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    Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plant

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    Lavya

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    an SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS NEET SYLLABUS ‘Sexual reproduction in flowering plants : Flower structure; Development of male and female gametophytes: Pollination-types, agencies and examples; Outbreeding devices; Pollen-Pisil interaction; Double fertilization; Post fertilization events-Development of endosperm and embryo, Development of seed and formation of fruit: Special modes-apomixjs, parthenocarpy, polvembryony; Significance of seed and fruit formation. may Bilgy SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS i 3 STRUCTURE OF A FLOWER = Prof. P. Maheshwari ~ Father of Indian plant Embryology. He wrote a book — & Introduction to the Embryology of Angiosperms’.»" Magnum opus" = Floriculture - Science of cultivation, breeding and marketing of flowers. >0eui b ~>Stliqua {© Most of the important angiospermic characters are found in Capsella (Shepherd's purse) and it is easily available so that itis considered as a “Typical Angiosperm’. COUciterat /Brarricaceas © Iti an annual plant and grows as a weed during the winter season in the field. ‘© The main plant body of the Capsella is a sporophyte (diploid) and it is differentiated into reet, stem and leaves. _ © _Capselia is a heterosporous plant, it means two different types of spores are formed in the life cycle which 4 are classified into two categories in which male spores are called microspores and female spores are called megaspores. ‘© Flowers are object of aesthetic, ornamental, social, religious and cultural values. ‘According to Goethe, Flower is a modified shoot. Flower has a stalk called pedicel. Free endof the pedicel is flattened or dome shaped which is called thalamus. The thalamus is a type of modified stem, on which nodes and internodes are present. "© Nodes are present very close to each other because internodes are small, highly reduced in the thalamus. "© The whorls present in the flower are the modifications of leaves and these are arranged in four circles on the thalamus, ‘© The four nodes are present on the thalamus, in which first modified leaves (calyx) are attached on the first lower most node. of Pre-Medical ‘© The corolla born on the second node, androecium is present on the third node and gynoecium on the fourth node in uppermost position. © Insome of the plants the lenath of internode increases, between the calyx and corolla and is calle anthophore eg, Silene plant, Dianthus of the length of internode between the corolla and androecium increases then it is called androphore e.g. Passiflora. ‘ © Ifthe internode between the androecium and aynoecium increases, then its called gynophore. e.g. Capparis, “© If both androphore and gynophore are present in the same flower, then it is called gynandrophore or androgynophore. e.g. Gynandropsis pentaphyla and Cleome gynandra. *© Sepals are also modified vegetative leaves. In Mussaenda flower, one sepal of calyx is modified into leaf lke bright and attractive yellow coloured structure which is called “Advertising flag’. It helps in pollination “© Onthe basis of above examples, we can prove that "Flower is a modified shoot’. MONOCARPIC PLANTS } “© The plants in which flowering and fruiting takes place only once in the whole life span are called monocarpic e.g. Annual & Biennial plants. POLYCARPIC PLANTS : The plants in which flowering and fruiting takes place many times in their entire life span are known as polycarpic e.g. Perennial plants, EXCEPTIONS : Bamboo, century plant (Agave american) are perennial plants but they are the examples of monocarpic plants Bamboo species flower only once in their life time generally after 50-100 years, produce large number of fruits and die. Strobilanthus kunthiana (Neelakuranji) flowers once in 12 years. It flowered during sep.-oct. 2006. Its mass flowering transformed large tracks of hilly areas in Kerala, Karnataka and Tamilnadu into blue stretches and attracted a large number of tourists. "Reproduction is one of the important processes by which every living organism makes a copy of itself. Itis the means of multiplication of species because the older individuals of each species undergo senescence and die” Alllthe reproductive methods of plants are broadly categorised into two types - 1. Sexual Reproduction 2. Asexual Reproduction PRE-FERTILIZATION STRUCTURES AND EVENTS To a biologist, flowers are morphological and embryological marvels and site of sexual reproduction, Intron an aceNa NC Ns RHEE eg. led vas = Male R ive whorl - An Male reproductive organ is called androecium and their unit is called stamen. Stamen is also known as microsporophyll. A typical stamen is differentiated into two parts along, thin structure i called filament. The proximal end of filament joins the stamen to the thalamus or petal. At the free end or distal end of the filament, a swollen micro-spore bearing structure is present which is called anther. Anther and filament or two anther lobes are attached together with help of small region, called connective. Connective contains vascular tissues. The main part of stamen is the anther. é Each anther is