ending in "-est") as well as two-word
descriptors (e.g., "long and thin"). Point out the pictures the child does not find, and talk
about their characteristics.
Use these kinds of qualitative descriptors as appropriate throughout the day. Give the
child instructions that involve selecting the shortest, t h e longest, the fattest, and so forth,
so that the child must c o m p a r e more than two objects. Point out errors (e.g., "I want t h e
biggest one. I think I see o n e that is b i g g e r than this one. Can you find it?").
Make observations or give instructions that involve using two adjectives together that
make the description more specific (e.g., long, thin crayon; short, stubby pencil; tall, fat
glass).
In a classroom, have t h e children collect a variety of items on a nature walk. Put them
in the center of the table, and play a g a m e in which you say, "I see something very long
and thin. W h o can find it?" "I see something short and prickly. W h o can find it?" Also, ask
t h e children to take out all of the leaves (or other objects) and decide which is the longest,
the widest, the biggest, and so forth.
CRITERION The child follows instructions or answers questions to indicate an understanding of

three or more qualitative concepts related to magnitude (e.g., ending in "-est") and three or
more that include two descriptors (e.g., "long and thin").
N
11
Concepts/Vocabulary:
Expressive
A person's ability to c o m m u n i c a t e depends b o t h on his or her understanding

o f t h e w o r d s t h a t o t h e r p e o p l e say a n d t h e a b i l i t y t o p u t h i s o r h e r o w n
thoughts and perceptions (concepts) into words. T h i s s e q u e n c e begins w i t h
children's abilities to n a m e pictures and use a variety of words (mostly nouns and
verbs), p r o g r e s s e s t h r o u g h c h i l d r e n ' s e m e r g i n g u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p o w e r o f w o r d s ,
a n d e n d s w i t h a b i l i t i e s t o d e f i n e w o r d s a n d u s e w o r d s r e p r e s e n t i n g r e l a t i v e l y ab-
stract concepts.
Children form m a n y concepts perceptually before t h e y a t t a c h verbal labels to
t h e m . For e x a m p l e , children m a y m a t c h colors, clearly recognizing the differences
b e t w e e n one color and another, before associating specific n a m e s w i t h the colors.
O t h e r c o n c e p t s are d i s c e r n e d t h r o u g h a c t i v e m a n i p u l a t i o n o f o b j e c t s a n d o t h e r e x -
periences in the e n v i r o n m e n t . If a child is having difficulty m o v i n g through the
i t e m s i n t h i s s e q u e n c e , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o l o o k a t h i s o r h e r p r o g r e s s i n o t h e r se-
q u e n c e s i n order t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h e c h i l d h a s m a s t e r e d t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f
p e r c e p t u a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s ( S e q u e n c e 6-II: V i s u a l P e r c e p t i o n : M a t c h i n g S i S o r t i n g )
a n d h a s a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d q u a l i t i e s o f o b j e c t s ( S e q u e n c e 10:
Concepts/Vocabulary: Receptive).
ADAPTATIONS

W h e n m o t o r i m p a i r m e n t s interfere w i t h articulation, listen carefully and accept
p o o r e r a p p r o x i m a t i o n s t h a n y o u m i g h t for o t h e r c h i l d r e n . C o n s u l t a s p e e c h - l a n g u a g e
p a t h o l o g i s t for h e l p i n d e v e l o p i n g a n a u g m e n t a t i v e a n d a l t e r n a t i v e c o m m u n i c a t i o n
s y s t e m i f a c h i l d ' s w o r d p r o d u c t i o n i s lagging far b e h i n d h i s o r h e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f
language.
257

For children with severe visual impairments, place their hands on your mouth as
you make different sounds so that they can feel these sounds as well as hear them.
Occasionally, help the children touch their own mouths when making different
sounds.
Children with severe visual impairments often imitate speech well but have
difficulty establishing the meanings of words. Make a special effort to help these
children explore objects by feeling and handling them and experience people by
touching their hair and faces as well as by hearing their voices.

Always consult the specialists who are working with children with hearing im-
pairments so that a consistent program is developed. If a child is learning speech
through a total communication program, it will be necessary for you to learn the
signs the child's therapist is teaching h i m or her and use them with the child daily.
Consistent signs may be credited as words throughout this sequence.
If a child is trying to communicate with signs, accept approximate signs as you
would accept approximations of words, but model the correct sign. You may need
to physically assist the child to form a sign if he or she is making little progress
through imitation.
It may help children with hearing impairments to feel sounds by letting them
touch your mouth or larynx and also by having them touch their own mouth or lar-
ynx. It may also help to work on sounds and words in front of a mirror and/or am-
plify the children's vocalizations with a microphone and speakers so that they can
hear the sounds.
1 1 . CONCEPTS/VOCABULARY: EXPRESSIVE
a. Names six or more pictures of c o m m o n objects
b. Uses at least 50 different words
c. Names eight or more line drawings of c o m m o n objects
d. Uses "other" or "another" to refer to additional or similar objects
e. Names most pictures and line drawings of familiar objects
f. Listens carefully to new words (may ask for repetition)
g. Repeats new words to self
h. Names pictures of objects not in daily environment
i. Uses a variety of adjectives
j. Defines two or more simple words using at least o n e descriptor
k. Defines five or more simple words using at least o n e descriptor
I. Names objects by functions
m. Names examples in classes
n. Completes two analogies
o. Asks word meanings or otherwise indicates awareness that words have meanings
p. Makes rhymes to simple words
q. Uses new word in conversation soon after hearing the word or having b e e n told the
meaning of the word
r. Labels colors: red, green, blue, orange, purple, yellow, black, brown, pink, and gray
s. Defines 10 or more words
t. Labels most uppercase letters
u. Completes five analogies
v. Names a class of objects from its m e m b e r s
11a. Names six or more pictures of common objects

MATERIALS Books, magazines, pictures
PROCEDURES
Spend time every day reading to the child with her seated on your lap so that you can en-
courage her to touch the pictures. In the beginning, select books with simple pictures that
include only o n e or two objects per page. Name the objects and talk about them (e.g., "See
the ball. It is round and red"). Help the child point to the objects that you name. Then,
begin turning the pages, waiting for the child to n a m e the objects or ask what they are. Al-
ways indicate your pleasure when the child points to the objects or names them.
259
As the child b e c o m e s familiar with a book, do not begin reading immediately. Wait
to see if she will point to the pictures and n a m e them on her own. If she does not, ask,
"What's that?" N a m e the o b j e c t for her if she does not label it.
CLASSROOM ty FUNCTIONAL ACTIVITIES
Maintain a selection of simple picture books on a low shelf so that the child can look at
them independently. Listen to her vocalizations as she turns the pages.
Encourage the child to sit with you as you read a magazine. Point to the pictures and
talk a b o u t t h e m .
CRITERION The child names six different pictures of objects spontaneously or when asked,
"What is that?" This must occur several hours or a day after a session in which the names of the
objects were taught.
11b. Uses at least 50 different words

PROCEDURES
Make a note of each different word the child uses in the time you spend with him. Re-
quest that his parents or caregivers try to keep a list of his words as well. It may help for
them to have several n o t e b o o k s in different parts of the house. You should count as a word
any sound that the child makes consistently for a particular object, even if it is a poor ap-
proximation of your pronunciation of the word (e.g., "bawa" for water). Say the word cor-
rectly after the child, both to let the child correct you if you have misinterpreted the word
and to give him a better model to imitate. Do not, however, try to force the child to correct
his pronunciation. He is probably doing the best he can, and his ability to pronounce words
should improve gradually.
Talk to the child and listen to what he says throughout the day.
CRITERION The child spontaneously uses at least 50 different words in his speech (e.g., when
asking for objects, telling you about something, looking at books).
11c. Names eight or more line drawings of common objects

MATERIALS Books with line drawings (i.e., black and white drawings with relatively few
details rather than colored pictures—coloring books are g o o d for this purpose)
PROCEDURES
Show the child a book of line drawings, and talk about the pictures. Ask the child, "What is
that?" focusing on objects or animals that the child has previously named in colored pic-
CONCEPTS/VOCABULARY: EXPRESSIVE 261
tures. If she does not n a m e the pictures, tell her the names, pointing out particular features
that characterize the object or animal (e.g., "That is a flower. See, it has a stem and some
leaves and s o m e petals," "That is a g o o d guess, but it is not a horse, it is a donkey. See his
long ears?"). Check the next day to see if she remembers what the drawings represent.
Introduce books with line drawings in them for storytime. Tell stories a b o u t the pictures,
and have the child point to objects in the pictures.
N o t e : S o m e children readily make the transition from colored pictures to line draw-
ings. Others do not. This item is included to help those children who have difficulty mak-
ing the transition.
CRITERION The child names eight or more line drawings of common objects at least several
hours after a session in which those names were taught.
l i d . Uses "other" or "another"

to refer to additional or similar objects
MATERIALS A transparent sack or box containing a mixed group of small objects in-
cluding several m e m b e r s of different categories (e.g., two to four trucks, cars, animals,
and blocks)
PROCEDURES
Show the sack or b o x to the child and say, "I have s o m e toys for us to play with. We will
start with this one. (Hand him o n e of the toys.) When you need more, please ask me for
one." When the child begins making requests, listen for him to use "other" or "another."
Model the use of these words if he does not use t h e m . For example, if he is playing with
a car and says, "I want a car," you say, "Oh, you want another car. Okay, here it is." If he
says, "No, not that one," you say, "Do you want the other o n e ? " Listen for him to begin
using these words.
There are usually many opportunities to use the terms "other" and "another" as you go
about daily activities. It is always helpful to young children if you talk about what you are
doing. They feel as though you are including them, and they learn how to describe actions
and events. Notice whether you use terms such as "other" and "another," as in "I don't like
this dress. I think I'll put on the other one," or "It looks like you need another sock. Shall I
get you o n e ? " If you are not saying these terms, try to work them into your comments,
slightly emphasizing them to call the child's attention to them.
Listen for the child to begin using these terms when he is interacting with you or with
others.
CRITERION The child spontaneously uses "other" or "another" appropriately on three or more
different occasions.
11e. Names most pictures

and line drawings of familiar objects
MATERIALS Books, magazines, pictures
S e e instructions for Items 1 1 a and 1 1 c .
CRITERION The child names most pictures and line drawings of familiar objects when asked,
"What is that?" or names them spontaneously while looking at a book or a magazine.
11 f. Listens carefully to new words (may ask for repetition)
11g. Repeats new words to self

MATERIALS S o m e objects or pictures that the child is unfamiliar with and does not know
the n a m e s of. (Try to have objects/pictures with unusual sounding names, such as unfa-
miliar foods or animals.)
PROCEDURES
Select an object/picture that is unfamiliar to the child. Introduce the n a m e of the object
before you show her the o b j e c t . For example, say, "I have a tangerine." Wait and listen to
see if she tries to imitate the word or ask a question a b o u t it. If not, ask, "Do you know
what a tangerine is?" Show her t h e fruit (what it looks like on the inside as well as the out-
side), and let her taste it. Say "tangerine" several times as you show it to her. Follow the
same procedure with another o b j e c t .
Observe the child as you read stories or talk to her. Deliberately use words that she is un-
likely to have heard before, and watch for a reaction. If there is no response, say the word
several times, and show or tell the child what it m e a n s (e.g., point to the o b j e c t , do the
activity). Make it clear that you think words are fun.
Read books with unusual sounding words in them (e.g., Dr. Seuss books), talk a b o u t
the words, and identify them with the characters, objects, or events in the stories.
CRITERION 11 f On three or more occasions, the child asks you to repeat a word, asks what a
word means, or otherwise indicates an interest in a new word.
CRITERION 11 g On three or more occasions, the child repeats a new word to herself shortly
after hearing it and without being prompted to repeat it by an adult.
11h. Names pictures of objects not In

dally environment (e.g.* seen In books or on television)
MATERIALS Storybooks, nursery rhyme books, magazines
PROCEDURES
Read books with pictures that are a b o u t objects or events that are unfamiliar to the child's
daily experiences (e.g., you might choose a b o o k a b o u t animals seen only in a zoo for a
child who has little opportunity to visit zoos). Point to the pictures as you read and talk
a b o u t the special characteristics that make something what it is (e.g., "That is a zebra.
Look at its stripes"). W h e n you read the b o o k again, ask the child to n a m e the pictures. If
he does not know, tell him and then check a day or two later to see if he remembers.
Choose television shows for the child that will expose the child to animals and natural
occurrences that he does not see in his daily life. Nature programs are especially g o o d .
Watch the program with the child, and n a m e the animals and the other sights.
Keep books in the classroom for children to look through that have pictures of o b -
jects that are not in the children's daily environments (e.g., dinosaurs, volcanoes, igloos).
Occasionally read o n e of these books to the children. Be ready to answer questions.
CRITERION The child names 10 or more objects not in his daily environment (usually seen in
books or on television). This must occur several hours or a day after a lesson in which the names
of the objects were taught.
11 i. Uses a variety of adjectives

PROCEDURES
Give the child an object or show her a picture. Ask her to tell you all about it. If she does not,
prompt her by asking questions that require her to respond with adjectives (e.g., "What color
is it?" "Is it big or little?" "Is it square or round?" "How does it feel? Is it smooth or rough?").
Always begin by just letting her talk about the object/picture, and prompt her only when she
has run out of things to say about it.
Use adjectives to describe objects and events to the child. Size words (e.g., "big," "little,"
"teeny"), and aesthetic words (e.g., "pretty," "beautiful," "ugly," "yucky") are a m o n g the
earliest that children learn. Also use words such as "exciting," "dangerous," and "scary."
When you read books to the child, stop and describe the pictures using a variety of
adjectives. Listen to the child. Keep a record of t h e adjectives she uses.
In a classroom, you can ask the children questions during show and tell to encour-
a g e them to describe the objects they brought using adjectives. Ask questions using ad-
jectives (e.g., "Do you think it is pretty?" "Is that a scary mask?").
CRITERION The child uses at least 15 different adjectives over the course of a week.
11]. Defines two or more

simple words using at least one descriptor
11k. Defines five or more simple

words using at least one descriptor
MATERIALS Various objects that the child is familiar with
PROCEDURES
Show the child an object such as a shoe and ask him, "What is this?" After he names the
object, put it behind your back and say, "Okay, now let's see if you can answer this ques-
tion. What is a s h o e ? " If the child s e e m s confused or does not respond, say, "You know
what a shoe is, but I want you to tell me a b o u t it. A shoe is something t h a t . . ." (and wait
for him to finish the sentence). Then, try a few other objects.
Play a mix-up g a m e with the child so that, for example, when the child asks you
for a cookie, you give him a straw instead. When he says, "No, I want a cookie," say, "Oh,
you want a cookie? What is a c o o k i e ? " Coach him if necessary to create a definition
(e.g., "something sweet" would be an a d e q u a t e definition of "cookie").
Describe objects to the child in such a way that he will hear how objects might be defined
(e.g., "This is a leaf. It fell from the tree," "This truck has wheels. The boat doesn't have
wheels b e c a u s e it g o e s on the water").
in a classroom, plan lessons in which you ask the children to tell you everything they
know about simple objects, such as balls, shoes, soap, and so forth. Then, say, "Okay,
Mick, so what is a [specific o b j e c t ] ? " Help the children give more and more complex an-
swers. For instance, if o n e child says, "A hat is something you wear," you can say, "Yes, it
is something you wear, but where do you wear it? Do you wear it on your big t o e ? " Or,
if the child gives o n e characteristic (e.g., "A ball is round") say, "What else can you tell me
about a ball?" Allow all of the children help to answer the question.
CRITERION 11j Without adult prompting, the child defines two or more simple words, citing
at least one important characteristic.
CRITERION 11k Without adult prompting, the child defines five or more words, citing at least
one important characteristic.
111. Names objects by functions

(e.g.. "What cuts the grass?")
PROCEDURES
Have a collection of pictures of objects familiar to the child. Tell her you are g o i n g to play
a guessing g a m e . Explain to the child that you are going to look at a picture and tell her
something about it and then she should try to guess what it is. Be sure to describe the
pictured o b j e c t by its function (e.g., "This is something that cuts grass," "This is something
that sails on the water," "This is something that makes your hair neat"). When the child
guesses, turn the card so she can see it.
In a classroom, play similar guessing g a m e s with a group of children. Devise easy or hard
questions to a c c o m m o d a t e t h e abilities of different children and to ensure success for all.
CRITERION The child names at least 10 different objects after hearing their functions described.
11m. Names examples in classes

PROCEDURES
Tell the child that you are going to play a naming g a m e . Ask him if he can n a m e every-
o n e who lives in his house. If, based on your knowledge, he omits s o m e people who live
in his house, prompt him with questions. Repeat to him all of the p e o p l e he n a m e d , and
then say, "Now, let's see how many animals you can think of." Then try several more cat-
egories, such as things you can ride in, things to eat, things to drink, things to play with,
and so forth. Take turns with the child and let him ask you to n a m e objects in a category
he selects. Most children find this fun but will tire of the activity after 5 - 1 0 minutes. Stop
and try again another day.
Use this g a m e as entertainment when you and the child are riding in t h e car, standing in
line at the grocery store, and so forth. These experiences may prompt you to think of dif-
ferent categories of things, and the child may be able to look around and see examples
of that class of objects (e.g., fruits when you are in a grocery store).
In a classroom, use the naming g a m e with a group of children having them take
turns identifying categories and naming m e m b e r s of those categories.
CRITERION The child names at least three examples in three or more different classes.
11n. Completes two analogies

PROCEDURES
Tell the child you want her to finish what you say. Try a series of analogies that deal with
objects or events familiar to the child. S o m e possible examples include the following:
1. An apple is red. A b a n a n a is
2. Latoya is a girl. B o b b y is a .
3. A daddy is big. A baby is _.
4. A rabbit g o e s fast. A turtle g o e s .
If the child does not finish the statement, finish it for her. Then, say the s a m e anal-
o g y again to see if she can c o m p l e t e it.
This is another word g a m e that can be played in the car or while waiting in line or at other
times when there is not much activity g o i n g on. It will often keep a child occupied for 10
minutes or more.
In a classroom, play this g a m e with a group of children. Say t h e analogy and point
to o n e child to c o m p l e t e it. If she cannot, point to another child. Try to make it fast and
have a mixture of analogies that are more or less difficult to challenge t h e differing skills
of the children.
CRITERION The child completes two analogies, each on the first trial (i.e., she is not imitating
the adult).
11o. Asks word meanings or otherwise

indicates awareness that words have meanings
MATERIALS Both an adult and an early childhood dictionary
PROCEDURES
Deliberately introduce new and interesting sounding words to the child in conversation
(e.g., "Yes, that's a pretty flower. It is an azalea," "That is a squirrel. Look at its bushy tail").
Read books that contain a more advanced vocabulary than the child uses. If the child does
not ask what a word means, ask him if he knows what it m e a n s and then tell him the
m e a n i n g . Always answer the child when he asks the meaning of a word he hears. If you
do not know the meaning, show him how you can look it up in a dictionary.
CONCEPTS/VOCABULARY; EXPRESSIVE 267
When you are reading for your own enjoyment and c o m e across an unfamiliar word, say
to the child, "I just c a m e across a new word (read the word to the child). I am going to
find out what it means." Then, look it up in the dictionary. Make it clear that you have an
interest in words and that you appreciate the child's interest in words.
In a classroom, use circle time, snack time, or other times the children are gathered
to introduce new and useful words. Have a picture to go with a new word. Show it to the
children in a group and then hang it on the wall for the day (with the word written under
it). Look for a story or an activity that relates to the word. Invite the children to bring in
a word they want t h e other children to know.
CRITERION On two or more occasions, the child asks the meaning of a word, questions you
when you use a new word, tells you the meaning of a word, or otherwise indicates an under-
standing that words mean something.
l i p . Makes rhymes to simple words

PROCEDURES
Tell the child that you are going to play a rhyming g a m e . Say, "How many things can we
find that rhyme with ' r e d ? ' B e d ' rhymes with 'red.' They sound alike. What else can you
think of that rhymes with ' r e d ' ? " If the child does not think of any words, help her by giv-
ing hints. For example, touch her head and say, "What is this?" When he says, "head," say,
"Good, ' h e a d ' rhymes with 'red.' Now let's see what else we can think of." If the child
gives a word that does not rhyme, correct her, perhaps telling her a word her word rhymes
with. Move on to other words for which there are many rhymes such as "cat," "sad," and
"hop."
Read rhymes to the child and play rhyming g a m e s with her when you are trying to dis-
tract her in the car, while you are doing household chores, and so forth.
Read books to the child written in rhyme form (e.g., Is Your Mama a Llama? The Cat in
the Hat). When the child is familiar with the books, stop in the middle of a sentence to let
her fill in the rhyming word.
In a classroom, ask the children to say words that rhyme with a word you select. Hear-
ing each other's words will stimulate their thinking. To begin with, it helps to give each
child a picture of something that will rhyme with the word you have chosen. If the child
n a m e s the wrong object in the picture, help her find the right n a m e to make t h e rhyme.
CRITERION The child can name one or more rhyming words for three or more different words.
11q. Uses new word In conversation soon after hearing

the word or having been told the meaning of the word
PROCEDURES
You really cannot teach this item except by deliberately introducing new words into your
conversations with the child and by setting an e x a m p l e of an interest in words. C o m m e n t
on his use of a new word so that he will know he has used it correctly.
In a classroom, listen to what each child has to say. Ask other children to be quiet and lis-
ten to what o n e child has to say. Comment when t h e child uses a new word and ask the
other children if they know what it means.
CRITERION On two or more occasions, the child is observed to use a new word in his speech
shortly after hearing it or having its meaning explained.
11r. Labels colors: red, green, blue,

orange, purple, yellow, black, brown, pink, and gray
MATERIALS Objects in a variety of colors
PROCEDURES
First, make sure that the child is able to match colors and to point to colors when they are
n a m e d . (See Item 6-llb and Item 1 0 x ) .
Select a group of objects of varied colors or cut shapes from various colors of con-
struction paper. Spread these out in front of the child and ask, "What color is this?" as you
point to the objects o n e at a time. If the child n a m e s the color incorrectly, correct her. In
s o m e cases, there will be confusion between two colors. N a m e the color you pointed to,
and show the child the color she n a m e d . Put the two objects side by side so that she can
see the difference.
Frequently include color n a m e s in your conversations with t h e child and ask her to make
choices on the basis of color (e.g., "What color cupcake do you want?").
Occasionally check the child's knowledge by asking her to tell you the color of an o b -
j e c t . Include objects that are pink, gray, brown, and black. Also include objects of colors
that are mixtures such as aqua (blue-green), mauve (purple-red), and chartreuse (yellow-
green) so that you can talk a b o u t new color names. There are g o o d opportunities for this
when walking in an area where there are many flowers.
In a classroom, ask the children a b o u t the color of their clothes. Play a g a m e in which
you give each child an o b j e c t to hold out of sight from the other children. Ask each child
in turn to describe the o b j e c t he or she has, being sure to tell the color, and ask the other
children to guess what it is.
CRITERION The child labels all of the following colors: red, green, blue, orange, purple, yel-
low, black, brown, pink, and gray.
11s. Defines 10 or more words

S e e instructions for Items 11j and 11 k.
CRITERION The child defines 10 or more words by usage (e.g., "It cuts"), by class (e.g., "It's
an animal"), or by characteristics (e.g., "It has wheels").
l i t . Labels most uppercase letters

MATERIALS Uppercase alphabet letters printed on cards, magnetic letters, ABC books,
other books
PROCEDURES
First check to make sure that the child is able to match uppercase letters (Item 6-llf).
Once the child can match letters, put the letters that are in the child's n a m e on the
table in the correct order to spell his name. Say, "These letters spell your name. I'm going
to mix them up. Now can you tell me what this letter is? How about this o n e ? " Be sure
to point to each letter in turn. If t h e child is unable to n a m e the letters in his name, tell
him each one. Mix up the letters and ask him if he can find each letter as you n a m e it.
Then, mix them up again, and ask him to n a m e t h e m .
Once the child can tell you the names of the letters in his name, try other groups of
letters (four to eight at a time), following this same procedure.
Read alphabet books to the child. Point to the letters as you say t h e m . Ask the child to
point to the letters as you n a m e t h e m . Then ask him to n a m e t h e m .
In a classroom, give each child a card with his or her n a m e written on it. Have each
child, in turn, stand in front of the group and tell the letters in his or her name, pointing
to t h e m . Have the children trade cards and read the letters in the cards they have. Print
letters that are not included in anyone's n a m e on a card and ask the children to tell you
what they are.
CRITERION The child labels most (at least 20) uppercase letters, rarely making mistakes.
11 u. Completes five analogies

See instructions for Item 11 n.
CRITERION The child completes five analogies without prompts.
11 v. Names a class of objects from its members

MATERIALS Books, pictures, various objects found at h o m e or in the classroom
PROCEDURES
Show the child pictures of animals, n a m e each one, and then tell that child these are all
animals. Ask her is she can think of any other animals. Then, show the child pictures of
different articles of clothing, naming each one. Ask, "What are all these things?" Try sev-
eral other groups such as vehicles (or things you ride), silverware (or eating utensils), or
furniture.
Then, tell the child you are g o i n g to play a g a m e . You are g o i n g to n a m e s o m e things
and see if she can tell you what they are. Start with a group you have already worked on,
naming four or five m e m b e r s of the group (e.g., say, "A dog, a cat, a horse, and an ele-
phant. They are all . . . " ) . After she is successful with categories you have specifically
taught, begin to introduce new categories.
Play the g a m e described above when riding in the car, waiting in line, and so forth. Also
make a point of using category words as you talk with the child and showing and listing
m e m b e r s of categories c o m m o n l y used. For example, when the child says, "Look at the
pretty flowers," you say, "Yes, they are pretty. Look at these pansies. They have little faces.
Smell these marigolds. They stink. That flower right there is called a tulip," and so forth.
This will help the child increase her ability to n a m e and to categorize objects.
In a classroom, pass out m e m b e r s of a class of objects (or pictures of those m e m b e r s )
and ask each child to tell what he or she has. Then say, "What are these things? They are
all . . . ."
CRITERION The child names three or more classes of objects from the members of the classes.
12
Attention €r Memory:
Auditory
F or children w h o are functioning at a level b e l o w that of a typical 2-year-old,

there appear to be two related but fairly distinct strands of auditory attention
and m e m o r y abilities that are important for the cognitive and language func-
tions. O n e includes responsiveness to sound, localization, and association to other
events. T h e other is listening to sounds and trying to match vocalizations to t h e m .
Thus, in the third edition of the C C I T S N , there are two curriculum sequences for
attention and memory: Sequence 12 (Attention & Memory: Auditory) a n d Sequence
16 (Imitation: Vocal). For consistency with the C C I T S N , we have maintained the
t w o sequences in this revision of the C C P S N . In the 2- to 5-year period, however,
it is much less clear where items should be placed. We h a v e chosen to have Se-
quence 12 focus on a child's ability to attend to language a n d music and store that
information in memory so that it can be retrieved and used in the future. This abil-
ity is critical both for reading and for the transmission of culture in stories and
songs. T h e focus of Sequence 16 is the ability to attend to words or numbers and re-
peat them back. Only immediate memory is involved.
At the preschool level, it is useful to have this particular division because there
are some conditions (e.g., autism) that may not affect a child's ability to imitate what
has been said but that significantly impair the child's ability to gather meaning from
the words. A significant difference in a child's progress through the two sequences
m a y be a signal for some additional evaluation.
ADAPTATIONS

If possible, perform songs and rhymes with movements that are within a child's
motor capabilities. If t h e child has severe impairments that interfere both w i t h
271
speech and with hand movements, include him or her in singing and recitation ac-
tivities, but do not use these items as part of the child's intervention plan (unless
he or she is able to participate with an augmentative and alternative communica-
tion system).
No modifications are needed for children with mild to moderate visual impairments.
Children with severe visual impairments may learn to repeat words, songs,
rhymes, and so forth but have difficulty attaching meaning to them. When working
on rhymes or songs with actions, physically guide children with visual impair-
ments through the actions to try to convey the meanings of the words. If the songs
or rhymes do not have actions, coach children individually with objects to feel that
will lend more meaning to the songs (e.g., let a child play with a toy sheep and feel
the eyes, nose, ears, wool, and tail before you read Little Bo Peep).

Even children with severe hearing impairments respond well to the rhythm of
songs and rhymes. Be sure to emphasize the rhythm as you sing and make move-
ments to the songs. Use signs along with the words to some songs, and show pic-
tures as you sing songs such as Old MacDonald.
12. ATTENTION €r MEMORY; AUDITORY
a. Joins in saying nursery rhymes (repeats parts of them)
b. Says or sings at least two nursery rhymes or songs in a group with an adult
c. Independently says or acts out parts of rhymes or songs
d. Notices and reacts to c h a n g e s in familiar rhymes, songs, or stories
e. Completes lines of familiar rhymes or songs
f. Sings c o m p l e t e nursery songs or says c o m p l e t e rhymes of four to six lines
g. Sings songs or says rhymes of 1 0 - 1 5 lines (some lines may be repeated)
h. Recalls o n e or two elements from an unfamiliar story just read (without prompts)
i. Recalls three to four elements from an unfamiliar story just read (without prompts)
j. Identifies the melody o f a familiar song (names the tune)
k. Recalls most of the essential elements in an unfamiliar story just read
I, Tells two familiar stories without pictures for help (includes all important parts)
12a. Joins in saying nursery rhymes (repeats parts of them)
12b. Says or sings at least two

nursery rhymes or songs in a group with an adult
12c. Independently says or acts out parts of rhymes or songs

PROCEDURES
Frequently say rhymes or sing songs to the child. Try to include s o m e rhymes or songs
that emphasize different sounds (e.g., Old MacDonald) and s o m e that have actions to
them (e.g., The Itsy, Bitsy Spider; The Wheels on the Bus; Little J a c k Horner). After the
child is imitating your actions well, begin to wait slightly before you do the actions to see
if he will do them without your m o d e l . Or, after the child has learned to sing along with
you, start a song and see if the child can sing part of it without you. Again, help as
needed.
Singing songs or saying rhymes is a g o o d way to keep a child entertained when you are
riding in the car, waiting in a doctor's office, or waiting for other events. A singing period
is also an important part of a group care schedule. The children learn from o n e another
as well as from the adult.
At h o m e or in the classroom, e n c o u r a g e the child to perform, showing others the
songs or rhymes he knows. Praise the child. Do not be critical of mistakes.
273
CRITERION 12a The child joins with an adult or a group of children in singing or saying two
different rhymes or songs, saying one or two phrases, and/or doing one or two actions.
CRITERION 12b The child sings/says at least two complete songs/rhymes with an adult or with
a group of children, getting nearly all of the words and actions correct.
CRITERION 12c The child says or acts out parts of two or more rhymes or songs indepen-
dently. The child may start Independently or the adult may start the song, but the child must
say or sing one phrase without the adult singing, or the child must do a good approximation of
at least one of the movements associated with the song at the appropriate time without an adult
concurrently modeling the movements.
12d. Notices and reacts to changes

in familiar rhymes, songs, or stories
12e. Completes lines of familiar rhymes or songs
12f. Sings complete nursery songs or
says complete rhymes of four to six lines
12g. Sings songs or says rhymes of
10-15 lines (some lines may be repeated)
MATERIALS Books
PROCEDURES
After a child is familiar with a rhyme, a song, or a story, deliberately make mistakes or
c h a n g e it in s o m e way. If the child does not react by looking puzzled, laughing, or cor-
recting you, laugh and say, "Oops, I m a d e a mistake. How does it g o ? " Try to make this
into a joke. Wait for a day and try it again with another rhyme, song, or story the child
has learned.
At another time, stop the rhyme or song partway through to see if the child will com-
plete it. After the child has heard a rhyme or song many times, ask her to say it for you.
Get her started if necessary by supplying the first two or three words. Continue to prompt
as necessary. As the child b e c o m e s more confident and c o m p e t e n t in memorizing, in-
crease the length of the songs and rhymes and e n c o u r a g e her to learn.
In a classroom, making mistakes and/or stopping part way through a familiar rhyme,
song, or story is a particularly g o o d way to get the attention of all of the children. It may
be difficult, however, to determine any particular child's mastery of the items without ask-
ing t h e others to be quiet until she has a chance to answer.
You can also ask the children to take turns repeating as much of a familiar rhyme or
song as they can. Prompt as much as necessary for a child to c o m p l e t e the task. It will
help to have the parents listen to the child say the p o e m or rhyme at h o m e to practice.
ATTENTION & M E M O R Y : AUDITORY 275
CRITERION 12d The child reacts to changes in at least two different rhymes, songs, or stories
by looking puzzled, laughing, or correcting the adult.
CRITERION 12e The child completes a line (three to five words) of two or more familiar songs/
rhymes/stories.
CRITERION 12f The child sings one or more complete nursery songs or says one or more com-
plete rhymes of four to six lines (e.g., Humpty Dumpty, Jack and Jill, Mary Had a Little Lamb).
CRITERION 12g The child sings one or more complete nursery songs or says one or more com-
plete rhymes of 8-15 lines (some lines may be repeated in longer songs/rhymes; The Itsy Bitsy
Spider is 8 lines long).
12h. Recalls one or two elements from

an unfamiliar story just read (without prompts)
12L Recalls three to four elements from
an unfamiliar story just read (without prompts)
MATERIALS Simple story books with pictures
PROCEDURES
Regularly introduce new books to the child. He many want to repeatedly read an old fa-
vorite, but tell him that you will read a new o n e and then you can read the old o n e a g a i n .
When you finish reading the book, say, "Did you like that story? What was it a b o u t ? Tell
me what you r e m e m b e r . " After the child has told you all he remembers, prompt him with
leading questions until he has noted most of the elements of the story.
At h o m e and in the classroom, books should be stored on low shelves where the child has
ready access to them. Read to the child every day. A child may want the same story read
over and over again; however, it is important to continue introducing new books. When
you first read a new story, stop reading periodically to point out relevant features of t h e
story or to point to pictures that illustrate what is happening in the story. When you are
finished reading, ask the child what he r e m e m b e r s of the story. Provide leading questions
as necessary.
In a classroom, call on a different child each day to tell what he or she r e m e m b e r s
of the story and then have t h e rest of the class add elements that they r e m e m b e r .
CRITERION 12h The child recalls one or two elements from an unfamiliar story just read with-
out any prompts.
CRITERION 12i The child recalls three to four elements from an unfamiliar story just read with-
out any prompts.
12j. identifies the melody of

a familiar song (names the tune)
PROCEDURES
Provide many opportunities for t h e child to sing songs c o m m o n for preschoolers (e.g., Old
MacDonald, This Old Man, She'll Be Coming 'Round the Mountain). Also, provide op-
portunities to listen to music, either classical or popular. Call the child's attention to t h e
songs and tell her what they are.
Hum t h e tune of a song you know the child has heard many times (but not o n e she
has specifically memorized and sung on her own), and see if she begins to sing or say the
words.
W h e n familiar music c o m e s on t h e radio in the car, at home, or elsewhere, tell the
child to listen and see if she knows what it is.
In a classroom, music should be a part of every day's program. Set aside a group time pe-
riodically to play "Name that Tune." Play part of a song that has b e e n heard in the class-
room many times, and ask the children to n a m e it. Be sure that each child has an oppor-
tunity to n a m e t h e song.
CRITERION The child identifies the melody of two or more familiar tunes by singing or saying
part of the words.
12k. Recalls most of the essential

elements in an unfamiliar story just read
MATERIALS Storybooks with many pictures
S e e instructions for Items 12h and 12i.
CRITERION The child recalls most of the essential elements from an unfamiliar story just read
without any prompts.
ATTENTION tr M E M O R Y : AUDITORY 277
121. Tells two familiar stories without

pictures for help (Includes all Important parts)
PROCEDURES
Tell stories to the child without having pictures or a book. These may be familiar stories
such as Goldilocks and The Three Bears, The Three Billy Goats Gruff, or The Gingerbread Man,
but may also be stories a b o u t something that happened to you or something you watched
on television.
Ask the child to tell you o n e of the stories you have read together or ask him to tell
you the story of a favorite video. Prompt as necessary with questions such as, "And then
what h a p p e n e d ? " If a relative or friend is visiting, ask the child to tell a familiar story to
him or her. Or, suggest he tell a story to his doll or teddy bear.
In a classroom, have a storytelling day o n c e a week. Ask two to three children each time
to bring a story to tell, either stories they know from school or o n e s they know from home.
Ask questions to elicit all of the major elements of a story.
CRITERION The child tells two familiar stories without pictures for help and includes all of the
important parts of the story without prompts.
13
Verbal Comprehension
T his sequence is concerned with how well children understand the instruc-
tions others give to them. This understanding is not a passive event for
children; rather, it is a part of ongoing interactions between the children and
their caregiver!s) in which each teaches the other. By their responses to instruc-
tions, children show caregivers how much they understand. Caregivers, in turn, in-
crease children's understanding through demonstration, prompts, and indications of
pleasure when the children succeed.
Many children with disabilities rely on some alternate form of communication
at various times throughout their development. In this sequence, it is suggested that
gestures and manual signs accompany speech for many children. You could also use
communication boards. Be sure to consult with your communication disorders spe-
cialist for advice on the extent to which manual signing and other forms of augmen-
tative and alternative communication (AAC) are appropriate for any given child.
ADAPTATIONS

If a child has severe motor impairments, it may challenge your creativity to find ac-
tivities that you can ask the child to do that will give you an opportunity to assess
his or her understanding of verbal directions. In some cases, you may need to use
eye gaze as the primary signal by which you can discern the child's understanding
of words (e.g., "Look at Mama," "Look at the cow," "Look at the thing we use to
fix our hair"). If the child is able to use eye gaze or any other consistent voluntary
response to communicate understanding, you should arrange a consultation with
an AAC specialist to determine the form of communication system that may be ef-
fective for the child.
If the child has few means of communication, make sure that he or she has many
opportunities to observe other children listening to and following instructions.
279
280 COMMUNICATION
Make this observation more meaningful by talking to the child about what the other
children are doing.