generally bilobed structure i.e, anther has two anther lobes and each lobe of anther has two theca, itis called dithecous. Pollen grains Middle layer Microsporangia Endothecium T.S. of anther, showing four microsporangia and anther walls (b) Three-dimensional cut section of an anther ‘© Atypical anther has four microsporangia which develops into pollen sacs, itis tetrasporangiate. “© Pollen grains are formed inside the pollen sac through the meiotic division of pollen mother cells. “© In Capselia, winich is member of the Cruciferae or Brassicaceae, anthers are dithecous and tetrasporangiate type. “© Butin Malvaceae, the anther is monothecous and bisporangiate. STRUCTURE OF ANTHER = In the transverse section of anther, it is seen almost tetragonal and microsporangium appears near circular in outline. The following structures are present in the anther - (i) —_Epidermis :- It is the outermost layer of anther. It is single celled thick layer. It forms the outermost protective layer. (i) Endothecium (Fibrous layer) - This layers present below the epidermis. Itis single celled thick layer. During the maturation of anther, various changes take place indifferent walls of cells of endothecium. The ‘outer wall ofthese cells remain thin, but inner walls and radial walls become thick due to thickening of o cellulose fibers. Callose bands are also present along the radial walls. At some places callose bands and fibrous thickenings are absent. These places are called stomium. The dehiscence of anther takes place only from these places. Endothecium becomes hygroscopic in nature duc to presence of fibrous thickening. It helps in dehiscence of anther. SS 8 Pre-Medical (A) TS of young anther (B) Enlarged view of one microsporangium Microspore mother calls T. 8. of a young anther showing microsporangium (iii) Middle layer :- Middle layer consist of parenchymatous vells. This layer is one to three celled thick structure, Food is stored by parenchymatous cells in ths layer. Middle layer is ephemeral (Short lived) in nature and absent in a mature anther. iv) Tapetum :- It is the inner most layer which acts as nutritive layer. This is single layered thick. The cells of the tapetum are intially diploid but they become polyploid and multinucleate due to endomitosis and free nuclear division respectively, ~ ‘Tapetum absorbs food from the middle layers and provide nutrition to the microspore mother cells or developing microspores. The tapetum disappears in the mature anther. Before degeneration of cells of tapetum, they form special granules called Proubisch bodies in cytoplasm. Here they are surrounded by sporopollenin. Now they are called Ubisch bodies or orbicules. At last tapetum degenerates and ubisch bodies are released into pollen sacs. Ubisch bodies (sporopollenin) participate in the formation of outer covering (exine) of pollen grains. Functions of Tapetum :- (1) Tapetum provides nutrition to the MMC or PMC and Developing pollens. (2) Secretion of enzyme and hormone. (8) Secretion of sporopollenin. (4) Formation of ubisch bodies. (5) Secretion of pollenkitt substances. “Pollen sacs : Four pollen sacs are present in the anther. Inside the pollen sacs, microspores (pollen grains) are formed by the meiotic division of microspore mother cells (pollen mother cells). ‘As the each cell of sporogenous tissue is capable of giving rise to a microspore tetrad. § Each one is a potential pollen mother cell or microspore mother cell (PMC) In Pcp mera: nan ens «The anther appears as outgrowth like structure in the initial stage which shows spherical or oval shaped structure. or _Atthis stage, itis a mass of meristematic cells which is surrounded by a single celled thick outer layer. This layer is known as epidermis. First of all vascular tissues are formed in middle region. Simultaneously group of cells which are located just below the epidermis in vertical rows of hypodermal region at the four corners become large. These cells are called archesporial cells. ‘ “© — Archesporial cells divide periclinally to form primary parietal cells and primary sporogenous cells. Primary sporogenous cell Meristematic Procambial cas T. 8. of young anther Differentiated svand archesporial cells Differentiated primary parietal cells and primary sporogenous cells “© Primary parietal cells undergo further periclinal and anticlinal division to form a series of 3-5 layers making the walls of the anther. i.e. endothecium, middle layers and tapetum. q ‘© The primary sporogenous cells divide by mitotic divisions to form sporogenous cells or sporogenous tissue and later sporogenous cells differentiate into microspore mother cells. “© Each microspore mother cell or cell of sporogenous tissue divides to form four haploid microspore or t pollen grain by meiotic division or reduction division, this process is called microsporogenesis. ‘© At the initial stage all four microspores are attached together with the help of callose layer. This group of microspores is called tetrad. After some time, this callose layer is dissolved by callase enzyme, a which is secreted by tapetum, © _ During this period spherical bodies are formed inside the tapetal cells before their disintegration. These spherical z bodies are known as Ubisch bodies. Ubisch body is mainly made up of a complex substance Fo : 2 sporopollenin. It is a polymer of carotenoids. 