Children with visual impairments may be especially sensitive to sounds and may
use their caregivers' tone of voice to infer feelings more than other children. Be par-
ticularly aware of what you may be communicating through the tone of your voice.
Experiment with visual materials to find out whether the child attends better
if objects or pictures are made larger, are given more contrast, are given brighter col-
ors, and so forth.
Provide hand-over-hand assistance if necessary when teaching the child to fol-
low directions that are usually accompanied by a gestural cue.

Make sure that children with hearing impairments look at you as you speak. It may
be necessary to touch these children in order to get their attention. For some hear-
ing impaired children, a loud hand clap will be sufficient to get attention. Once you
learn how to attract a child's attention, use the signal consistently so that the child
will learn it means, "Look at me. I have something to tell you."
Facial expressions and gestures will be particularly important for children with
hearing impairments to comprehend what people are trying to say to them. Use
more and somewhat exaggerated facial expressions and gestures than you would
with children who have normal hearing.
Consult with a speech-language pathologist about the possibility of using sign-
ing or some other form of AAC if a child is not progressing in his or her understand-
ing of language.
13. VERBAL COMPREHENSION
a. Follows two-part related c o m m a n d s in novel contexts
b. Follows three-part c o m m a n d s (three objects and o n e action, three actions and o n e

o b j e c t , or three objects related by activity)
c. Responds to yes/no questions with appropriate words or gestures
d. Understands negatives
e. Sorts by color on verbal direction (no sample)
f. Follows two-step c o m m a n d s involving s e q u e n c e
g. Sorts by n a m e d categories
h. Follows three-step instructions in s e q u e n c e involving two to three different objects
i. Responds appropriately to statements or questions involving regular plurals
j. Points to pictures or selects objects from a group based on object class and two
characteristics
k. On verbal direction (no sample), sorts objects on the basis of two characteristics
I. Follows directions including "before" and "after"
m. Follows instructions that include four elements
13a. Follows two-part related commands in novel contexts

MATERIALS A variety of small toys
PROCEDURES
Place a variety of toys in front of the child, and let her play with them for a few minutes.
Then, begin giving instructions that are similar to activities she would normally do. Be
sure to involve doing two tasks with o n e object (e.g., "Pick up the doll, and put it on the
chair") or o n e task with two objects (e.g., "Put the doll and the truck in the box"). Praise
the child if she follows the instructions correctly. If she does not, show her what you asked
her to do, then repeat the instruction to see if she will do it.
When the child is following these relatively familiar kinds of instructions, introduce
instructions of similar complexity (two objects with o n e action or o n e object with two ac-
tions), but involve unexpected activities (e.g., "Pick up the doll, and stand it on its head,"
"Make the horse ride the dog").
Throughout the day, include the child in your activities by asking her to do tasks with you
and for you. Pay attention to the complexity of the instructions that you give the child. If
she is bringing or giving items to you at your request, she is following one-part com-
mands with o n e object. Begin to make more complex requests that involve doing two
tasks with o n e object (e.g., "Pick up the doll and put it on the chair," "Pick up your socks,
and bring them to me") or o n e task with two objects (e.g., "Put the doll and the truck on
the shelf").
281
282 COMMUNICATION
T h e earliest c o m m a n d s the child learns to follow will be in familiar contexts in which

she has already practiced the actions that you will request of her (e.g., picking up toys,
getting undressed, taking a bath). When the child has b e g u n to follow directions in these
familiar situations, give her two-part c o m m a n d s in less familiar contexts. For example, go
for a walk and suggest that the child pick up a leaf and give it to you or have her put a
rock in a container.
Always give t h e child e n o u g h help to be successful, and demonstrate your pleasure
and appreciation of her success. Help may consist of pointing and other gestures or phys-
ically assisting the child.
CRITERION The child follows three different two-part commands in less familiar or novel
contexts—she does a new action with a familiar object or does a familiar action with a new ob-
ject without prompts from the caregiver.
13b. Follows three-part commands

(three objects and one action, three actions
and one object, or three objects related by activity)
MATERIALS A collection of small toys
PROCEDURES
Place the toys in front of t h e child, and let him play with them for a few minutes. Then
begin giving instructions that include the following:
• One action and three objects (e.g., "Give me the doll, the brush, and the comb.")
• Three actions and o n e o b j e c t (e.g., "Take this spoon, go in the dining room, and put
it on the table.")
• Three objects that are related by an activity (e.g., "Put your baby in the b e d , and give
her a bottle.")
Always give the child e n o u g h help to be successful, and demonstrate your pleasure
and appreciation of his success. Help may consist of pointing and other gestures, physi-
cally assisting the child, and so forth.
During the course of the day, pay attention to the requests you make of the child while
you interact with him. Make sure that you are giving a variety of simple three-part re-
quests or demands.
CRITERION The child correctly follows three or more different three-part commands. This
should be done without additional prompts from the caregiver.
VERBAL COMPREHENSION 283
13c. Responds to yes/no questions

with appropriate words or gestures
PROCEDURES
Do not ask the child a whole series of questions at o n e time to assess her ability to answer
"yes" and "no." Rather, introduce these questions naturally as you are doing other activi-
ties with the child. Common questions include "Would you like s o m e j u i c e ? " "Do you want
to go outside?" "Are you ready for your b a t h ? " "Are you hungry?" Because s o m e children
get in the habit of saying (or shaking their head) "no" to any question, it is important to
make the child responsible for her responses. Therefore, you must act on the basis of the
child's response, not on the basis of what you think she might m e a n . For example, if you
say, "Would you like s o m e j u i c e ? " and the child looks like she wants it but says "no," put
it away. If she protests say, "Oh, you do want some. Say 'yes' (or 'uh-huh')." Wait for a re-
sponse, and pour the juice.
In a classroom, give the children many opportunities to make choices and answer yes/no
questions (e.g., "Do you want this puzzle?" "Do you want to play with the [toy]?" "Do you
need to go to the bathroom?").
N o t e : If you give a child the opportunity to make a choice, you should be prepared
to abide by her decision. It must be a genuine choice. Always give choices between two
alternatives that are a c c e p t a b l e to you. For example, do not ask, "Do you want me to leave
you here?" when you know you cannot and would not leave her.
CRITERION The child responds to 10 or more different yes/no questions with the appropriate
words or gestures.
13d. Understands negatives

(e.g., "Show me the one that is not blue")
PROCEDURES
When reading a book to the child or looking at pictures in a magazine, ask him to show
you things or people that do not have certain characteristics (e.g., "Show me something
that is not blue," "Show me the person who is not running"), or give other instructions that
involve using "not."
Stress the "not" when you make the requests. If the child makes errors, correct I
and make another similar request. Repeat as necessary.
284 COMMUNICATION
During the course of the day, attend to the instructions you give the child. If you are not
phrasing any of them using "not," make a conscious effort to do so (e.g., "Would you
please bring me my shoes, but not the black ones?").
In a classroom, make a g a m e in which the children are supposed to follow your in-
structions quickly. Use instructions such as, "Touch your toes, but do not touch your nose,"
"Don't sit, j u m p , " and "Touch your paper but not your crayon." Use pictures in individual
sessions with each child to determine how well he understands negatives.
CRITERION The child responds correctly to three or more commands that involve negatives.
13e. Sorts by color on verbal direction (no sample)

MATERIALS Blocks or other objects of different colors
PROCEDURES
Place blocks of at least three colors on the table. Ask the child to put all of the red blocks
in o n e pile, all of the blue blocks in another pile, and all of the green blocks in another pile
(pointing to places on the table). Or, ask the child to put the different colored blocks in dif-
ferent containers. Do not give the child a sample to show her where the blocks should g o .
If the child gets confused, provide a sample block in each location, and ask her to com-
plete the task. Try the task again the next day without the sample.
In a classroom or at home, use cleanup time as an opportunity to let the child practice
sorting skills, emphasizing sorting on verbal direction, not on observing an example.
CRITERION On three or more occasions, the child sorts objects by color (without having a
sample).
13f. Follows two-step commands involving sequence

(e.g., "Put the doll on the shelf and then bring me the ball")
MATERIALS A variety of objects found in a typical h o m e or classroom environment
PROCEDURES
Place several objects on the table in front of the child, and tell him you're g o i n g to play
a g a m e . You will tell him what to do and he must do it. Then, he can tell you what to do
and you will do it. Start out with a single instruction, such as, "Put the truck under the
table." When he does it, say, "Good. Now it is your turn. Tell me to do something." On
your next turn, say, "Now I want you to pick up the truck and give me the doll." Take sev-
VERBAL C O M P R E H E N S I O N 285
eral turns making the instructions less predictable (e.g., "Stand the doll on its head and
hand me the spoon").
Pay attention to the instructions you give to the child during your daily activities. When
you start to give two-step c o m m a n d s , begin by using gestures to help the child focus his
attention. Gradually require him to rely on the words alone. When you add s e q u e n c e to
a c o m m a n d , stress the words that indicate the s e q u e n c e (e.g., "Do this and then do that").
In a classroom, there are many opportunities to give two-part instructions to the
group. Observe the children carefully to see who follows the instructions without hesita-
tion, who watches others to see what to do, and who looks lost. Pay special attention to
children in the latter two categories. Work with them individually to see if they are able
to follow two-step instructions working with objects on a table (as in the Procedures sec-
tion) and having one-to-one attention. The problem may be more a matter of distrac-
tibility in the group than of not understanding the instructions.
CRITERION The child follows three or more two-step commands involving sequence, getting
the sequence correct without gestural or other prompts.
13g. Sorts by named categories

MATERIALS Collections of objects that can be sorted according to c o m m o n classifica-
tions (e.g., toy animals, doll house furniture, play dishes, play food)
PROCEDURES
Place three boxes and a collection of objects from three different categories in front of the
child (e.g., three to four each of doll clothes, small cars, doll house furniture). Say, "We
need to clean up these things. Put all of the clothes in o n e box, all of the cars in o n e box,
and all of the furniture in o n e b o x . " Do not point and do not provide a sample unless the
child has difficulty following the instruction. If she has difficulty, give as much help as nec-
essary for her to complete the task.
Once the child is sorting the first group of objects, try another collection of objects
with the s a m e procedure.
Look for opportunities throughout the day to have the child sort by category. S o m e sorting
will probably be routine (e.g., "Put all the clothes in the hamper and the toys in the toy
box"), but try new ones as well. For example, at home, have the child sort forks and spoons
into different sections of the drawer, or have the child help sort laundry (e.g., socks or other
articles of clothing for different members of the family, if they are clearly different).
In a classroom, give each child an assortment of objects. Place three boxes in the mid-
dle of the table and tell the children to put specific things in each box. For example, have
the children collect leaves, berries, and stones on a nature walk. Then tell them to put all
of their leaves in o n e box, all of their rocks in another box, and all of their berries in a
286 COMMUNICATION
third box. Watch and correct errors if necessary (the children will probably correct each
other).
CRITERION The child sorts objects into a variety of named categories without samples (at least
six different categories but no more than three at a time).
13h. Follows three-step instructions in

sequence involving two to three different objects
MATERIALS Objects found in a typical h o m e or classroom environment
PROCEDURES
Place a n u m b e r of objects on the table and play a g a m e as in Item 1 3f, taking turns with
the child giving and following instructions. Begin with two-step instructions and move on
to three-step instructions, such as, "Put the car in the box, put on the lid, and give me t h e
spoon." Try silly instructions s o m e of the time to keep t h e child e n g a g e d (e.g., "Slap the
table, shut your eyes, and stick out your tongue").
As you move from two- to three-step instructions in the course of daily routines, repeat
them twice, using clear gestures to be sure the child understands you. If the child has dif-
ficulty with the sequence, gently remind him what you asked (e.g., "Do you r e m e m b e r
what I asked you to do next? I asked you to . . . " ) . Ensure success by giving as much help
as necessary, and reward the end result with praise regardless of how much you had to
help. Gradually decrease the amount of help you provide so that the child is finally fol-
lowing the c o m m a n d s without repetition or gestures. Never belittle the child's efforts to
comply when he fails to do so. Instead, c o m m e n t on the part he does right and help him
with the rest.
In a classroom, make a group g a m e by having the children take turns giving and try-
ing to follow silly instructions (e.g., "Put your hands on your head, then touch your knees,
and then stomp your feet").
CRITERION The child follows three or more different three-step instructions involving a speci-
fied sequence and different objects, getting them correct without gestures or other prompts.
13i. Responds appropriately to

statements or questions involving regular plurals
MATERIALS Pictures, books, objects found in a typical h o m e or classroom environment
VERBAL C O M P R E H E N S I O N 287
PROCEDURES
Place a collection of objects on the table and play the g a m e in which you and t h e child
take turns giving instructions. Begin by asking the child to give you o n e object (e.g., "Give
me the ball"). On another turn, ask her to give you multiple objects (e.g., "Give me t h e
balls.") emphasizing the "s" on the end of the word. Give other instructions such as, "Put
t h e blocks in the b o x , " "Put t h e spoons in the cup."
Show the child two pictures—one showing several objects and the other showing just
o n e (e.g., a bunch of balloons and o n e balloon). Tell the child to point to the picture of
the balloons. Correct her if she makes an error.
In a classroom or at h o m e , pay attention to the instructions that you give, and n o t e

whether the child is correctly following those instructions that involve plurals. If she is not,
spend m o r e individual time working on this construct as in the Procedures section.
CRITERION The child follows most instructions involving regular plurals.
13j. Points to pictures or selects objects

from a group based on object class and
two characteristics (e.g., from a group of
animals of different sizes and colors selects a
"big, black cow" or a "small kitten that is sleeping")
MATERIALS Pictures, books, objects found in a typical h o m e or classroom environment
PROCEDURES
Look at pictures or a b o o k with the child. Look for pictures that include many objects that
are of different sizes and colors or are in different positions. Ask the child to show you o b -
jects defined by at least two characteristics (e.g., "Show m e the big, black cow," "Show m e
the black dog that is lying down").
Place a variety of objects on the table and play the g a m e in which you take turns giv-
ing instructions. Give the child instructions such as, "Put the spoon next to the big, blue
cup" or "Put the block on t h e car that is big and red." Help him as much as necessary to
have success.
Pay attention to the instructions you give the child throughout the day. Increase their c o m -
plexity as the child b e c o m e s a b l e to follow t h e m .
In a classroom, play t h e instructions g a m e with the children in a group.
CRITERION On three or more occasions, the child points to pictures or selects objects based
on the class of the object (e.g., cow, bird, cup) and at least two characteristics (e.g., size, color,
position).
288 COMMUNICATION
13k. On verbal direction (no sample),

sorts objects on the basis of two characteristics
(e.g., size and color, size and shape, name and color)
MATERIALS Collections of small objects that can be grouped on the basis of two or more
characteristics (e.g., small cars and trucks of various colors; blocks of different sizes,
shapes, and colors; cut-outs of construction paper of different sizes, shapes, and colors)
PROCEDURES
Place a collection of 1 0 - 1 2 objects in front of t h e child. Be sure to include "distractors" in

this collection (e.g., if you plan to ask the child to place all of t h e red cars in o n e place
and all of the yellow trucks in another, there should be included in the group at least two
red cars, two yellow trucks, o n e yellow car, o n e red truck, and o n e or two cars and/or
trucks of other colors). Ask the child to sort the objects in the pile using two characteris-
tics. Correct errors as the child makes them so that at the end you can say, "That's right.
Now we have all of the red cars here and all of the yellow trucks there. None of these
other cars and trucks b e l o n g there. This red truck cannot go over here with t h e red cars
b e c a u s e it is a truck. It cannot go over here with t h e trucks because it is red, not yellow.
These others cannot go in the piles because they are neither red nor yellow."
Try a different set of objects, perhaps circles, squares, and triangles cut out of differ-
ent colors of construction paper.
Look for opportunities to tell t h e child to sort on the basis of two characteristics during
the course of your daily routine. For example, when sorting laundry, you might say, "Put
Daddy's black socks over here and your white socks over here."
In a classroom, prepare a collection of cut-out pigs, horses, and cows that are both
big and little and brown and white. Pass out o n e to each child. Say, "Look at your animal.
If you have a horse, put it in this box. If you have a pig, put it in this box. If you have a
cow, put it in this b o x . " If a child begins to place an animal incorrectly, ask him or her to
look carefully at it and tell you what it is. Gather the animals, mix them up, and pass them
out again. This time ask for big animals and little animals. Repeat for brown and white.
Then say, "Now, let's see if I can trick you. Look at your animal. If it is a white horse, put
it in this b o x " (emphasize the words white and horse). "If it is a brown cow, put it in this
b o x . " The next time ask for big, white pigs and little, brown horses. Continue with other
combinations of two adjectives with o n e animal.
You can do the s a m e exercise with blocks of different shapes, sizes, and colors or cut-
outs of circles, squares, and triangles.
CRITERION On three or more occasions, the child sorts objects on the basis of class and two
characteristics without errors.
VERBAL COMPREHENSION 289
131. Follows directions including "before" and "after"
13m. Follows instructions that include four

elements (e.g.. two adjectives, an object, and a location)
MATERIALS Small group of toys or objects
PROCEDURES
Assemble a group of objects in front of the child and play the g a m e in which you take
turns giving instructions. Include instructions such as, "Before you pick up the car, pick up
the spoon," "Before you give me the cup, give me the pencil," "Feed the baby after you
give me a cup," "Touch the pencil after you touch t h e c o m b . " Emphasize the words "be-
fore" and "after" in the sentences. If the child is unable to follow the instructions, tell him
to watch you as you do it. Say the instruction and then follow it describing what you are
doing (e.g., "See, I am picking up the spoon before I pick up the car"). If the child still has
difficulty, prompt him by giving the instruction and then saying, "Okay, what do you do
first?" (or give whatever other help is n e e d e d for him to understand).
Alternate instructions involving "before" and "after" with instructions that include four
to six elements such as, "Take the long, black car and put it in the b o x , " or "Give me the
small, white kitten that is next to the green cup." Be sure to have distractor items (e.g., a
big, white kitten and a small, black kitten near cups of other colors or other objects that
are green).
Pay attention to the instructions you give the child throughout the day. Increase their com-
plexity as the child learns to follow t h e m . It is often easy to use at least four elements in
an instruction when telling a child where to look for a toy he has lost (e.g., "Look behind
the blue chair next to the television").
In a classroom, play the g a m e in which you take turns giving instructions with a small
group of children, encouraging them to give instructions to each other as well as to fol-
low your instructions. Also, play a g a m e in which you give instructions and everyone is
supposed to follow them as quickly as possible.
CRITERION 131 The child follows three or more directions that include "before" and several
that include "after."
CRITERION 13m The child follows three or more instructions that include four to six elements
(e.g., objects, adjectives, sizes, colors, locations).
ii I
UNiCAT10N
14
Conversation Skills
T his sequence is the heart of all of the c o m m u n i c a t i o n sequences. Vocabulary

and verbal comprehension are necessary skills, but it is the ability to h a v e
conversations w i t h other people that most affects children's social, intellec-
tual, and e m o t i o n a l development. A c h i l d w h o can m a k e requests, share ideas and
perceptions, and c o m m u n i c a t e basic expectations regarding the behavior of others
has the building blocks for healthy social relationships and e m o t i o n a l well-being.
T h e development of these capabilities, however, is highly dependent on the w i l l -
ingness of caregivers to listen and s h o w interest in topics of the child's choosing.
S o m e disabilities m a y interfere w i t h the v o c a l and motor behaviors that t y p i -
cally f o r m the basis for early c o m m u n i c a t i v e acts (e.g., s m i l i n g in response to see-
ing another person s m i l e , s m i l i n g in a t y p i c a l w a y that people i m m e d i a t e l y recog-
nize, i m i t a t i n g single sounds). Because these conditions l i m i t children's repertoires
of behaviors, adults m a y cease to attribute i n t e n t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n and m a y i n -
teract w i t h the c h i l d r e n less frequently, s l o w i n g the development of the children's
i n t e n t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n . It is especially important, therefore, that caregivers for
y o u n g children w i t h disabilities r e m a i n alert to behaviors that c a n be interpreted
and used i n c o m m u n i c a t i o n exchanges.
ADAPTATIONS

It m a y be m o r e difficult for children w i t h significant motor i m p a i r m e n t s to request
by reaching or pointing. Y o u m a y need to be especially sensitive to directed eye gaze
as a c o m m u n i c a t i v e signal u n t i l y o u c a n discern differences in vocalizations that
indicate requests, refusals, and so forth.
B e creative i n developing activities for c h i l d r e n w i t h motor i m p a i r m e n t s . C o n -
sult their therapists and m a k e use of any v o l u n t a r y acts (e.g., m o v e m e n t , vocaliza-
t i o n , eye gaze) that y o u can incorporate into activities and games.
291
292 COMMUNICATION
If a child's m o t o r i m p a i r m e n t s interfere w i t h speech, seek the help of a speech-

language pathologist to w o r k t o w a r d an alternative s y s t e m of c o m m u n i c a t i o n .
C h i l d r e n w i t h little usable v i s i o n m a y seem i n a t t e n t i v e w h e n y o u t a l k t o t h e m be-
cause eye contact is not established. S m i l i n g m a y also be absent or delayed. In s u c h
cases, look for other signs that indicate a c h i l d is paying a t t e n t i o n to y o u r conver-
sations. I n v e r y y o u n g c h i l d r e n w i t h severe v i s u a l i m p a i r m e n t s , changes i n m o v e -
m e n t , particularly in the hands, m a y be cues of attention.
C h o o s e a c t i v i t i e s and toys that include tactile s t i m u l a t i o n , m o v e m e n t , and
sound. H e l p children explore the objects as y o u talk about t h e m . It m a y help y o u to
close y o u r eyes as y o u describe the objects so that y o u focus on tactile and auditory
characteristics rather t h a n on v i s u a l characteristics.
C h i l d r e n w i t h severe v i s u a l i m p a i r m e n t s often i m i t a t e the speech of others
w i t h o u t h a v i n g a sense of its m e a n i n g . It is especially important to help these c h i l -
dren explore the w o r l d by feeling it and s m e l l i n g it so that these senses c a n help
give m e a n i n g to the w o r d s they hear.
W h e n y o u read t o c h i l d r e n w i t h severe v i s u a l i m p a i r m e n t s , choose books w i t h
textured pictures, and help the c h i l d feel t h e m . W h e n the c h i l d becomes familiar
w i t h a book, ask the c h i l d the n a m e of the picture that he or she is exploring w i t h
his or her hands.

A l w a y s respond t o the vocalizations that children w i t h hearing i m p a i r m e n t s m a k e ,
w h e t h e r y o u believe the children c a n hear y o u . Speak s l o w l y and clearly but w i t h
a n i m a t i o n to m a k e the most of the child's residual hearing. M a k e clear gestures to
increase the meaningfulness of w h a t y o u say. U s e signs if a child's language thera-
pist r e c o m m e n d s total c o m m u n i c a t i o n . Be especially attentive to the gestures the
children use. M a n y children w i t h severe hearing i m p a i r m e n t s develop their o w n
"sign language" through n a t u r a l gestures. It is important to w a t c h for consistencies
in these gestures and respond to t h e m , thereby m a i n t a i n i n g the children's interest
in communication.
C h o o s e activities and toys that depend on m o v e m e n t and v i s u a l displays.
14, CONVERSATION SKILLS
a. Asks simple questions with a vocalization or gesture
b. Asks yes/no questions with appropriate inflection
c. Requests assistance
d. Uses word or sign combinations to describe remote events
e. Comments on appearance or disappearance of objects or people
f. Sustains conversation for several turns
g. Reads books to others by making multiple-word utterances
h. Responds appropriately to "where" and "why" questions
i. Changes speech depending on listener
j. Talks on telephone and waits for turn to respond
k. Uses words to describe attributes of toys, foods, or other objects
I. Describes events occurring in the environment
m. Answers "what is," "whose," "who," and "how many" questions appropriately (if not
correctly)
n. Names three or more elements or describes what is happening when asked to t e l l all
about a picture or storybook
o. Responds appropriately to "what do you d o " and "why do w e " questions
p. Reads a story aloud to self or another person while looking at pictures in a book
q. Describes functions of objects
r. Communicates cause-and-effect relationships
s. Asks questions related to another person's statement in order to maintain a conversation
t. Creates interest in a listener by indirect references
u. Communicates knowledge about the world to peers and adults
v. Explains social conventions or rules to peers
w, Asks and responds appropriately to "how far" questions
14a. Asks simple questions with a vocalization

or gesture (e.g., "What doing?" "Where going?")
14b. Asks yes/no questions with appropriate inflection

MATERIALS Several toys or other functional objects
PROCEDURES
Place a f e w objects in front o f the child, Ask him questions that can be answered w i t h ei-
ther "yes" o r " n o " (e.g., "Is this a spoon?" "Is this a b a l l ? " "Does this animal meow?"). I f
293
294 COMMUNICATION
the child does not respond or responds incorrectly, model the correct response, and try
another question.
Tell the child that it is now his turn to ask you questions. Give him a box of toys or
household objects, and have him ask you questions about them. Be sure to answer all of
the child's questions. Listen for yes/no questions,
Ask the child questions throughout the day, stressing yes/no questions. Listen to the child
and be sure to answer all of his questions. Read stories to the child, and ask yes/no ques-
tions about the story and characters. Ask if the child has any questions, and answer them.
Listen for yes/no questions. These may first come as requests for permission to do some-
thing (e.g., "Can I go with you, M o m m y ? " ) and later as requests for other information
(e.g., "Is that her?" "Are these my socks?").
CRITERION 14a The child asks several different questions a day, (It is not necessary for the
child to have the correct word order as long as the inflection indicates a question [e.g., "Store
Mommy?" is all right if the inflection for a question is apparent]),
CRITERION 14b The child asks three or more different yes/no questions a day for several days.
14c Requests assistance (e.g., "Help/* "You do It")

MATERIALS Toys or other objects that will challenge the child (e.g., puzzles, wind-up toys)
PROCEDURES
Give the child a challenging toy to work with. If she becomes frustrated but does not ask
for help, ask, "Would you like some help?" or " M a y I help y o u ? " If she nods or gives other
nonverbal evidence that she wants help, tell her, "Say, 'Help me.'" Provide assistance. Try
other tasks and continue to prompt her to ask for help if she becomes frustrated. W h e n -
ever possible, give the child a choice as to whether you help her—don't just do activities
for her. Some children have a strong need to do activities on their own.
Respond positively to requests for help. Indicate an appreciation for how hard the
task is, do only as much as necessary to help the child, and praise the child for trying hard.
Model asking for help within the family or classroom (e.g., "Please help me pick up the
toys," "Please hold this box so I can open the door"). Prompt the child (and other chil-
dren) to ask for help when a task is difficult.
CRITERION The child requests help from an adult or another child when a task is difficult on
three different occasions.
CONVERSATION SKILLS 295
14d. Uses word or sign

combinations to describe remote events
PROCEDURES
When you first see the child after he has been on an outing or after you have been away,
ask him about his experiences (e.g., "Where did you go with Grandpa?" "What did you do
at school today?") If the child does not respond, ask more specific questions (e.g., "Did you
go to the store?" "Did you play outside?"). The child may simply answer "yes" or "no," but
these questions give him some clues as to how to answer the more open-ended questions.
Frequently engage in conversations with the child. Talk about what the child is doing or
what he did earlier in the day. Listen carefully to what the child tries to say. Repeat back
what you think you understand to check it out with the child. Ask the child questions
about what he wants, what he is doing, and so forth. Listen for the child to describe events
or make requests.
CRITERION The child uses word or sign combinations on five or more occasions to describe
remote events.
14e, Comments on appearance

or disappearance of objects or people
PROCEDURES
Add something to the room or classroom and observe to see if the child comments on it.
Put away something that has been a standard part of the home or classroom for some pe-
riod of time. Notice whether the child comments on the disappearance or asks questions
about it.
Enlist the child's parent or caregiver to be in the room with you and the child and to
interact with the child in a typical way. Then, when the child is engaged in some activity
alone or with you, have the caregiver step out of the room quietly. Observe to see if the
child comments as the person leaves or afterward.
Help the child become aware of her world by commenting on what you see and do not
see. As the child empties her cup, look in it and say, "All gone," or "No more milk." If the
child asks for a parent or caregiver who has gone to work, say, "Mama's gone to work."
Ask the child "where" questions (e.g., "Where's Daddy?" "Where are your potatoes?"). Lis-
296 COMMUNICATION
ten for the child to ask you "where" questions or to comment on objects or people who
are coming or leaving, appearing or disappearing.
If you are in a group setting and one child is absent, ask the child if she knows who
is missing.
CRITERION On at least three occasions, the child comments on the appearance or disappear-
ance of objects or people without being prompted or asked questions.
14f. Sustains conversation for several turns

PROCEDURES
Talk to the child about activities that he is doing, activities that you are doing, or plans
for such activities. Take time to listen to the child's responses, and let him direct the con-
versation. Pay attention to how many turns each of you takes during the conversation,
Pay attention to the child when he is playing with other children. Does he have conver-
sations that last for several turns?
CRITERION The child sustains a conversation for three or four turns on three or more
occasions.
14g. Reads books to others

by making multiple-word utterances
MATERIALS A variety of interesting books appropriate for preschool children
PROCEDURES
Read a familiar book to the child and then ask her to read it to you or to tell you all about
it. Do not correct her if she is telling a familiar story in an abbreviated or incorrect man-
ner. Listen for her to make a two- to three-word utterance as she looks at a page. If she
does not, ask questions about the pictures (e.g., " W h a t is happening there?" " W h o is
that?").
Read to the child daily. Observe her as she looks at a book on her own. Does she tell part
of the story or describe the pictures? Suggest that the child show the book to someone
else and tell that person about it.
CRITERION On two or more occasions, the child reads books to others by making multiple-
word utterances.
14h. Responds appropriately

to "where" and " w h y " questions
PROCEDURES
Ask the child several "where" questions that can be answered by pointing or by stating a
location (e.g., "Where are your shoes?" "Where is your nose?" "Where is the lamp?").
Read a story to the child and then ask him "why" questions (e.g., " W h y did the third
little pig build his house out of bricks?"). If the child does not respond, give him some
choices for a response (e.g., "Was it because he wanted a strong house to keep out the
wolf?").
Ask the child to bring you something that you know will be difficult for him to carry.
Then ask him, " W h y is that so hard to carry?" If he does not reply, say, "Is it because it is
too big to carry?"
As you do activities with the child throughout the day, talk about the places you can find
different objects or people, introducing the topic with a "where" question (e.g., "Where's
Daddy? He's in the kitchen," "Where did we leave your ball? It must be outside," " W h e r e
are the crayons? O h , they are here in this box").
Sing Where is Thumbkin ("Where is Thumbkin? W h e r e is Thumbkin? Here I am [hold
up one thumb]. Here I am [hold up second thumb]. How are you today, sir [one thumb
bows several times to the other]? Very well, I thank you [the other bows]. Run away [one
hand behind the back]. Run away [the other hand behind the back]"—continue with
Pointer, Tall M a n , Ring M a n , and Pinkie.)
Use the term "why" as you discuss how various objects work in the environment
(e.g., " W h y is this chair so hard to move? I guess it is because it is so heavy," " W h y are
you crying? Is it because you fell down?"). Give reasons for decisions or instructions
(e.g., "1 can't lift it because it is too heavy," "I can't look now because I am driving"). Ask
the child "why" questions in a variety of contexts, supplying answers if he cannot.
N o t e : Avoid asking "why" questions to assess a young child's motives (e.g., " W h y did
you hit J o h n n y ? " " W h y did you write on the wall?" " W h y did you wet your pants?"). Chil-
dren at this stage usually do not understand their own motives. If you are unhappy with
something a child has done, it is much better to tell him you do not like for him to do
that act than to ask him why he did it.
CRITERION The child points to indicate where, retrieves an object, or tells a location in re-
sponse to three or more different "where" questions and responds appropriately (gives reasons)
to three or more "why" questions. In neither case is if necessary that the child's answer be cor-
rect. Rather, the issue is that he understands that a "where" question requires a location response
and a "why" question requires some kind of a reason, usually prefaced by "because."
298 COMMUNICATION
141. Changes speech depending on listener

(e.g., talks differently to children and adults)
PROCEDURES
Listen to the child's speech both during pretend play and when she interacts with various
people and animals. Does she change her speech depending on the listener (or pretend
listener)? If she does not, engage her in pretend play in which you change your voice to
speak to the baby doll (high-pitched cooing sounds), the daddy doll (normal voice), the
pet dog (commanding voice, single words or phrases), and so forth. You may also find sto-
ries in which a character has opportunities to speak to various other characters (e.g., a
baby, an adult, a pet). Read these, changing your voice as you would in real life. Listen
for the child to begin making these shifts in voice and vocabulary.
Give the child opportunities to interact with people of different ages and backgrounds.
Observe and listen to these interactions to see how the child adjusts her speech or other
behaviors to accommodate the person with whom she is interacting.
W h e n you read to the child or a group of children in the classroom, use different
voices for the different characters.
If you are in a child care center where there are infants and/or toddlers, take the class
to visit the younger class and "help" with the babies. Observe the ways in which the child
communicates with the younger children.
If the classroom includes children with various disabilities, you may be able to see
children changing their manner of speech to accommodate the understandings of differ-
ent children,
CRITERION The child adjusts the pitch of her voice, tone, and/or the complexity of her lan-
guage when talking to different people on two or more occasions,
14]. Talks on telephone and waits for turn to respond

MATERIALS Real telephone, play telephone
PROCEDURES
Have pretend conversations with the child using a play telephone. Model talking and then
waiting for a response before continuing to speak. Listen for him to do the same. Also,
give the child opportunities to talk to people who call on the telephone. Listen to his at-
tempts at conversation.
In a classroom, provide play telephones in the housekeeping and other areas. Observe as
the children have conversations with each other.
CRITERION On three or more different days, the child talks on the telephone, listens to the re-
sponse, and talks again, taking at least three turns.
14k. Uses words to describe

attributes of toys, foods, or other objects
(e.g., shape, size, color, texture, spatial relationships)
MATERIALS Objects found outdoors or in a typical home or classroom environment
PROCEDURES
Place a group of objects in a box. Give the box to the child, and tell her you're going to
play a guessing game. Her job is to pick out one of the objects and tell you everything
she can about it so that you can try to guess what it is, (It may help to stand up a large
book or something else that can act as a screen between you and the child so she can ma-
nipulate the object but you can't see it). If the child only states functions, pretend that you
can't guess (or guess wrong) and ask questions such as, "What color is it?" "How does it
feel?" "How does it smell?" "Is it heavy or light?"
Use a lot of descriptors when you show something to the child that is unfamiliar to her.
On walks outdoors, encourage the child to explore different objects (e.g., fallen leaves,
small stones, pinecones) and talk with you about them. Listen for her descriptive words
and add ones of your own.
In a classroom, give each child an object to hold and describe to the rest of the group
to see if others in the group can guess what it is. Ask the children, "Can anyone think of
any other things to tell us about this [object]?"
Observe and notice whether the child spontaneously describes objects to other chil-
dren or to you.
CRITERION The child uses words to describe at least two attributes for three or more different
toys, foods, or other objects.
141. Describes events occurring in the environment

PROCEDURES
Take the child for a walk, sit with him to watch a child's television program, or join in his
play. Notice what the child attends to. Ask him to tell you what is happening or what he
300 COMMUNICATION
is looking at. Prompt him with enough questions to get a clear description. Continue
doing this kind of activity until the child is able to communicate fairly clearly about what
is happening or what he is looking at.
Several times every day, ask the child what he is doing, what he is seeing, or what is hap-
pening. Listen carefully to the child's answers, and fill in words as necessary to help him
express his ideas. Make it clear that you are interested in what the child has to say.
W h e n a family member calls on the telephone, let the child talk. Say, "Tell Grandma
what you have been doing." Give prompts if the child has difficulty (e.g., "Tell her about
the cookies we made").
In a classroom, encourage the children to describe events to one another as they play
(e.g., "Letitia, tell Janet what you are making").
Have the children take turns looking at small objects with a magnifying glass and
telling the other children what they see.
Put children who have difficulty expressing themselves in centers with children who
are outgoing so that there will be good models for talking about experiences.
CRITERION The child describes what is happening or what he is seeing two or more times a
day, either spontaneously or in response to questions.
14m. Answers "what Is/* "whose," " w h o , "

and "how many" questions appropriately (if not correctly)
MATERIALS Common toys or objects
PROCEDURES
Set up a pretend play situation with the child. For example, set several stuffed animals out
on the floor and give yourself, the child, and each of the dolls a toy (or paper) plate, cup,
and spoon. Put some clay, empty food boxes, or other objects on the table that you can
pretend are food. Tell the child that you are going to have a party. As you play, ask her
questions that involve "who," "what," "whose," and "how many" (e.g., " W h o would like
some milk?" "This is my cup. Whose cup is that?" "What is that?" "How many cookies do
! need to make?"). Always answer the child's questions.
Ask questions that involve "who," "what," "whose," and "how many" as appropriate
throughout your daily interactions with the child. Pay attention to her responses.
W h e n reading stories at home or in a classroom, stop as appropriate and ask a "who,"
"what," "whose," or "how many" question. In the classroom, give different children op-
portunities to answer.
CRITERION The child appropriately answers three or more "who," "what" "whose," and "how
many" questions. For the purposes of this item, the issue is not the correctness of the answer;
rather, it is the child's ability to put together the right kind of sentence to answer the question.
CONVERSATION SKILLS
That is, a "what" question should he answered with the name of an object, a "who" or "whoz-„'"'
question with the name of a person, and a "how many" question with a number.
14n. Names three or more elements

or describes what is happening when
asked to tell all about a picture or storybook
MATERIALS Pictures in which something interesting is happening (magazine advertise-
ments are a good source of pictures), storybooks
PROCEDURES
Show a picture to the child and say, "Tell me all about this picture." If the child makes no
response, point to different parts of the picture and say, "What is that?" "What do you
think is happening?" If the child does not reply, tell him what you think is happening.
Move on to another picture.
CLASSROOM IT FUNCTIONAL ACTIVITIES
In a classroom, let each of the children choose a picture and tell the other children about
it. Ask questions and encourage the children not presenting to ask questions in order to
get a thorough description.
CRITERION On three or more occasions, the child spontaneously names three or more ele-
ments in a picture and/or describes what is happening when asked to tell all about a picture.
14o. Responds appropriately to