4 se After the formation of ubisch body, the tapetum layer degenerates. Ubisch bodies participate in the formation of exine of the microspores inside the pollen sacs. Now thick walled microspores are called pollen grains, i We Reabedral Decussate T-Shaped Linear 3 E (Dicots) (Monocots) POLLEN TETRADS OF ANGIOSPERM cm the aboue pes of Wprads are found in Aristolochia elegans. paint Most common type of tetrad is tetrahedral 96 Pre-Medical Some facts about polidn grains - (1) TRANSLATOR APPARATUS : In Asclepiadaceae (Calotropis) and Orchidaceae family, the pollen grains joined together to form bag like "Pollinium”, Pollinium of Calotropis is constituent of "Translator apparatus” ‘Translator locating paired polinia ag KER adhesive, boded dis) A (2) POLYSPORY : If more than four pollen grains are found in tetrad then it is called "Polyspory" e.g. Cuscuta. (3) AERO-ALLERGENS : Pollen grains of some plants which are present in the air cause allergy and are called "aero allergens” e.g. Chenopodium, Parthenium(Carrot grass), Sorghum and Amaranthus. |"Hay fever" is caused by pollens of Ambrosia.] In some people allergic pollens cause chronic respiratory disorders - Asthama, Bronchitis etc. Parthenium that came into India as a contaminant with imported wheat has become ubiquitous in occurrence. (4) POLLEN TABLETS & SYRUPS : Pollen grains of many plants are rich in nutrients, It has become a fashion in recent years to use pollen tablets as food supplements. In western countries, a large number of pollen products in the form of tablets and syrups are availabe in the market, Pollen consumption +has been claimed to increase the performance of athletes and race horses. In Cyperaceae family only one functional pollen grain is formed from a pollen mother cell, ¢.., Cyperus. (6) Largest pollen : Mirabilis. (7) Smallest pollen : Myosotis, (5) (8) Longest pollen : Zostera (Sea grasses) Filiform pollen or filamentous pollen grain. Pollen grain long, ribbon like, without exine. (9) NEMEC PHENOMENON : Eight nucleated embryo sac type of pollen is found in Hyacinthus, [This type of pollen grain was discovered by Nemec. So it is called Nemec phenomenon} (10) VIABILITY OF POLLEN GRAINS : In some cereals such as rice and wheat, pollen grains lose viability within 30 minutes of their release, and in some members of Rosaceae, Leguminoseae and Solanaceae, they maintain viability for months. The period for which pollen grains remain viable is highly variable and to some extent depends on the prevailing temperature and humidity. IM comm eanc aac sci enovicoe. ee SORA RERERICTER ONCE es 3 : ; { 3 | : i 3 of vce One MINCE HOLE EBSA HMECUCTENSOTEERS - biology (ly) POLLEN BANKS : It is possible to store pollen grains of a large number of species for years in liquid nitrogen (-196°C). Such stored pollen can be used as pollen banks, similar to seed banks, in crop breeding programmes. Rena ace cea RSa Polen gjains are generally spherical, measuring about 25-50 micrometers in diameter. Pollen grains sunounded by two distinct wall Iayers. The outer wall ayers thick, rigid and ornamented, called exine, This layer is formed mainly by sporopollenin. ‘Sporopollenin is highly resistant organic material. It is nonbiodegradable. It can withstand high temperatures, strong acids and alkali. No enzyme that degrades sporopollenin is so far known. Due to the presence of sporopollenin, fossils: of pollen grains are always found in good condition. By ‘the presence of fossils of pollen grains one can forecast ti presence of natural resources like petroleum, coals etc. in the earth. ‘The inner wall of pollen grain is thin, soft and elastic in nature. It is called intine. Itis made up of pectin and cellulose or pecto- cellulose. At few places exine is usually absent or present n the form of thin ayer. These places are called germ pores. ‘The inte comes out through the any one germ pore during the germination of pollen grain in the form of pollen tube. ‘The number of germpore, structure and ornamentation of exine sa significant feature of axonom ‘A detail study of pollen grains is called Palynology. “Three germpores(Lens/lt type or crulr) are presentin pollen grain of most ofthe ceots (Capselta). This, type of pllen grains are called tricolpate. Only one germ pore (Germinal arr) 's present in monocots and pollen grain is called monocolpate. “The plants in which polination takes place by inseets, thelr pollen grains have olly Laver around the pollen «rain which is called pollen-kit. It's composed of lipids or carotenoids. €9- Capsella Functions of pollen kitt :- {_Thisolly layer protects the pollen grain from the harmful ultraviolet rays (i) tssticky surface helps to attach with the insects (ii) Its yellow colour attracts the insects. Pollen kitt is present on the pollens of Capsella. During the maturation of anther, various changes take place in the walls of anther. Inthe beginning, middle layer degenerates due to absorption of food by tapetum. Connectie _Endothecium {Wascuar tse) Epidermis Pollen sac 7 PreMed = El Ce - !namature anther only two layers epidermis and endothecium are present inthe form of outer covering, ‘* The sterile tissues present between both the pollen sacs of each anther lobe degenerate. So both pollen sacs of the each anther lobe fuse together to form single pollen sac Therefore, in the mature anther only two pollen sacs are present. "© Dehiscence of anther takes place during the dry season, Loss of wate takes place from the cells of endothecium indry season ‘* Walls of endothecial cells try to contract due tothe loss of water but inner and radial walls do not contract due to presence of fibrous thickening whereas outer thin walls of endothecium cells contract and become concave or incurved. ‘* _Incurving of outer wals exert pulling force or tension over the entire surface of anther. Due to pulling force or fension, thin welled stomial cells breaks off and dehiscence of antier takes place and pollen grains present in pollen sacs released into the atmosphere. ‘* Dehiscence of anther in most ofthe Angiosperms is longitudinal. Dehiscence of anther of Capsellais longitudinal USCA Ne KCC RAL TOG ROS eae ate ats W) Post Pollination development - 'n flowering plants, microspore or pollen grain is considered as first cell of male gametophyte. Partial germination or development of polen grain starts before dehiscence of anther (before polation), Development of pollen also takes place at mother place [means inside pollensac of athe itis called In-situ development. @® Pre Pollination development - In the beginning ofthis process, nucleus of pollen grain divides by unequal mitotic division, resulting {wo unequal sized nucleus ae formed. Smalll nucleus which is present near the walls called generative ‘nucleus and large irregular shaped nucleus which is present inside the cytoplasm is called tube nucleus or vegetative nucleus, Both the nuclei are surrounded by cytoplasm and it becomes dense, then followed by unequal eytokinesis, resulting two cells of unequal size are formed. Jarger cell in which large nucleus is present is known as vegetative cell o tube cell and smaller ell in which small nucleus is present , called generative cell, Now pollen grains come in bicelled stage. This stage of pollen grain is calle partially developed ‘male gametophyte or mature pollen grain, In over 60% Angiosperms pollination (release of pollen grains) takes place in bicelled stage and in remaining Angiosperms pollination ‘occurs at 3-celled stage (In this generative cell divides and forms two male gametes). Now generative cell changed into vermiform or spindle shaped structure with dense cytoplasm and detached from the wall and enters inside the vegetative cel Further development of pollen grain takes place on the stigma of carpel after polation Pollens |) absorb: moisture and sugar content from the stigma, Due to this wolume of cvtoplasm increased. It exerts ‘Pressure on the both outer layers. Because of this ‘pressure intine comes out through any one germpore Inthe form of tube like structure which is called pollen tube. Biegy tng Firgtpf all vegetative nucleus enters into the pollen tube and assumes terminal [tip] position. The = spindle shaped generative cell now enters into the pollen tube. Inside the pollen tube, generative cell divides mitotically to form two non motile male gametes. Now male gametophyte becomes three celled structure in which one vegetative cell and two male gametes are present. =m um This three celled stage represents the mature male gametophyte of Angiosperm [Capsella also]. Male gametophyte of angiosperms is highly. reduced and completely depends on ue sporophyte. ve For the formation of mature pollen grain from microspore mother cell or pollen mother cell, ‘one meiotic and one mitotic divisions are required. For the formatation of mature male a gametophyte, one meiotic and two mitotic divisions are required, EMALE REPRODUCTIVE WHORL-GYNOECIUM. s Gynoecium is the female reproductive organ. The unit of gynoecium is calle pistil or carpel. Carpel is also known as megasporophyll. ‘The carpel is differentiate into three distinct regions ~ (i) Stigma tu) Styte tii] Ovary ‘The free end of the carpel which serves as landing platform for pollen grains is called stigma. A long, narrow tubular structure is present in between the stigma and ovary called style. The basal swollen [bulged] part of the carpel is called ovary. Ovarian cavity (locule) is present inside the ovary. The ovules are also known as integumented megasporangia which are borne on a cushior-lke tissue called placenta in the ovarian cavity. One Ovule (In Wheat, Paddy, Mango) is present inside the ovary or more than one ovules (In Papaya, Water melon, Orchids). Apocarpous gynoecium (free carples) - Rose, Lotus, Michelia. ‘Syncarpous gynoecium (fused carpels) - Papaver, Hibiscus | j ‘Stigma 5 3 Style Funicle Stigma Lum Ni pole (Outer integument i onc Inner integument ry Nucellus i } Embryo sac ‘Ovary Thalamus is Chalazal pole = @ © © Popa ce asi an “ei (@) Adissected flower of Hibiscus showing pistl (other fof parts have been removed); (b) Mutticarpellary, syncarpous gynoecium (pistils) of Papaver, (c) Amutticarpeliary, . g apocarpous gynoecium of Michela; (4) A diagrammatic view of atypical anatropous ovule E Se 99 eu Gr Gar Baer & ar est =| Pre-Medical mete kere) i Ovule is also known as intequmented megasporangium. Each ovule is attached to the placenta by means of a thin stalk called funicle or funiculus/funiculum The point of attachment of the funicle with the ovule is called hilum, The main region of the owule is composed of mass of parenchymatous cells with