"what do you d o " and "why do w e " questions
PROCEDURES
Look for opportunities during daily activities to ask "what do you do" and "why do we"
questions. For example, while engaging in pretend play with the child, make a doll fall
and skin its knee. Say, "Oh, dear, she is bleeding. What should she do? What do you do
when you hurt yourself?" Or, you might start to dress the doll and say, "I'm going to give
her a hat to keep her ears warm. Can you tell me why we have ears?" Prompt the child as
much as necessary to get correct answers, and continue your ongoing activity until an-
other opportunity arises to ask these sorts of questions.
As opportunities arise throughout the day, ask the child questions that relate to her ex-
periences (e.g., "Are you hungry? What do you do if you're hungry?" "What do you do if
you hurt your knee?" "What do you do if you want to play with Johnny's truck?"). If the
302 COMMUNICATION
child does not answer, tell her the answer. The issue is not just having the information,
but knowing how to form an answer to questions of this sort.
A review of classroom rules and routines is a good time for asking "why do w e " ques-
tions. Occasionally, devote a circle time to safety issues and ask "why do w e " and "what
do you d o " questions.
CRITERION The child responds appropriately to three or more "what do you do" and "why do
we" questions.
14p. leads a story aloud to self or

another person while looking at pictures In a book
MATERIALS Simple storybooks and picture books
PROCEDURES
Read a book to the child one or more times while showing him the pictures. Then, ask
him to "read" the story to you. Suggest that the child read stories to his dolls or stuffed
animals as a part of playing house. Be sure to listen in on your child as he plays.
In a classroom, read a story several times to the group. Then, have the children take turns
"reading" it to the group. Give prompts as necessary to make it a successful experience.
CRITERION On two or more occasions, the child reads aloud to himself or another person
while looking at the pictures in a book.
14q. Describes functions of objects

MATERIALS Objects round m typical home or classroom environment
PROCEDURES
Hand an object to the child (e.g., a ball) and say, "What is this for?" or "What do we do
with this?" Go on to other simple objects (e.g., a spoon, a cup, a toothbrush, a comb), but
do not do more than four or five at a time. Give hints to help the child, if necessary.
As opportunities arise at home or in a classroom, talk to the child about objects and their
uses. Then, begin asking the child, "What do we do with that?" or "What is this for?"
W h e n you introduce the child to a new object, ask her what she thinks it might be
used for. If it is safe, let the child try to make it work, and ask her to describe how she
makes it work.
Bring a sack of objects to look at during a group time in a classroom. As you bring
out each one, ask one of the children what it is used for. If the child cannot answer, move
CONVERSATION SKILLS
on to the next child, and so forth. If none of the children know what the object is, de-
scribe how the object is used and then demonstrate. Introduce the same object several
days later to see if the children can tell you how to use it,
CRITERION The child describes the functions of three or more objects either spontaneously or
when asked, "Why do we have these?" or "What do we do with this?"
14r. Communicates cause-and-effect relationships

{e.g., "St is broken and doesn't work any more")
PROCEDURES
Do some mini science experiments with the child. For example, place a container of water
on the table and tell the child to drop a small rock in it. Then, put a leaf or other light
object in the container. Say, "Look, the rock sank to the bottom but the leaf is floating.
W h y did that happen?" If the child cannot tell you, say, "It is because the rock is heavy
and the leaf is light. Feel them." Then, give the child two other objects (e.g., a feather and
a metal screw) and ask him, "What do you think will happen when you put these in the
water?" Tell him to put them in, Ask him why the screw sank and the feather floated.
Try other experiments on other days (e.g., putting a block and a ball on an incline
to see that one slides [or sits still] and one roils). Talk about why the experiments work as
they do.
W h e n you read to the child, ask him questions about the story that will facilitate him using
cause-and-effect statements (e.g., " W h y did the girl fall down?").
Do science projects in the classroom that show the effects of weight, size, shape, and
so forth. Tell the children to describe what has happened and why.
CRITERION The child makes two or more different cause-and-effect statements during the
course of a week.
14s. Asks questions related to

another person's statement in order to
maintain a conversation (e.g., " W h y ? " "Then what?")
PROCEDURES
Try to prolong your conversations with the child. W h e n she makes a statement, ask ques-
tions that encourage her to tell you more (e.g., "Then what did he d o ? " "Why did you do
304 COMMUNICATION
that?" "What happened next?"), Then, when you are telling the child something, stop after
one or two statements, and wait to see if the child will try to get you to continue by ask-
ing appropriate questions. If the child does not, say something such as, "Do you want to
know what happened next?" and wait for her to indicate that she does before continuing.
In a classroom, tell or read stories, pausing at exiting points so that the child (or children)
will try to get you to continue. In a group, those who are already using questions to main-
tain a conversation will serve as good models to those who are not.
CRITERION On three or more occasions, the child ask questions related to another person's
statement in order to maintain a conversation.
14t. Creates interest in a listener by indirect

references (e.g., "1 have a new toy in my room")
PROCEDURES
Listen for the child to try to create interest through indirect inferences either with you or
with peers. If you do not hear any attempts, make a point of modeling the behavior for
the child throughout the day (e.g., "Guess what yummy thing we're having for lunch?" "I
have something new for us to play with," "I found something you lost under the couch").
Respond enthusiastically to the child's attempts to imitate this behavior. For example, if
he says, "I found something outside," act very interested, spend some time looking at
what he found, and talk about it.
In a classroom, use indirect references to create interest when introducing new activities
or new objects to the children. Respond to the children's attempts to interest you through
similar behaviors.
Listen to the child while he is playing with his peers. Does he use this strategy to gain
their interest? (e.g., "Guess what I found?")
CRITERION The child uses indirect references to create interest in a listener on two or more dif-
ferent occasions.
14u, Communicates knowledge

about the world to peers and adults
PROCEDURES
Teach the child something interesting about a plant, an animal, or about how something
works. Then, ask her to tell a family member or a peer about what she has learned. Lis-
ten and help her as necessary.
Ask the child to tell you about what she learned or saw when she went on a trip or
did an activity with s o m e o n e else.
The child will learn to tell others what she knows if she has observed her caregivers
sharing their knowledge and observations. Tell the child what you know about nature
(e.g., what is happening when the b e e lands on the flower, how the bird is building her
nest). Listen carefully to the child's questions and answer t h e m . Also, listen to the child's
attempts to c o m m u n i c a t e her understandings to you. Respond with interest. It is also
important to listen to what she says to other children.
In a classroom, plan field trips for the children to the fire station, zoo, or other places
of interest, and talk about the experience when everyone returns. Encourage the children
to tell their parents about what they saw and did. Alert parents to the activity so that they
will ask questions if the child does not tell about the experience spontaneously.
Plan science activities in the classroom (e.g., planting seeds, capturing a caterpillar
and observing its development into a moth or butterfly). Talk about this information and
e n c o u r a g e the children to talk to their parents about it.
CRITERION The child frequently (at least three times per week) attempts to communicate her
knowledge about some event or experience to others. The communications should be taking
place with both adults and peers unless circumstances are such that peers are not available who
can understand the child.
14v. Explains social conventions or rules to peers

PROCEDURES
Engage the child in pretend play in which you play the role of a new child that has c o m e
to visit the child's house or has c o m e to be a student at the child's school. Tel! the child
he will need to help this new child learn how to do things in the family (or at school).
Make your character act in unacceptable ways (e.g., grab toys, fight, make an unneces-
sary mess). Observe whether the child speaks through his character to explain rules. If he
does not, e x c h a n g e roles with him so that his character is the o n e that misbehaves. Make
your character stop him and explain the house or school rules regarding the behavior. Try
this scenario again in a few days to see if the child will explain the rules.
The child will only be able to explain social expectations to others if adults have explained
social expectations to him. When you tell the child "no," tell him a rule or explain events
306 COMMUNICATION
and give reasons (e.g., "You shouldn't run into the street because a car might hit you").
Listen, particularly when t h e child is arguing with you a b o u t a rule or decision, to see if
he also gives reasons for his point of view. Listen to the reasons that the child gives to sib-
lings or playmates for household rules or his decisions.
In a classroom, set aside a group time now and then to talk about rules of behavior
in the classroom. Ask the children why they think a particular rule is useful (e.g. "Why
don't we run in the hallway?" "Why do we ask before we use something that b e l o n g s to
s o m e o n e else?"). Ask o n e child to answer the question before having the others give their
reasons.
CRITERION On two or more occasions, the child explains social conventions or rules of be-
havior to peers, either spontaneously or when requested to do so.
14w. Asks and responds appropriately to "how far" questions

PROCEDURES
Ask the child, "How far is it to your school (or another place she frequently g o e s ) ? " If she
has no answer, say, "Is it nearby, or does it take a long time to get t h e r e ? " Ask other ques-
tions that relate to distance such as, "Where does Grandma live? Is that far away?" If the
child s e e m s puzzled by these questions, make a point of talking a b o u t distances to the
child. For example, talk a b o u t the sun, the m o o n , and the stars being far away; that it is
not far to the store; that the other car stopped "just this far" (holding up your hands) from
yours; or that the child lives close to school but a long way from the next town. Answer
the child's questions when she begins to ask "how far" (a child usually asks this type of
question several times before she is able to answer o n e ) .
Show the child how to hold o n e end of a string at o n e object and mark the place on the
string when it reaches another object. Have her hold up the string to show how far o n e
thing is from another. Make another measurement with the same string so that you can
show that two objects are closer to each other than two other objects.
You can also show the child how to use her hands to indicate relatively short distances
and long distances (e.g., holding a t h u m b and forefinger near each other indicates things
are very close, while holding hands out as wide as possible indicates things are very far).
Create maps for a classroom that show where the children live so that you can show
who lives closest to the school and who is far away.
CRITERION The child asks two or more "how far" questions and answers three or more, using
terms such as "close," "far," "not far," and so forth.
(CATION
15
Grammatical Structure
H uman beings appear to be "wired" to learn language with its complex

grammatical structures. Although it is unclear how much caregivers can
influence the rate at which their children learn these structures, it is ob-
vious that children must hear the structures (or see them, in the case of signed
speech) and have the opportunity to practice them. Most caregivers naturally adapt
their speech so that they are always just one step ahead of the child in the com-
plexity of the speech they use, thereby giving the child models for the next struc-
tures to be learned. For typically developing children, this is enough. For children
with special needs, however, more repetition and greater emphasis may be needed
to encourage development. Caregivers should be sure to not nag children about
grammar, as this may interfere with the communication.
This sequence includes grammatical forms roughly in the order they are mas-
tered by the majority of typically developing children and suggestions for encour-
aging the mastery of those forms. Some children may need time to work individu-
ally in speech-language therapy, concentrating on sentence construction. T h e rest
of the time, however, you should encourage learning by listening to the children,
reinforcing correct structures by responding to the structures in a typical commu-
nicative fashion, and simply repeating incorrect structures in a correct form to pro-
vide a model for the children. Avoid paying too much attention to errors.
ADAPTATIONS

It is important to provide opportunities for children to learn these grammatical
forms, even if the children cannot talk. This can be done by reading and talking to
the children so that they hear the forms repeatedly. If a child's motor impairments
make it impossible for him or her to produce a variety of sounds, seek the help of
an augmentative and alternative communication system specialist in developing an
307
308 COMMUNICATION
alternate form of communication. Also, be sure to keep talking to the child, and try
to focus on the language structures he or she would typically be developing. It is im-
portant that the child hear the structures even though he or she cannot say them. It
is also helpful for children with motor impairments to be with other children of a
similar age who are developing speech. Your interactions with the other children not
only provide model sentences but also help you speak at an appropriate level for the
children's understanding. When a child does not talk, adults tend to talk over him or
her to another adult or maintain baby talk long after it has become inappropriate.

Children with visual impairments usually learn these structures at a rate consis-
tent with their general learning ability. In fact, those children with severe visual
impairments may speak long, grammatically correct sentences even though the
sentences have little relevance to what is going on in the environment. These chil-
dren's major problem in learning language is learning the referents for the words
and sentences they hear. Caregivers must be alert to helping such children under-
stand the meaning of the words and sentences they hear and say.

With children with hearing impairments, pay particular attention to their words in
isolation as well as to their attempts to communicate through gestures and signs.
Respond appropriately. Credit signs mixed In with other gestures if the children are
being exposed to signs.
Note: T h e focus of this sequence is on English, not American Sign Language.
15. GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE
a. Uses two-word utterances to indicate nonexistence and recurrence

b. Uses two-word utterances to indicate specificity and characteristics
c. Uses "-s" on the ends of s o m e words to form plurals
d. Uses auxiliary verbs, usually shortened
e. Uses "-ing" on verbs
f. Uses negative terms

g. Uses personal pronouns
h. Uses prepositional phrases

i. Uses three-word phrases to specify, to indicate rejection, and/or to describe
j. Uses three- t o four-word c o m p l e t e sentences that include s u b j e c t - v e r b - o b j e c t
k. Asks "wh" questions
I. Uses "I" instead of given n a m e
m. Uses " ' s " on ends of words to indicate possession
n. Uses prepositional phrases in sentences
o. Uses most irregular past-tense verb forms correctly
p. Uses correct verb forms, both irregular and regular, for past, present, and future actions
q. Uses "and," "or," "but," or "because" to connect two sentences
r. Uses verbal nouns and/or verbal adjectives
s. Uses complete sentence with correct word order in "wh" questions
t. Uses a variety of adjectives to describe what has b e e n seen, heard, or experienced
u. Uses endings on verbs or nouns to indicate the activity of a person or thing
v. Uses comparatives
15a. Uses two-word utterances to indicate

nonexistence (e.g., "no juice," "Daddy gone")
and recurrence (e.g., "more juice," "Daddy here")
15b. Uses two-word utterances to indicate

specificity (e.g., "this toy," "that box") and
characteristics (e.g., "hot stove," "pretty bunny")
PROCEDURES
When the child is using one-word utterances, respond to her by repeating her word and
expanding on it. For example, when the child says "hot," you say, "Yes, hot. Hot stove."
309
310 COMMUNICATION
When t h e child holds out her glass and says "juice," you say, "You have no juice. Do you
want more juice? Here is s o m e more juice" (give a special emphasis to the word you are
using to expand the child's statement). When she says "sock," say, "Yes, sock. Daddy's
sock." Listen for the child to imitate you and then use two-word utterances spontaneously.
At this stage, it is a c c e p t a b l e if t h e child uses an incorrect form of a verb (e.g., "Daddy
g o e d , " " M o m m y wented").
Talk to t h e child frequently during the course of the day. Do not talk "baby talk," but do
place extra emphasis on short phrases that the child will be more likely to imitate.
CRITERION ? 5a The child uses three or more two-word utterances indicating nonexistence or
recurrence.
CRITERION 15b The child uses three or more two-word utterances indicating specificity or par-
ticular characteristics.
15c. Uses " - s " on the ends of some words to form plurals
MATERIALS Groups of similar toys (e.g., several cars, several dolls, several blocks, several
stuffed bears), pictures or picture books
PROCEDURES
Place o n e car in front of yourself and two cars in front of the child. Say, "I have o n e car.
You have two . . ." (waiting for him to fill in the word). If he does not fill in the correct
word, say, "You have two cars" (emphasizing t h e "s"). Now, add another car to your pile.
Say, "Look, now you have two cars and I have two. . . ." Try a similar procedure with sev-
eral other sets of toys.
Look at pictures or a b o o k with the child. Point to the pictures and ask questions to
elicit the use of plurals (e.g., "What does that boy have? He has s o m e [objects]").
Throughout the day, make a special effort to pronounce the "s" on the end of words in-
dicating a plural. Use numbers and other quantity words when talking a b o u t objects that
you are seeing or playing with (e.g.,"I have just o n e block. You have a lot of blocks," "Here,
you can have two cookies," "Look at this picture. There is only o n e puppy. In this picture,
there are three puppies—one, two, three"). Listen for the child to begin using "s" on the
ends of words to indicate plurals.
Sing songs, read nursery rhymes, and do fingerplays that involve both singular and
plural nouns. Emphasize the "s" on the plurals so that t h e child will hear it.
CRITERION The child uses plurals for five or more different words. At this stage, it is counted
as correct if the child incorrectly forms plurals for words that have irregular plural forms (e.g.,
says "mans" instead of "men").
G R A M M A T I C A L STRUCTURE 311
15d. Uses auxiliary verbs, usually

shortened (e.g., "gonna," "wanna," "hafta")
MATERIALS A variety of interesting toys
PROCEDURES
Sit with the child and talk, as you manipulate the toys together. Create sentences using
auxiliary verbs, and ask the child questions that are likely to elicit such verbs. For exam-
ple, say, "I'm g o i n g to put this ball right here. What are you g o i n g to do with your ball?"
or "I want to see what is in this box. What do you want to d o ? " Or, say, "We m a d e a mess.
I have to get a towel." (Don't get o n e for the child and see if she will say, "I have to get
one, too.") If the child does not imitate you or use the auxiliary verbs spontaneously as
you play, try to prompt her to do so. For example, ask, "What are you going to d o ? " If
she does not answer but shows you, say, "Oh, you are g o i n g to zoom that car. Say, 'I'm
g o i n g to zoom the c a r . ' "
Make sure that you are using auxiliary verbs in your conversations with the child through-
out the day. They will c o m e very naturally if you describe your activities to the child as
you do them (e.g., "Now I'm going to wash the dishes," "I have to c h a n g e your diaper be-
fore we go out," "I want to go outside").
CRITERION The child uses at least three auxiliary verb forms.
15e. Uses "-ing" on verbs

MATERIALS Picture books
PROCEDURES
Look at a book with the child and ask questions such as "What is that boy d o i n g ? " or cre-
ate a fill-in-the-blank sentence such as "Look at that dog. He is . . ." If the child does not
respond with an "ing" verb, answer your own question ("The boy is running"), or complete
your sentence ("That d o g is eating").
Throughout the day, talk to the child frequently about what you are doing and about
what he is doing. It will be natural to include verbs with the "-ing" ending (e.g., "We are
going . . .," "I am doing . . .," "Grandma is coming"). Listen for the child to begin using
"-ing" on the end of verbs. Repeat the "-ing" verbs to the child when he does use them
(e.g., "Yes, we are g o i n g home").
CRITERION The child uses "-ing" on the end of three or more different verbs.
312 COMMUNICATION
15f, Uses negative terms (e.g». "can't," "won't/* "do not")

PROCEDURES
Use t h e toys to play with the child. Create opportunities to insert negative terms (e.g., "I
can't make this piece fit. Will you hold it for m e ? " "That car won't g o . It lost a wheel").
Listen for t h e child to use these terms. If she does, repeat what she says and expand it in
s o m e natural way (e.g., if the child says "can't g o , " you say, "The car can't g o . The car
must be broken. Let's see if 1 can fix it").
You will use these terms naturally with t h e child as you talk to her a b o u t your daily ac-
tivities. Listen to the child so that you will hear when she begins to use such negative
terms. Let the child know you have heard her and understand her by repeating her sen-
t e n c e and expanding it in s o m e natural way.
CRITERION The child uses at least two different negative terms (e.g., "can%" "won't," "do not")
on two or more different days.
15g. Uses personal pronouns

(e.g., " m e , " " y o u , " "mine," "your")
MATERIALS A group of interesting toys
PROCEDURES
Play with the child in a natural way, letting him take t h e lead. Try to maintain a conver-
sation, and make a point of using personal pronouns (e.g., "That's your truck. This o n e is
mine," "l want the ball. Will you please hand it to m e ? " ) . Listen for the child to use these
pronouns. If he does not, ask questions to try to elicit t h e m .
As soon as it is clear that the child understands the n a m e s of familiar people, begin to use
personal pronouns. For example, caregivers should begin to say "I" love you rather than
" M o m m y " loves you. Likewise, the caregiver should begin to use "you" and "your" with
the child (e.g., "You are my big boy," rather than "Johnny is my big boy"). Listen to t h e
child so that you will hear when he begins to use these pronouns. Do not correct t h e child
if he gets them wrong (e.g., "Me going to the store"), but continue to model t h e correct
usage (e.g., "Yes, you and I are g o i n g to the store").
Read stories to the child with many conversations in t h e m . These will include the
usage of numerous persona! pronouns.
CRITERION The child uses at least three personal pronouns, each on two or more occasions.
GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE 313
15h. Uses prepositional phrases (e.g., "in house/* "on table")

PROCEDURES
Use the toys to play with the child. Place them in various relationships to o n e another
(e.g., on top of, next to, behind, between, under) and talk a b o u t what you are doing. If
the child does not take the cue from you and begin talking a b o u t what she is doing, ask
questions that are likely to elicit prepositions (e.g., "Where is the [toy]?" "Where did you
put the [toy]?"). If the child does not answer, answer for her, and try to get her to repeat
your answer (e.g., "There it is. It is on the chair. Where is it?").
Throughout the day, emphasize prepositions as you talk to t h e child about activities that
you are doing or a b o u t what is happening (e.g., "Your ball is under the table," "Let's put
the sheets on the b e d , " "Put your toys in the toy box"). Listen for the child's first attempts
to use these words. Encourage the child to use prepositions by asking her where objects
are (e.g., "Where is your book?"). If the child does not reply or just points, say, "I see it.
It is on the table."
You can also make a g a m e of hiding objects in, on, or under containers and have the
child (or children) guess where they are.
CRITERION The child uses at least two different prepositions in phrases, each two or more
times.
15i. Uses three-word phrases

to specify (e.g., "that big one," "this finger
hurt"), to indicate rejection (e.g., "no scary book,"
"no want that"), and/or to describe (e.g., "the big dog")
PROCEDURES
Play with the child, allowing him to take the lead. Try to maintain a conversation about
what you are doing. Ask open-ended questions (i.e., questions that are not easily an-
swered with "yes" or "no") such as "What would you like to play with?" "What do you
want?" Listen for three-word phrases that include adjectives or other specifying words.
As the child uses two-word phrases, expand on them to e n c o u r a g e the child to produce
longer phrases. For example, if the child says "that one," say, "Oh, you want that big o n e ? "
314 COMMUNICATION
Read simple picture books to the child, and talk about the pictures. Encourage the child
to talk about t h e m , t o o . Listen for three-word phrases.
CRITERION The child uses two or more three-word phrases on three or more different days.
1 5j. Uses three- to four-word complete

sentences that include subject-verb-object
PROCEDURES
Whenever the child says a short phrase, repeat it after her, expanding it into a c o m p l e t e
sentence. For example, if she says, "Daddy home," you say, "Yes, Daddy is home." Listen
carefully to the child's vocalizations so that you will hear the c h a n g e from phrases to c o m -
plete sentences.
At h o m e or in a classroom, read simple stories to the child. Talk a b o u t the stories. Ask
questions or make c o m m e n t s as you read.
CRITERION The child uses at least three complete three- to four-word sentences a day for three
or more days. The sentences must have a subject, a verb, and an object.
15k. Asks " w h " questions (e.g., "why," "what," "where")

MATERIALS C o m m o n toys or objects
PROCEDURES
Try to promote "wh" questions by setting up situations likely to elicit t h e m . For example,
place something new (e.g., a kaleidoscope) where the child will see it but cannot imme-
diately reach it. Say nothing about it to see if he will ask what it is. If he says nothing, say,
"Look what I brought today. Do you see it?" Wait for a question. If none occurs, say, "Do
you want to know what it is?" Then, tell him and show him how it works. Similarly, you
can pretend to talk on the telephone, say that s o m e o n e wants to talk to him, and try to
get him to ask who is on the telephone. Or, remove a favorite toy and wait for a "where"
question.
Ask the child questions frequently and provide answers for him if he is unable to produce
t h e m . When the child begins to ask you questions, always try to answer t h e m . Many chil-
dren this a g e use "why" questions as a way of maintaining a conversation. They are less
interested in the answers than in keeping the adult talking. It is important not to be frus-
trated if the child continues to say "why" after you have given the reason several times.
Go on to talk a b o u t something else.
In a classroom, bring objects from nature to circle time. Ask the children questions
and respond to their questions
CRITERION The child asks three or more different "wh" questions.
1 51. Uses "V instead of given name

When talking to the child, use pronouns as you would if talking to an adult. That is, rather
than using people's names as o n e often does when talking to an infant or toddler, say,
"He did it," "You are going to be late," "I want s o m e juice now," or "You are funny." Listen
to the child so that you will notice when she begins to use "I" instead of her own name.
CRITERION The child uses "I" instead of her given name at least half of the time.
15m. Uses "V on ends of words to indicate possession

MATERIALS C o m m o n toys or objects
PROCEDURES
Select objects that you are quite sure the child will know who they b e l o n g to (e.g., Dad's
coat, M o m ' s purse). Place these items in front of the child, point to o n e object, and ask,
"Whose [object] is this?" If the child does not answer or points to s o m e o n e instead of re-
sponding verbally, provide the correct answer verbally, stressing the " ' s " at the end of the
word to indicate possession.
Look at a book or magazine with the child. Point to a picture saying, for example,
"Look at those red socks. Those are the boy's socks." Point to another picture and say,
"Whose socks are t h o s e ? " Provide t h e correct answer if the child does not.
When you are talking to the child, make sure you are clearly saying the " *s" on the end
of names when you are indicating that something belongs to s o m e o n e (e.g., "That is
Daddy's c o m b , " "That is Rashad's book").
When the child says "book Daddy" or "Daddy book" when he is trying to communi-
cate ownership, provide a model of the correct form and ask him to repeat it (e.g., "Yes,
that is Daddy's book. Can you say, 'Daddy's b o o k ? ' "). Do not, however, insist he repeat
it. The child will gradually learn to c o m m u n i c a t e ownership as he hears the correct form.
In the classroom, ask the children about things that b e l o n g to the other children.
316 COMMUNICATION
CRITERION The child frequently (two or more times a day) uses " Y on the ends of words to
indicate possession.
15n. Uses prepositional phrases

In sentences (e.g., "Put it on my lap")
MATERIALS Common toys or objects
PROCEDURES
As you are teaching spatial concepts such as "in," "on," "around," and "under" to t h e child,
emphasize the prepositional phrase (e.g., "I am putting the blocks in the box," "Bring me
the toy that is under the table"). Make a point of asking the child questions that are likely
to elicit prepositional phrases (e.g., "Where is the pencil?" "Where shall I put this?"). Lis-
ten to what the she says. If she is using prepositions only in phrases, expand her phrases
into c o m p l e t e sentences.
In a classroom, periodically play a hiding g a m e in which you hide something in the class-
room and have the children guess where it is hidden. After a guess, the child can go look
to see if she is correct. If the child uses only t h e prepositional phrase (e.g., "under the
table"), provide a model of a whole sentence (e.g., "Yes, it is under the table").
Also, play a g a m e in which you have the children take turns giving instructions to
each other about where to put an object.
CRITERION The child uses a prepositional phrase in a complete sentence (must include a verb)
three or more times.
15o. Uses most irregular past-tense verb forms correctly
15p. Uses correct verb forms, both irregular

and regular, for past, present, and future actions
Talk to the child and listen to what he says. When the child uses a verb form incorrectly
(e.g., "He g o e d to the store"), repeat what the child said, but use the correct verb form,
emphasizing the verb as you speak (e.g., "He went to the store"). Many children will im-
mediately imitate the correct form. If the child does not, do not insist that he repeat it.
Rely on his learning to use the verb correctly by hearing it repeatedly.
N o t e : S o m e dialects include different verb forms than standard English. It is useful

for the child to hear standard English forms b e c a u s e these are what he will be taught to
read. The child should not fail these items, however, if he is consistently using the verb
forms of the family (or community) dialect.
CRITERION 15o The child uses most irregular past tense verb forms correctly (does not make
errors more than two or three times a day).
CRITERION 15p The child usually uses correct verb forms for past, present, and future actions,
both irregular and regular (does not make errors more than two or three times a day).
15q. Uses " a n d . " "or," "but,"

or "because" to connect two sentences
PROCEDURES
Talk to the child, read to the child, and listen to her talk. Occasionally, expand her sen-
tences with "and," "or," "but," or "because." For example, if the child says, "I fell down,"
you might say, "You fell down and hurt yourself," "You fell down but you didn't cry," "You
fell down because the floor was slippery," or "You fell down; do you want me to kiss it
better, or do you need a Band-Aid?"
In a classroom, e n c o u r a g e show-and-tell activities. These tend to give you g o o d opportu-

nities to hear children express their ideas and to model more c o m p l e x language for them.
CRITERION The child makes three or more sentences in which she uses "and," "or," "but," or
"because" to combine two sentences.
1 5r. Uses verbal nouns and/or verbal adjectives

(e.g., "Hitting is not nice," " H e got hurt running fast")
PROCEDURES
Make a point of using "-ing" words as descriptors (adjectives) or nouns when talking to the
child (e.g., "Running is for outside, walking for inside," "Skipping is harder than gallop-
ing," "Falling rain makes a nice sound") and listen to see if he begins to use them as well.
Classroom rules often are stated (or can be stated) in this form. Lead a discussion of the
rules and ask the children questions such as, "Why is running in the halls dangerous?"
318 COMMUNICATION
"Why is shouting an outside voice?" Also ask questions such as "Do you go faster running
or skipping?" "Is coloring that picture fun for you?"
Be sure to make statements about activities (e.g., "Wiping up the tables is a big help
to me," "Painting makes a big mess—that is why we wear aprons"). Listen to the child to
see if he begins to use these verbal nouns or verbal adjectives.
CRITERION The child uses three or more verbal nouns or verbal adjectives.
15s. Uses complete sentence with correct word

order in " w h " questions (e.g., "Why is Johnny here?")
PROCEDURES
Proceed as in Item 15k, trying to structure situations to elicit "wh" questions. When the
child uses an incomplete "wh" sentence (e.g., "Where Daddy go?") or uses the wrong
order in the sentence (e.g., "Daddy go where?"), say the sentence back to her in the cor-
rect form as you provide an answer (e.g., "Where did Daddy g o ? He went to the store").
Ask the child questions frequently, demonstrating the correct sentence structure. Read sto-
ries with a dialog that includes questions. Ask the child questions as you complete a para-
graph. Pause to answer the child's questions.
CRITERION The child uses correct word order in "wh" questions, rarely making errors.
15t. Uses a variety of adjectives to

describe what has been seen, heard, or experienced
MATERIALS Various picture books
PROCEDURES
Look at books with the child, take him for a walk, or just talk to him about what he has
b e e n doing or seeing. When he mentions an o b j e c t , ask him to describe it. If you have
also seen the object, add your own description using a variety of adjectives that the child
did not consider. For example, if he describes a fish as "a big fish," you might suggest ad-
jectives such as "shiny," "shimmery," "pinkish," and so forth. If you have not seen what the
child is describing, ask him questions including a variety of adjectives (e.g., "Was it
b u m p y ? " "Was it smooth?").
Use speech rich with adjectives when talking to the child. Whenever you go on walks or
other excursions, talk a b o u t what you see, how you feel, what you smell, and so forth. It
is through hearing an adjective used in several different contexts that the child under-
stands its m e a n i n g .
When the child talks to you, ask questions that are likely to elicit responses with ad-
jectives (e.g., "What did it look like?" "How did it f e e l ? " "What did it smell like?").
In a classroom, use show and tell or group times in which you review collections made
on nature walks or field trips to ask questions that will elicit responses with adjectives.
CRITERION The child spontaneously uses a variety of adjectives in telling what he has seen,
heard, or experienced.
I 5u. Uses endings on verbs or nouns to indicate the

activity of a person or thing (e.g., driver, painter, guitarist)
PROCEDURES
Look at a b o o k with the child, and talk about the pictures. Ask, "Who is that?" while point-
ing to various characters in the stories (e.g., the bus driver, s o m e o n e painting a house,
s o m e o n e baking bread). Also, point to pictures of machines in action (e.g., lawn mower),
and ask, "What is that?" Note when the child uses words that show her understanding of
word endings that indicate activity. For example, she may describe the baker as a "cooker."
Use words of this sort in conversations with the child. For example, refer to the child as a
painter when she is painting a picture or to yourself as a driver when you drive the car.
Listen for the child's attempts to use these words. Listen also for words with the "-er" end-
ing that you have not used but that she creates appropriately (e.g., a stick may b e c o m e a
"poker" when it is used to poke something into a hole).
In a classroom, invite caregivers to visit and describe their work, and/or ask each child
to describe their caregiver's j o b . Also, cut out pictures of people doing different activities
(e.g., driver, rider, car washer, helper) and talk about them in the group. Let the children
share their experiences with people doing similar activities (e.g., tell about when the
painter c a m e to their house).
CRITERION The child uses endings on three or more different verbs or nouns to indicate the
activity of a person or object.
320 COMMUNICATION
15v. Uses comparatives (e.g., "big,"

"bigger/* "biggest"; " s a d , " "sadder," "saddest")
MATERIALS Objects that vary in size
PROCEDURES
Place three objects of different sizes in front of the child. Say, "Here is a small [object], this
o n e is even smaller, and this o n e is the smallest of all." Then, put out three other small o b -
jects and ask the child to tell you a b o u t t h e m . If he does not use the words "small,"
"smaller," and "smallest" (or "little," "littler," and "littlest"), ask him, "Which is the small-
est?" "Which o n e is smaller than this o n e ? " Try with another group of objects that can be
described on another continuum (e.g., big to biggest, fat to fattest, tall to tallest).
In a classroom, have t h e children collect objects outside or from around the classroom and
place t h e m on a table. Select three that vary in weight and describe them as "heavy,"
"heavier," and "heaviest." Then let the children take turns lifting them and describing
t h e m . Also, select t h e o n e of intermediate weight and ask t h e children, "Which o n e is
heavier than this o n e ? " "Which o n e is lighter than this o n e ? " Select other objects to c o m -
pare other characteristics. Listen for the children to begin to use the words spontaneously
in their conversations.
CRITERION The child uses all three forms (e.g., "small," "smaller," "smallest") of three or more
different comparative words.
i CATION
16
Imitation: Vocal
A child's ability to speak depends on heating a language spoken and on the

ability to imitate the sounds within that language (or languages in a setting
where more than one language is spoken). For most children, vocal imita-
tion appears to happen automatically, beginning with watching a speaker, making
a variety of sounds, and then learning to match mouth movements and sounds to
those of the caregivers. Various impairments, however, may interfere with this
form of imitation. Some children do not pay sufficient attention to imitate what
caregivers do. Others have problems with motor coordination or motor planning,
which interfere with the production of sounds. Still others do not hear the sounds
well enough to imitate them.
In the period between 2 and 5 years of age, vocal imitation plays a major role
in children's abilities to learn to use the grammatical structures of their language.
Practicing with short strings of unrelated words or numbers will prepare children
for the attention required to imitate the complex sentence structures of their lan-
guage. Thus, this sequence focuses on immediate memory for sequences of words
and numbers rather than on long-term memory of more meaningful material.
ADAPTATIONS

Some children with motor impairments will find it very difficult (or impossible) to
control the lips, jaw, and tongue well enough to imitate sequences of words or num-
bers. Difficulties in imitating sequences of sounds in the absence of obvious motor
impairments may be one of the earliest signs of motor planning problems (apraxia)
in some children. Although the imitation of sound/word sequences may be difficult
for these children, it is important to keep trying to elicit the imitation and to rein-
force their attempts.
321
322 COMMUNICATION

No modifications are needed to help children with visual impairments imitate
sounds, hut you should take special care to emphasize the meaning of language for
children with severe visual impairments.