abundent reserve food | ‘materials which is called nucellus. Nucellus is the main part of ovule, The nucellis is covered by one or ‘two coats or protective envelops which are called integuments. Chalaza Nucellus, Outer integument Inner integument Raphe Antipodals ‘Central cell Embryo sac Polar nuclei 5° ie | E i ‘synergids | E99 apparatus Ae Filiform apparatus Vascular tissue Micropiie i Funiculus / Funicle / Funiculum Placonk SS ovary wat Structure of an Ovule g ~ __ Inovule of most ofthe plants, funicles attached tothe main body of ovale Tor some distance (at Tateral side) to form a ridge like structure known as Raphe, ~ Vascular tissues are present inside the funiculus which supply food material from the placenta to the body of owlle. ~ Base of the ovule is called Chalaza, ~ __Integument is absent just opposite to the chalaza, so that a narrow passage (pore) is formed which is called micropyle. ~ Occasionally in some seeds such as black pepper, beet and castor remnants of nucellus are also Peristent. This residual, persistent nucellus is the perisperm. Some filaments are attached with funicle [some times with placental are known as "Obturators"” ‘The function of obturator isto guide the passage of pollen tube towards the micropyle inside the ovary. ‘SPECIAL INTEGUMENTS - ) ARIL-Itis the type of third integument which develops from funice at the base of the ovule e.g. Muristica, Asphodelus and Litchi. (8) CARUNCLE OR STROPHIOLE - tis formed due to the proferation (out grouth) of outer integuments over the mictopyle. e.g. Ricinus communis (Castor). Its made up of sugary contents, i helps in absorption of water duting germination of seeds and dispersal of seeds occurs by ants which is called myrmecochory. TYPES OF OVULES ON THE BASIS OF INTEGUMENTS : @ _ UNTTEGMIC- A single integumented ovules called unitegmic ove - example - members of ‘Gamopetalae and Mostly Gymnosperms. j : i : i E a }GMIC ~ Two integumented ovules called bitegmic owule. Example - In most of Angiosperms [Polypetalae- ‘Capsela and Monocots (iii) ~ATEGMIC - The ovule in which integuments are absent is called ategmic ovule e.g. Olax, Liriosma, Loranthus and Santalum. . d PeLesROMCAUUes HON THE BASIS OF POSITION OF DIFFERENT PARTS - a There are six different types of ovules in Angiosperms on the basis of relationship of the micropyle, chalaza, and hilum with body of the ovule and orientation on the funiculus: Micropyle t Chalaza, vor Y , A Funiculus ih Anatropous,{ 180°" nd Micropyle fil ATROPOUS OR ORTHOTROPOUS :- The body of ovule is upright in position. The micropyle, chalaza and hilum lie in one straight line, so that this type of ovule is called straight or upright ovule. Example - Betel, Piper, Polygonum and in Gymnosperms. It is the most primitive and most simplest type of ovule. Raphe is absent. 2 [i] HEMITROPOUS OR HEMIANATROPOUS OVULE In this ovule, the body of the ovule bent on funicle at 90° angle, i.c., body of ovule present at right ‘angle to the funiculus. This is intermediate type between ortho and anatropous ovules. This ovule is also called horizontal ovule because body of ovule is present in horizontal position on the funiculus. Micropyle and chalaza are present in the same line but micropyle is situated away from hilum. Example :- Ranunculus, Primula. [ii] ANATROPOUS OVULE :- Inthis type, the body of the ovule completely tumed at 180° angle, due to unilateral growth of funiculus, 50 it is also called inverted ovule. The chalaza and micropyle lie in straight line. The hilum and micropyle lie side by side very close to each other. This type of ovule is found in 80% families of Angiosperms but not in Capsella. In this ovule micropyle is facing downward condition. Thisis the most common type of ovule, it is considered as a "typical ovule” of Angiosperms, It is also called resupinate ovule. eg. Members of Malvaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Solanaceae, Compositae fery and Pea. ' } i i i i i —— Ss Peat liv] CAMPYLGTROPOUS OVULE :- In this type of ovule, the body of ovule is curved and micropyle and chalaza are not present in straight line, The nucellus is present in curved position but the embryo sac remains straight. Micopyle comes cose to the hilum. Itis also called curved ovule. Eg, Leguminosae, Capparidaceae, Cruciferae family [Capsella] [v| AMPHITROPOUS OVULE :- In this type of ovule, curvature is effective in the nucelus and due to this effect of nucellis, embryo sac becomes horse shoe shaped. Micropyle comes close to the hilum. It is also called transverse ovule, Eg. Mirabilis, Lemna, Poppy (Papaver), Alisma, Butomaceae family. CIRCINOTROPOUS OVULE :- |n this type of ove, body of ovule becomes inverted and again tuned into straight postion due to the growth of funiculus so that body of ovule is present on funicle at 360°, ‘The entire body of ovule is surrounded by funtculus. It is also called coiled ovule. Micropyle is situated away from hilum.e.g, Cactaceae family - Opuntia. MEC Dt The process of formation of megaspores from megaspore mother cell (MMC) is called megasporogenesis. During the development of owl, in the beginning of this process, nucellus develops from the placenta in the form of a small rounded out growth like structure. At this stage, all the calls of ‘nucellus are undifferentiated, homogenous and meristematic and finally they become parenchymatous. This ‘mass of cells is surrounded by single layer of epidermis. Any one hypodermal cell of niscellus differentiates and increases in size. It becomes different from rest of the calls due to presence of distinct nucleus. Its called archesporial cell. Archesporium divides mitotically to form a primary parietal cell and primary sporogenous cell. The primary sporogenous cell directly acts ‘5 amegaspore mother cell (At micropylar region). It divides meiotically to form, four haploid megaspores. Primary rita Primary Panetal l __sporogenous call ‘Megaspore mother cell (At micropylar end) Linear tetrad of Functional megaspore (At chalazal end) Different stag of Megasporogenesis The four haploid megaspores are generally arranged in linear tetrad. Generally the lower most or chalazal ‘megaspore remains functional out of four megaspores and the other three which lic towards the micropyle degenerate. The functional megaspore produces female gametophyte. In most of Angiosperms [Capsella], chalazal megaspore remains functional. ! 102 a E i PaWaRoaM enim meet eae WIR Eh at Megagametogenesis :- Megaspore is the first cell of the female gametophyte. This megaspore grows in size and obtains nutrition from the nucellus. The nucleus of megaspore divides mitotically to form two nuclei, Each nucleus moves towards the opposite pole and reaches at their respective poles, Both the nudlei lie at poles divide twice mitotically. Resulting, in four nuclei are formed at each pole [Total 8-nuclel) It is of interest to note that these mitotic divisions are strictly free nuclear that is nuclear divisions are not followed immediately by cell wall formation. Out ofthe four, one nucleus migrates from each pole towards the centre { one nucleus from chalazal side and one nucleus from micropylar side). They are known as polar nuclei, Both polar nuclei are present in the centre. Six of eight nuclei are surrounded by new cell walls and organised into cells. Three cells are formed towards the micropyle in which one cellis large and more distinct out of three cells. Thisis called egg cell and remaining two smaller cells are known as synergids. These three micropylar cells are collectively known as egg-apparatus, [1 Egg cell + 2 Synergids| ‘The three cells are formed toward the chalaza are called antipodal cells. Both the polar nuclei are present in the central call, Polar nuclei are present below the egg apparatus. Just before the process of fertiization they unite or fuse together in the centre to form secondary nucleus or definitive nucleus Its diploid in nature [2n] and one in number. Chalazal end After 3 mitosis in megaspore, seven celled and eight nucleated structure is formed. This eight nucleated and seven celled structure is called female gametophyte or embryosac of Angiosperms. This type of embryosac is, known as "polygonum type" because it was discovered by Strasburger in Polygonum plant. Polygonum type of embryosac is most common type in Angiosperms [Capsella]. Polygonum type of embryosac develops from single megaspore soit is also known as monosporic embryosac. Fingers like structures (special cellular thicknings) are produced from the outer wall of the synergids which are known as filiform apparatus. With the help of these structures, synergtds absorb food from the nucelus and transfer it to the embryosac, Fliform apparatus also secrete chemicals which attract and guide the pollen tube. s 103 Micropylar end @Pparatus ‘AMature Embryo-Sac MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS 1. What would be the ploidy of the cells of tetrad? (1) Haploid (2) Diploid (3) Polyploid (4) Triploid 2. Choose the number of diploid structures in the list given below :- Pollen grains, nucellus, perisperm, endosperm, embryosac, megaspore + (1) Two (2) Three (3) Four (4) One 3. Select the odd one (1) Pollen grain (2) Antipodal cells (3) Synergids (4) Egg cell 4. Armuticarpellary, apocarpous gynoecium is found in= (1) Hibiscus (2) Michelia (3) Papaver (4) All 5. — Tosome extent viability of pollen grains depends on (1) Temperature (2) Humidity (3) Both (1) and (2) (4) Light GOLDEN KEY POINTS Multicarpellary, syncarpous gynoecium is found in Papaver and Hibiscus, Multicarpellary, apocarpous gynoecium is found in rose, lotus and Michelta Megaspore mother cell is situated at micropylar region or micropylar end. Generally functional megaspore is situated at chalazal end, a eene Polar nuclei are situated below the egg apparatus in the large central cel “Pollination is defined as the process of transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma.” Flowering plants have evolved an amazing array of adaptation to achieve pollination. Pollination is of different types :-On the basis of source of pollen. 1. AUTOGAMY OR SELF POLLINATION : If the pollen grains are transferred from an anther to the stigma of the same flower then it is called self pollination or autogamy. 