Make extra efforts to be sure children with hearing impairments are attending to
you when you make sounds or speak words. You may need to work in a very quiet
environment. Be sure to consult a child's audiologist and/or speech-language pathol-
ogist regarding the pitch and loudness that will be likely to get the most reliable
reactions from the child. Children with profound hearing losses may never initiate
sounds very effectively. If their therapists approve, you may wish to focus on teach-
ing children with profound hearing losses to imitate gestures (see Sequence 17: Im-
itation: Motor) so that gestures can take the place of early words for communica-
tion purposes.
16. IMITATION: VOCAL
a. Repeats novel two-word or two-number s e q u e n c e
b. Repeats three-word sentences
c. Repeats a s e q u e n c e of three numbers or three unrelated words
d. Repeats four-word sentences including adjectives
e. Repeats five- to six-word sentences maintaining grammatical structure
f. Repeats novel s e q u e n c e s of four numbers or four unrelated words
16a. Repeats novel two-word or two-number sequence

PROCEDURES
Play a g a m e with the child that involves each of you repeating what the other says. Most
children who have b e e n imitating two-word sentences will find such a g a m e fun. Always
start easy, that is, with only o n e n u m b e r or a short word. Then move on to a two-word or
number s e q u e n c e (e.g., "Say 'apple.' Say 'Daddy.' Now say 'apple, D a d d y ' " ) . If the child
gets a two-word s e q u e n c e correct after having repeated each word alone first, try a new
two-word sequence, or try two numbers.
Play this g a m e in a classroom. The children can take turns repeating the phrase, or they
can all repeat it together. Begin with single words or numbers and move on to two-word
or two-number sequences. Children like it if you put words together that do not typically
go together (e.g., "Yummy dirt," "Pickle ice cream").
N o t e : Young children may have trouble waiting their turn, and several may call the
phrases out. Do not be critical of this; just say, "You all r e m e m b e r e d it. Now let's see if
Mary can do the next o n e all by herself."
CRITERION The child repeats four or more two-word or two-number sequences.
16b. Repeats three-word sentences

PROCEDURES
Tell the child you want to see if he can say what you say. Begin with o n e word, then two,
and then a three-word sentence (e.g., "Say 'johnny.' Now say 'Johnny likes.' Now say
'Johnny likes c a n d y ' " ) . If the child repeats the three-word sentence, try another without
presenting it in parts.
323
324 COMMUNICATION
Listen to the child. Many children repeat things they hear without being asked to do so.
If he does not, s e e if you can get him to repeat phrases you say by starting with a two-
word phrase he is already saying. Once t h e child readily says the phrase, try a three-word
sentence.
Repeating sentences also works well when you are reading simple books. Read a
short sentence and then say, "Now you read it." Prompt as necessary by providing the first
word or the first two words.
CRITERION The child repeats four or more different three-word sentences without prompts.
16c. Repeats a sequence of

three numbers or three unrelated words
S e e instructions for Item 1 6 a .
CRITERION The child repeats a sequence of three numbers or three unrelated words at least
two times (different sequences) on several occasions.
16d. Repeats four-word sentences including adjectives
16e. Repeats five- to six-word

sentences maintaining grammatical structure
MATERIALS N o n e required (books are helpful)
PROCEDURES
Listen to the child. Many children repeat things they hear without being asked to do so. If
the child does not, see if you can get her to repeat by starting with two- and three-word
phrases and gradually moving up to complete sentences that include adjectives (e.g., "Mary
has a pretty baby," "Dolly has a dirty face").
When the child is readily repeating short sentences with adjectives, begin working on
sentences with a variety of grammatical structures by emphasizing those structures as you
speak. For example, stress irregular verb forms, the a g r e e m e n t between subject and verb,
the order of words in questions versus statements, and so forth (e.g., "I have one, but he
has two," "Mary is coming to our house; J o h n n y came yesterday," "That is a big one. Is that
one big?").
IMITATION: VOCAL 325
Repeating sentences is a g o o d activity to try when you are reading simple books.
Read a short sentence that includes an adjective. Wait to see if the child repeats it spon-
taneously. If she does not, read it again and then say, "Now you read it." Prompt as nec-
essary by providing the first o n e or two words.
In a classroom, play the g a m e described in Item 1 8 a but instead use four- to six-word sen-
tences and include adjectives.
CRITERION 7 6d The child repeats four four-word sentences including adjectives.
CRITERION 16e The child repeats four five- to six-word sentences maintaining grammatical
structure.
16f. Repeats novel sequences of

four numbers or four unrelated words
See instructions for Item 1 6 c (but emphasize four-number or four-word sequences).
CRITERION The child repeats four novel sequences of four numbers or four unrelated words.
11 f ; N E M O T 0 R
17
Imitation: Motor
I m i t a t i o n is as natural to typically developing children as breathing. It is the

m e a n s by w h i c h they learn to manipulate materials, solve problems, and relate
t o o t h e r p e o p l e . M o s t c h i l d r e n , w i t h o r w i t h o u t d i s a b i l i t i e s , d o not h a v e t o b e
taught to imitate, although there m a y be significant limitations in the kinds of ac-
t i o n s c h i l d r e n w i t h d i s a b i l i t i e s c a n i m i t a t e . For t h e s e c h i l d r e n , t h i s s e q u e n c e w i l l
p r i m a r i l y s e r v e a s a m e a n s o f n o t i n g t h e i r progress i n d e v e l o p i n g m o r e c o m p l e x i m -
i t a t i v e s k i l l s . S o m e c h i l d r e n , h o w e v e r , will r e q u i r e c o a c h i n g b o t h t o begin t o i m i -
tate and to develop t h e m o r e c o m p l e x forms of i m i t a t i o n .
ADAPTATIONS
All of the i t e m s included in this s e q u e n c e m a y need to be modified to a c c o m m o -
date c h i l d r e n w i t h s i g n i f i c a n t m o t o r i m p a i r m e n t s . Y o u s h o u l d s e e k h e l p f r o m a n
o c c u p a t i o n a l o r p h y s i c a l t h e r a p i s t t o d e t e r m i n e w h a t m o v e m e n t s are p o s s i b l e for a
p a r t i c u l a r c h i l d a n d t h e n design i m i t a t i o n a c t i v i t i e s t h a t u s e t h e s e m o v e m e n t s . F o r
e x a m p l e , i f a c h i l d c a n o n l y m o v e h i s o r h e r h a n d a few i n c h e s t o t h e r i g h t o r left,
a s e q u e n c e o f t w o m o t o r a c t s m a y b e m o v i n g t h a t h a n d f r o m a b l o c k t o a t o y dog
or from t o u c h i n g a red c i r c l e to t o u c h i n g a b l u e s q u a r e . In t h i s c a s e , t h e c h i l d is i m -
i t a t i n g a s e q u e n c e (as i n I t e m 17b) b u t i s m a k i n g m i n i m a l m o t o r m o v e m e n t s .
Children w i t h Visual I m p a i r m e n t s
I t i s o b v i o u s l y difficult t o t e a c h c h i l d r e n t o I m i t a t e m o t o r a c t i o n s i f t h e y are u n a b l e
to see those actions. Children with moderate visual Impairments m a y benefit if you
s e l e c t m o t o r a c t s t h a t c r e a t e n o i s e s for t e a c h i n g i m i t a t i o n . W h e n c h i l d r e n a t t e m p t
to imitate, the sounds they create give t h e m feedback about their success.
It m a y be necessary to help children with severe visual impairments experience
another person's m o v e m e n t s by exploring the other person's face or body w i t h their
327
328 FINE MOTOR
hands. It is also helpful for these children to explore their own movements. You
should not, however, devote an inordinate amount of time to teaching motor imi-
tation to these children. It is more adaptive for children with visual impairments to
simply learn to do motor acts that allow them to move through the environment
and manipulate objects appropriately.

No adaptations are necessary for children with hearing impairments beyond touch-
ing the children or otherwise ensuring that the children are looking at you when
you do the motor acts. Touch the child to get his or her attention if he or she is not
responding to vocal cues.
17, IMITATION: MOTOR
a. Imitates postures or actions that do not involve props
b. Imitates s e q u e n c e of two unrelated motor acts
c. Repeats s e q u e n c e of three unrelated motor activities after being led through these
activities, o n e by o n e
d. Imitates simple finger plays (both hands doing similar actions)
e. Imitates finger plays (each hand doing different actions)
f. Imitates c o m p l e x motor activities in songs and g a m e s
17a. Imitates postures or actions that do not involve props

PROCEDURES
Play a g a m e with the child in which you take turns modeling and imitating different ac-
tions. For example, say, "We're going to play a g a m e . When 1 put my hands over my head,
you put your hands over your head. Ready?" Put your hands over your head and wait for
the child to imitate. If she does not, help her put her hands up and then say, "That's right.
Now we'll try another one." Then say, "Now it is your turn. You do something, and then
I'll do what you do." Imitate what the child does. Then you take a turn modeling the ac-
tion. Begin with easy actions (i.e., both hands doing the s a m e thing) and work up to more
complicated ones (e.g., o n e hand on t h e head, the other on t h e stomach).
Try this with both you and the child facing a mirror.
In a classroom, let the children take turns modeling different postures for t h e others to
imitate.
There are also songs that e n c o u r a g e this sort of imitation such as The Ho key Pokey
or Head, Shoulders, Knees, and Toes.
N o t e : Getting right and left correct is not an important part of imitation at this level.
CRITERION The child imitates four or more postures or actions that do not involve props. The
imitation of a complex act need not be exact but should be a good approximation.
17b. Imitates sequence of two unrelated motor acts
17c. Repeats sequence of three unrelated motor

activities after being led through these activities, one by one
329
330 FINE MOTOR
PROCEDURES
As soon as the child is a b l e to imitate a variety of different postures, play an imitation

g a m e such as the g a m e in Item 1 7 a but perform two actions (be sure to tell t h e child to
wait until you finish if he starts to imitate the first action before you have completed t h e
second). Begin with simple combinations, such as touching your head and then clapping
your hands. Work up to m o r e complex combinations, such as stomping your foot and rub-
bing your stomach. Then, move on to three actions.
Play a variation of Simon Says with t h e child and o n e or more of his peers. Explain that
when you say, "Simon says do this," their j o b is to try to do what you are doing. Begin
with o n e action and then proceed to two actions.
When you provide a new toy for the child, try to get o n e that requires at least two
different motor acts in order to work (e.g., tops that must be wound before pushing a but-
ton to release them or wind-up toys that must be wound and then started by releasing a
catch. Demonstrate the actions required in sequence, and observe whether the child imi-
tates approximately, if not exactly.
CRITERION 17b The child imitates at least two sequences of two unrelated motor acts. The im-
itation of a complex act need not be exact but should be a good approximation.
CRITERION 17c The child imitates at least two sequences of three unrelated motor acts. The
imitation of a complex act need not be exact but should be a good approximation.
17d. Imitates simple finger plays

(both hands doing similar actions)
17e. Imitates finger plays

(each hand doing different actions)
PROCEDURES
Perform a simple finger play for the child in which both hands do similar actions. For ex-
ample, put up the index finger of each hand and say, "Two little blackbirds sitting on a
hill. One named Jack and o n e named Jill (wiggle o n e finger as you say each n a m e ) . Fly
away, Jack (put one finger behind your back). Fly away, Jill (put the other finger behind
your back). Come back, J a c k . Come back, Jill (bring them back)." Ask the child to try it.
Once the child is able to perform simple finger plays with both hands doing the same
actions, try o n e in which each hand does a different action. For example, put up two fin-
gers and move your hand up and down. Say, "Here's a little bunny and here's his h o m e
(a circle m a d e with t h e t h u m b and forefinger of the other hand). Pop, there he goes! (stick
the two fingers in the hole)."
IMITATION: MOTOR 331
Make up other finger plays or refer to a b o o k of finger plays in your local library or
bookstore.
This is an enjoyable activity to do with all of the children in a classroom.
CRITERION 17d The child Imitates three or more simple finger plays (both hands doing simi-
lar actions) on second or third trial.
CRITERION 7 7e The child imitates three or more finger plays (each hand with a different ac-
tion) on second or third trial.
17f. Imitates complex motor activities in songs and games

MATERIALS None required (tapes or CDs of children's songs may be helpful)
PROCEDURES
Sing songs with the child that have hand and body movements that go with t h e m . At this
level the child should be able to do all of t h e actions for the various verses of The Wheels
on the Bus, The ltsy Bitsy Spider, and She'll Be Coming 'Round the Mountain. Check your
local library or bookstore for the many songs that are available.
Singing songs should be a part of any classroom program. Try to vary the songs so that
they will challenge all of the children's skills.
CRITERION The child imitates three or more complex motor activities for several songs or games.
FINE MOTOR
18
Grasp & Manipulation
T he fine motor skills represented in this sequence are those that are involved
in the development of accurate reach, grasp, release, and manipulation of ob-
jects. As children learn to use their hands, they learn that they can manipu-
late their environment. T h e development of fine motor skills establishes a frame-
work for a child's growing independence in self-help and play skills, and ultimately
contributes to the child's ability to successfully handle basic school tasks, such as
writing and drawing.
ADAPTATIONS
C h i l d r e n with M o t o r Impairments
Children with motor impairments may need extra trunk and head support in order
to successfully use their hands. For children who are very involved, sidelying may
be a good starting position. An occupational or physical therapist can assist you in
developing optimal positioning for hand development.
Some children with motor impairments learn to do manipulative tasks with-
out looking. It is important to encourage the coordinated use of hands and vision
together so that the child will not have difficulty moving to a higher level of skills
that require the integration of vision and motor abilities (e.g., visual-motor skills).
Although it is important to facilitate the development of good reaching and
grasping patterns in both hands, it may be advisable to work though the sequence
at a different rate for each hand when clearly asymmetric development is evident.
Always record which hand is being used for a particular activity, and devise a means
of getting the child to use the nonpreferred hand for some activities.
333
334 FINE MOTOR

Children with severe visual impairments can learn to do these tasks through the
use of tactile cues. Initially, you may need to physically guide children through
the activities or allow them to feel your hands as you perform the activity.

Children with hearing impairments will require few adaptations to these items. Be
sure to accompany any verbal instructions with demonstrations.
18. GRASP & MANIPULATION
a. Turns d o o r k n o b with forearm rotation
b. Puts small o b j e c t through small hole in container
c. Builds tower of 8 - 1 0 blocks
d. Makes simple forms with play dough
e. Places Winch pegs in pegboard
f. Turns wind-up key 90 degrees in o n e turn
g. Holds writing implement with fingers in tripod position
h. Places 10 pellets in a bottle in 30 seconds
i. Holds o n e small o b j e c t in palm of hand and then moves it forward to pincer grasp
without assistance from other hand
j. Places paper clips o n paper
18a. Turns doorknob with forearm rotation

MATERIALS A door with an easy-to-turn d o o r k n o b
PROCEDURES
When entering or leaving a room, ask the child to open the door for you. If the child has
difficulty with this task, give him verbal cues such as "turn" (physically prompting in the
correct direction), then "push" (or "pull"). It is usually easier to open a door that needs to
be pushed.
If the child is unsuccessful, practice with other activities that involve turning
(e.g., nested barrels, plastic nuts and bolts, unscrewing loosely fastened lids from various
jars). Incorporating supination (i.e., palm up) patterns into activities also may be helpful
(e.g., using o n e hand to drop small objects into t h e other hand [palm up] to see how
many objects the child can hold before dropping any).
N o t e : Once a child has mastered door opening, doors should be kept locked to pre-
vent the child from leaving the building.
Allow the child opportunities to open doors without assistance.
CRITERION The child opens a doorknob using a forearm rotation.
335
336 FINE MOTOR
18b. Puts small object

through small hole in container
MATERIALS Containers with holes in them and objects to put into them (e.g., a b o x with
a slot and poker chips, coins and a bank, blocks and a shape box with a single o p e n i n g ,
bottle and clothespins, small pellets [or edible items such as raisins], and a bottle with a
1-inch neck opening)
PROCEDURES
Demonstrate for the child how to put a small object through a hole or slot in a container
(e.g., poker chips through a slot in a s h o e b o x ) . If n e e d e d , physically guide the child
through the motions. If she lacks the accurate control, start with a slightly larger o p e n i n g ,
then reduce the size as the child gains skills.
N o t e : This is often a favorite play activity for young children; however, they should
be supervised carefully if they are using small objects.
In a classroom, have a bank with plastic money in o n e of the centers for children to prac-
tice this skill. Let children sort black and white beans into jars with small openings. Holes
or slots can easily be cut into the plastic lids of margarine tubs or coffee cans. Vary the
demands by offering slots for pennies or checkers and small round openings for pegs or
short dowels.
CRITERION The child places a small object in or through a small hole on several different oc-
casions with at least two different objects and containers.
18c. Builds tower of 8-10 blocks

PROCEDURES
Place 10 blocks on the table in front of the child. Tell him to build a tower (or tall build-
ing). If n e e d e d , demonstrate building a tower and then knock it down (or let the child
knock it down), and then tell him to make a tower (or tall building) like you did. Start with
larger blocks and a smaller tower if the child has difficulty. For children experiencing dif-
ficulty in motor control, try magnetic blocks or blocks with small Velcro spots attached.
Beginning stacking g a m e s also can be d o n e with b e a n b a g s .
At h o m e or in the classroom, encourage the child to build roads and buildings with a
latge selection of blocks, Show the children how to build towers of blocks (or small boxes)
and knock them down with b e a n b a g s ,
CRITERION The child builds a tower of 8-10 blocks.

GRASP & MANIPULATION 337
18d. Makes simple forms with

play dough (e.g., balls, snakes)
MATERIALS Play dough
PROCEDURES
At h o m e or in the classroom, place s o m e play dough in front of the child and allow her
an opportunity for free play and exploration. Then, begin to teach the child how to make
simple forms. Start with snakes, showing the child how to roll out a long thin piece using
her hands and fingers. Then, give the child a piece of play dough that you have already
begun to roll out, and tell her to make it into a long snake. Once the child can make a
snake with your assistance, try giving the child a clump of play dough and tell her to make
a snake without assistance. When the child has achieved success making a snake, intro-
duce making a ball (this requires a more complicated motor pattern). Show the child how
to move her hand in a circle, rolling the play dough around on the table or between both
hands. Because balls are more difficult for most children to make, the child may not be
a b l e to perform this skill until she is a little older.
Make h o m e m a d e play dough, letting the child mix in various colors of her choice. Involve
the child in making cookies that need to be shaped.
CRITERION The child independently rolls out play dough with her hands to form snakes and
balls.
18e. Places 74-inch pegs in pegboard

MATERIALS '/4-inch pegs, hard plastic or wooden pegboard
PROCEDURES
Place pegs and a pegboard in front of the child and ask him to put the pegs in the holes.
If the child does not respond, demonstrate the activity for him. If he still has difficulty, try
placing a peg correctly in the child's hand (in pincer grasp). Sometimes just holding each
peg out for the child will encourage him to grasp it correctly. Provide physical assistance
if needed. If the task is too difficult for the child, try using larger pegs and pegboards.
Then, try dropping the '/4-inch pegs into a container with a small o p e n i n g .
In a classroom, keep pegboards and pegs of various sizes in a center for children to use
on their own initiative.
338 FINE MOTOR
Making picture mosaics with various b e a n s will help reinforce the child's use of t h e
pincer grasp and make peg placement easier (make sure the child is beyond mouthing).
Placing pennies in a piggy bank will also develop this skill.
CRITERION The child places ten Vrinch pegs in a pegboard.
18f. Turns wind-up key 90 degrees in one turn

MATERIALS Small action toys with wind-up key or knob
PROCEDURES
Wind up a toy and then place it before the child on a table. W h e n the toy has finished
moving, tell the child to wind it up so that the toy will go again. This is generally a very
motivating activity for children and needs little instruction. Encourage the child to make
big turns. If she has difficulty with this activity, try a variety of toys, selecting o n e that is
very easy to turn (e.g., key protrudes well away from toy and is large and easy to grasp).
If n e e d e d , provide physical assistance, helping the child to hold t h e toy still with o n e hand
and turn the key with the other (preferred hand). If the child is still unsuccessful, use a
large toddler toy, such as a wind-up radio, to teach the motion that is required.
Have a basket filled with a variety of wind-up toys available for free play.
CRITERION The child turns a wind-up key 90 degrees in one turn.
18g. Holds writing implement with fingers in tripod position

MATERIALS Paper; marker, crayon, or pencil
PROCEDURES
Tell the child to draw a picture. Observe how t h e child holds the marker or crayon. A ma-
ture grip consists of holding t h e marker between the t h u m b and the index finger and rest-
ing it on the middle finger, with the last two fingers loosely flexed in the palm of the
hand. Holding the marker between the t h u m b and first two fingers is also a c c e p t a b l e at
this age. The marker should be held within 1 inch of the tip to provide g o o d control. If
the child is holding t h e marker awkwardly, try to reposition his hand in a m o r e mature
grasp. Often, an immature grasp is a reflection of poorly developed hand and finger skills.
The child may need more work on manipulation skills before he is ready to consistently
use a mature grasp.
In t h e classroom, provide many art activities that will give the child practice using mark-
ers, crayons, or pencils. Provide writing implements of different sizes.
GRASP & MANIPULATION 339
Provide regular opportunities for drawing and coloring. Try providing short or bro-
ken crayons to e n c o u r a g e the use of the tripod grasp. Sometimes children will have
greater success if they hold a small wad of paper with the last two fingers against the palm
of the hand. This will e n c o u r a g e t h e use of the tripod grasp.
CRITERION The child consistently holds a marker with fingers in a tripod position (e.g., thumb
and one or two fingers).
18h. Places 10 pellets in a bottle in 30 seconds

MATERIALS Ten small pellets (or beads, pegs, beans, raisins, or Gheerios), small bottle
with a small opening (e.g., a b o u t 1 inch)
PROCEDURES
Give the child a bottle with pellets inside. Tell her to open and pour out the bottle's con-
tents. Then, tell the child to put the items back in, o n e at a time, as fast as she can. If the
child has difficulty, try practicing the activity with a larger container at first to work just
on speed. Later, add the accuracy c o m p o n e n t of placement in a small o p e n i n g .
In a classroom, keep beads or beans and containers of various sizes in a center for chil-
dren to use on their own initiative.
Making picture mosaics with various beans will help reinforce t h e child's use of the
pincer grasp and make placing small objects in bottles easier (make sure the child is be-
yond mouthing). Placing pennies in a piggy bank will also develop this skill.
CRITERION On three separate occasions, the child places 10 pellets in a bottle in 30 seconds.
181. Holds one small object in palm of hand and then moves
it forward to pincer grasp without assistance from other hand
1
MATERIALS Pennies and bank or / -inch pegs and p e g b o a r d
4
PROCEDURES
Place a penny in t h e palm of your hand and demonstrate moving it forward using finger
and t h u m b movements until you are holding the penny between your t h u m b and index
finger. Then, drop it in the bank. Place a penny in the palm of the child's hand and tell
him to put it in the bank like you did. Hold the child's other hand, if necessary, to en-
courage manipulation of the o b j e c t within o n e hand. If t h e child is not successful, begin
by placing the penny in his palm near the index finger so that very little m o v e m e n t will
be n e e d e d to bring it forward to pincer grasp. If the child still has difficulty, try a larger
object, such as a 1-inch block. When the child is successful with pennies, try alternative
objects such as Winch pegs and pegboard (placing the peg in the child's palm).
340 FINE MOTOR
This activity can easily be turned into a g a m e . Provide a bank for each player and a cen-
tral pile of pennies. Each player takes turns rolling a die. When a player rolls a number,
he or she will pick up that n u m b e r of pennies with o n e hand and drop the pennies into
t h e bank o n e at a time, without using the other hand to assist. When all of the pennies
are g o n e , the player with the most pennies in his or her bank wins the g a m e .
CRITERION The child holds a small object in the palm of his hand and then moves it forward
to a pincer grasp without assistance from the other hand.
18j. Places paper clips on paper

MATERIALS Paper, several standard-size metal paper clips
PROCEDURES
Demonstrate how to place paper clips on paper. Point out the difference in the two ends
of the paper clip. The child should hold the paper clip in her preferred hand with the
paper clip's d o u b l e loops directed toward the paper. Have the child rest t h e e d g e of the
large loop on t h e e d g e of the paper held in the other hand. Press down slightly (which
will open clip) and slide the clip forward. If the child has difficulty, have her place paper
clips on index cards. Large plastic paper clips will also facilitate the task.
In the classroom, give each child several paper clips of different colors. Have a stack of
cards of matching colors. Tell the children to find cards of t h e s a m e color as their clips and
put them on.
Give each child a card with a picture on it. Tell the child to find a matching card from
the pile and to clip them together with the paper clip.
CRITERION The child places three paper clips on a piece of paper.

19
Bilateral Skills
T he activities in this sequence involve the development of coordinated bilat-

eral hand use. T h e majority of activities involve tasks in which each hand
performs a different function to accomplish a single task (e.g., one hand
holds a bead while the other pushes a string through it). Generally, the preferred
hand performs the more skilled portion of the task, while the other hand provides
a supportive role. Many children demonstrate a hand preference by the age of 2 years,
although dominance may not be fully established until 5 or 6 years of age.
Note: Cutting, an important bilateral skill, is included in Sequence 21 (Visual-
Motor Skills).
ADAPTATIONS
If a child does not sit well independently, try sitting the child in a corner chair that
provides support and helps to bring his or her arms forward and toward midline. If
a child has one side that is more affected by motor impairments than the other, en-
courage the child to use the more involved hand to assist the other hand (e.g., hold
the lacing card with the less skilled hand and the lace with the more skilled hand).
Note: It is extremely important for curriculum users to recognize that not all
activities in this sequence are appropriate for all children. For example, a child with
athetoid cerebral palsy might be able, with a great deal of effort, to put beads on a
string, but such an activity would never be functional. T h e activity would teach
this child more about frustration tolerance than a useful fine motor skill, even
though the latter is the item's intent. T h e more severe a child's disability, the more
important it is to seek the advice of a physical and/or occupational therapist in
choosing those activities that will be functional and enjoyable for the child.
341
342 FINE MOTOR

Use toys that offer interesting textures and make sounds when working with chil-
dren with visual impairments. Many rhythm instruments are useful for encourag-
ing bilateral hand skills in young children with visual impairments. Provide hand-
over-hand assistance, give verbal feedback, and describe what you are doing.

Children with hearing impairments will require no adaptations to these items as
they are based on visual and motor skills. Be sure to accompany any verbal in-
structions with demonstrations.
19. BILATERAL SKILLS
a. Demonstrates hand preference (typically in eating)
b. Unbuttons large buttons
c. Strings small beads
d. Screws on lids
e. Laces card with large holes
f. Demonstrates hand preference by picking up most materials with o n e hand (will

cross midline of body)
g. Ties single knot
h. Laces two holes in shoes
i. Does simple sewing
j. Holds deck o f cards and sorts
k. Buttons Vz-inch buttons
I. Folds paper in half (no demonstration)
m. Consistently uses same hand for skilled activities
19a. Demonstrates hand preference (typically in eating)

MATERIALS Spoon, plate, food
PROCEDURES
Present the child with a plate of food, placing a spoon at midline above her plate. Ob-
serve the child eating on several occasions, and note if she has a preference for either hand
(which may also be evident during other activities, such as coloring, hammering, or
throwing a ball). If the child demonstrates a preference, continue to support that hand as
dominant, and e n c o u r a g e the child to use it consistently. If a preference is not clear, con-
tinue to present materials to the child at midline so that she has free choice over which
hand to use.
N o t e : There is a large variation in a g e regarding achievement of hand dominance,
with complete dominance establishment generally not expected until 5 - 6 years of age. Ex-
clusive use of o n e hand at a very early a g e (e.g., before 1 year) is suspect and may be in-
dicative of motor difficulties with the child's other hand. Children do not necessarily need
to have established a dominant hand until approaching school a g e ( 5 - 6 years). If a hand
preference has not e m e r g e d at this age, you should consult an occupational therapist.
Observe which hand the child uses for various activities throughout the day and over a
period of several weeks to see if you can determine a preference. Until the child begins to
clearly demonstrate a preference, continue to present items (e.g., spoon, crayon, toy ham-
mer) at midline.
343
344 FINE MOTOR
CRITERION The child regularly uses the same hand for a skilled task (e.g., eating with a spoon
at lunch).
3
19b. Unbuttons large buttons (e.g., A-1 inch)
MATERIALS Cloth strip (or dressing vest or doll) with large buttons, buttonholes that are
slightly loose
PROCEDURES
Present the item with buttons buttoned, and ask. t h e child to unbutton it. If he does not
know how to approach this task, slowly demonstrate for him two or three times. Then, try
to physically assist t h e child. He should hold and lightly pull the cloth next to the hole
with o n e hand and grasp the button and push it through the hole with the other hand.
If this task is too difficult for the child, a g o o d preliminary activity is pushing coins or
checkers through a slit cut into a plastic jar. The slit should provide a tight fit so that t h e
child has to exert s o m e effort to push the coin through.
At h o m e or in t h e classroom, e n c o u r a g e children to play dress-up. Provide very simple

clothing that has large buttons. At this age, the goal would be for the children to undo
fasteners and remove clothing independently. In another year, t h e focus will be on inde-
pendently putting on and fastening the clothing.
Buttoning boards that have a surprise picture hidden under t h e material can be fun
to use with a group of children who can then share what they found under the material.
Playing bank or store during which children place pennies in a piggy bank or through a
slotted lid is a g o o d preparatory activity.
3
CRITERION The child unbuttons three large buttons (e.g., A- J inch).
19c. Strings small beads (e.g., Vz inch)

MATERIALS Bowl with a n u m b e r of small beads, lace with o n e stiff end and a knot on
the other end
PROCEDURES
Place the bowl of beads and the string of lace in front of the child, and ask her to make a
necklace or a snake. Demonstrate the procedure for the child with a second lace. In gen-
eral, square beads with straight sides may be easier for the child to hold and string than
round or oval beads. If the child has difficulty, check first to be sure she can string large
beads. If the child can successfully string the larger beads but still cannot do this task, she
may need more practice handling small objects (e.g., putting pennies in a bank, placing
Vi-inch pegs in a pegboard, finger feeding small pieces of cereal or raisins).
BILATERAL SKILLS 345
In a classroom, have children string wheel-shaped macaroni to make room decorations,

or string spools t o g e t h e r to make snakes.
CRITERION The child strings several small beads (e.g., '/? inch).
19d. Screws on lids

MATERIALS Small bottles or jars of various sizes with matching lids
PROCEDURES
Give the child a bottle with small objects inside. Tell him to open the bottle and dump out
the contents. Then, tell the child to put the lid back on, perhaps as part of cleanup. If the
child has difficulty with this task, demonstrate screwing on the lid and then physically as-
sist him. Show him how to hold the lid in an overhand fashion with his fingers around the
e d g e of the rim. Give verbal cues as to which direction the child should turn the lid.
In a classroom, have children hide tiny surprises for each other in o p a q u e jars. If you can-
not find any o p a q u e jars, you can make s o m e by taping paper around and over the bot-
toms of the jars. Close the lids and then e x c h a n g e the jars. After opening a snack jar, have
the child replace the lid. In the classroom, you can give different children a turn on vari-
ous days.
CRITERION The child can screw lids onto various types of jars or bottles.
19e. Laces card with large holes

MATERIALS Simple lacing cards with /-.-inch holes
PROCEDURES
Give the child a sewing card and lace. Demonstrate on a second card how to push the lace
through a hole in the card and then reach to the other side to pull the lace through. Typ-
ically, the child will hold the card in her nondominant hand and use her preferred or dom-
inant hand to manipulate the lace. If the child is unsuccessful, provide physical assistance
as n e e d e d . At this age, the child typically sews through the holes in random order.
Place lacing cards and laces in a basket on a low shelf so that they are readily available
for the child to play with. An easy alternative for lacing cards is to punch holes around
the e d g e of a paper plate for the child to lace.
CRITERION The child laces through at least four holes on a lacing card.
346 FINE MOTOR
19f. Demonstrates hand preference by picking up

most materials with one hand (will cross midline of body)
MATERIALS A variety of small objects (e.g., 1-inch blocks, beads, small animals)
PROCEDURES
Scatter objects on the table in front of the child, making sure a b o u t half are to the right
of the child's midline (center of body) and half to the left. Tell the child to put the objects
into a container placed at midline. Observe the child's hand choice. If he spontaneously
crosses midline and uses o n e hand to pick up most of the objects, no further intervention
is n e e d e d .
If the child has demonstrated a hand preference in eating, try having the child hold
the container with his nonpreferred hand and then tell him to pick up the objects and put
them in the container. This will e n c o u r a g e him to reach across the midline of his body to
pick up objects lying near the other side of his body.
Provide play activities that involve putting small objects into a container held by the other
hand (e.g., a small bank with pennies, a small bottle with beads, a t u b e with small blocks).
CRITERION The child crosses the midline of his body to pick up objects and uses preferred
hand to pick up majority of items.
19g. Ties single knot

MATERIALS Laced shoe, laces
PROCEDURES
Present a laced shoe to the child. Sitting next to the child, with a similar shoe, show her
how to tie the ends into a simple overhand knot. Hold the lace in o n e hand and bring the
lace across the other lace, held in the other hand (forming an "X"). Hold the " X " with o n e
hand, while taking the first lace behind and through the loop under the " X . " Then, pull
the laces tight, holding the ends of the laces. This task is much easier for the child to fol-
low when you use two laces of contrasting colors tied together at o n e end. This also makes
it easier to give the child verbal cues (e.g., "Pull the yellow lace").
Try using a simple story to cue the child. One end of the string is a rabbit and the rabbit
must go around the tree (the other end) and then down the hole.
CRITERION The child ties a single knot.

19h. Laces two holes In shoes

MATERIALS Shoes with laces
PROCEDURES
Place a shoe before the child with the first two holes laced. Tell him to finish lacing the
shoe. You may want to have a second shoe that you can use to demonstrate lacing, if
n e e d e d . Show the child how to push the lace through the hole with o n e hand, then grasp
and pull it the rest of the way with the other hand. At this age, following an appropriate
lacing pattern is not expected.
Many children are now wearing shoes with Velcro, which certainly makes the children
more independent but results in little exposure to tying shoes. At home, have the child
help lace his parents' shoes. At h o m e and in the classroom, having shoes that tie available
for dress-up will provide opportunities for practice.
CRITERION The child laces at least two holes in his shoes.
19i. Does simple sewing

MATERIALS Sewing cards, plastic needlepoint canvas or easy-to-sew cloth (e.g., burlap),
large children's sewing needle with yarn
PROCEDURES
Give the child a sewing card or cloth with yarn and a children's sewing needle. If the child
is sewing on cloth, it may be easier if the cloth is stabilized in a small embroidery hoop.
Demonstrate for the child how to hold the needle and sew on the card or cloth. Provide
verbal and physical assistance as n e e d e d .
At h o m e or in the classroom, make greeting cards by sewing a simple design onto a piece
of cardboard (prepunch sewing holes for children). Let the children create their own de-
signs using various colors and weights of yarn. Children who enjoy sewing can create sim-
ple pillows by sewing together two pieces of felt and stuffing the pillow with batting.
CRITERION The child sews at least eight stitches on a sewing card or piece of cloth.
348 FINE MOTOR
19j. Holds deck of cards and sorts

MATERIALS Deck of cards (a miniature deck [e.g., 2 inches by 3 inches] may be m o r e
m a n a g e a b l e for small hands)
PROCEDURES
Demonstrate for the child how to hold the cards in your nondominant hand and remove
the top card with your dominant hand. Turn a card over and place it on the table. Sort the
cards into different piles. Depending on the cards you are using and the child's skills and
interest, you could sort the cards by color, number, suit, or pictures (if using a children's
deck). The goal of this item is for the child to be able to handle the cards, not her sort-
ing ability.
Give the deck of cards to the child and tell her to sort the cards like you did. If she
has difficulty m a n a g i n g the cards, try reducing the n u m b e r of cards she is holding. If nec-
essary, teach the sorting part of the task while t h e card stack is sitting on the table. Once
she is able to do this part successfully, return to having her hold the cards with o n e hand
and sort with the other.
If the child enjoys playing with cards, introduce simple card g a m e s , such as Slap Jack and
Go Fish.
CRITERION The child holds a stack of cards in one hand and sorts the cards using her other
hand.
19k. Buttons Vz-inch buttons

MATERIALS Cloth strip (or dressing vest or dressing doll) with Vz-inch buttons and but-
tonholes that are slightly loose
PROCEDURES
Present the cloth strip with its buttons buttoned and tell the child to unbutton t h e m . Then,
tell the child to button them back together. If he does not know how, slowly demonstrate
the activity two or three times. Show the child how to hold the cloth with o n e hand and
the button with the other hand. After pushing the button through the hole, grasp the but-
ton with the other hand and pull it through the hole. If the child has difficulty, he can
practice passing a large button, checker, or poker chip through a slit cut into a plastic lid.
The button should be passed from o n e hand to the other hand.
Play dress-up with simple clothing that has front buttons. Play with dressing dolls or sim-
ilar toys.
CRITERION The child is able to button Vnnch buttons.

191- Folds paper In half (no demonstration)

MATERIALS Sheets of standard size paper
PROCEDURES
Place a sheet of paper in front of the child and ask her to fold the paper in half. If the
child does not know what to do, demonstrate folding a second sheet of paper and then
ask her to fold her sheet. Help the child bring the e d g e s of the paper close together, and
show her how to crease it by pushing down with her fingers. On a different occasion, ask
the child to fold the paper in half without providing a demonstration.
Let the child help with many activities that involve folding (e.g., folding napkins for snack
time or mealtime, folding washcloths when helping with laundry, folding a piece of paper
in half and then decorating it to make a simple card).
CRITERION The child folds a piece of paper in half without a demonstration.
19m. Consistently uses same hand for

skilled activities (e.g.. drawing, eating)
MATERIALS Eating and drawing utensils
PROCEDURES
Observe the child throughout the day and note his hand choice for various activities. If
the child is using the s a m e hand for most skilled activities, no further intervention is re-
quired. Typically, children will first b e c o m e consistent is using the s a m e hand for activi-
ties such as eating and drawing. If a preference is evident, continue to reinforce that hand
as dominant. If the child still shows no preference during casual observation (or in Item
19f) it may be appropriate to consult with an occupational therapist, particularly if there
is any concern regarding the development of skilled hand use.
Observe which hand the child uses for various activities throughout t h e day and over a
period of several weeks to see if the child has a consistent preference. Until the child be-
gins to clearly demonstrate a preference, continue to present items (e.g., spoon, crayons,
hammer) at midline. If the child demonstrates a preference, e n c o u r a g e consistent use of
that hand, particularly for eating and drawing.
CRITERION The child consistently uses the same hand for skilled activities (e.g., drawing, eating).
?
F I N E M O T O R
20
Tool Use
C hildren first discover their hands and their ability to have an impact on
their environment with their hands when they play with a toy, obtain some-
thing they want, or feed themselves. After children establish a good aware-
ness of their own body, they begin to learn that they can use a tool as an extension
of their body to affect their environment. Tool use allows us to manipulate our
world in a more sophisticated way than we are able to achieve with just our hands
alone. T h e ability to use tools is one of the characteristics that identifies humans
as an advanced animal species. In addition to the tool use items listed in this se-
quence, two essential areas of tool development are addressed in other sequences.
Sequence 4-1 (Self-Help: Eating) includes the use of eating utensils, while Sequence
21 (Visual-Motor Skills) includes the use of writing implements and scissors.
ADAPTATIONS

If children with motor impairments have difficulties holding a tool, ask an occupa-
tional therapist for assistance in exploring adaptive gloves, splints, or Velcro devices
that may help these children hold the tools. Stabilizing the toy or object being acted
on with the tool also may be helpful. D y c e m mats are sticky mats that can be placed
under toys to stabilize them.

Children with visual impairments should be able to master these activities through
the use of tactile cues. Demonstrate the activity, describing to the child what you
are doing. Then, provide hand-over-hand assistance as needed to guide the child
through the activity.
351
352 FINE MOTOR

Children with hearing impairments will require no adaptations, as these items are
based on visual and motor skills. Be sure to accompany any verbal instructions with
demonstrations.
2 0 , TOOL USE
a. Holds bowl and stirs
b. Uses h a m m e r to pound pegs in pounding bench
c. Transfers material with spoon
d. Spreads with knife
e. Cuts with e d g e of fork
f. Uses rolling pin to flatten dough
g. Uses tongs to transfer materials
h. Uses h a m m e r to pound in nails
i. Uses clothespin to transfer small objects
j. Uses fork and knife t o cut soft materials
20a. Holds bowl and stirs

MATERIALS Bowl or cup with spoon
PROCEDURES
Hold the bowl with o n e hand, and demonstrate a stirring motion with your other hand.
Give the child a bowl and spoon, and ask him to stir. Repeat your demonstration and give
physical assistance as n e e d e d . A bowl or a cup with a handle may be easier for the child
to hold and stabilize while stirring.
When possible, involve the child in simple cooking activities. Put a small amount of mixture/
batter into a cup or a small bowl for the child to stir. Encourage him to stir in additions
to cereal (e.g., pieces of fruit). Show cooking activities in the classroom.
CRITERION The child holds a bowl and stirs with spoon.
20b. Uses hammer to pound pegs in pounding bench

MATERIALS Pounding bench with pegs and h a m m e r
PROCEDURES
Present the pounding bench and h a m m e r to the child. Demonstrate for her how to ham-
mer in the pegs. Give the h a m m e r to the child, and ask her to hit the pegs. Provide phys-
ical assistance and repeated demonstrations as n e e d e d . Encourage the child to turn the
bench over or replace the pegs, and repeat the activity. Pounding b e n c h e s are typically
made of wood and require greater strength and more repeated hammerings than the
pounding toys with balls.
353
354 FINE MOTOR
Have a pounding toy readily available for the child during free play. In a classroom, pro-
vide a pounding bench but do not allow children to play close to each other when ham-
mering due to the risk of accidentally hitting s o m e o n e .
CRITERION The child uses a hammer to pound in pegs on several different occasions.
20c. Transfers material with spoon

MATERIALS Two bowls, teaspoon, loose materials (e.g., small stones, lentils, rice, sand;
if mouthing is a problem, use edibles)
PROCEDURES
Fill o n e bowl with lentils, for example, and set it in front of the child next to an e m p t y
bowl. With a spoon, demonstrate scooping the lentils from o n e bowl and dumping them
into the second bowl. Then, give the spoon to the child, and ask him to fill up the second
bowl. Give physical assistance as n e e d e d . Using heavy bowls that will not tip over easily
may offer the child greater success. If the child tends to lose most of the material before
reaching the second bowl, let him use a measuring cup at first.
In a classroom or on the playground, be sure to provide scoops, shovels, spoons, and a

variety of containers in the sandbox or sand table. The children can also use shovels to fill
up pails and then use that sand to build a sand castle.
At snack time, have children serve themselves a snack (e.g., dry cereal, raisins) from
a large bowl using a spoon or a scoop.
CRITERION The child uses a spoon to scoop and transfer material from one container to a sec-
ond container.
20d. Spreads with knife

MATERIALS Toast or firm bread, plate, butter knife, soft butter
PROCEDURES
Place a piece of toast on a plate and set it on the table in front of the child with a knife
and butter. With a second piece of toast, show the child how to spread on the butter, cov-
ering its entire surface. Encourage the child to spread the butter on her piece of toast.
Teach the child to stabilize the toast with o n e hand and spread the butter with the other.
Give the child physical assistance as n e e d e d .
TOOL USE 355
Both at h o m e and in t h e classroom, e n c o u r a g e the child to fix simple foods indepen-

dently. She can spread peanut butter or jelly on top of crackers, or she can decorate cook-
ies by spreading soft frosting on top of t h e m .
CRITERION The child uses a knife for spreading on several occasions.
20e. Cuts with edge of fork

MATERIALS Easy-to-cut food (e.g., pancakes), fork, plate
PROCEDURES
Place a pancake on a plate and set it on the table in front of the child with a fork. Show
the child how to cut the pancake with the e d g e of his fork. Position the fork sideways in
the child's hand, and help him cut the pancake by pushing down with the e d g e of the
fork and then pulling away t h e fork. Then, ask the child to do the activity independently.
Encourage him to keep his index finger on the top e d g e of the fork to apply pressure.
In a classroom, roll play dough into snakes or flatten with a rolling pin. Encourage the
child to use the e d g e of a fork to cut the play dough into smaller pieces.
CRITERION The child cuts with the edge of his fork on several occasions.
20f. Uses rolling pin to flatten dough

MATERIALS Rolling pins, play dough or cookie dough
PROCEDURES
Give the child a ball of play dough and show her how to flatten it slightly with her hands.
Then, give the child the rolling pin and tell her to roll out the play dough. Demonstrate
how to do this activity with a second rolling pin and piece of play dough. If n e e d e d , phys-
ically take the child through the activity, encouraging her to both roll and push at the
same time. Children may find it easier to use a rolling pin that has handles that allow the
body of the rolling pin to turn independently (versus a solid piece of wood).
At h o m e or in a classroom, make cookies or biscuits with the child. Give her a small por-
tion of the dough to roll out.
CRITERION The child uses a rolling pin to flatten a small ball of play dough or cookie dough
on several occasions.
356 FINE MOTOR
20g. Uses tongs to transfer materials

MATERIALS Wooden or plastic tongs (e.g., toaster tongs, salad tongs), container, small
objects (e.g., Vi-inch blocks, shells, cotton balls)
PROCEDURES
Place several small objects on the table in front of the child. Using tongs, demonstrate for
him how to pick up the objects and drop them into a container. The child should hold the
tongs similarly to how he would hold a fork or pencil (i.e., between t h u m b and first
o n e or two fingers). Place the tongs in the child's hand correctly and tell him to pick up
the objects and to drop them into the container. A low container with a large opening will
be easier for the child to m a n a g e at first.
Have the child use tongs to eat snacks or even meals to gain extra practice. In the class-
room, have several sets of tongs to go with a basket of small objects and s o m e containers
so that the children can take turns using the tongs to transfer the materials.
CRITERION The child uses tongs to pick up at least five small objects and drop them into a
container on several different occasions.
20h„ Uses hammer to pound in nails

MATERIALS Lightweight hammer, nails, wood
PROCEDURES
Start several nails in a piece of wood that is secured to a flat surface. Demonstrate for the
child how to h a m m e r in o n e nail. Then, give her the hammer, and tell her to h a m m e r in
the rest of the nails. Encourage the child to hold the h a m m e r toward the end of the han-
dle and to raise the h a m m e r several inches a b o v e the nail before hitting each time. Give
physical assistance, if n e e d e d , to help the child establish a hammering rhythm. If the child
has successfully passed Item 2 0 b but still has difficulty with this task, try hammering the
nails into a very soft piece of wood (e.g., balsa) or hammering golf tees into a block of
Styrofoam before moving onto harder pieces of wood.
In an outside area, set up a wood stump and start a number of nails in the top of the
stump. Children can then practice hammering as o n e of their outside activities. In the
classroom, establish a woodworking center with a h a m m e r and nails, sandpaper, and a
hand drill. Be sure to teach safety rules before children are allowed to use this center.
CRITERION The child uses a hammer to pound in several nails.

TOOL USE 357
201. Uses clothespin to transfer small objects

MATERIALS Standard-size spring-type clothespins, pennies, play dough, container
PROCEDURES
Slightly flatten a ball of play dough. Stand several pennies on end in the play dough.
Show the child how to use t h e clothespin to pick up o n e of the pennies and drop it into
a container. Then, tell the child to use the clothespin to pick up the pennies and drop
them into the container. After the child picks up a penny, remind him not to squeeze the
clothespin again until it is over the container. If the child has difficulty, allow him time to
practice using clothespins by clipping them onto a piece of cardboard. After he gains
g o o d control of the clothespins, return to using the clothespin as a tool. This activity can
also be d o n e with small b e a d e d pegs placed in a p e g b o a r d .
In the classroom, maintain a tub with clothespins and objects that could be picked up with
t h e m . Allow the children to play with these items freely. You can also play a g a m e in
which a small o b j e c t is passed from child to child using clothespins. The last child to re-
ceive the o b j e c t drops it into a container.
CRITERION The child uses a spring-type clothespin to pick up at least five small objects and
transfer them to a container.
20j. Uses fork and knife to cut soft materials

MATERIALS Easy-to-cut food (e.g., pancakes) or other soft materials (e.g., play dough),
fork, knife, and plate
PROCEDURES
Place a pancake on a plate with a fork and knife on the table in front of the child. Demon-
strate for her how to stabilize the pancake with the fork and then cut with the knife, using
a back and forth motion. Help the child to position the fork in her nonpreferred hand
(if known) and the knife in her preferred hand. Encourage her to keep her index finger
on top e d g e of the knife to apply pressure while cutting. Provide physical assistance as
n e e d e d . At this age, the fork may still be held in a fisted grip.
Both at h o m e and in the classroom, play dough provides a great practice medium for the
development of this skill. Roll play dough into snakes or flatten with rolling pin. Encour-
a g e the chiid to stabilize the dough with the fork and then cut with the knife.
CRITERION The child cuts soft materials (e.g., play dough, pancakes) using a fork and knife
on several occasions.
E MO T 0 R
21
Visual-Motor Skills
V isual-motor skills refer to skills involving the use of tools with paper
(e.g., drawing, coloring, painting, writing, cutting) and generally involve the
coordinated use of vision and hands together. T h e emergence of visual-
motor skills requires integration of visual-perceptual and fine motor skills. Young
children benefit from early exposure to art materials that allow them to explore and
develop the motor control needed to do more skilled work in the preschool period.
For toddlers, easel work provides a great opportunity to explore different mediums
(e.g., paint, chalk, crayons) in a position that contributes to the development of a
mature grip and hand posture. Often, a mature pencil grip does not emerge before
the age of 3 years. Typically, there is considerable variability in visual-motor devel-
opment, with girls often demonstrating the developmental advantage.
ADAPTATIONS

Children with severe motor impairments may never be able to do these activities
independently, but there are some things that can be done to help. For example, if
a child is unable to hold a crayon or marker, focus initially on doing writing/draw-
ing activities with his or her hand or finger in fingcrpaint. Provide hand-over-hand
assistance to help the child participate in drawing activities. Children with motor
impairments may need some type of adaptive device in order to hold a crayon or
pencil. Consult an occupational therapist regarding various possibilities.

Children with severe visual impairments will have considerable difficulties with
these items. It is important to consult an occupational therapist or vision special-
ist to determine whether it is appropriate to Include these items In a child's pro-
gram and, if so, what adaptations will be necessary.
359
360 FINE MOTOR
Some adaptations include using contrasting colors, such as bright yellow paper
and black markers, or making marks in thick fingerpaint, play dough, or shaving
cream so that the child can trace them with his or her finger.

Children with hearing impairments will require no adaptations to these items
as they are based on visual and motor skills. Be sure to accompany any verbal in-
struction with demonstrations.
2 1 . VISUAL-MOTOR SKILLS
a. Imitates horizontal stroke
b. Pretends to write
c. Copies a circle with a circular scribble
d. Snips with scissors
e. Makes continuous cuts across paper
f. Copies a circle
g. Copies a cross
h. Draws a person with a head and at least o n e feature
i. Cuts on a straight line, staying within '/ inch of the line

2
j. Draws a person with a head and four features
k. Cuts out a 4-inch square
I. Copies a square
m. Draws simple representational pictures
n. Cuts out a 4-inch circle
o. Traces outline of simple stencil
p. Draws a person with a head and eight features
q. Cuts out pictures following general shape
21a. Imitates horizontal stroke

MATERIALS Large pieces of paper, crayons or markers, cardboard
PROCEDURES
Place paper in front of the child, and demonstrate for her how to make a horizontal stroke.
While drawing, say to t h e child, "Watch me. I am making lines that go back and forth."
Try adding a sound as you make each line (e.g., "vrooml").
After you demonstrate these movements for the child, ask her to do what you did. If
she does not, take her hand and help her do the activity several times. Then, ask t h e child
to make a horizontal stroke by herself. If the child is having a lot of difficulty with hori-
zontal lines, you can use a cardboard guide with a slot to help her. Then, see if the child
can do the activity independently.
N o t e : To make a cardboard guide, cut a slot Vz inch wide by 8 inches long.
Encourage the child to make lines with her index finger in fingerpaint, foaming soap, a
sand box, or in a small amount of sand or salt on a cookie sheet.
CRITERION The child imitates a horizontal stroke with a writing utensil on several occasions.
361
362 FINE MOTOR
21b. Pretends to write

MATERIALS Paper, pencil
PROCEDURES
Sit at a table with the child and begin to write something (e.g., a letter to Grandpa, t h e
grocery list). Give t h e child a pencil and piece of paper, and ask him to write whatever
you are writing. Most children will pick up the pencil and begin to make marks on t h e
paper. If the child d o e s not, place t h e pencil in his hand and provide hand-over-hand as-
sistance to mark the paper. Gradually fade your assistance.
During down times (e.g., when waiting for lunch, when waiting for an appointment), give
the child a small notepad and pencil so that he can write.
In a classroom, provide pencils and notepads in t h e housekeeping and other centers
so that the children can pretend to make lists or do office work.
CRITERION The child pretends to write with a writing utensil.
21c. Copies a circle with a circular scribble

MATERIALS Large pieces of paper, crayons or markers
See instructions for Item 2 1 a , demonstrating a circle instead of a line.
CRITERION The child copies a circle with a circular scribble.
21 d- Snips with scissors

MATERIALS Paper, safety scissors
PROCEDURES
Place a piece of paper and the safety scissors in front of the child. Ask her to cut t h e paper.
If she does not know how to do this, place the scissors in her preferred hand and guide
her through t h e motion.
For best control, place her t h u m b and middle fingers in the handle holes, with her
index finger on the bottom handle next to the hole. Hold the paper taut between your
hands and ask the child to cut. Verbal cues such as "open" or "squeeze" may be useful. If
the child is having a lot of difficulty, use small squeeze scissors or training scissors that
have extra handle holes for your hand. When the child is successful in making cuts, en-
VISUAL-MOTOR SKILLS 363
c o u r a g e her to hold the paper on her own. Using stiff paper or index cards may make this
activity easier.
N o t e : If the child's hand preference is not clear, teach cutting with the right hand,
as most scissors are righthanded, and a n u m b e r of left-handed people cut with their right
hand. Quality scissors can make a big difference in a child's level of success in cutting.
Children who are lefthanded should be provided with lefthanded scissors. The blades
need to be sharp (not pointed) and fit closely together.
In a classroom, make place mats by cutting fringe around the e d g e of the paper.
CRITERION The child snips paper with scissors several times.
21 e. Makes continuous cuts across paper

MATERIALS 6-inch square pieces of paper, safety scissors, stiff paper (e.g., index cards)
PROCEDURES
Place a piece of paper and the safety scissors in front of the child. Ask him to cut the paper
in half or to cut all of t h e way across the paper. Give him verbal cues (e.g., "open, squeeze,
open, squeeze") as well as physical assistance, if n e e d e d , to maintain continuous cutting.
It may be helpful if you hold the paper for the child initially. Then, when he is having
s o m e success cutting, have him hold the paper himself. Try stiff paper or index cards ini-
tially to make the activity easier.
Make simple puzzles by cutting a picture glued on cardboard into several pieces.
CRITERION The child makes several continuous cuts across a piece of paper.
21 f. Copies a circle
MATERIALS Paper, crayons or markers
PROCEDURES
Draw several circles at the top of a piece of paper. As you make each circle, tell the child,
"Go around and stop." Then tell t h e child to make a circle like yours. If the child has dif-
ficulty, guide her hand several times in making a circle. Then, tell the child to do the ac-
tivity independently. Try making circles of different sizes. S e e if the child can make big
and small circles. She may enjoy making circles for you to turn into happy faces. If the
child has a lot of difficulty, try giving her a tracing outline (make a raised double circular
path using either a hot glue gun or Wikki Stix) for her to trace between.
364 FINE MOTOR
In a classroom or at home, try fingerpainting and e n c o u r a g e the child to make circles with
her finger. Draw circles in sand, using either a sand b o x or in a small amount of sand on
a cookie sheet.
CRITERION The child copies several circles with a writing utensil.
21 g. Copies a cross
PROCEDURES
Draw several crosses at the top of a piece of paper. As you make each cross, tell the child,
"Line down, line across." Then, tell him to make a cross like yours. If the child has diffi-
culty, guide his hand several times in making a cross. Then, tell the child to do the activ-
ity independently. S o m e children may need extra verbal cues at first (e.g., "Make a line
down, pick up your hand [crayon], now make a line across").
In a classroom, have the child and his classmates copy patterns in fingerpaint or sand.
CRITERION The child copies several crosses with a writing utensil.
21h. Draws a person with a head and at least one feature

MATERIALS Paper, pencil (or markers or crayons)
PROCEDURES
Tell the child to draw a picture of herself (or a face or a person). If the child does not pro-
duce anything recognizable, suggest that she draw a circle for a head. (The child should
be able to draw a circle before attempting this item.) Then, ask the child what else the
picture needs. Try having her look in a mirror (preferably full length). Encourage the child
to add something else to her picture (e.g., eyes, mouth, lines to represent legs). If the
child does not think of something to add, suggest that she add the eyes, mouth, or legs
to her picture because those are usually the first body parts to be added. On a different
occasion, ask her to draw a picture of herself, without providing any cues initially. If she
has little success, repeat the teaching procedure.
Have paper and a drawing utensil readily available on outings. Use waiting times as an
opportunity to practice drawing skills. Practice songs such as Head, Shoulders, Knees, and
Toes to help familiarize children with their body parts and their relationships to each other.
CRITERION On several occasions, the child draws a head and at least one other feature to rep-
resent a person.
1
21 i. Cuts on a straight line, staying within / inch of the line 2
MATERIALS 6-inch square pieces of paper, wide-tip marker, safety scissors, stiff paper
(e.g., index cards), play dough
PROCEDURES
Draw a line about %-inch wide across a piece of paper. Place the paper and scissors in front
of the child. Tell him to cut on the line. Encourage the child to look at the paper while he
is cutting and to stay on the line. Use stiff paper or index cards initially to make the activ-
ity easier. If the child is having a lot of difficulty staying on the line, try placing a piece of
tape on either side of the line to e n c o u r a g e the child to stay on the line. Roll out a piece
of play dough and draw a line in the dough for the child to cut on. The play dough will
be thinner where the line was drawn and will e n c o u r a g e him to stay on the line.
N o t e : Encourage the child to keep his t h u m b on top when cutting. To e n c o u r a g e
g o o d hand position when cutting, tape long strips of paper to the e d g e of the table. Have
the child sit on the floor and cut the paper from the bottom up to the table.
In the classroom, have the children cut paper into strips to make paper chains.
CRITERION On several occasions the child cuts on a straight line, staying within ]
A inch of the line.
21 j. Draws a person with a head and four features

PROCEDURES
Tell the child to draw a picture of herself. Suggest she stand in front of the mirror to see
what to draw (preferably a full-length mirror). If the child does not produce anything rec-
ognizable, return to Item 21 h.
Draw a simple drawing of a person on a separate piece of paper as an example to
help the child. On a different occasion, ask the child to draw a picture of herself, without
providing any cues initially. If she has little success, repeat the teaching procedure.
At h o m e or in the classroom, work on body puzzles to help e n h a n c e the child's visual

awareness of body parts and where they are in relationship to each other.
In a classroom, you can use a flannel board with cutouts of body parts. Have children
take turns adding a part. You can also tape a large piece of paper to the wall and have
366 FINE MOTOR
the child stand against it. Trace around the child. Then have t h e child fill in facial features
and color clothing on t h e large picture of herself.
CRITERION On several occasions, the child draws a head and at least four other features when
asked to draw a picture of herself.
21k. Cuts out a 4-mch square

MATERIALS Square pieces of paper ( 6 - 8 inches), wide-tip marker, safety scissors, play
dough
PROCEDURES
Draw a square a b o u t 4 inches wide on a piece of paper. Place the paper and scissors in front
of the child. Tell him to cut out the square. Encourage the child to look at the paper while
cutting and to stay on the line. Help the child use his other hand to rotate the paper as he
cuts. Encourage him to cut all of the way to the end of each line before turning the corner.
Try rolling out a piece of play dough and drawing a square in the dough for the child
to cut out. The play dough will be thinner where the square was drawn and will encour-
a g e him to stay on the line.
N o t e : Children who cut with their right hand should be encouraged to cut counter-
clockwise, while children who cut with their left hand should cut clockwise. Teach the child
to keep the scissors in o n e position and use his nondominant hand to manipulate the paper.
Draw squares around pictures on a magazine p a g e for the child to cut out and then glue
onto a poster or into a scrapbook. To make a literacy-related project, help the child find
and cut out pictures to make an ABC book.
CRITERION The child cuts out a 4-inch square on several different occasions.
211. Copies a square

PROCEDURES
Draw a square at the top of a piece of paper. Then, hold the child's hand and help her
make several large squares. There are several different approaches to making squares, and
you may need to experiment to see which approach works best for a particular child. After
doing squares together, tell the child to draw a square by herself. If the child is having
limited success, it may be helpful initially to draw part of the square, and tell the child to
c o m p l e t e it. For example, diaw three sides of the square and ask the child to draw the
fourth side. Then draw only two sides telling her to add the other two sides, it is easier
at first if you draw two vertical lines and the child adds the two horizontal lines.
In a classroom or at home, try fingerpainting and e n c o u r a g e the child to make squares

with her finger. Draw squares in sand, using either a sand b o x or a small amount of sand
on a cookie sheet.
CRITERION The child copies a square with a writing utensil on three different occasions.
21m. Draws simple representational pictures

MATERIALS Paper, crayons, markers, pencils
PROCEDURES
Tell the child to draw a picture. If he scribbles or makes little response, suggest something
that he might draw, particularly something you know that he is interested in. Often, it is
helpful to suggest and demonstrate easy-to-draw pictures (e.g., rainbow, car, house,
flower). Draw a very simple picture and tell the child to make o n e like yours. The goal of
your demonstration is not for the child to reproduce your picture exactly, but rather to
give him s o m e ideas on how to draw simple objects.
N o t e : When the child does draw spontaneous pictures, rather than saying "What is
it?" ask him to tell you a b o u t the picture. When giving praise or recognition for drawing,
it is better to be specific (e.g., "I like the way you used blue and green in the picture,"
"These squiggly lines look like they have a lot of energy") than to give a more vague com-
ment (e.g. "That's a g o o d picture").
Take drawing materials on outings and stop to have the child draw pictures of things he
sees along the way. Start a drawing and let the child finish it. For instance, draw the body
of a car and then let the child add the wheels, windows, and headlights. Take turns adding
new elements to a drawing.
In a classroom, have each child dictate a story about the picture he or she has drawn.
The children may be interested in turning several pictures into a book.
CRITERION The child draws several simple representational pictures.
21 n. Cuts out a 4-inch circle

MATERIALS Square pieces of paper ( 6 - 8 inches), wide-tip marker, safety scissors
PROCEDURES
Draw a circle a b o u t 4 inches wide on a piece of paper. Place the paper and scissors in
front of the child, and ask her to cut out the circle. Encourage the child to look at the
paper while cutting and to stay on the line. Help the child use her other hand to rotate
368 F I N E MOTOR
the paper as she cuts. Try rolling out a piece of play dough and drawing a circle in t h e
dough for the child to cut out. The play dough will be thinner where the circle was drawn
and will e n c o u r a g e her to stay on the line.
N o t e : Children who cut with their right hand should be e n c o u r a g e d to cut counter-
clockwise, while children who cut with their left hand should cut clockwise. Teach the child
to keep the scissors in o n e position and use her nondominant hand to manipulate the paper.
Draw circles around pictures on a magazine p a g e for the child to cut out and then glue
onto a poster or into a scrapbook. To make a literacy-related project, help t h e child find
and cut out pictures to make an ABC book.
CRITERION On several occasions the child cuts out a circle.
21o. Traces outline of simple stencil

MATERIALS Paper, stencils, markers or pencil
PROCEDURES
Secure two pieces of paper (one for you and o n e for the child) to the table with tape. Place
a stencil on top of your paper. Show the child how to trace around the stencil while sta-
bilizing it with the nondominant hand. Then, tell the child to trace the stencil on his
paper. Encourage the child to keep the point of his pencil against t h e e d g e of the stencil.
If the child is having difficulty, physically assist him to trace the stencil several times. Then,
tell the child to do the activity independently. If necessary, secure the stencil onto the
paper with tape.
Trace stencils appropriate to the season or holiday and use the drawings to decorate the
h o m e or classroom.
In a classroom, have the children make n a m e tags by tracing a simple shape and cut-
ting it out. Try tracing simple pictures using tracing paper.
CRITERION The child traces a simple stencil, maintaining his pencil in contact with the stencil
75 percent of the time.
21 p. Draws a person with a head and eight features

PROCEDURES
Tell the child to draw a picture of herself as in Item 2 l j . If she does not add eight features,
make suggestions for what she might add.
In a classroom, tell the children to draw pictures of their families or friends. Try making
p e o p l e out of play dough.
CRITERION On several occasions the child draws a head and eight other features when asked
to draw a picture of herself.
21q. Cuts out pictures following general shape

MATERIALS Variety of simple pictures, wide-tip marker, safety scissors
PROCEDURES
Place a picture and scissors in front of the child. Tell him to cut out the picture. It may be
helpful for you or the child to trace around the outline of the picture with a marker before
cutting it out. Encourage the child to stay on the line and not cut into the picture. Select
easy pictures initially with gentle curves and no significant angles to maneuver. Increase
the complexity as the child's c o m p e t e n c e grows.
Make collages or posters by cutting favorite pictures out of magazines.

In a classroom, make a scrapbook for the year, each week cutting out pictures that
are relevant to current interests, or make an alphabet scrapbook with a p a g e for each let-
ter. Help the child find pictures to cut out that start with each letter.
CRITERION The child cuts out a picture following its general shape on several occasions.
1
I
22-1
Upright: Posture
£r Locomotion
T he ultimate goal of motor programming is for children to function effi-

ciently in the upright positions—sitting, standing, and walking. These abil-
ities are based on the strength gained in the prone (on stomach) and supine
(on back) positions. For overall program planning, however, it is important to dis-
tinguish between the use of upright positioning for motor development and the use-
fulness of this position to promote cognitive and social development (although
these purposes often overlap).
Sitting, for example, is a motor skill that involves strength and balance. T h e
motor activities performed in prone and supine positions strengthen the muscles,
while those performed in the sitting position are used to increase balance and con-
trol. Sitting is also, however, an important position for promoting cognitive and so-
cial development. Sitting provides children with a wider view of the world around
them, different experiences with object manipulation, and greater opportunity for
social interaction. Sitting will only serve these functions, though, if the head can
move freely and the hands are free for play and not used for support. A child who
must use his or her hands for support should be placed in the appropriate support-
ive seating devices for cognitive and social activities.
Once children have mastered the basic gross motor skills of rising to a standing
position, walking, and maneuvering stairs, they elaborate these skills into a variety
of running, jumping, and climbing skills, as well as learn the basics of ball handling.
Preschoolers engage in these activities enthusiastically, and it is important to pro-
vide safe areas and plenty of time outdoors. These vigorous activities build muscle
strength, agility, and cardiovascular stamina. Furthermore, active gross motor play
is one of the ways children form social relationships. For children with special
needs, these skills should be developed to the greatest degree possible.
371
372 GROSS MOTOR
ADAPTATIONS

Children with motor impairments will often prefer to cuddle into an adult's shoul-
der rather than lift their heads. For such children, it is particularly important to em-
phasize independent head control and utilize special positioning for activities re-
quiring visual attention or arm use.
Extra time and physical assistance may be necessary to promote sitting. A child
with severe motor impairments may never achieve independence in assuming a sit-
ting position; however, the child should still be given the opportunity to control
whatever parts of the transitional movement he or she can.
A child with motor impairments who wants to sit but lacks adequate postural
control will usually use various strategies to remain stable. Some children will sit
with their heels next to their hips (i.e., W-sit). If a child has stiff muscles, you should
discourage this position by praising the child for sitting with his or her feet to the
front and by providing a supported seating alternative. If W-sitting is used frequently
by a child with stiff muscles, make sure that the child is being checked regularly by
an orthopedist because that position can promote hip dislocation as well as knee
and ankle problems. For children with weak, floppy muscles, W-sitting is not a great
orthopedic concern but usually indicates a need for specific strengthening.
A child who sits with his or her back rounded, head tipped back, and legs stiffly
extended should have his or her posture corrected. Some children will need spe-
cially manufactured seating devices that should be selected by a therapist. Other
children can achieve good sitting posture by using straight-back chairs with a non-
slip shelf liner on the seat.
Be sure to assist children with motor impairments to stand as straight as pos-
sible, with both feet flat on the floor and their ankles in a normal position. Chil-
dren with severe motor impairments may never achieve independent standing, so
you should provide them with alternatives (e.g., a prone stander). Consult a physi-
cal therapist for advice.
T h e nature of a child's motor impairment will determine whether independent
walking is possible. Consult a physical therapist about each child's potential and
the adaptive aids that may assist the child to walk. Many children who use -wheel-
chairs for general transportation can function without them in the classroom if thev
arc given physical assistance to move about. This ability is important for general
health and bos an impact on the way these children view themselves and are
viewed by others. Make sure that children with motor impairments have a safe
means of falling before working on balance activities. The most important consid-
UPRIGHT: POSTURE & LOCOMOTION 373
eration is to be sure that a child will not hit his or her head on the floor if he or she
were to fall.
Children with very severe impairments who cannot walk with assistance
should have their position changed as least once an hour. T h i s will help to prevent
contractures and provide changes in the visual environment.
Stair climbing is an important motor skill both for functional reasons and for
strengthening of leg muscles. Whenever possible, assist a child with motor impair-
ments in climbing stairs rather than carrying him or her. Balance beam activities
may be difficult for children with motor impairments if they do not have equal con-
trol of both legs. Provide physical assistance on the weaker side so that the child
can complete the activity.
When working with children with visual impairments, it is important to pay par-
ticular attention to the position of the upper trunk. Try to prevent a child with vi-
sual impairments from letting his or her head and shoulders slope forward. Most
children with visual impairments have some degree of usable vision that you can
use to encourage head lifting. You can pair auditory stimuli with brightly colored,
shiny, or high-contrast visual stimuli, or you can use toys that make a continuous
sound, and physically guide the child through the movement.
When you work with a child on reaching, move the toys only a few inches at a
time, and make sure that the child actually obtains the toy each time.
For children with visual impairments who are mobile, keep the arrangement of
the room and toys in their same predictable location. Walking alone is often delayed
in children with visual impairments, so working on this activity will probably re-
quire more perseverance on your part. Practice repeatedly in a familiar, predictable
play space. Consider using a playpen or corner of a room. Try standing a child with
visual impairments on your feet and walking together to convey the idea. As soon
as the child is able, start teaching the child to feel walls and furniture to find his or
her way around. For children with sufficient functional vision, use bright or fluo-
rescent floor markings. For children who have little or no vision, work on pushing
a cart along a clear quiet hallway toward a meaningful auditory goal.

Children with hearing impairments sometimes have problems standing and walk-
ing. This is because the structures that control hearing and balance are located in
the same part of the brain. Children with hearing impairments may require more
practice but will eventually attain standing and walking.
1
22-1. UPRIGHT: POSTURE & LOCOMOTION
a. Walks backward 10 feet

t
b. Walks on all types of surfaces without falling
c. Uses h e e l - t o e pattern (arms free to carry objects)
d. Takes three to four steps on tiptoes i
e. Runs at least 10 feet without falling
f. J u m p s down from 8-inch height (one foot leading)
g. Walks up three stairs, alternate pattern, with rail '"'
h. Walks at least 20 feet on tiptoes
i. Avoids obstacles when running
j. Walks up three stairs, alternate pattern, without rail
k. Walks down three stairs, same-step foot placement, without rail
I. J u m p s over 2-inch hurdle
m. J u m p s down from 16-inch to 18-inch height (one foot leading) f
n. Broad j u m p s 4 inches to 14 inches
o. Walks 10 feet on tiptoes on 1-inch line
p. Gallops five cycles
q. Runs with s o m e periods of flight (both feet off of the ground)
r. Hops o n c e in place
s. Walks up 10 stairs, same-step pattern, without rail
t. Walks down 10 stairs, same-step pattern, without rail
u. J u m p s over 8-inch hurdle
v. J u m p s down from 18-inch to 24-inch height (feet together on takeoff and landing)
w. Broad j u m p s 14 inches to 24 inches
x. Skips five cycles, pausing between skips fH
y. Hops two to three times on preferred foot
z. J u m p s down from 24-inch to 30-inch height (feet together on takeoff and landing)
aa. Walks down three stairs, alternate pattern, with rail
bb. J u m p s over several 8-inch obstacles in succession
cc. Broad j u m p s 24 inches to 36 inches
dd. Walks down 10 stairs, alternate pattern, with rail
ee. Hops five times on preferred foot, three times on nonpreferred foot
ff. Skips 5 - 1 0 cycles, coordinated s t e p - h o p
gg. Runs at least 50 feet in 10 seconds
hh. J u m p s 3 inches beyond arms' reach
374
ii. J u m p s down from 32-inch height (may land on o n e foot)
jj. Broad j u m p s a t least 3 6 inches
kk. Skips at least 15 cycles with rhythmic weight transfer (landing on toes)
II. Runs, changing direction 1 8 0 d e g r e e s within four to eight steps
mm. Hops forward 16 inches on preferred foot, 12 inches on nonpreferred foot
nn. Walks down 10 stairs, alternate pattern, without rail
oo. J u m p s on floor, completing 1 8 0 - d e g r e e turn in o n e j u m p
22-la. Walks backward 10 feet

MATERIALS Pull toys, large empty boxes, small carts or wagons with wide handles, a
smooth surface to walk on
PROCEDURES
Encourage the child to take backward steps by pulling a wheeled toy backward, giving a
ride to a friend in a small wagon or cart, or pulling a cardboard b o x backward. You can
also play, "I'm g o i n g to get you," while facing the child, or you can simply move him
backward gently with your hands.
All of these activities can be d o n e easily in small groups, either indoors or out. They can
be structured into simple routines that help the children learn to move to music, listen to
instruction, and stay in a group.
CRITERION The child walks backward 10 feet without pausing or falling. He can do this sev-
eral times a day on 3 consecutive days.
22-lb. Walks on all types of surfaces without falling

MATERIALS A variety of surfaces to walk on (e.g., sidewalk, grass, slopes, gravel)
PROCEDURES
Gradually introduce the child to the outdoor surfaces in her environment.
Start by offering hand support and moving slowly, then gradually withdraw support and
e n c o u r a g e faster movement.
CRITERION The child routinely navigates all surfaces in her environment without failing.
376 GROSS MOTOR
22-lc. Uses heel-toe pattern (arms free to carry objects)

MATERIALS Balls or other toys large enough to require two hands to hold
PROCEDURES
As the child practices various mobility skills, a heel-toe walking pattern should emerge.
At this point, the child will have sufficient stability to carry objects when walking.
Encourage the child to help with cleanup and carry objects from place to place.
CRITERION The child routinely walks with a heel-foe pattern while carrying objects, without
losing balance.
22-ld. Takes three to four steps on tiptoes

MATERIALS Any toys or materials that will encourage reaching high, open space
PROCEDURES
Encourage the child to rise onto his tiptoes while holding onto a support to reach objects
on shelves. This can be made a part of a routine by selectively placing favorite toys just
out of reach. Then, encourage tiptoe stepping away from a solid support. At first, offer
one of your hands for support.
You can also ask the child to imitate you as you walk on tiptoes, or you can suspend the
child lightly so that only his toes touch the floor.
CRITERION The child takes three to four consecutive steps on tiptoes, and he can do this sev-
eral times a day on 3 consecutive days.
22-le. Runs at least 10 feet without falling

MATERIALS Open space
PROCEDURES
Once the child has developed basic running skills, encourage her to use them outdoors
by running on a playground. Initially, coach the child to look ahead and watch for ob-
stacles. With practice, the child will learn to modulate speed and direction to avoid run-
ning into equipment.