2. GEITONOGAMY : When, pollination takes place in between the two flowers of the same plant then it is called geitonogamy. From the genetical point of view geitonogamy is self pollination (Autogamy) because pollen grains come from the same lant and all flowers of the same plant are genetically identical But functionally or ecologically, it is considered as cross pollination involving pollinating agent. Pollination 104 : ALLE Biology XENOGAMY OR CROSS POLLINATION OR ALLOGAMY: ‘When the pollination takes place in between the two different flowers of two different plants of the same species then it is called xenogamy. This is real or true cross pollination. Genetically, as well as ecologically. it s cross pollination. MONOECIOUS PLANTS : If both male and female flowers are present on same plant but flowers are unisexual Eg. Castor, Cucurbits, Coconut and Maize. It prevents autogamy but not geitonogamy. DIOECIOUS PLANTS : If male and female flowers are present on different plants and flowers are unisexual. Eg, Papaya, Date palm. It prevents both autogamy and geitonogamy. Contrivances or Adaptations for Self Pollination’: () _ Monocliny (Bisexuality) - It means flowers are bisexual (hermaphrodite). eg. Pea S Neral I (ii) Homogamy -- When both the sex organs of a flower pepemnns ‘mature at the same time. It is called homogamy. It increases chances for self pollination..E.g. Pea Cleistogamy ;- In some plants bisexual flowers are Underground formed which never open throughout the life. Such een flowers are called cleistogamous flowers, such as Commelina, Viola (Common pansy), Oxalis. Al the above plants have two types of flowers. One - type of flowers are eleistogamous and another are chasmogamous flowers. - Cleistogamous flowers produce assured seed set even in the absence of pollinators. Cleistogamous flowers are invariably autogamous. (iv) Bud pollination:- This pollination occurs in bud stage before the opening of flowers. E.g. Wheat, Rice. Contrivances for Cross Pollination (Outbreeding devices) (i) Dictiny (Unisexuality) : Presence of unisexual flowers confirm cross-pollination. Self pollination ne:2r takes place in these flowers. Examples ~ Date palm, Papaya (Carica). ‘Commelina plant Dichogamy :- In many bisexual flowers of the plants, stamens and carpels of a flower do not mature at the same time. In these plants pollen release and stigma receptivity are not synchronised. Either the pollen is released before the stigma becomes receptive or stigma becomes receptive much before the release of pollen. Dichogamy is of two types - (a) Protandry - When the anthers of a flower mature earlier than carpels, then it is called protandry. Many plants of Angiosperms are cross pollinated only because of protandrus condition eg. Salvia, Sunflower, Cotton, Capsella. : (b) _Protogyny ~ In protogyny the carpels of the flower mature earlier than stamens, It occurs in few plants : e.g. Ficus sps. (Banyan, Peepal, Fig). Saraca indica (Ashok), Aristolochia, most of the plants of j Cruciferae and Rosaceae family 4 (ii) Chasmogamy or Anthesis ;- Opening [blooming] of the floral bud in the form of a flower is called 3 anthesis. rE 106 | ! | | Pre-Medical (lv) Herkogamy :- In some plants, morphological barriers are formed in between the anther and stigma of 10) (wi) the same flower, so self pollination can not occurs and pollen grains from the anthers are unable to reach the stigma of the same flower. In this condition, only cross pollination is possible. e.g, Gloriosa, Calotropis, Heterostyly :- There is difference in between the length of the filaments of stamens and length of style in flowers of some plants. Some of the plants having long stamens and short style, and some of the plants bear long style and short stamens, because anther and stigma are placed in different positions so that the pollen can not come in contact with the stigma of same flower. Due to this reason, self pollination is not possible in these plants e.g. Primrose, Linum, Primula, Self sterility or self incompatibility or intraspecific incompatibility :- This is a genetic mechanism and prevents self pollen (from the same flower or other flower of the same plant) from fertilising the ovules by inhibiting pollen germinstion or pollen tube growth in the pistil. (Such as in Petunia, Malva, Thea, Passiflora, Grapes (Vitis), Apple (Pyrus malus), Tobacco. AGENTS OF POLLINATION Plants use two abiotic (wind and water) and one biotic (animals) agents to achieve pollination. Majority of plants use biotic agents for pollination. Agents of pollination Abiotic Biotic v By wind By water By animals (Zoophily) (Anemophily) _ (Hydrophily) By insects (Entomophily) By birds (Ornithophily) By bats (Chiropterophily) By ants and termites (Myrmecophily) By Snail (Malacophily) By Snake (Ophiophily) ‘wind pollinated plant showing compact inflorescence and well exposed stamens - When the pollen grains are transferred from one flower to the another flower through the wind then itis called anemophily and flower is known as anemophilous flower. Such as Cereal plants - Maize etc. Anemophily isalso found in all Gymnosperms. The anemophilous plants produce enormous amount of pollen grains. The pollen grains are very small, light weight and dry (non-sticky) and their stigma is large hairy or feathery or brushy and mucilagenous (Sticky). They often possess well exposed stamens. Yellow clouds are formed in Pinus tree due to the pollen grains which is called "Sulphur Shower’ Anemophilous flowers are neither attractive nor with fragrance. They do not have nectar glands. ‘Anemophilous flowers are generally unisexval = Maximum loss of pollen grains takes place only inthis type of pollination. It is completely non directional Process. “© Wind