As the child becomes more skilled in running safely, she can participate in group games
that incorporate speed and change of direction. Running can be incorporated easily into
obstacle course games.
CRITERION The child routinely runs 10-20 feet on a smooth surface without falling.
22-lf. Jumps down from 8-inch height (one foot leading)

MATERIALS Large stable objects of varying heights up to 8 inches (boxes, stairs)
PROCEDURES
For children who are having difficulty learning to jump, you can have them start by stand-
ing in front of you while you are sitting and placing their hands on your knees as they
practice the leg movements of jumping. Small trampolines are also useful to help the
child jump.
For all jumping items, the child must only land on his feet without touching his hands
to the floor.
Teach jumping down by starting with low objects. Determine the highest object from
which the child can jump. Place a mat on the floor. Hold the child's hand at first, then
gradually move off to the side. First attempts will be little more than stepping down, with
no real flight. As skill and confidence increase, the child will start jumping with one foot
leading, frequently touching the floor at landing. With practice, a two-foot take-off and
landing will emerge, and the child will be able to jump from greater heights.
jumping activities are easily incorporated into imaginative play or active music games.
You can have the children jump on carpet squares or pretend to be animals that jump.
You can incorporate jumping down into obstacle courses with objects of varying
heights.
CRITERION The child jumps from an 8-inch height (leading with one foot) and stays on feet
when landing, 3 days in a row.
22-Ig. Walks up three stairs, alternate pattern, with rail

MATERIALS Set of standard stairs with a railing, curbs or boxes to step up and down on
PROCEDURES
To teach going up stairs, position yourself close to the child at first. Start the climb by hav-
ing the child face the railing, holding on with both hands. As the child gains confidence,
378 GROSS MOTOR
she will let go of the railing with o n e hand and face forward, up the steps. If the child has
o n e leg that is stronger than t h e other, the stronger leg should be placed on the first step
when g o i n g up the stairs. From time to time, assist the child in reversing this pattern. If
the child's motor impairment prevents her from walking up stairs, consult a physical ther-
apist for an alternate strategy. If t h e child is fearful, start by using the top step only, then
gradually add steps.
To teach t h e alternating pattern, begin with only 2 - 3 steps. You can use demonstra-
tion, physical assistance, or verbal instruction. If the child is not using a rail, avoid hold-
ing her hand; a snug grip on her shirt will give her a sense of security, and you can loosen
your hold as appropriate. It is often helpful to use a nonsense refrain such as "pizza, m a c
and c h e e s e " to remind the child to take a big step up. You can also place different col-
ored ribbons or socks on the child, and place paper footprints in those colors on alternate
stairs. Experiment with different heights and depths of stairs. N o t e : leg length is a factor
in learning alternating stair patterns; children who are short for their a g e may have to use
a same-step pattern on most stairs but can learn alternate pattern in lower stairs.
Practice this activity in both indoor and outdoor naturally occurring situations. Let t h e
child step up onto curbs and other low surfaces.
CRITERION The child walks up at least three stairs, using an alternate pattern and holding the
rail, 3 days in a row.
22-Ih. Walks at least 20 feet on tiptoes

PROCEDURES
Once the child can take several steps on tiptoes, e n g a g e him in g a m e s that e n c o u r a g e tip-
toeing for longer distances.
Tiptoe walking can be integrated into group music time or pretend play.
CRITERION The child takes consecutive steps on his tiptoes for 20 feet or more. The child dem-
onstrates this activity several times a day on 3 consecutive days.
22-11, Avoids obstacles when running

MATERIALS Open space with obstacles
UPRIGHT; POSTURE & LOCOMOTION 379
S e e instructions for Item 2 2 - l e but provide space where obstacles (e.g., play equipment)
are present.
CRITERION The child routinely runs in an open space with piay equipment without running
into the equipment.
22-lj. Walks up three stairs, alternate pattern, without rail
22-lk. Walks down three stairs,

same-step foot placement, without rail
MATERIALS Set of standard stairs with a railing, curbs or boxes to step up and down on
PROCEDURES
To teach going up stairs without using a rail, stand behind the child (away from the rail if
the stairs have one) and offer light support at the hips. Gradually withdraw support as the
child gains confidence. If the child tends to lean back, try standing in front of her. Look
for stairs of varying heights on which the child can practice. If she is having difficulty with
balance, use lower and fewer stairs at first. You can also place books on the floor onto
which t h e child can step up. Practice this activity in both indoor and outdoor naturally oc-
curring situations. Let the child step up onto curbs and other low surfaces. Refer to Item
2 2 - l g for teaching an alternate pattern.
To teach going down stairs without using a rail, use a similar strategy. Position the
child on the stairs and give her light support by holding her hand or the back of her shirt.
Gradually withdraw support as the child gains confidence. If the child is fearful, start with
just the bottom stair, then gradually add stairs. Practice this activity the same way you
would practice going up the stairs.
Practice this activity in both indoor and outdoor naturally occurring situations.
CRITERION 22-lj The child walks up at least three stairs (alternate foot placement) without
using a rail. She spontaneously does this activity on 3 consecutive days.
CRITERION 22-lk The child walks down at least three stairs (same-step foot placement) with-
out using a rail. She spontaneously does this activity on 3 consecutive days.
22-11. jumps over 2-inch hurdle

MATERIALS Planks, ropes, or other low obstacles
380 GROSS MOTOR
PROCEDURES
Jumping over hurdles can be initiated by jumping over a line on the floor, progressing to
jumping over a rope, then over gradually higher objects.

Create an obstacle course for the child that includes items to jump over. Play Follow the
Leader through the course.
CRITERION The child jumps over a 2-inch hurdle without falling (taking off and landing on two
feet). The child can do this 3 days in a row.
224m, Jumps down from 16-inch

to 18-inch height (one foot leading)
MATERIALS Low benches or other stable surfaces that are 16-18 inches high
See instructions for Item 22-If.
CRITERION The child jumps down from a height of 1 6 - 1 8 inches, leading the jump with one
foot, 3 days in a row.
22-ln. Broad jumps 4 inches to 14 inches

MATERIALS Patterns or lines on the floor
PROCEDURES
To teach broad jumping, observe the child's attempts and determine how far he can jump.
Initial attempts will be short jumps with a one-foot takeoff. The trunk will be upright, and
there will be slight upward arm movement. Later, the arms will be held in front of the
body and will be used to initiate the jump. A preparatory crouch will be evident, but will
not be deep, and the legs will be flexed during flight. Early instruction should focus on
getting the child to take off with both feet together. The child may be better able to get
this idea if you have him jump down a short distance with feet together then repeat the
broad jump. To measure the jump, place your finger at the child's heel before he jumps,
then measure the distance to his heel after the jump.

Create games that include a variety of motor activities and a broad jump (e.g., Follow the
Leader, Simon Says).
CRITERION The child broad jumps 4-14 inches 3 days in a row.
22-1©. Walks 10 feet on tiptoes on 1-inch line

MATERIALS Patterns or lines on the floor
PROCEDURES
Once the child is adept at walking on his tiptoes, gradually narrow his base of support by
asking him to tiptoe on patterns on the floor. Start with patterns about 4 inches wide, and
gradually narrow them to 1 inch. Avoid holding the child's hand during this activity.
Incorporate this skill into movement g a m e s . You can also take advantage of naturally oc-
curring situations and show the child how to tiptoe on cracks in the sidewalk or lines on
the rug.
CRITERION The child tiptoes for 10 feet on a 1-inch wide line while maintaining balance. The
child can do this 3 days in a row.
22-lp. Gallops five cycles

PROCEDURES
Teach galloping by having the child move forward leading with her dominant foot. Use
rhythmic music or clapping to help her organize the movement. Gradually speed up the
movement until the child can use a springy gallop.
Incorporate galloping into movement g a m e s (e.g., show the child how to "run like a horse").
CRITERION The child gallops at least five cycles, leading with her dominant foot. She can do
this 3 days in a row.
22-lq. Runs with some periods

of flight (both feet off of the ground)
S e e instructions for Item 22-le.
CRITERION Child runs at least 10 feet with some periods of flight (both feet off of the ground),
without pausing. He can do this 3 days in a row.
382 GROSS MOTOR
22-lr. Hops once In place

PROCEDURES
To teach hopping, use the technique of having the child hold on to your knees as you sit
in front of her. Using a trampoline is also helpful for learning to hop. As soon as the child
can hop o n c e on o n e leg, work to increase the n u m b e r of hops. Then, move to hopping
forward by showing her how to hop over a string or lines on the floor. Gradually increase
the child's hopping distance.
Incorporate hopping into m o v e m e n t g a m e s . Hopping can be a difficult skill to master, so

offer many opportunities for practice.
CRITERION Child hops once in place on her dominant leg. The child can do this 3 days in a row.
22-ls. Walks up 10 stairs, same-step pattern, without rail

22-lt. Walks down 10 stairs, same-step pattern, without rail
MATERIALS Set of standard stairs without a railing, curbs or boxes to step up and down on
To teach going up stairs, position yourself close to the child at first. Start the climb by hav-
ing the child face the railing, holding on with both hands. As the child gains confidence,
he will let go of the railing with o n e hand and face forward, up the steps. If the child has
o n e leg that is stronger than the other, the stronger leg should be placed on the first step
when going up the stairs. From time to time, assist the child in reversing this pattern. If
the child's motor impairment prevents him from walking up stairs, consult a physical ther-
apist for an alternate strategy. If the child is fearful, start by using the top step only, then
gradually add steps. Use the same strategy when teaching going down stairs. The stronger
leg will remain on the upper step, so attempt to reverse this pattern from time to time.
To teach going down stairs, position yourself close to the child at first, giving physi-
cal assistance as necessary. Start by having the child face the railing, holding on with both
hands. As the child gains confidence, he will let go of the railing with o n e hand and face
forward. If t h e child has o n e leg that is stronger than the other, the stronger leg should
stay on the top stair when going down the stairs. From time to time assist the child in re-
versing this pattern. If t h e child is fearful, start by using the bottom stair only, then add
stairs. If the child's motor impairment prevents him from walking up stairs, consult a phys-
ical therapist for an alternate strategy.
CRITERION 22-ls The child walks up 10 stairs, same-step placement, without rail, 3 days in a row,
CRITERION 22-lt The child walks down 10 stairs, same-step placement, without rail, 3 days in a row.
22-lu. Jumps over 8-inch hurdle

MATERIALS A variety of hurdles up to 8 inches high

CRITERION The child jumps over an 8-inch hurdle, landing on both feet and pausing only
briefly between jumps. She can do this 3 days in a row.
22-lv. Jumps down from 18-inch to

24-inch height (feet together on takeoff and landing)
MATERIALS Low benches or other stable surfaces that are 18 inches to 24 inches high
CRITERION The child jumps down from 18 inches to 24 inches height with feet together on
takeoff and landing. He can do this 3 days in a row.
22-lw. Broad jumps 14 inches to 24 inches

MATERIALS Open space, ruler
See instructions for Item 22-In.
CRITERION Child broad jumps 1 4 - 2 4 inches, taking off and landing on two feet, 3 days in a row.
22-Ix. Skips five cycles, pausing between skips

384 GROSS MOTOR
PROCEDURES
To teach skipping, first show the child how to hop forward on o n e foot then hop in place
on that foot. Start with the dominant foot and then add the nondominant foot. Gradually
speed up the m o v e m e n t until it is fast and springy. Visual models and/or music are help-
ful in teaching skipping.
Incorporate skipping into movement g a m e s . Encourage the child to practice skipping at

various times, both indoors and outdoors.
CRITERION The child skips five cycles, pausing between skips, 3 days in a row.
22-ly. Hops two to three times on preferred foot

See instructions for Item 22-lr.
CRITERION The child hops two to three times on preferred foot without pausing between
hops, 3 days in a row.
22-Iz. Jumps down from 24-inch to

30-inch height (feet together on takeoff and landing)
MATERIALS Stable object 30 inches in height
S e e instructions for Item 22-If.
CRITERION Child jumps down from 24- to 30-inch height, keeping her feet together on take-
off and landing, 3 days in a row.
22-laa. Walks down three stairs, alternate pattern, with rail

MATERIALS A set of standard stairs with a railing, curbs or boxes to step up and down on
S e e instructions for Items 2 2 - l j and 22-lk.

CRITERION The child walks down three stairs, using alternate pattern, and holding the rail, 3
days in a row.
22-lbb. Jumps over several 8-Inch obstacles in succession

MATERIALS Set of 8-inch-high obstacles
See instructions for Item 22-11,
CRITERION Child jumps over three to four 8-inch obstacles placed 10 inches apart, without
pausing between j u m p s , 3 days in a row.
22-lcc. Broad jumps 24 inches to 36 inches

See instructions for Item 22-ln.
CRITERION The child broad jumps 2 4 - 3 5 inches, taking off and landing on both feet, 3 days
in a row.
22-ldd. Walks down 10 stairs, alternate pattern, with rail

MATERIALS A set of standard stairs with a railing, curbs or boxes to step up and down on
See instructions for Item 22-lg.
CRITERION Child walks down 10 stairs, using alternate pattern, and holding the rail, 3 days in
a row.
22-lee. Hops five times on

preferred foot, three times on nonpreferred foot
386 GROSS MOTOR
CRITERION The child hops five times on his preferred foot and 3 times on his nonpreferred
foot, maintaining balance, not pausing between hops, 3 days in a row.
22-lff. Skips 5-10 cycles, coordinated step-hop

See instructions for Item 2 2 - l x .
CRITERION The child skips 5 - 1 0 cycles, using a coordinated step-hop pattern, 3 days in a row.
22-Igg. Runs at least 50 feet In 10 seconds

See instructions for Item 2 2 - l i .
CRITERION The child runs forward at least 50 inches in 10 seconds without pausing, 3 days in
a row.
22-Ihh. Jumps 3 Inches beyond arms' reach

MATERIALS Wall, ruler
Measure the child's height facing a wall with arms extended overhead. Start the mea-
surement of the j u m p from the tip of the child's index finger. Make a g a m e of hitting a
sticker or other mark on the wall. Make sure the child is standing still before j u m p i n g up.
CRITERION The child jumps straight up 3 inches beyond arm s reach, 3 days in a row.
22-Iii. Jumps down from

3 2-inch height (may land on one foot)
MATERIALS Stable o b j e c t that is 32 inches high
CRITERION The child jumps down from 32-inch height, possibly landing on one foot rather
than two, 3 days in a row.
22-ljj. Broad jumps at least 36 inches

S e e instructions for Item 2 2 - ! n .
CRITERION Child broad jumps at least 3 6 inches, taking off and landing on two feet, 3 days
in a row.
22-lkk. Skips at least 1 5 cycles with

rhythmic weight transfer (landing on toes)
S e e instructions for Item 2 2 - l x .
CRITERION The child skips at least 15 cycles with rhythmic weight transfer, landing on toes,
without pausing between cycles, 3 days in a row.
22-111. Runs, changing direction

180 degrees within four to eight steps
See instructions for Item 2 2 - l e .

388 GROSS MOTOR
CRITERION Child runs JO feet or more, then runs in the opposite direction, taking no more
than 8 steps to change direction, 3 days in a row.
22-Imm. Hops forward 16 inches on

preferred foot. 12 inches on nonpreferred foot
CRITERION The child hops forward 16 inches on preferred foot, 12 inches on nonpreferred
foot, 3 days in a row. The hop starts and stops from a stable one-leg stance.
22-lnn. Walks down 10 stairs, alternate pattern, without rail

MATERIALS Set of standard stairs with rail
See instructions for Item 2 2 - l k .
CRITERION The child walks down 10 stairs, alternate pattern, without using the rail, 3 days in
a row.
22-loo. Jumps on floor,

completing 180-degree turn in one jump
Stand near the child and demonstrate completing a 1 8 0 - d e g r e e turn in o n e j u m p . Then,

ask the child to copy you. You can coach the child to land on a particular spot on a car-
pet or land so that she can see out of the window.
CRITERION The child completes a 180-degree turn in one jump, taking off and landing on two
feet, 3 days in a row.
M0T0R
22-11
Upright: Balance
B alance consists of the ability to stabilize the body over a base of support,
whether r e m a i n i n g s t i l l or m o v i n g . M a n y factors contribute to balance, and
impairments i n strength, coordination, v i s i o n , vestibular function, or skele-
tal alignment c a n result in poor balance. O c c u p a t i o n a l and p h y s i c a l therapists are
trained to analyze balance problems and c a n provide consultation if a child's bal-
ance is not i m p r o v i n g .
ADAPTATIONS

C h i l d r e n w i t h m o t o r i m p a i r m e n t s t y p i c a l l y take a long t i m e to develop balance
skills because of w e a k m u s c u l a t u r e in the t r u n k and legs. Y o u c a n help t h e m de-
velop the capabilities of unilateral stance and w a l k i n g on a n a r r o w base by holding
t h e m i n position, t h e n asking t h e m t o t e l l y o u w h e n t o let go. T h i s gives t h e m the
opportunity to focus on w h a t they need to do and prepare t h e m s e l v e s . A p h y s i c a l
therapist c a n give y o u specific suggestions for a particular c h i l d . Before teaching
somersaults to a c h i l d w i t h D o w n syndrome, h a v e the parents obtain an X - r a y of the
neck because some of these children h a v e a bony abnormality in the neck that could
cause damage w i t h extreme n e c k m o v e m e n t s .

C h i l d r e n w i t h usable v i s i o n should be trained to use it to help w i t h balance. C o a c h
t h e m to focus on a brightly l i t spot in the e n v i r o n m e n t as they practice standing on
one leg or w a l k i n g on a balance b e a m . T r a i n t h e m also to feel the support surface
w i t h their feet. U s e bright colors to guide t h e m on a balance b e a m . To practice k i c k -
ing, use brightly colored bails and/or balls that e m i t sound.
389
390 GROSS MOTOR

While children with hearing impairments do well with basic mobility skills, they
often have difficulty with more advanced balance skills, such as standing on one leg
and using a balance beam. T h i s is because similar areas of the brain control hearing
and some of the balancing mechanisms. You can teach children with hearing im-
pairments to compensate by feeling the support surface with their feet and using a
visual target. If problems continue, consult a physical or occupational therapist for
guidance.
22-11. UPRIGHT; BALANCE
a. Stands sideways with both feet on balance b e a m with stable posture
b. Walks 5 feet on balance b e a m with o n e foot on t h e balance b e a m and the other on

the floor
c. Walks along 10-foot line, following the general direction of the line
d. Stands with stable posture on o n e leg with hands on hips and opposite knee bent
( 1 - 2 seconds)
e. Walks three steps on balance b e a m and maintains b a l a n c e
f. Walks along 10-foot line, keeping feet on the line and maintaining balance
g. Balances with stable posture on preferred leg with hands on hips and opposite knee
bent (5 seconds)
h. Stands on tiptoes with hands overhead for 2 seconds, maintaining stable posture
i. Stands on either leg, maintaining stable posture with hands on hips and opposite
j. Takes three t o five steps o n balance b e a m , maintaining balance
k. Stands on tiptoes with hands overhead for 8 seconds, maintaining stable posture
I. Does o n e somersault, keeping body moving forward
m. Walks full length of balance b e a m , maintaining balance
n. Stands on either leg, maintaining stable posture with hands on hips and opposite
knee bent ( 1 0 seconds)
o. Does two somersaults in a row, maintaining forward progression
p. Walks full length of balance b e a m with hands on hips, maintaining balance
22-IIa. Stands sideways with both

feet on balance beam with stable posture
MATERIALS A balance b e a m that is 4 inches wide, 8 feet long, and 4 inches high
PROCEDURES
Help the child step up to a balance b e a m , standing sideways and facing you. Hold her
hands at first, and then gradually withdraw your support.
Offer various opportunities to stand on small surfaces. Play areas at h o m e and school gen-
erally have ledges, stepping stones, or similar objects.
CRITERION The child stands sideways with both feet on a balance beam for at least 5 seconds
for 3 days in a row.
391
392 GROSS MOTOR
22-llb. Walks 5 feet on balance beam with

one foot on the balance beam and the other on the floor
MATERIALS A b a l a n c e b e a m that is 4 inches wide, 8 feet long, and 4 inches high; books
PROCEDURES
Introduce balance b e a m activities by having the child walk with o n e foot on the balance
b e a m and o n e foot on the floor. Let the child try the activity and, if necessary, give him
physical assistance. If the child is having difficulty balancing, remove the supporting
blocks that are under the b e a m , and place the b e a m on the floor.
You can also place books of various thicknesses on the floor to practice this skill. The child
should practice this activity with his right leg on the b e a m , as well as his left leg. Use en-
vironmental structures such as curbs or other low surfaces to practice this skill throughout
the day.
CRITERION The child walks 5 feet on the balance beam with one foot on the balance beam
and the other on the floor, 3 days in a row.
22-lk. Walks along 10-foot line,

following the general direction of the line
MATERIALS Boards, a line on the floor that is 10 feet long and 1 inch wide, footprints
or designs on the floor
PROCEDURES
When teaching a child to use a narrow base of support, start by demonstrating walking
along a straight path, either on floor markings (e.g., designs on the floor) or between two
boards that are placed on the floor. If the child is having problems balancing, start with
boards that are placed 1 2 - 1 4 inches apart, and move them closer together as she gains
control.
You can incorporate narrow base activities into g a m e s of walking on footprints or using
imagery to go over a bridge, walk on a tightrope, or perform similar activities.
CRITERION The child walks along a 10-foot line, following the general direction of the line. The
child demonstrates this ability 3 days in a row.
UPRIGHT; BALANCE 393
22-IId. Stands with stable posture on one leg

with hands on hips and opposite knee bent ( 1 - 2 seconds)
PROCEDURES
Because static b a l a n c e activities are not intrinsically fun, children will not generally prac-
tice them spontaneously as they will with many other gross motor activities. Balance ac-
tivities are best practiced by taking advantage of naturally occurring activities or by em-
bedding them in g a m e s .
Start working on one-leg activities by teaching the child to shift weight from side to
side. Progress to stepping over obstacles, marching, or incorporating leg lifting into mu-
sical games, such as The Ho key Pokey.
Gradually increase the a m o u n t of time the child can stay on o n e leg while using his
arms for balance. Later, ask the child to keep his arms across his chest as he stands on one
foot. Singing or counting while standing on o n e foot will help the child concentrate. Ex-
pect to find a difference between right and left legs, especially at first.
During dressing and undressing, have the child lift a foot to put on pants, pajamas, shoes,
and socks. As balance improves, incorporate this activity into movement g a m e s .
CRITERION Child stands with stable posture on one leg for I - 2 seconds with hands on hips
and opposite knee bent. The child does this 3 days in a row.
22-lle. Walks three steps

on balance beam and maintains balance
PROCEDURES
Begin by holding the child at the shoulders. Gradually decrease your support until you are
holding the back of her shirt. Finally, release support. Offer e n c o u r a g e m e n t but don't give
too many verbal instructions; instead, let the child practice walking on the balance b e a m
until she discovers the correct strategy. You can begin with wider b a l a n c e b e a m s and
gradually decrease the width.
Explore the child's home, school, and playground environments for opportunities to prac-
tice this skill. Walking on elevated surfaces can be easily incorporated into g a m e s .
CRITERION The child walks three steps on a balance beam and maintains her balance, 3 days
in a row.
394 GROSS MOTOR
22-Hf. Walks along 10-foot line,

keeping feet on the line and maintaining balance
MATERIALS Boards, lines on the floor, footprints or designs on the floor
PROCEDURES/CLASSROOM & FUNCTIONAL ACTIVITIES:
See instructions for item 224Ic,
CRITERION The child walks on a 10-foot line, keeping feet on the line and maintaining bal-
ance. The child demonstrates this ability 3 days in a row.
22-llg. Balances with stable posture on preferred leg

with hands on hips and opposite knee bent (5 seconds)
See instructions for Item 224Id.
CRITERION The child balances with stable posture on preferred leg with hands on hips and
opposite knee bent for 5 seconds. The child can do this 3 days in a row.
22-Ilh. Stands on tiptoes with hands

overhead for 2 seconds, maintaining stable posture
PROCEDURES
Ask the child to raise his arms overhead and then rise onto his tiptoes.
CLASSROOM & FUNCTIONAL. ACTIVITIES
Suggest that the child pretend to be a tree or a statue. Count out loud as he maintains the
position.
CRITERION The child stands on tiptoes with his hands overhead for 2 seconds, maintaining sta-
ble posture. He can do this 3 days in a row.
UPRIGHT: BALANCE 395
22-11L Stands on either leg, maintaining stable posture

See instructions for item 22-1 le.
CRITERION The child stands on either leg maintaining stable posture with hands on hips and
opposite knee bent for 8 seconds. She can do this 3 days in a row.
22-11]. Takes three to five steps

on balance beam, maintaining balance
See instructions for Item 22-lle.
CRITERION The child takes three to five steps on balance beam, maintaining balance. He can
do this 3 days in a row.
22-llk. Stands on tiptoes with hands

overhead for 8 seconds, maintaining stable posture
See instructions for Item 2 2 - l l h .
CRITERION The child stands on her tiptoes with hands overhead for 8 seconds, maintaining
stable posture. She can do this 3 days in a row.
396 GROSS MOTOR
22-111. Does one somersault, keeping body mowing forward

PROCEDURES
Guide the child through the m o v e m e n t of the somersault, making sure that he pushes
with his hands and tucks his neck. Once he has mastered o n e somersault, teach him to
move directly into a sit-up to prepare for another somersault. S o m e children benefit from
practicing the m o v e m e n t over a suspended bolster.
Incorporate somersaults into m o v e m e n t g a m e s .
CRITERION The child does one somersault, keeping body moving forward. He can do this 3
days in a row.
22-llm. Walks full length

of balance beam, maintaining balance
MATERIALS A b a l a n c e b e a m that is 4 inches wide, 8 feet long, and 4 inches high
S e e instructions for Item 22-1 le.
CRITERION The child walks full length of balance beam, maintaining balance. She can do this
3 days in a row.
22-lln. Stands on either leg, maintaining stable posture

S e e instructions for Item 2 2 - l l d .
CRITERION The child stands on either leg maintaining posture with his hands on hips and op-
posite knee bent for 10 seconds. He can do this 3 days in a row.
UPRIGHT: BALANCE 397
22-Ho. Does two somersaults

in a row, maintaining forward progression
See instructions for Item 22-111.
CRITERION The child does two somersaults in a row, maintaining forward progression. She can
do this 3 days in a row.
22-llp. Walks full length of

balance beam with hands on hips, maintaining balance
See instructions for Item 22-llf.
CRITERION The child walks full length of balance beam with hands on hips, maintaining bal-
ance. He can do this 3 days in a row.
11 G R O S S MOTOR
22-111
Upright: Ball Play
T hrowing and catching balls is one of the basic play skills of early childhood.
It involves motor skills such as strength, dynamic balance, and eye-hand
and eye-foot coordination. In addition, early ball play promotes social in-
teraction. It can help children with disabilities feel included and helps typically de-
veloping children learn how to play with them.
T h e skills in the following sequence are intended to lay the foundation for
more advanced games (e.g., baseball, basketball, volleyball) that use equipment.
Children in the 2- to 3-year age range should be getting comfortable with kicking,
throwing, and catching. Children in the 4- to 5-year age range can begin using equip-
ment such as t-ball stands, soccer nets, and low basketball hoops.
ADAPTATIONS

Children with motor impairments should try using different types of balls to find
the one that works best (e.g., soft balls that can be grasped in a fist, large balls that
are easier to hold, balloons, Koosh balls, suspended balls). Some children can use
"ball scoopcrs" made from cut-open bleach bottles. Games involving rolling balls,
such as bowling with empty plastic bottles, are also fun. When initially teaching
throwing, coach children with motor impairments to raise the ball high overhead
before throwing—this will help increase strength in the arms and back.

Children with visual impairments can use very brightly colored balls or balls that
make noise. T h e y will need more physical guidance to learn basic throwing and
catching skills. Teach them to attend closely to sounds. F o r children who are totally
blind, give physical assistance and verbal descriptions to help them learn about
throwing, catching, and kicking.
399
400 GROSS MOTOR

Children with hearing impairments will be able to learn ball skills with no partic-
ular adaptations. Use signs, gestures, and modeling to instruct children with hear-
ing impairments.
22-111. UPRIGHT: BALL PLAY
a. Throws 3-inch ball to an adult who is 7 feet away
b. Throws 3-inch ball to an adult who is 9 feet away
c. Catches 8-inch ball with arms in front of body from an adult who is 5 feet away
d. Kicks ball 4 - 6 feet
e. Throws 8-inch ball to an adult who is 9 feet away
f. Catches 8-inch ball with elbows bent from an adult who is 5 feet away
g. Throws 3-inch ball overhand to an adult who is 10 feet away
h. Catches 3-inch ball with elbows b e n t from an adult who is 5 feet away
i. Kicks ball 1 2 - 1 5 feet
j. Throws 8-inch ball overhand to an adult who is 10 feet away
k. Catches 8-inch ball with elbows bent and arms at sides from an adult who is 6 feet
away
I. Catches 3-inch ball with elbows bent and arms at sides from an adult who is 7 feet
away
22-llla. Throws 3-inch ball to an adult who is 7 feet away

MATERIALS 3-inch ball
PROCEDURES
Observe the child to see what type of throwing pattern he uses. Early throwers will fling
the ball forward and down. Later they learn to throw underhand, and then they learn to
raise their arms overhead, which allows them to throw farther. Coach the child to look at
the target while throwing (i.e., at your hands rather than at your face).
For preschoolers, you should restrict ball throwing to the playground, or it should be d o n e
indoors during specific, organized g a m e s . Frequent practice is important for children who
have difficulty throwing. These skills can be incorporated into active g a m e s and should be
supervised so that the children do not throw balls at each other.
For 4- to 5-year-olds, include less adept children in groups with more adept children.
This will help all of the children prepare for early sport activities that include children with
differing abilities.
CRITERION The child throws a 3-inch ball to an adult who is 7 feet away several times a day
for 3 consecutive days.
401
402 GROSS MOTOR
22-lllb. Throws 3-inch ball to an adult who is 9 feet away

S e e instructions for Item 2 2 - l l l a .
CRITERION The child throws a 3-inch ball to an adult who is 9 feet away several times a day
for 3 consecutive days.
22-lllc. Catches 8-inch ball with arms

in front of body from an adult who is 5 feet away
PROCEDURES
Catching requires a combination of visual, motor, and attention skills. Children learn how
to catch in different stages. Early catchers will extend their arms in front with palms up;
they scoop the ball with their arms and trap it against the chest. At this stage, the child
may avoid the ball by turning her face away. Later, the arms are held at the side, with el-
bows bent at right angles and palms facing each other; the ball is trapped by the b e n t
arms. Mature catchers will adjust to the flight of the o n c o m i n g ball and catch it only with
their hands. Use verbal preparation such as "ready, catch" before each throw to the child.
Coach the child to look at the ball, not at t h e person throwing.
Begin by standing very close to the child and throwing gently and accurately to en-
sure the child successfully catches the ball. Then, gradually increase the distance between
yourself and the child as long as catching remains successful. Start with larger balls and
move gradually to smaller ones in order to promote more mature catching patterns. The
processes of visual tracking, catching, and aiming can be slowed down by using a balloon;
first suspend a balloon on a string and let the child practice catching and hitting, then let
the child move a floating balloon around the room.
Catching and throwing go together naturally and can be c o m b i n e d in outdoor activities.

Incorporate ball catching into daily outdoor routines. For 4- to 5-year-olds, include less
adept children in groups with more adept children. This will help all of the children pre-
pare for early sport activities that include children with differing abilities.
CRITERION The child catches an 8-inch ball with her arms in front of herself from an adult who
is 5 feet away. The child demonstrates this several times a day for 3 consecutive days.
UPRIGHT: BALL. PLAY 403
22-llld. Kicks bail 4-6 feet

MATERIALS Balls of various sizes and weights
PROCEDURES
Initially, hold the child's hand as you guide him in kicking the ball. This will prevent him
from picking up the ball. Demonstrate the activity by taking turns with him. Start with
medium-size, lightweight balls.
For beginning kickers, play a g a m e of kick and chase. Then e n c o u r a g e the child to kick
harder to make the ball travel farther.
CRITERION The child kicks a ball 4-6 feet, 3 days in a row.
22-llle. Throws 8-inch ball to an adult who is 9 feet away

See instructions for Item 2 2 - l l l a .
CRITERION The child throws an 8-inch ball to an adult who is 9 feet away. The child demon-
strates this several times a day for 3 consecutive days.
22-IIIf. Catches 8-inch ball

with elbows bent from an adult who is 5 feet away
S e e instructions for Item 2 2 - l l l c .
CRITERION The child catches an 8-inch ball with elbows bent from an adult who is 5 feet away.
The child demonstrates this several times a day for 3 consecutive days.
404 GROSS MOTOR
22-lllg. Throws 3-inch ball

overhand to an adult who is 10 feet away
CRITERION The child throws a 3-inch bail overhand to an adult who is 10 feet away. The child
demonstrates this several times a day for 3 consecutive days.
22-lllh. Catches 3-inch ball

with elbows bent from an adult who is 5 feet away
See instructions for Item 2 2 - l l l c .
CRITERION The child catches a 3-inch ball with elbows bent from an adult who is 5 feet way.
The child demonstrates this several times a day for 3 consecutive days.
22-llli. Kicks ball 12-15 feet

MATERIALS 8-inch playground ball
See instructions for Item 2 2 - l l l d .
CRITERION The child kicks a ball 12-15 feet, 3 days in a row.
22-lllj. Throws 8-inch ball

overhand to an adult who is 10 feet away

UPRIGHT: BALL PLAY 405
CRITERION The child throws an 8-inch ball overhand to an adult who is 10 feet away. The child
demonstrates this several times a day for 3 consecutive days.
22-SISk. Catches 8-inch ball with elbows

bent and arms at sides from an adult who is 6 feet away
CRITERION The child catches an 8-inch ball with elbows bent and arms at sides from an adult
who is 6 feet away. The child demonstrates this several times a day for 3 consecutive days.
22-1111. Catches 3-inch ball with elbows bent

and arms at sides from an adult who is 7 feet away
CRITERION The child catches a 3-inch ball with elbows bent and arms at sides from an adult
who is 7 feet away. The child demonstrates this several times a day for 3 consecutive days.
22-IV
Upright: Outdoor Play
O utdoor play activities should be encouraged for all children, including

those with serious impairments. Climbing, moving fast, and engaging in
ball play all are important activities for developing muscle strength and
promoting cardiovascular health. In addition, the playground is one of the most im-
portant places to form social relationships. Shaded areas should be provided in the
summer. Adequate numbers of toys will minimize, though not eliminate, conflict
among the children. Children benefit from caregivers who participate in play and
use outdoor time to promote creativity, language building, turn taking, and social
negotiation as well as active play. Consider using theme-based centers outdoors so
that more mobile children will be attracted to play with less mobile peers. Water
tables, painting easels, and hanging musical toys would work well at these centers.
Note: Climbing equipment for toddlers should be no more than 3 feet high, and
the surrounding ground should be cushioned with wood chips, pea gravel, or rub-
bered playground covering, for example.
ADAPTATIONS

Children with mild or moderate motor impairments may shy away from climbing
activities. You should give them physical guidance in mastering these skills. Chil-
dren whose motor impairments preclude them from using equipment should still
experience participation in games that caregivers will need to structure (e.g., being
pulled in a wagon, holding a ball for others). Most children who cannot move
quickly enjoy being pushed fast in a wheelchair or given other experiences In mov-
ing fast. Encourage more active children to think of ways of including less active
children in games.
407
408 GROSS MOTOR

When children with visual impairments are ready to be active outside, help t h e m
explore the playground so that they can memorize where equipment is located. For
children with some vision, bright tape or textured material can be placed on bars or
steps to help in orientation.

Children with hearing impairments can play well outdoors. Problems sometimes
arise, however, because of their lack of attention to environmental sounds. Show
these children how to watch other children to avoid collisions on equipment.
22-iV. UPRIGHT: OUTDOOR PLAY
a. Runs on playground, pausing at surface changes
b. Climbs on low j u n g l e gym bars and will drop several inches to the ground
c. Climbs vertical ladders
d. Walks on movable surfaces using s o m e hand support
e. Pedals tricycle at least 10 feet
f. Moves actively in play areas
g. Enjoys unsteady surfaces and tries to make them move
h. Runs vigorously in play areas
i. Pumps swing
j. Invents cooperative g a m e s involving equipment
k. Rides two-wheel bicycle
22-IVa. Runs on playground, pausing at surface changes

MATERIALS Play area with changes in surface (e.g., grass, sand, pavement)
PROCEDURES
Early playground runners usually exhibit caution to avoid falling at surface changes. As
the child is running on the playground, observe her behavior at surface changes. If nec-
essary, teach her to look for surface changes and slow down in anticipation.
N o t e : As the child increases her skill and confidence, she will move actively on
the playground without pausing at surface changes and finally will run vigorously on the
playground, adapting automatically to surface changes and barriers.
Routinely e n c o u r a g e the child to play g a m e s that involve running and chasing. At first,
use only two surface changes, adding more as the child improves and b e c o m e s more
comfortable.
CRITERION The child runs on the playground, pausing at surface changes.
22-IVb. Climbs on low jungle gym bars

and will drop several inches to the ground
MATERIALS Low j u n g l e gym bars
409
410 GROSS MOTOR
PROCEDURES
Guide the child through the activity of climbing and letting go of j u n g l e gym bars. If the
child has arm weakness or is fearful of the activity, hold him at the hips during the activ-
ity until he gains confidence.
Use this as a group activity in which children take turns climbing and dropping down.
CRITERION The child climbs on low jungle gym bars and will drop several inches to the ground,
3 days in a row.
22-IVc Climbs vertical ladders

MATERIALS Vertical ladder, 4 - 6 feet high
PROCEDURES
Initially, assist the child physically in climbing the ladder. Make sure she is holding on
with both hands and can find the rungs with her feet. Gradually withdraw your support.
If a child has leg weakness, this is a g o o d opportunity to work on strengthening in both
bending and pushing with the legs.
Once the child has mastered the basic movements of climbing, include her in a small
group of children in which each child takes a turn with this activity.
CRITERION The child climbs a vertical ladder independently and safely, 3 days in a row.
22-IVd. Walks on movable surfaces using some hand support

MATERIALS Movable surfaces (e.g., a wiggly bridge)
PROCEDURES
Introduce movable surfaces slowly, allowing the child to explore the surface at his own
pace. Initially, show him how to hold on to upright supports with two hands, then with
o n e hand. As he gains confidence, show him how to release his hold and walk on the sur-
face as it is moving.
Include children in fantasy g a m e s (e.g., "walking over the river") with other children, hav-
ing the children take turns on the movable surface,
CRITERION The child walks on movable surfaces using some hand support, 3 days in a row.
UPRIGHT: O U T D O O R PLAY 411
22-IVe. Pedals tricycle at least 10 feet

MATERIALS Tricycle
PROCEDURES
Start by having the child pedal down a slight incline on a smooth surface, and then en-
courage her to continue pedaling on a flat surface. If a child is having difficulty learning
to pedal a tricycle due to a motor impairment, consult a physical or occupational thera-
pist. There are many ways of adapting tricycles.
Provide daily opportunities to practice at school and at h o m e or a park.
CRITERION The child pedals a tricycle at least 10 feet, 3 days in a row.
22-IVf. Moves actively in play areas

MATERIALS Play area with c h a n g e s in surface (e.g., grass, sand, pavement), a variety of
toys and equipment
PROCEDURES
Observe the child's spontaneous behavior on the playground. If he does not move be-
tween areas and experiment with equipment, give him physical assistance in trying new
areas and activities.
Over time, c h a n g e physical assistance to verbal suggestions, and watch for more sponta-
neous active movement. If you cannot coax a child out of sedentary play activity, consult
a physical or occupational therapist for assistance.
CRITERION The child moves actively in play areas, 3 days in a row.
22-IVg. Enjoys unsteady

surfaces and tries to make them move
MATERIALS Unsteady surfaces (e.g., wiggly bridges) on playground equipment
See instructions for item 22-IVd.
CRITERION The child enjoys unsteady surfaces and tries to make them move, 3 days in a row.
412 GROSS MOTOR
22-IVh. Runs vigorously In play areas

MATERIALS Play area with c h a n g e s in surface (e.g., grass, sand, pavement)
S e e instructions for item 2 2 4 V a .
CRITERION The child runs vigorously in play areas, 3 days in a row,
22-IVh Pumps swing

MATERIALS Swing appropriate to the child's size
PROCEDURES
Once the child is comfortable on a swing, start teaching her to lean back and extend her
legs forward when swinging forward. Progress to teaching her to lean forward and pull
her legs back when swinging backward.
You may have success in teaching this skill if you hold the child in your lap on the swing
so that she can feel t h e movement. Use the c o m m a n d s to "kick" and "pull."
CRITERION The child pumps a swing, 3 days in a row.
22-IVj. Invents cooperative games involving equipment

MATERIALS Simple playground equipment (e.g., balls, climbing structures, riding toys)
PROCEDURES
Observe the child as he interacts with other children while using balls, climbing equip-
ment, and riding toys. Encourage turn taking, construction of simple rules, and imaginary
play (e.g. "This is the mountain, and we're going to stand on top").
If the child has difficulty participating, provide assistance by bringing the child into a
small group and starting a g a m e . Ask t h e child what g a m e he wants to play, and have the
other children follow his lead.
CRITERION The child invents cooperative games involving equipment, 3 days in a row.
UPRIGHT: OUTDOOR PLAY 413
22-IVk. Rides two-wheel bicycle

MATERIALS Small two-wheel bicycle (have training wheels available)
PROCEDURES
Introduce t h e child to the bicycle by using training wheels. Show her that the bicycle won't
tip over. If the child is having difficulty mastering this skill, use the following s e q u e n c e :
1. Have t h e child keep her legs out to the side as she learns to control the upright po-
sition of the bicycle. Hold the seat, and show her how to stop the bicycle with her
feet.
2. Add the pedaling movement. (If the physical process of pedaling has not b e e n mas-
tered, you can mount the bicycle on bricks or blocks, creating an Exercycle.)
3. Gradually add challenges to steering.
Once the child has mastered pedaling, gradually raise the training wheels. Initially,
the child may have m o r e success if riding down a slight incline. If the child has difficulty
learning to pedal a bicycle due to a motor impairment, consult a physical or occupational
therapist. There are many ways of adapting bicycles.
CLASSROOM ty FUNCTIONAL ACTIVITIES
Provide frequent practice in the activity. Stay close to the child until she builds confidence.
Always have her wear a helmet and, if appropriate, add elbow and knee protectors.
CRITERION The child rides a two-wheel bicycle at least 30 feet, 3 days in a row.
lilt
Appendices
»
Appendix A
Selected Impairments and
Their Effects on Development
T
•
here are many different kinds of conditions that may result in a child having
special needs. T h e most common conditions that may influence a child's de-
velopment include
Communication problems (speech and language)
• Dyspraxia
• Sensory defensiveness
• Gravitational insecurity
• Sensory modulation dysfunction
• Mental retardation
• Down syndrome
• Attcntion-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
• Autism
• Asperger syndrome
• Cerebral palsy
• Spina bifida
• Visual impairments
• Hearing impairments
Because developmental expectations vary as infants mature, different impairments
become obvious at different stages of development. Children who are referred for
intervention in their first year of life tend to be those identified with genetic prob-
lems,- those considered to be at risk for impairments because of medical or social
factors,- and those who have obvious and significant impairments in vision, hearing,
or motor development. Moderate delays in meeting motor milestones tend to be the
417
418 T H E CAROLINA C U R R I C U L U M FOR P R E S C H O O L E R S W I T H SPECIAL N E E D S
primary causes for referral early in the second year, to be replaced by concerns about
speech and language between 2 and 3 years. It is also between 2 and 3 years that re-
ferrals for poorly developed social skills and difficult behavior increase.
For further information on these conditions, the effects of these conditions on
development, tips for intervention, information on specialists who can provide assis-
tance, and resources to help you find the most up-to-date information about current
treatments, support groups, and so forth, please visit http://www.brookespublishing
.com/ccupdates.
Appendix B
Resources and
Recommended Readings
RESOURCES
Here is a selection of materials that may be useful resources for working with young
children with special needs and their families.
General
Batshaw, M.L. (Ed.). (2002). Children with disabilities (5th ed.). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes
Publishing Co.
Gopnik, A., Meltzoff, A.N., &. Kuhl, P.K. (1999). The scientist in the crib: Minds, brains and
how children l e a r n . New York: William Morrow &. Co.
Gowen, J.W., t\ Nebrig, J.B. (2002). Enhancing early emotional development: Guiding par-
ents of young children. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.
Communication
Ac redo lo, L., &. Goodwyn, S. (2002). Baby signs: How to talk with your baby before your
b a b y c a n talk. New York: McGraw Hill/Contemporary Books.
Baker, P. (1986). My first b o o k of sign. Washington, DC: Kendall Green Publications.
Casey-Harvey, D. (1995). Early communication g a m e s . Oceanside, CA: Academic Commu-
nication Associates.
Hart, B., &. Risley, T.R. (1999). The social world of children learning to talk. Baltimore: Paul
H. Brookes Publishing Co.
Schober-Peterson, D., & Cohen, M. (1999). Toddler talk. Oceanside, CA: Academic Commu-
nication Associates.
Aids for Teachers and Parents

Henry, D. (1998). Tool chest for teachers, parents & students. Youngtown, AZ: Henry OT
Services.
Henry, D. (2001). Tools for parents. Youngtown, AZ: Henry OT Services.
Masi, W.S. (Ed.). (2001). Toddler play. San Francisco: Weldon Owen Publishing.
Morris, L.R., &. Schulz, L. (1989). Creative play activities for children with disabilities (2nd
ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Books.
419
Reitzes, F., &. Teitelman, B. (1995). Wonderplay. Philadelphia: Running Press.

Sandall, S.R., &. Schwartz, IS. (2002). Building blocks for teaching preschoolers with special
n e e d s . Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.
Silberg, J. (1996). More games to play with toddlers. Bcltsville, MD: Gryphon House.
Silberg, J. (2002). Games to play with 2 year olds (Rev. ed.). Beltsville, MD: Gryphon House.
Silberg, J. (2002). Games to play with toddlers (Rev. ed.). Beltsville, MD: Gryphon House.
Silberg, J., &. Schiller, P. (2002). The complete book of rhymes, songs, poems, finger plays and
chants. Beltsville, MD: Gryphon House.
Stern, D.N. (1990). Diary of a b a b y . New York: Basic Books.
Williams, M.S., & Shellenberger, S. (1996). How does your engine run} A leader's guide to
the alert program for self-regulation. Albuquerque, NM: Therapy Works.
Emergent Literacy
Dannehl, L., & Rodhouse, A. (1999, October/November). Literacy software for children with
d i s a b i l i t i e s . Retrieved from http://www.closingthegap.com
Justice, L., St Kadevarak, J. (2002, March/April). Using shared storybook time to promote
emergent literacy. Teaching Exceptional Children, 11, 8-13.
Musselwhite, C.R. (1998). Adaptive play for special needs children. London: College-Hill
Press.
Notari-Syverson, A., O'Connor, R.E., & Vadasy, R (1998). L a d d e r s to literacy: A p r e s c h o o l a c -
tivity b o o k . Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.
Pierce, P. (Ed.). (1994). Baby power: A guide for families using assistive technology with their
infants a n d t o d d l e r s . Raleigh, NC: Department of Human Services, Division of Mental
Health. Retrieved from http://www2.edc.org/NCIP/library/ec/power.htm
Ritchie, S., fames-Szanton, J., & Howes, C. (2003). Emergent literacy practices in early child-
hood classrooms. In C. Howes (Ed.), Teaching 4- to 8-year-olds: Literacy, math, multicul-
turalism, a n d c l a s s r o o m community (pp. 71-92). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.
RECOMMENDED READINGS
Many helpful books about children with special needs can be found in your local
bookstore. Here are a few examples.
Armstrong, T. (1995). The myth of the A.D.H.D. child. New York: PLUME/Penguin Books.
Baker, B.L., &. Brightman, A.J. (2004). Steps to independence: Teaching everyday skills to chil-
dren with special needs (3rd. ed.). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.
Geralis, E. (Ed.). (1998). Children with c e r e b r a l palsy (2nd ed.). Bethesda, MD: Woodbine House.
Hart, C.A. (1993). A parent's guide to autism. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Kranowitz, C. (1998). The out-of-sync child. New York: Perigee/Penguin Putnam.
Kranowitz, C. (2002). The out-of-sync c h i l d h a s fun. New York: Perigee/Penguin Putnam.
Lutkenhoff, M. (Ed.). (1999). Children with spina bifida: A parents' guide. Bethesda, MD:
Woodbine House.
O'Connor, R.E., Notari-Syverson, A., & Vadasy, P. (1998). L a d d e r s to literacy: A kindergarten
activity b o o k . Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.
Ozonoff, S., Dawson, G., &. McPartland, J. (2002). Parent's guide to Asperger syndrome and
high functioning autism. New York: Guilford.
Pueschel, S.M. (2001). A parent's guide to Down syndrome: Toward a brighter future (Rev.
ed.). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.
Stray-Gunderson, K. (1995). Babies with Down syndrome: A new parents' guide. Bethesda,
MD: Woodbine House.
Y a c k , E., Sutton, S., & Aquilla, P. (1998). Building bridges through sensory integration. Weston,
Canada: Pocket Full of Therapy.
Appendix C
Play and Children
with Motor Impairments
P lay is the natural activity of children. It is through play that children learn and
practice their cognitive, language, social, and motor skills. Although instru-
mental in learning, play is very different from work because it is directed by
the child and has no other immediate goal than the pleasure of the activity. Much of
the play of typically developing children involves motor activity. Children whose
motor impairments limit play often depend on others for entertainment and can eas-
ily become fussy or passive if not continuously attended to. They also lose out on
opportunities to discover on their own how the world works, and they may lose their
urge to master the environment—a critical factor in mental development. Children
with significant motor impairments may need help in learning to play, explore, and
persist. You can help the child by assessing his or her stage of play and then carefully
selecting toys, activities, and positions to promote optimal play opportunities.
STAGES OF PLAY
A child's style of play goes through predictable stages during the preschool years.
These stages include
• Exploratory play: Manipulating toys in an infantile way, mostly in order to ex-
perience new sights, sounds, tastes, and textures
• Independent play: Playing alone, using toys in a functional way, and not paying
attention to other children
• Parallel play: Playing alongside other children, using similar toys but not shar-
ing them
• Associative play: Playing alongside other children, sharing toys
• Cooperative play: Playing with others in an organized way with a common goal;
role-playing and imaginative games emerge
421
DESIGNING PLAY ACTIVITIES

FOR A CHILD WITH MOTOR IMPAIRMENTS
T h e amount of creativity required for developing play activities for children with
motor impairments increases with the severity of the motor difficulties. T h e great-
est challenge is helping children play at a level commensurate with their cognitive
capabilities. To design appropriate play activities, four questions need to be ad-
dressed: What is the stage of the child's play? What are the best positions to promote
play? What are the motor capabilities of the child? What can be done with toys?
W h a t is t h e stage of t h e child's play?

For children who have strong verbal skills or have adequate motor skills, it is easy to
determine the stage. If the child does not talk and has poor motor skills, use trial and
error to estimate the level of play. Observe spontaneous play, then provide assistance
for more mature play. Does the child show enjoyment and seem to want more?
W h a t are t h e best positions t o p r o m o t e play?

Place the child in several different positions to see which ones are easiest for the
child. Try sitting, side lying, semi-reclining, standing in a prone or supine stander,
and lying on the stomach over a wedge. Vary the position of the toys in each posi-
tion. Use trial and error to determine functional play positions. Allow plenty of
time for the observation, and watch to see where the child has the best freedom of
movement, accuracy, and endurance. Strive to identify several play situations with
a variety of games.
W h a t a r e t h e m o t o r capabilities of t h e child?
Successful play depends on designing activities to match the child's motor abilities.
Important areas to look at include
• Head control: Can the child keep head upright and turn from side to side with-
out losing balance? When lying on the back, can the child maintain his or her
head in midline while raising arms and bringing them together in midline?
• Eye control: Can the child look straight ahead, up, down, sideways? Arc eye
movements independent of head movements?
• Trunk control: Can the child sit up straight with the hands free for play?
• Arm control: Can the child reach in different directions and reach overhead? Is
the child's trunk stable when he or she is reaching? Can the child use both arms
at the same time?
• Hand control: Can the child swipe with a closed fist? Can the child hold on to
an object and maintain grasp as the arm is moved? Can the child use fingers to
pick up, push, and poke? Can the child use both hands at the same time?
APPENDIX C 423
• Leg control: Can the child bear weight on the legs, cither independently or with
support?
• Mobility: Can the child change position to reach new toys or add variety to an
activity?
What can be done with toys?

T h e characteristics of toys should match the developmental play level and motor
characteristics of the child. Toys can offer different combinations of sensations and
can provide opportunity for manipulation, cause and effect, functional relation-
ships, construction/destruction, and social interaction. Different toys require a
range of motor skills depending on size, weight, ease of manipulation, and possibil-
ity of adaptation. All toys must be safe and well-constructed.
Many commercially available toys and materials can be used for children with
special needs. There are also many ways to adapt toys to meet the specific needs of
a child. Occupational and physical therapists routinely assist parents and teachers
in adapting toys and activities. Some common techniques include
• Placing rubber shelf liner or D y c e m mats under objects so they won't slip
• Devising ways of keeping toys in a child's hand (e.g., using gloves or cuffs with
a piece of Velcro sewn on, attaching Velcro to the toys, attaching large handles
to the toys)
• Contructing eye-gaze charts so a child can indicate choices for play
• Using switches to activate toys
PLAY W I T H O T H E R CHILDREN
Play with other children is particularly difficult for a child with significant motor
impairments, especially if the motor impairment affects speech. As much as pos-
sible, provide the child with a means of communication that can be used in play.
Although there are no magic solutions, strive to teach the child to take turns, win
and lose, negotiate, and share, both at home with siblings and in the classroom with
other children. Enlist the help of teachers to involve the child in group activities,
promote friendships, and encourage classmates to see the child as a same-age peer
and not as the "baby."
CASE STUDY: A L B E R T O
Alberto is a 3^-year-old boy with spina bifida. He is at the level of parallel play. He
can stand if placed at a support but has difficulty in pulling to standing. He can take
steps if given support by an adult. He belly crawls for mobility in the classroom,
and he can also wheel himself in a small cart. Alberto's language and fine motor
skills are at the 2!*-year level. He is interested in the other children, but he cannot
keep up with them physically, so he tends to be isolated in the classroom unless the
play is confined to one area.
Play Activities
1. Set up a table activity with several other children in which they are using
Legos, blocks, and small figures of people. Engage the children in building a
house with the blocks. Have them take turns and describe what they arc doing.
Give one figure to each child and have the children take turns putting the peo-
ple in various parts of the house, eating, going to bed, or talking.
2. At the dress-up center, assist Alberto in dressing up and talking about who he's
pretending to be. If the other children are moving around the room in their role
play, incorporate Alberto by either carrying him, walking him, or placing him
in his cart and making this part of the game.
3. On the playground, help Alberto on the climbing and sliding equipment. Talk
about whose turn it is and keep him in the group.
Appendix D
Object Boards
as Aids for Teaching Children
with Severe Motor Impairments
S ome children with severe motor impairments may be unable to indicate their
needs or to demonstrate their knowledge through reaching, pointing, or vo-
calizing in ways that infants and toddlers typically do. For months, or even
years, eye gaze may be their primary means of communication. They may be able
to answer the questions, "Where's M a m a ? " or "Where's your shoe?" by looking to-
ward the correct location, or respond to the question, "What do you want?" by look-
ing at either the glass of juice or the piece of bread held up in front of them.
T h e usefulness of eye gaze as a communication symbol is dependent on the
ability of another person to "read" the gaze. T h i s becomes increasingly difficult as
the number of choices is expanded. Teaching a child with severe motor impair-
ments to gaze in a precise maimer so that others can readily determine where the
gaze is directed is an important aspect of intervention.
Object boards are an effective way to teach a child precision in eye gaze while
also teaching other information. A piece of Plexiglas, approximately 25 inches by 25
inches with a 4-inch by 6-inch window cut out of the center, makes a useful board.
Pieces of Velcro can be attached to the board and to objects so that the objects can
be mounted on the board and changed easily. C o m m o n arrangements that facilitate
"reading" up to four choices are pictured on the next page. T h e adult positions him-
or herself behind the board, looking at the child through the center window. He
or she encourages the child to look at all of the things on the board and then
says, "Look at m e . " When the child looks at the adult, the adult asks a question
(e.g., "Where is the ball?") and observes where the child looks.
In the case of teaching items that involve looking at the correct place for an ob-
ject after seeing it covered in one of three places, a handkerchief can be attached to
the top of each of the three Velcro strips on the board and the object hidden as de-
425
426 T H E C A R O L I N A C U R R I C U L U M FOR P R E S C H O O L E R S W I T H SPECIAL N E E D S
scribed in the item. T h e object is left under one cover by attaching it to the re-
mainder of the Velcro under the handkerchief.
T h e object board also can be used for sorting tasks. For example, a red box and
a green box can be attached to two of the Velcro strips. After demonstrating that red
forms go in the red box and green forms in the green box, the adult holds up a red
form and asks, "Where does this one go?" Shapes can be sorted the same way, hav-
ing a simple shape drawn on the side of each box.
Index
AAC, see augmentative and alternative recalls one or two elements from an unfamiliar
c o m m u n i c a t i o n system, 4 0 story just read, 2 7 5 - 2 7 6
Age of child recalls three or four elements from an
covered in C C I T S N , 2 unfamiliar story just read, 2 7 5 - 2 7 6
covered in C C P S N , 2, 7 says or sings at least two nursery rhymes or
knows age, 1 1 8 - 1 1 9 songs in a group with an adult, 2 7 3 - 2 7 4
tells current age, age the previous year, and age sings complete nursery songs or says complete
next year, 2 3 3 - 2 3 4 rhymes of four to six lines, 2 7 4 - 2 7 5
Animals, interactions with sings songs or says rhymes of 1 0 - 1 5 lines,
shows care in handling small animals or 274-275
potentially breakable objects, 9 1 - 9 2 tells two familiar stories without pictures for
talks to dolls or animals and/or makes t h e m help, 2 7 7
interact with one another, 1 9 5 - 1 9 6 A t t e n t i o n & M e m o r y : Visual/Spatial, 1 5 7 - 1 7 0
Art activities, 26 adaptations for children with motor, visual, or
representational drawing, see Visual-Motor hearing impairments, 1 5 7 - 1 5 8 ,
Skills after observing three objects being placed under
Assessment, 3 5 - 3 9 separate covers, identifies the cover under
child and family, 3 6 - 3 8 w h i c h a m a t c h i n g object is hidden,
Developmental Progress Chart, 3 5 , 39 164-165
directed assessment, 3 8 - 3 9 can recall the names of 8 - 1 0 pictures when
materials, 3 6 , 3 7 shown in an array of 1 8 - 2 0 , 170
observation, 3 6 - 3 8 describes events that happened in the past, 168
preparation, 36 describes from m e m o r y visual characteristics
progress, 4 9 - 5 0 of familiar objects, .166
Assessment Log, 5 7 - 7 8 finds hidden pictures, 1 6 9 - 1 7 0
scoring of, 38 finds three pictures seen only briefly in an
weekly record, 50 array of 1 0 - 1 2 , 1 6 8 - 1 6 9
Assumes responsibility, see Self-Regulation & identifies (points to) object or picture shown
Responsibility briefly and shown again in an array of four,
Attention & Memory: Auditory, 2 7 1 - 2 7 7 162
adaptations for children with motor, visual, or identifies (points to) object or picture shown
hearing impairments, 2 7 1 - 2 7 2 briefly and shown again in an array of
completes lines of familiar rhymes or songs, three, 162
274-275 identifies two pictures seen briefly in an array
identifies the melody of a familiar song, 2 7 6 of four to six, 167
independently says or acts out part of rhymes m a t c h e s both color and shape of one object or
or songs, 2 7 3 - 2 7 4 picture seen only briefly, 1 6 6 - 1 6 7
joins in saying nursery rhymes, 2 7 3 - 2 7 4 m a t c h e s both color and shape of two objects or
notices and reacts to changes in familiar pictures seen only briefly, 168
rhymes, songs, or stories, 2 7 4 - 2 7 5 names one of several objects or pictures shown,
recalls most of the essential elements in an named, and then hidden, 164
unfamiliar story just read, 2 7 6 points to hand that is hiding a toy, 1 5 9 - 1 6 0
427
Attention & Memory: V i s u a l / S p a t i a l — c o n t i n u e d revision changes, 4 - 6

recognizes familiar signs, 161 emergent literacy, 5 - 6
recognizes the covers of several books and functional activities, 4 - 5
labels them, 160 references for parents and teachers, 6 - 7
remembers and n a m e s which of three objects sequence reorganization, 4
has been hidden, 1 6 5 - 1 6 6 role of, 8 - 9
remembers incidental information, 1 6 3 - 1 6 4 in assessment and individualized education
remembers the place in an array where a program (IEP) process, 5 0 - 5 3
picture was seen only briefly, 169 t i m e range, 39
tells the name of object or picture shown briefly Case studies, 4 3 - 4 9
in a group of two and then hidden, 163 Catching, see Upright: Ball Play
see also Attention & M e m o r y : Auditory CCHI, see The Carolina Curriculum for
Attention given by caregiver or teacher, 24 Handicapped Infants and Infants at Risk
Augmentative and alternative c o m m u n i c a t i o n C C I T S N , see The Carolina Curriculum for
(AAC) system, 40 Infants and Infants with Special Needs
Autism, 14 C C P S N , see The Carolina Curriculum for
Preschoolers with Special Needs
Cerebral palsy, 8, 20
Behavior reinforcement, 1 6 - 1 7 Chanting, 29
Bilateral Skills, 3 4 1 - 3 4 9 Choice, guidelines for providing, 1 5 - 1 6
adaptations for children with motor, visual, or Chronological age grouping, 19-20
hearing impairments, 3 4 1 - 3 4 2 Classroom activities, defined, 4 - 5
buttons /4-inch buttons, 3 4 8 see also Environmental factors affecting
consistently uses same hand for skilled learning and development
activities, 3 4 9 Classroom design, 2 1 , 2 5 - 2 8 , 3 3
demonstrates hand preference by picking up Climbing, see Upright: Outdoor Play
m o s t materials with one hand, 3 4 6 see also Upright: Posture & Locomotion
demonstrates hand preference, 3 4 3 Cognitive skills, see Attention & Memory:
does simple sewing, 3 4 7 Auditory; Attention &. Memory:
folds paper in half, 3 4 9 Visual/Spatial; Concepts/Vocabulary:
holds deck of cards and sorts, 3 4 8 Expressive; Concepts/Vocabulary:
laces card with large holes, 3 4 5 Receptive,- Functional U s e of Objects &.
laces two holes in shoes, 3 4 7 Symbolic Play; N u m b e r Concepts; Problem
screws on lids, 3 4 5 Solving/Reasoning; Visual Perception:
strings small beads, 3 4 4 - 3 4 5 Blocks & Puzzles; Visual Perception:
ties single knot, 3 4 6 Matching &. Sorting
unbuttons large buttons, 3 4 4 Colors
Block activities, see Visual Perception: Blocks & completes sequences of colors or shapes, 2 1 1
Puzzles labels colors, 2 6 8 - 2 6 9
Broad jumping, see Upright: Posture &. m a t c h e s both color and shape of one object or
Locomotion picture seen only briefly, 1 6 6 - 1 6 7
m a t c h e s both color and shape of two objects or
pictures seen only briefly, 168
The Carolina Curriculum for Handicapped m a t c h e s primary colors, 184
Infants and Infants at Risk (CCHI), 2 points to five or more colors on request, 2 4 3 - 2 4 4
The Carolina Curriculum for Infants and recognizes m o s t colors, 2 5 3
Toddlers with Special Needs (CCITSN) sorts by color on verbal direction, 2 8 4
age range designed for, 2 C o m m u n i c a t i o n guidelines, 19
C C P S N i n conjunction with, 5 3 C o m m u n i c a t i o n skills
development of, 2 play activities for children with motor
The Carolina Curriculum for Preschoolers with impairments, 4 2 1 - 4 2 4
Special Needs (CCPSN), 2 reading aloud, guidelines, 31
age range designed for, 2, 7 see also Attention & Memory: Auditory;
approach of, 2 - 3 Concepts/Vocabulary: Expressive;
assessment, skills, 3 5 - 3 9 Concepts/Vocabulary: Receptive;
Assessment Log, 5 7 - 7 8 Conversation Skills; Grammatical
background of, 7 Structure; Imitation: Vocal; Verbal
case studies, 4 3 - 4 9 Comprehension
C C I T S N in conjunction with, 53 Concepts/Vocabulary: Expressive, 2 5 7 - 2 7 0
components of, 3, 8 - 9 adaptations for children with motor, visual, or
Developmental Progress Chart, 8 0 - 8 1 hearing impairments, 2 5 7 - 2 5 8
goal/objective selection, 3 9 - 4 0 asks word meanings or otherwise indicates
implementing, 4 9 - 5 0 awareness that words have meanings,
i t e m organization, 7 - 8 266-267
plan development, 4 1 - 4 2 completes five analogies, 2 7 0
program updates, 4 9 - 5 0 completes two analogies, 2 6 6
INDEX 429
defines five or more simple words using at least selects pictures of actions, 2 4 0
one descriptor, 2 6 4 selects square, triangle, and circle, 2 5 0
defines 10 or more words, 2 6 9 selects the one that is "different," 2 4 8 - 2 4 9
defines two or more simple words using at understands "around," "in front of," "in b a c k
least one descriptor, 2 6 4 o f / ' "between," "high," and "low," 2 4 9
labels colors, 2 6 8 - 2 6 9 understands "backward" and "forward," 2 5 2
labels m o s t uppercase letters, 2 6 9 understands " e m p t y " versus "full," 2 4 8
listens carefully to new words, 2 6 2 understands " e x c e p t , " 2 5 4
m a k e s rhymes to simple words, 2 6 7 understands "fast" versus "slow," 2 4 7
names a class of objects from its members, 2 7 0 understands part-whole relationships, 2 4 5 - 2 4 6
names eight or more line drawings of c o m m o n understands qualitative concepts, 2 5 6
objects, 2 6 0 - 2 6 1 understands t i m e concepts, 2 5 5
names examples in classes, 2 6 5 understands "under," "over," "next to," and
names most pictures and line drawings of "beside," 2 4 6
familiar objects, 2 6 2 understands "up," "down," "top," and
names objects by functions,. 2 6 5 "bottom," 246
names pictures of objects not in daily Consequences, 1 6 - 1 7
environment, 2 6 3 Conversation Skills, 2 9 1 - 3 0 6
names six or more pictures of c o m m o n objects, adaptations for children with motor, visual, or
259-260 hearing impairments, 2 9 1 - 2 9 2
repeats new words to self, 2 6 2 answers "what i s , " "whose," " w h o , " and "how
uses a variety of adjectives, 2 6 3 m a n y " questions appropriately, 3 0 0 - 3 0 1
uses at least 50 different words, 2 6 0 asks and responds appropriately to "how far"
uses new word in conversation soon after questions, 3 0 6
hearing the word or having been told the asks questions related to another person's
meaning of the word, 2 6 8 statement in order to maintain a
uses "other" or "another" to refer to additional conversation, 3 0 3 - 3 0 4
or similar objects, 2 6 1 - 2 6 2 asks simple questions w i t h a vocalization or
Concepts/Vocabulary: Receptive, 2 3 7 - 2 5 6 gesture, 2 9 3 - 2 9 4
adaptations for children with motor, visual, or asks yes/no questions with appropriate
hearing impairments, 2 3 8 inflection, 2 9 3 - 2 9 4
answers questions or points to pictures to show changes speech depending on listener, 2 9 8
an understanding that different activities c o m m e n t s on appearance or disappearance of
occur in the daytime and at night, 2 5 4 - 2 5 5 objects or people, 2 9 5 - 2 9 6
distinguishes between letters and numbers, c o m m u n i c a t e s cause-and-effect relationships,
253-254 303
follows directions including "in," "out," "on," c o m m u n i c a t e s knowledge about the world to
and "off," 2 4 0 - 2 4 1 peers and adults, 3 0 4 - 3 0 5
follows directions or points to pictures to creates interest in a listener by indirect
indicate understanding of the pronouns references, 3 0 4
" h e , " "she," " h i m , " "her," "they," "their," describes events occurring in the environment,
and " t h e m , " 2 4 7 299-300
points to five or more colors on request, 2 4 3 - 2 4 4 describes functions of objects, 3 0 2 - 3 0 3
recognizes at least 10 uppercase letters, explains social conventions or rules to peers,
251-252 305-306
recognizes m o s t colors, 2 5 3 names three or more elements or describes
selects a similar object/picture when shown a what is happening when asked to tell all
sample and asked to find "another o n e , " about a picture or storybook, 3 0 1
241-242 reads a story aloud to self or another person
selects "biggest" and " l i t t l e s t " from a group of while looking at pictures in a book, 3 0 2
three objects/pictures, 2 4 2 reads books to others by making multiple-word
selects members of a class, 2 5 1 utterances, 2 9 6
selects objects and pictures to indicate w h i c h requests assistance, 2 9 4
are square and which are round, 2 4 4 responds appropriately to " w h e r e " and "why"
selects objects by usage, 2 4 4 - 2 4 5 questions, 2 9 7
selects objects/pictures that are "the s a m e " or responds correctly to "what do you do" and
"like this," 2 4 1 - 2 4 2 "why do w e " questions, 3 0 1 - 3 0 2
selects objects/pictures to indicate an sustains conversation for several turns, 2 9 6
understanding of at least eight relative talks on telephone and waits for turn to
concepts or comparisons, 2 5 2 - 2 5 3 respond, 2 9 8 - 2 9 9
selects objects/pictures to indicate an uses word or sign combinations to describe
understanding of at least four relative remote events, 2 9 5
concepts or comparisons. 2 5 0 uses words to describe attributes of toys, foods,
selects objects/pictures to indicate an or other objects, 2 9 9
understanding of at least two relative see also Interpersonal Skills
concepts or comparisons, 2 4 2 - 2 4 3 Copying, see Visual-Motor Skills
Counting, see N u m b e r Concepts m e e t s children's physical needs, 25

Curriculum items, 7 - 8 , 42 provides appropriate amount of stimulation,
Curriculum users, 7 27-28
Cutting skills, see Visual-Motor Skills provides safety and security, 25
teaching practices, 24
Expressive skills, see Concepts/Vocabulary.
Daily care activity, 3 2 , 41. Expressive
Daily routines, learning experiences in, 19
Dance, 3 0
D e n t a l care, see Self-Help: Grooming Feelings, ability to express, see Interpersonal
Developmental progress Skills,- Self-Concept
estimating developmental levels, 5 2 - 5 3 Fine motor skills, see Bilateral Skills; Grasp tk
impairments' effect on, 4 1 7 - 4 1 8 Manipulation; Imitation: Motor; Tool Use;
motivating children, guidelines for, 1 4 - 1 5 Visual-Motor Skills
play activities, role in, 14 Flexible groupings, 20
providing choices, guidelines for, 1 5 - 1 6 Floor time, see Play activities
Developmental Progress Chart, 8 0 - 8 1 Following instructions
estimating developmental levels, 5 2 - 5 3 follows directions including " a l l , " " n o n e , " and
scoring, 3 3 , 3 8 , 3 9 "not any," 2 2 6
weekly record, 50 follows directions including "before" and
Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early "after," 2 8 9
Childhood Programs Serving Children follows directions including "in," "out," "on,"
from Birth Through Age 8, 24 and "off," 2 4 0 - 2 4 1
Dramatic play activities, 27 follows directions or points to pictures to
see also Functional Use of Objects &. Symbolic indicate an understanding of the pronouns
Play " h e , " "she," " h i m , " "her," "they," "their,"
Drawing, see Visual-Motor Skills, and " t h e m , " 2 4 7
representational drawing follows instructions that include four
Dressing, see Self-Help: Dressing elements, 2 8 9
Dress-up play activities, 27 follows rules given by adults for new activities
or simple games, 90
follows three-part commands, 2 8 2
Early Childhood Music and M o v e m e n t follows three-step instructions in sequence
Association, 3 0 involving two to three different objects,
Early intervention, 6 286
Eating, see Self-Help: Eating; Tool U s e follows two-part related commands in novel
Education of the Handicapped A c t A m e n d m e n t s contexts, 2 8 1 - 2 8 2
of 1986 (PL 99-457), 1, 50 follows two-step commands involving
Emergent literacy skills sequence, 2 8 4 - 2 8 5
adaptations for children with motor, visual, Food
and hearing impairments, 3 3 - 3 4 eating skills, see Self-Help: Eating
checklist, 12 Friendship, see Interpersonal Skills
increased emphasis on, 5 - 6 Functional activities, 6
promotion of, 3 0 - 3 4 see also Functional Use of Objects &. Symbolic
Entry assessment, 3 5 - 3 6 Play
Environmental factors affecting learning and Functional U s e of Objects &. Symbolic Play,
development, 2 3 - 3 4 193-201
emergent literacy promotion, 3 0 - 3 4 adaptations for children with motor, visual, or
activities, 3 2 - 3 3 hearing impairments. 1 9 3 - 1 9 4
adaptations for children with motor, visual, assumes different roles in fantasy play, 1 9 6 - 1 9 7
and hearing impairments, 3 3 - 3 4 builds large structures from blocks or chairs
a t home, 3 1 - 3 2 and centers play around them, 1 9 9 - 2 0 0
non-English speakers, 3 2 , 33 cooperates with others in pretend play
reading aloud, guidelines, 31 (discusses roles), 2 0 0
least restrictive environments, 2 3 - 2 4 describes own activities during play, 199
m u s i c and movement, enriching the engages in complex adult role playing, 2 0 1
environment, 27, 2 8 - 3 0 pretend play includes a logical sequence that
chanting, 29 evolves as play proceeds, 1 9 7 - 1 9 8
hand rhymes, 2 9 - 3 0 talks to dolls or animals and/or m a k e s t h e m
instruments, 3 0 interact with one another, 1 9 5 - 1 9 6
m o v e m e n t (dance), 30 uses different voices for different people in
singing, 29 play, 197
preparing physical environment, 2 5 - 2 8 uses dolls, stuffed animals, or puppets as
includes areas for different types of play, participants in play, 1 9 8 - 1 9 9
25-27 uses materials to construct other objects, 198
INDEX 431
uses toy animals or dolls to act out " W h a t Gross motor skills, see Upright: Balance; Upright:
would happen if . . . ? , " 2 0 0 - 2 0 1 Ball Play Upright: Outdoor Play; Upright:
;
Posture &. L o c o m o t i o n
Grouping of children, problems and solutions,
Galloping/skipping, see Upright: Posture & 19-21
Locomotion Guiding learning through play activities, 14
G e n e t i c impairments, 4 1 7 - 4 1 8
Goal setting, intervention program, 3 9 - 4 0
G r a m m a t i c a l Structure, 3 0 7 - 3 2 0 Hand rhymes, 2 9 - 3 0
adaptations for children with motor, visual, or Hazard precautions, 25
hearing impairments, 3 0 7 - 3 0 8 Hearing, see A t t e n t i o n t\ Memory: Auditory
asks " w h " questions, 3 1 4 - 3 1 5 Hearing impairments, adaptations for
uses a variety of adjectives to describe what has Attention & M e m o r y : Auditory, 2 7 2
been seen, heard, or experienced, 3 1 8 - 3 1 9 Attention & Memory: Visual/Spatial, 158
uses "and," "or," "but," or " b e c a u s e " to Bilateral Skills, 3 4 2
connect two sentences, 3 1 7 Concepts/Vocabulary: Expressive, 2 5 8
uses auxiliary verbs, usually shortened, 3 1 1 Concepts/Vocabulary: Receptive, 2 3 8
uses comparatives, 3 2 0 Conversation Skills, 2 7 2
uses complete sentence with correct word emergent literacy skills, 34
order in " w h " questions, 3 1 8 Functional U s e of Objects & Symbolic Play, 193
uses correct verb forms, both irregular and G r a m m a t i c a l Structure, 3 0 8
regular, for past, present, and future Grasp <Sv Manipulation, 3 3 4
actions, 3 1 6 - 3 1 7 grouping w i t h other children, 20
uses endings on verbs or nouns to indicate t h e Imitation: Motor, 3 2 8
activity of a person or thing, 3 1 9 Imitation: Vocal, 3 2 2
uses "I" instead of given name, 3 1 5 Interpersonal Skills, 96
uses "-ing" on verbs, 311 N u m b e r Concepts, 2 2 2
uses m o s t irregular past-tense verb forms Problem Solving/Reasoning, 2 0 4
correctly, 3 1 6 - 3 1 7 Self-Concept, 116
uses negative terms, 3 1 2 Self-Help: Dressing, 136
uses personal pronouns, 3 1 2 Self-Help: Eating, 128
uses prepositional phrases, 3 1 3 Self-Help: Grooming, 144
uses prepositional phrases in sentences, 3 1 6 Self-Help: Toileting, 152
uses " V o n ends o f words t o indicate Self-Regulation & Responsibility, 86
possession, 3 1 5 - 3 1 6 Tool Use, 3 5 2
uses "V on the ends of some words to form Upright: Balance, 3 9 0
plurals, 3 1 0 Upright: Ball Play, 4 0 0
uses three- to four-word complete sentences Upright: Outdoor Play, 4 0 8
that include subject-verb-object, 3 1 4 Upright: Posture & Locomotion, 3 7 3
uses three-word phrases to specify, to indicate Verbal Comprehension, 2 8 0
rejection, and/or to describe, 3 1 3 - 3 1 4 Visual-Motor Skills, 3 6 0
uses two-word utterances to indicate Visual Perception: Blocks t\ Puzzles, 172
nonexistence and recurrence, 3 0 9 - 3 1 0 Visual Perception: Matching & Sorting, 182
uses two-word utterances to indicate specificity Home
and characteristics, 3 0 9 - 3 1 0 emergent literacy activities, 3 1 - 3 2
uses verbal nouns and/or verbal adjectives, preparing physical environment, 2 5 - 2 8
317-318 includes areas for different types of play,
Grasp a Manipulation, 3 3 3 - 3 4 0 25-27, 33
adaptations for children with motor, visual, or meets children's physical needs, 25
hearing impairments, 3 3 3 - 3 3 4 provides appropriate amount stimulation,
builds tower of 8 - 1 0 blocks, 3 3 6 27-28
holds one small object in palm of hand and then Hopping, see Upright: Posture & L o c o m o t i o n
moves it forward to pincer grasp without
assistance from other hand, 3 3 9 - 3 4 0
holds writing implement with fingers in tripod IDEA, see Individuals w i t h Disabilities Education
position, 3 3 8 - 3 3 9 A c t A m e n d m e n t s of 1997 (PL 105-17)
m a k e s simple forms with play dough, 3 3 7 IEP, see individualized education program
places paper clips on paper, 3 4 0 IFSP, see individualized family service plan
places %-inch pegs in pegboard, 3 3 7 Imitating, as evaluative tool, 3 2 1 - 3 2 5
places 10 pellets in a bottle in 30 seconds, 3 3 9 Imitation: Motor, 3 2 7 - 3 3 1
puts small object through small hole in adaptations for children with motor, visual, or
container, 3 3 6 hearing impairments, 3 2 7 - 3 2 8
turns doorknob with forearm rotation, 3 3 5 imitates complex motor activities in songs and
turns wind-up key 90 degrees in one turn, 3 3 8 games, 3 3 1
Grooming, see Self-Help: Grooming imitates finger plays, 3 3 0 - 3 3 1
Imitation: M o t o r — c o n t i n u e d prefers interacting with peers to being with

imitates postures or actions that do not involve adults, 1 0 3 - 1 0 4
props, 3 2 9 recognizes another's need for help and gives
imitates sequence of two unrelated m o t o r acts, assistance, 1 1 0 - 1 1 1
329-330 requests permission, 1 0 0 - 1 0 1
imitates simple finger plays, 3 3 0 - 3 3 1 responds appropriately to social contact made
repeats sequence of three unrelated m o t o r by familiar adults, 102
activities, 3 2 9 - 3 3 0 separates easily from parent or caregiver in
Imitation: Vocal, 3 2 1 - 3 2 5 familiar surroundings, 103
adaptations for children with motor, visual, or shows awareness of other people's feelings,
hearing impairments, 3 2 1 - 3 2 2 109-110
repeats five- to six-word sentences maintaining shows awareness of social standards, 9 8 - 9 9
grammatical structure, 3 2 4 - 3 2 5 spontaneously takes turns and shares, 112
repeats four-word sentences including takes turn most of the t i m e if reminded,
adjectives, 3 2 4 - 3 2 5 101-102
repeats novel sequences of four numbers or four uses terms such as "thank you," "please," and
unrelated words, 3 2 5 "you're w e l c o m e " appropriately, 1 1 0
repeats novel two-word or two-number works collaboratively toward a goal with peers,
sequence, 3 2 3 99
repeats sequence of three numbers or three Intervention, 2
unrelated words, 3 2 4 impairments, effect on development, 4 1 7 - 4 1 8
repeats three-word sentences, 3 2 3 - 3 2 4 long-term goals, 2 1 - 2 2
Individualized education program (IEP), 1, 5 0 - 5 3 see also Intervention programs
Individualized family service plan (IFSP), 50 Intervention programs
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act assessment, skills, 3 5 - 3 9
(IDEA) Amendments of 1997 (PL105-17), goal/objective selection, 3 9 - 4 0
23, 5 0 implementing, 4 9 - 5 0
Instruments, 3 0 plan development, 4 1 - 4 2
Interpersonal Skills, 9 5 - 1 1 4 program updates, 4 9 - 5 0
adaptations for children with motor, visual,
or hearing impairments, 9 5 - 9 6
asks permission to use other people's Jumping, see Upright: Posture & Locomotion
belongings, 1 0 8 - 1 0 9
asserts self in socially acceptable ways, 113
converses with peers, 101 Kicking, see Upright: Ball Play
cooperates with peers to develop a t h e m e for
imaginative play, 104
demonstrates an interest in people outside of Least restrictive environments, 2 3 - 2 4
the family and immediate circle of friends, Literacy
114 activities in child care and preschool, 3 2 - 3 3
demonstrates understanding that different see also Emergent literacy skills
people have different feelings, attitudes, Locomotion, see Upright: Posture & Locomotion
or beliefs through role playing in pretend Long-term goals, 2 1 - 2 2
play, 108
expresses affection and/or preference for some
peers, 9 9 - 1 0 0 Manipulation, see Grasp & Manipulation
expresses regret when another child is hurt or Matching, see Attention & Memory:
experiences unpleasantness, 100 Visual/Spatial; Visual Perception: Matching
identifies special friends, 112 &. Sorting
labels feelings of peers and responds to them, 105 Memory, see Attention & Memory: Auditory;
listens to peers and discusses ideas or Attention & Memory: Visual/Spatial
observations, 1 0 7 - 1 0 8 M e n t a l retardation, 20
negotiates conflicts verbally, 107 Metalinguistic awareness, 6
negotiates with peers about toys, 98 Motivating children, 1 4 - 1 5
plans/creates games that have rules w i t h peers, Motor impairments, adaptations for
113 Attention & Memory: Auditory, 2 7 1 - 2 7 2
plays cooperatively with peers for extended Attention & Memory: Visual/Spatial, 157
periods without requiring adult Bilateral Skills, 3 4 1
intervention, 111 Concepts/Vocabulary: Expressive, 2 5 7 - 2 5 8
plays familiar games with peers and follows the Concepts/Vocabulary: Receptive, 2 3 8
rules without adult intervention, 111 Conversation Skills, 2 7 1 - 2 7 2
plays group games with other children without emergent literacy skills, 33
constant adult supervision, 1 0 5 - 1 0 6 Functional U s e of Objects & Symbolic Play,
plays simple board or card games with other 193
children with adult supervision, 106 Grammatical Structure, 3 0 7 - 3 0 8
INDEX 433
Grasp &. Manipulation, 3 3 3 gives/selects two and three objects, 2 2 5 - 2 2 6

grouping with other children, 21 identifies numbers 0 through 9, 2 3 4 - 2 3 5
Imitation: Motor, 3 2 7 identifies penny, nickel, and dime when
Imitation: Vocal, 3 2 1 named, 2 3 1 - 2 3 2
Interpersonal Skills, 9 5 - 9 6 m a t c h e s numbers to pictures of quantities up
N u m b e r Concepts, 221 to four, 2 3 5 - 2 3 6
play activities, 4 1 9 - 4 2 4 m a t c h e s pictures containing different
case study, 4 2 3 - 4 2 4 configurations of objects up through 6,
designing play activities for, 4 2 2 - 4 2 3 228-229
limitations, avoiding, 4 2 1 m a t c h e s three-part sequences of pictures
object board as an aid, 4 2 5 - 4 2 6 depicting quantities, 2 3 2 - 2 3 3
playing with other children, 4 2 3 m a t c h e s two objects to a picture w i t h the same
Problem Solving/Reasoning, 2 0 3 - 2 0 4 quantity of objects in an array that
Self-Concept, 116 includes pictures of two, three, four, and
Self-Help: Dressing, 1 3 5 - 1 3 6 five objects, 2 2 8 - 2 2 9
Self-Help: Eating, 1 2 7 - 1 2 8 points and recites at least three numbers in
Self-Help: Grooming, 143 correct sequence when asked to count
Self-Help: Toileting, 151 objects, 2 2 4 - 2 2 5
Self-Regulation & Responsibility, 86 selects "just one," 2 2 3 - 2 2 4
Tool Use, 3 5 1 tells current age, age the previous year, and age
Upright: Balance, 3 8 9 next year, 2 3 3 - 2 3 4
Upright: Ball Play, 3 9 9 understands "same n u m b e r " and can sort a set
Upright: Outdoor Play, 4 0 7 into halves, 2 3 1
Upright: Posture &. Locomotion, 3 7 2 uses quantity terms spontaneously, 2 3 0 - 2 3 1
Verbal Comprehension, 2 7 9 - 2 8 0 when asked to count objects, begins with "one,
Visual-Motor Skills, 3 5 9 two, three," 2 2 7
Visual Perception: Blocks & Puzzles, 172
Visual Perception: Matching & Sorting, 1 8 1 - 1 8 2
Multiage groups, 20 Object board, 4 2 5 - 4 2 6
Music, 2 3 , 27, 2 8 - 3 0 Observation, skill, 3 6 - 3 8
Occupational therapies, 8
Oral skills, 6
N A E Y C , see National Association for the Outdoor play activities, see Upright: Outdoor
Education of Young Children Play
Name
tells own first name, 119
uses "I" instead of given name, 3 1 5 Parents
National Association for the Education of Young child separates easily from parent or caregiver
Children (NAEYC), 24 in familiar surroundings, 103
Natural consequences, 1 6 - 1 7 references for, 6 - 7
Negotiation skills, see Interpersonal Skills role in intervention program, 3 9 - 4 0
Neurological impairments, 20 Partnership between parent and interventionist,
Non-English speakers, literacy, 3 2 , 33 39-40
N u m b e r Concepts, 2 2 1 - 2 3 6 Pencil control, see Visual-Motor Skills
adaptations for children with motor, visual, or Personal-social skills, see Interpersonal Skills;
hearing impairments, 2 2 1 - 2 2 2 Self-Concept; Self-Help: Dressing;
answers addition questions involving adding 2, Self-Help: Eating; Self-Help: Grooming;
234 Self-Help: Toileting; Self-Regulation &
compares two quantities and tells which is Responsibility
more, 2 2 7 - 2 2 8 Physical therapists, 8
correctly answers "how m a n y " for one and two PL 9 9 - 4 5 7 , see Education of the Handicapped Act
objects, 2 2 5 A m e n d m e n t s of 1986
correctly counts to 2 0 , 2 3 2 PL 105-17, see Individuals with Disabilities
counts 10 objects in a row, 2 2 9 - 2 3 0 Education Act (IDEA) A m e n d m e n t s of
counts to tell how many and will deny that it 1997
is some other number when asked, Play activities
229-230 adapting for children with autism, 14
counts up to six objects in a row, 2 2 9 - 2 3 0 adapting for children with motor impairments,
does not recount when asked how many, 421-424
229-230 case study, 4 2 3 - 4 2 4
follows instructions including " a l l , " "none," designing play activities for, 4 2 2 - 4 2 3
and "not any," 2 2 6 object board as an aid, 4 2 5 - 4 2 6
gives the correct number of objects when playing with other children, 4 2 3
asked, 2 3 3 areas for, 2 5 - 2 7
gives "one m o r e , " 2 2 7 - 2 2 8 ball, see Upright: Ball Play
Play a c t i v i t i e s — c o n t i n u e d Pronouns
defined, 4 2 1 follows directions or points to pictures to
dramatic a c t i v i t i e s , 27 indicate an understanding of the p r o n o u n s
dress-up, 2 7 " h e , " " s h e , " " h i m , " "her," "they," " t h e i r , '
guidelines for effective, 14 and " t h e m , " 2 4 7
interpersonal skills for, see Interpersonal Skills uses "I" instead of given name, 3 1 5
outdoor, see Upright: Outdoor Play uses personal pronouns, 3 1 2
stages of, 4 2 1 see also Grammatical Structure
symbolic, see Functional U s e of Objects & Providing choices
S y m b o l i c Play- guidelines for, 1 5 - 1 6
types of, 2 5 - 2 7 in terrible twos, 15
Plurals Puzzles, see Visual Perception: Blocks Si P u z z l e s
responds appropriately to statements or
q u e s t i o n s involving regular plurals,
286-287 Questions, ability to ask and answer, see
uses " s " on the ends of some words to form Conversation Skills; Problem Solving/
plurals, 3 1 0 Reasoning
Positive c o n s e q u e n c e s , 17 Quiet time, 19, 26
Posture, see Upright: Posture Si Locomotion
Preschool learning environment, see
E n v i r o n m e n t a l factors affecting learning Reading
and development quiet area for, 26
Pretend play, see Functional U s e of Objects Si reading aloud
S y m b o l i c Play importance of, 31
Print (book) awareness, 5 - 6 reads a story aloud to self or another person
Problem Solving/Reasoning, 2 0 3 - 2 1 9 while looking at pictures in a book, 3 0 2
adaptations for children with motor, visual, role in child development, 3 1 - 3 2
or h e a r i n g impairments, 2 0 3 - 2 0 4 Reasoning, see Problem Solving/Reasoning
answers questions to indicate where things Receptive skills, see Concepts/Vocabulary:
c o m e from or what they are made of, Receptive
213-214 Regulation, see Self-Regulation Si Responsibility
answers t w o or more "what do you do w h e n " Reinforced behavior, 1 6 - 1 7
questions, 2 1 2 - 2 1 3 Responsibility, see Self-Regulation Si
answers at least one "why do" question Responsibility
correctly, 2 0 8 - 2 0 9 Rhymes
c o m m e n t s that something is not working when completes lines of familiar rhymes or songs,
e x p e c t e d effects are not produced, 2 0 7 274-275
c o m p l e t e s sequences of colors or shapes, 2 1 1 hand rhymes, 2 9 - 3 0
c o m p l e t e s two analogies, 2 1 5 - 2 1 6 independently says or acts out part of r h y m e s
describes n e w uses for familiar objects, 2 1 8 or songs, 2 7 3 - 2 7 4
describes similarities between two different joins in saying nursery rhymes, 2 7 3 - 2 7 4
objects, 2 1 8 - 2 1 9 m a k e s rhymes to simple words, 2 6 7
describes simple absurdities seen in pictures notices and reacts to changes in familiar
or in real life, 2 1 4 rhymes, songs, or stories, 2 7 4 - 2 7 5
e x p e r i m e n t s with cause and effect when says or sings at least two nursery rhymes or
playing, 2 0 5 - 2 0 6 songs in a group with an adult, 2 7 3 - 2 7 4
finds i t e m s that go together when asked, sings complete nursery songs or says c o m p l e t e
" W h i c h one goes with this?," 2 1 0 - 2 1 1 rhymes of four to six lines, 2 7 4 - 2 7 5
identifies missing parts in pictures, 2 1 6 sings songs or says rhymes of 1 0 - 1 5 lines,
identifies silly or wrong pictures or events, 274 275
209-210 Role playing, see Functional Use of Objects Si
imagines and describes what will happen next Symbolic Play
in unfamiliar story or picture, 2 1 6 - 2 1 7 Rules
independently explores objects to determine explains social conventions or rules to peers,
t h e i r functions and/or shows other people 305-306
h o w they work, 2 0 8 follows rules given by adults for new activities
independently nests four containers, or stacks or simple games, 90
rings or blocks of graduated sizes, 2 0 6 - 2 0 7 plans/creates games that have rules with peers,
reasons about experiences and asks and 113
a n s w e r s questions, 2 1 7 - 2 1 8 Running, see Upright: Posture Si Locomotion
reasons about future events, 2 1 9
responds appropriately to "tell me h o w " or
" h o w do y o u " questions, 2 1 4 - 2 1 5 Safety precautions, 25
tells h o w an object is used when asked, "What avoids c o m m o n dangers, 8 7 - 8 8
do y o u do with this?," 2 1 1 - 2 1 2 Sameness of surroundings, 18
INDEX 435
Security precautions, 25 uses napkin without prompting to wipe messy

Self-Concept, 1 1 5 - 1 2 6 face while eating, 147
adaptations for children with motor, visual, or washes and dries hands and face without
hearing impairments, 116 assistance, 1 4 6 - 1 4 7
answers correctly when asked if he or she is a washes self with washcloth, 146
boy or a girl, 1 1 9 - 1 2 0 Self-Help: Toileting, 1 5 1 - 1 5 6
describes own feelings, 1 2 1 - 1 2 2 adaptations for children with motor, visual, or
identifies own strengths and abilities, 1 2 5 - 1 2 6 hearing impairments, 1 5 1 - 1 5 2
knows age, 1 1 8 - 1 1 9 cares for self at toilet, 155
makes positive statements about self, 1 1 7 - 1 1 8 has bowel movement when placed on toilet,
seeks activities that challenge skills, 125 153-154
is selective about what tasks he or she will or seldom has toileting accidents, 155
will not try, 120 tears toilet tissue and flushes toilet after use,
shows guilt or shame over accidents or 155-156
prohibited behavior, 1 2 0 - 1 2 1 urinates when placed on toilet, 153
shows interest in own body, 123 - 1 2 4 uses toilet by self, except for cleaning after
shows interest in own clothing and appearance, bowel movement, 155
124-125 usually indicates need to toilet, 154
shows pride in achievements, 117 wipes self after bowel movement, 156
talks about own feelings in relation to events, Self-Regulation Si Responsibility, 8 5 - 9 4
123 adaptations for children with motor, visual, or
tells own first name, 119 hearing impairments, 86
tells what eyes, ears, and nose are used for, adapts readily to changes in routine, 9 0 - 9 1
122-123 answers questions related to safety, 91
Self-control, 24 answers telephone appropriately and calls
see also Self-Regulation &. Responsibility person to telephone, 94
Self-Help: Dressing, 1 3 5 - 1 4 1 avoids c o m m o n dangers, 8 7 - 8 8
adaptations for children with motor, visual, or buys simple objects in store without help, 93
hearing impairments, 1 3 5 - 1 3 6 follows rules given by adults for new activities
buttons clothing, 140 or simple games, 90
dresses and undresses with little assistance, knows what toys can and cannot do and uses
140 them appropriately, 8 8 - 8 9
independently puts on coat, 139 performs simple chores, 92
puts on all clothings unaided, except for plays comfortably in a small group of children,
fasteners, 138 88
puts on simple clothing, 138 puts toys away neatly when asked, 89
removes coat, 1 3 7 - 1 3 8 responds appropriately to instructions given in
removes shoes, 137 a small group, 93
undoes fasteners, 139 shows care in handling small animals or
zips front-opening clothing, 141 potentially breakable objects, 9 1 - 9 2
Self-Help: Eating, 1 2 7 - 1 3 3 Sensory development, 2 7 - 2 8
adaptations for children with motor, visual, or Singing
hearing impairments, 1 2 7 - 1 2 8 role in child development, 29
begins to use fork, 129 says or sings at least two nursery rhymes or
drinks from small glass held with one hand, songs in a group with an adult, 2 7 3 - 2 7 4
129-130 sings complete nursery songs or says complete
gets drink unassisted, 130 rhymes of four to six lines, 2 7 4 - 2 7 5
holds fork in fingers, 132 sings songs or says rhymes of 1 0 - 1 5 lines,
independently drinks from water fountain, 132 274-275
independently fixes bowl of dry cereal with Size differentiation, see Concepts/Vocabulary:
milk, 131 Receptive Skill mastery criterion, 3 8 , 41
independently fixes sandwich, 133 Skipping/galloping, see Upright: Posture Si
pours liquid from one container into another, Locomotion
130-131 Somersault, see Upright: Balance
swallows food in mouth before taking another Songs, see Attention Si Memory: Auditory,-
bite, 131 Singing
Self-Help: Grooming, 1 4 3 - 1 4 9 Sorting, see Visual Perception: Matching Si
adaptations for children with motor, visual, or Sorting
hearing impairments, 1 4 3 - 1 4 4 Spastic cerebral palsy, 8
blows nose independently on request, 149 Speech disorders, play activities with other
brushes teeth independently, 1 4 7 - 1 4 8 children, 4 2 3
brushes teeth with assistance, 1 4 5 - 1 4 6 Stairs, see Upright: Posture Si Locomotion
dries hands, 145 Standing, see Upright: Balance
gets tissue to wipe nose without reminder, 148 Stimulation, providing appropriate amount of,
runs brush or comb through hair, 148 27-28
Symbolic play, see Functional U s e of Objects & stands on either leg, maintaining stable posture
Symbolic Play with hands on hips and opposite knee bent
(10 seconds), 3 9 6
stands on tiptoes with hands overhead for 2
Tasks, breaking down into smaller steps, 1 7 - 1 8 seconds, maintaining stable posture, 3 9 4
Teachers, references for, 6 - 7 stands on tiptoes with hands overhead for 8
Teaching principles, 1 3 - 2 2 seconds, maintaining stable posture, 3 9 5
allows quiet time, 19 stands sideways with both feet on balance
applies learning experiences to daily routines, 19 beam with stable posture, 391
breaks tasks into smaller steps, 1 7 - 1 8 stands with stable posture on one leg with
makes consequences effective, 1 6 - 1 7 hands on hips and opposite knee bent ( 1 - 2
motivates children, by following the child's seconds), 3 9 3
lead, 1 4 - 1 5 takes three to five steps on balance beam,
provides choices, 1 5 - 1 6 maintaining balance, 3 9 5
provides play activities, 14 walks along 10-foot line, following the general
provides sameness and change, 18 direction of the line, 3 9 2
uses clear language, 19 walks along 10-foot line, keeping feet on the
Telephone skills line and maintaining balance, 3 9 5
answers telephone appropriately and calls walks 5 feet on balance beam with one foot on
person to telephone, 94 the balance beam and the other on the
talks on telephone and waits for turn to floor, 3 9 2
respond, 2 9 8 - 2 9 9 walks full length of balance beam, maintaining
"Terrible twos," 15 balance, 3 9 6
Throwing, see Upright: Ball Play walks full length of balance beam with hands
Ties knots, 3 4 6 on hips, maintaining balance, 3 9 7
Tiptoeing, see Upright: Posture & Locomotion walks three steps on balance beam and
Toileting, see Self-Help: Toileting maintains balance, 3 9 3
Tool Use, 3 5 1 - 3 5 7 Upright: Ball Play, 3 9 9 - 4 0 5
adaptations for children with motor, visual, or adaptations for children with motor, visual, or
hearing impairments, 3 5 1 - 3 5 2 hearing impairments, 3 9 9 - 4 0 0
cuts with edge of fork, 3 5 5 catches 8-inch ball with arms in front of body
holds bowl and stirs, 3 5 3 from an adult who is 5 feet away, 4 0 2
spreads with knife, 3 5 4 - 3 5 5 catches 8-inch ball with elbows bent and arms
transfers material with spoon, 3 5 4 at sides from an adult who is 6 feet away,
uses clothespin to transfer small objects, 3 5 7 405
uses fork and knife to cut soft materials, 3 5 7 catches 8-inch ball with elbows bent from an
uses h a m m e r to pound in nails, 3 5 6 adult who is 5 feet away, 4 0 3
uses hammer to pound pegs in pounding bench, catches 3-inch ball with elbows bent and arms
353-354 at sides from an adult who is 7 feet away,
uses rolling pin to flatten dough, 3 5 5 405
uses tongs to transfer materials, 3 5 6 catches 3-inch ball with elbows bent from an
Toys adult who is 5 feet away, 4 0 4
knows what toys can and cannot do and uses kicks ball 4 - 6 feet, 4 0 3
them appropriately, 8 8 - 8 9 kicks ball 1 2 - 1 5 feet, 4 0 4
manipulative, 2 6 - 2 7 throws 8-inch ball overhand to an adult who is
negotiates with peers about toys, 98 10 feet away, 4 0 4 - 4 0 5
puts toys away neatly when asked, 89 throws 8-inch ball to an adult who is 9 feet
uses toy animals or dolls to act out "What away, 4 0 3
would happen if. . . ? , " 2 0 0 - 2 0 1 throws 3-inch ball overhand to an adult who is
uses words to describe attributes of toys, foods, 10 feet away, 4 0 4
or other objects, 2 9 9 throws 3-inch ball to an adult who is 9 feet
Turn taking, see Interpersonal Skills away, 4 0 2
throws 3-inch ball to an adult who is 7 feet
away, 4 0 1
Upright: Balance, 3 8 9 - 3 9 7 Upright: Outdoor Play, 4 0 7 - 4 1 3
balances with stable posture on preferred leg climbs on low jungle gym bars and will drop
with hands on hips and opposite knee bent several inches to the ground, 4 0 9 - 4 1 0
(5 seconds), 3 9 4 climbs vertical ladders, 4 1 0
does one somersault, keeping body moving, 3 9 6 enjoys unsteady surfaces and tries to make
does two somersaults in a row, maintaining them move, 4 1 1
forward progression, 3 9 7 invents cooperative games involving
stands on either leg, maintaining stable posture equipment, 4 1 2
with hands on hips and opposite knee bent moves actively in play areas, 411
(8 seconds), 3 9 5 pedals tricycle at least 10 feet, 4 1 1
INDEX 437
pumps swing, 4 1 2 walks up three stairs, alternate pattern, with

rides two-wheel bicycle, 4 1 3 rail, 3 7 7 - 3 7 8
runs on playground, pausing at surface changes, walks up three stairs, alternate pattern,
409 without rail, 3 7 9
runs vigorously in play areas, 4 1 2
walks on movable surfaces using s o m e hand
support, 4 1 0 Verb form, see G r a m m a t i c a l Structure
Upright: Posture & Locomotion, 3 7 1 - 3 8 8 Verbal Comprehension, 2 7 9 - 2 8 9
avoids obstacles when running, 3 7 8 - 3 7 9 follows directions including "before" and
broad jumps at least 36 inches, 3 8 7 "after," 2 8 9
broad jumps 4 inches to 14 inches, 3 8 0 follows instructions that include four
broad jumps 14 inches to 24 inches, 3 8 3 elements, 2 8 9
broad jumps 24 inches to 36 inches, 3 8 5 follows three-part commands, 2 8 1 - 2 8 2
gallops five cycles, 3 8 1 follows three-part instructions in sequence
hops five times on preferred foot, three t i m e s involving two to three different objects,
on nonpreferred foot, 3 8 5 - 3 8 6 286
hops forward 16 inches on preferred foot, 12 follows two-part related commands in novel
inches on nonpreferred foot, 3 8 8 contexts, 2 8 1 - 2 8 2
hops once in place, 3 8 2 follows two-step commands involving
hops two to three t i m e s on preferred foot, 3 8 4 sequence, 2 8 4 - 2 8 5
jumps down from 8-inch height, 3 7 7 on verbal direction, sorts objects on the basis of
jumps down from 18-inch to 2 4 - i n c h height, two characteristics, 2 8 8
383 points to pictures or selects objects from a
jumps down from 16-inch to 18-inch height, 3 8 0 group based on object class and two
jumps down from 3 2 - i n c h height, 3 8 7 characteristics, 2 8 7
jumps down from 2 4 - i n c h to 3 0 - i n c h height, responds appropriately to statements or
384 questions involving regular plurals,
jumps on floor, completing 180-degree turn in 286-287
one jump, 3 8 8 responds to yes/no questions w i t h appropriate
jumps over 8-inch hurdle, 3 8 3 words or gestures, 2 8 3
jumps over several 8-inch obstacles in sorts by color on verbal direction, 2 8 4
succession, 3 8 5 sorts by named categories, 2 8 5 - 2 8 6
jumps over 2-inch hurdle, 3 7 9 - 3 8 0 understands negatives, 2 8 3 - 2 8 4
jumps 3 inches beyond arms' reach, 3 8 6 Visual impairments, adaptations for
runs at least 50 feet in 10 seconds, 3 8 6 Attention t\ Memory: Auditory, 2 7 2
runs at least 10 feet without falling, 3 7 6 - 3 7 7 Attention &. Memory: Visual/Spatial, 158
runs, changing direction 180 degrees within Bilateral Skills, 3 4 2
four to eight steps, 3 8 7 - 3 8 8 Concepts/Vocabulary: Expressive, 2 5 8
runs with some periods of flight, 3 8 1 Concepts/Vocabulary: Receptive, 2 3 8
skips at least 15 cycles w i t h r h y t h m i c weight Conversation Skills, 2 7 2
transfer, 3 8 7 emergent literacy skills, 3 3 - 3 4
skips five cycles, pausing between skips, Functional Use of Objects & Symbolic Play,
383-384 193-194
skips 5 - 1 0 cycles, coordinated step-hop, 3 8 6 G r a m m a t i c a l Structure, 3 0 8
takes three to four steps on tiptoes, 3 7 6 Grasp & Manipulation, 3 3 4
uses h e e l - t o e pattern, 3 7 6 grouping with other children, 20
walks at least 20 feet on tiptoes, 3 7 8 Imitation: Motor, 3 2 7 - 3 2 8
walks backward 10 feet, 3 7 5 Imitation: Vocal, 3 2 2
walks down 10 stairs, alternate pattern, with Interpersonal Skills, 96
rail, 3 8 5 N u m b e r Concepts, 2 2 2
walks down 10 stairs, alternate pattern, Problem Solving/Reasoning, 2 0 4
without rail, 3 8 8 Self-Concept, 116
walks down 10 stairs, same-step foot Self-Help: Dressing, 136
placement, without rail, 3 8 2 - 3 8 3 Self-Help: Eating, 128
walks down three stairs, alternate pattern, with Self-Help: Grooming, 144
rail, 3 8 4 - 3 8 5 Self-Help: Toileting, 1 5 1 - 1 5 2
walks down three stairs, same-step foot Self-Regulation t\ Responsibility, 86
placement, without rail, 3 7 9 Tool Use, 351
walks on all types of surfaces without falling, Upright: Balance, 3 8 9
375 Upright: Ball Play, 3 9 9
walks 10 feet on tiptoes on 1 -inch line, Upright: Outdoor Play, 4 0 8
380-381 Upright: Posture t\ Locomotion, 3 7 3
walks up 10 stairs, same-step foot placement, Verbal Comprehension, 2 8 0
without rail, 3 8 2 - 3 8 3 Visual-Motor Skills, 3 5 9
Visual impairments, adaptations for—continued imitates horizontal b l o c k patterns of four to s i x

Visual Perception: Blocks Si Puzzles, 172 blocks, 1 7 6 - 1 7 7
Visual Perception: M a t c h i n g Si Sorting, 182 imitates horizontal b l o c k patterns of two and
Visual-Motor Skills, 3 5 9 - 3 6 9 three blocks, 1 7 6 - 1 7 7
adaptations for children with motor, visual, or places round, square, and triangular forms in
hearing impairments, 3 5 9 - 3 6 0 reversed form board, 173
copies a circle, 3 6 3 - 3 6 4 puts together puzzle w i t h four or five
copies a circle with a circular scribble, 3 6 2 interconnected pieces, 1 7 5 - 1 7 6
copies a cross, 3 6 4 puts together two-piece puzzles, 174
copies a square, 3 6 6 - 3 6 7 reproduces simple block designs from memory,
l
cuts on a straight line, staying within A inch of 179
the line, 3 6 5 Visual Perception: Matching Si Sorting, 1 8 1 - 1 9 1
cuts out a 4-inch circle, 3 6 7 - 3 6 8 adaptations for children with motor, visual, or
cuts out a 4-inch square, 3 6 6 - 3 6 7 hearing impairments, 1 8 1 - 1 8 2
cuts out pictures following general shape, 3 6 9 identifies object or picture that does not belong
draws a person with a head and at least one in group of objects, and selects the object
feature, 3 6 4 - 3 6 5 that does belong, 1 9 0 - 1 9 1
draws a person with a head and eight features, m a t c h e s at least eight geometric shapes,
368 187-188
draws a person with a head and four features, m a t c h e s geometric designs, 1 8 5 - 1 8 6
365-366 matches lowercase letters, 190
draws simple representational pictures, 3 6 7 m a t c h e s n a m e and short words, 191
imitates horizontal stroke, 361 m a t c h e s numbers 0 - 9 , 189
m a k e s continuous cut across paper, 3 6 3 m a t c h e s pictures based on relationships, 187
pretends to write, 3 6 2 m a t c h e s primary colors, 184
snips with scissors, 3 6 2 - 3 6 3 m a t c h e s uppercase letters, 186
traces outline of simple stencil, 3 6 8 selects pictures to complete simple picture
Visual Perception: Blocks Si Puzzles, 1 7 1 - 1 7 9 analogies, 1 8 9 - 1 9 0
adaptations for children w i t h motor, visual, or selects pictures to group with other pictures
hearing impairments, 172 based on functional relationships, 188
builds representationally w i t h blocks, 178 sorts by shape, 1 8 4 - 1 8 5
completes 8- to 12-piece interconnected sorts by size, 183
puzzles, 177 sorts by two characteristics, 185
completes 15- to 25-piece interconnected Vocabulary
puzzles, 1 7 8 - 1 7 9 for reading aloud, 31
imitates horizontal block patterns of two and see also Concepts/Vocabulary: Expressive
three blocks, 1 7 6 - 1 7 7 Vocal c o m m u n i c a t i o n , see C o m m u n i c a t i o n
imitates block bridge, 175 Skills; Imitation: Vocal
imitates b l o c k building, 1 7 4 - 1 7 5
imitates b l o c k train, 1 7 3 - 1 7 4
imitates construction of a simple visual pattern Walking, see Upright: Balance; Upright: Posture
using parquetry blocks, 1 7 7 - 1 7 8 Si L o c o m o t i o n

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The Carolina Curriculum

Nancy M. Johnson-Martin, Ph.D.

Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.

Copyright © 2 0 0 4 by Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., Inc.

"Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co." is a registered trademark of

Typeset by Barton Matheson Willse &. Worthington, Baltimore, Maryland.

T h e following Carolina Curriculum products can be purchased separately:

Please visit http://wvvw.brookespublishing.com/ccupdates for more information on these products. To

Third printing, September 2 0 0 7 .

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

THREE Enviionnitntai Factors Influencing Learning,

Sequence 1 Self-Regulation &. Responsibility 85

Sequence 5 Attention & Memory: Visual/Spatial 157

Sequence 1 0 Concepts/Vocabulary: Receptive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

Sequence 13 Verbal Comprehension 279

Sequence 17 Imitation: Motor . 327

Sequence 22-1 Upright: Posture ck Locomotion .........371

Appendix A Selected Impairments and Their Effects on Development . . 417

Bonnie J. Hacker, M.H.S., O T R / L , is an occupational therapist with more than 25

Susan M. Attermeier, Ph.D., PT, is a pediatric physical therapist in private practice

WHAT IS THE CCPSN APPROACH?

T h e CCPSN, like the C C I T S N , links assessment to intervention through hierar-

2. T h e curriculum approaches atypical development in two ways. First, the items

4. T h e curriculum is developmental, with items drawn from standard develop-

WHAT IS INCLUDED IN THE CCPSN?

T h e C C P S N has been designed to provide a systematic approach for developing in-

W H A T HAS C H A N G E D IN THIS REVISION?

Increased Emphasis on Functional Activities

Table 1 . 1 . Developmental domains and the sequences of the CCPSN

1. Self-Regulation & Responsibility 13. Verbal Comprehension

Cognition Fine Motor

5. Attention & Memory: Visual/Spatial 17. Imitation: Motor

Cognition/Communication Gross Motor

10. Concepts/Vocabulary: Receptive 22-I. Upright: Posture & Locomotion

Emphasis on Emergent Literacy

• Metalinguistic awareness: Metalinguistic awareness refers to the ability to re-

References for P a r e n t s and T e a c h e r s

conditions, their effects on development, specific tips for interventionists or class-

FOR WHOM IS THE CCPSN INTENDED?

T h e C C P S N was originally designed to be used by teachers and child care workers

HOW ARE ITEMS ORGANIZED IN THE CCPSN?

WHAT IS THE ROLE OF THIS C U R R I C U L U M ?

Impossible and undesirable to develop a curriculum that has modifications for

REFERENCES AND RESOURCES

Print/hook awareness Copies words

Orients book correctly (i.e., Recalls one word from a

Recognizes simple words in Describes an event with a

Relates story to own life Has sustained conversations

T he goal of the C C P S N is to provide assistance to preschool teachers, child

Offering choices is important to remember not only as a way of managing be-

MAKE CONSEQUENCES COUNT

One of the most fundamental precepts of learning is that behaviors followed by a

Guidelines for M a k i n g C o n s e q u e n c e s Effective

9. When children begin to understand language, the effectiveness of consequences

PROVIDE SAMENESS AND C H A N G E

BUILD LEARNING EXPERIENCES INTO DAILY ROUTINES

A child learns in all domains of development, every day. Although development

USE CLEAR LANGUAGE

Do Not Talk Over

ALLOW QUIET TIME

GROUP CHILDREN FOR OPTIMAL LEARNING

population of children, there is considerable variability in the emergence of particu-

STRUCTURE AN INCLUSIVE CLASSROOM