pollinated flowers generally have a single ovule in each ovary and numerous flowers are packed into inflorescence eg. Com cob. = Pollination by wind is more common amongst abiotic pollinations. © — Wind pollination is quite common in grasses. Eg. - Gymnosperms, Maize (Corn), Sugarcane, Bamboo, Coconut, Cannabis, Grasses, Date palms, Papaya, Mulberry. Paar ey When the pollination brings about ‘by water then itis known as hyrophily. Not all aquatic plants use water for pollination. Pollination by water is quite rare in flowering plants and is limited to about 30 genera, mostly monocotyledons. Hydrophily is of two types. (i) Epihydrophily :- When the pollination takes place on the surface of water then itis called epihydrophily e.g. Vallisneria and Ruppia Vallisneria is 2 dioecious plant and lowers are unisexual. The male flowers or pollen grains are released on to the surface of water due to bursting in inflorescence of male plant. Pedicel of female flowers are long and coiled. But at maturity due to uncoiling they also reach the water surface. All activities of Vallisneria take place inside the water except pollination. i) Hypohydrophily ;- When the pollination takes place inside the water then itis called hhypohydrophily. e.g. Ceratophyllum, Najas, Zostera (Sea grasses) and Hydrilla. Pre-Medical 3. ZOOPHILY : When the pollination brings about by animals then it is called zoophily. Generally in zoophillous plants, flowers are very large, attractive and nectar glands are present (i) ENTOMOPHILY : The pollination which takes place with the help of insects is known as entomophily. Most of insect pollination (80%) occurs only by Honey bees. Most of entomophilous plants are ornamental plants. Ornamental plants utilize their maximum energy in this pollination and develop different types ui adaptation for attraction, of insects. Their flowers are attractive in colour. They possess special fragrance. Nectar glands are also present, e.g. Lemon, Coriander, Onion, Lobia, Apple, Pear, Sunflower (Asteraceae family) and Labiatae family. Cucumber, Cotton, Tobacco and Brassica, Eucalyptus. The pollen grains of insect pollinated flowers become sticky due to presence of pollen kitt. ‘Some of the following plants have developed special adaptation, for insect pollination, «© Thelever mechanism or turn pipe mechanism is found in Salvia for polation. The flowers of Salvia have bilabiate corolla. Protandry condition is found in Salvia. The connective of stamen is long. The anterior anther lobe is fertile while posterior lobe is sterile. When the insect lands on the lower lip and pushes the sterile lobe the fertile lobe of anther brings down to touch the back of insect and thus depositing the pollen grains on the back of insect. Lever mechanism in Salvia {© Some of the flowers have attractive bracts i.e. bright and colourful like petals they are called petaloid bracts e.g. Bougainvillea Femaleflower Gall fower Y sronuva Ficus Yucca Yucca plant develops symbiotic relationship with an insect- Pronuba yuccasela moth (Tegeticula). The pollination in "Yucca takes place only by Pronuba female moth, This insect lays eggs in the ovary of flower. Life cycle of both depends on each other. In tallest flower of Amorphophallus (the flower itself is about 6 feet in height), process of pollination is same as Yucca means it provides space (safe place) for laying eggs. 108 2 ants, tion tal tion also and 5 of cts on Floral rewards : To sustain animals visits, the flowers have to provide rewards to the animals. Nectar and pollen grains are usual floral rewards. In some species floral rewards are in providing safe places to lay eggs. eg. Yucca, Amorphophallus Pollen / Nectar robbers : Many insects may consume pollen or the nectar without bringing about pollination, such floral visitors are referred to as pollen / nectar robbers. “Trap door mechanism’ is found in species of Ficus (Peepal, Fig etc. for pollination [By Blastophaga wasp (insect]] because Hypanthodium type of inflorescence is present. (Symbiosis), Protogyny in found in species of Ficus. In Aristolochia "Fly trap mechanism’ is found for pollination. This flower is known as "Pit fall flower” Funnel shaped flower has viscous material. Smell like rolfen leaves of tobacco. Insects are trapped like in prison, Orchid Ophrys (Ophrys speculum) flower is pollinated by Wasp [Colpa aurea] by means of pseudo- copulation. The appearence and odour of the flower is like female wasp [Mimicry], In Rafflesia ((oul odour lke rotten meat), the pollination is brought about by Carrion flies (Entomophily) and dispersal of seeds occurs by elephant (Zoochory). Nymphaea (water lily), water hyacinth, Nelumbo or Nelumbium (Lotus), Alisma are also entomophilous plants while they are hydrophytes (ii) ORNITHOPHILY When the process of pollination takes place by birds then itis called ornithophily. e.g, By Sun bird and humming bird in Bignonia plant and by Honey bird in Strelitzia, Callistemon (Bottle brush), Bombax [Sik cotton tree,] Butea monosperma, Coral tree (Erythrina) (ii) CHIROPTEROPHILY :- If the pollination brings about by bats (Pteropus) then itis called chiropterophily. The flowers are. big in size e.g, Anthocephalus kudamba, Bauhinia, Kigelia plants (Sausage tree), Adansonia. (iv) MYRMECOPHILY :- This pollination brings about by Termites and. Ants. e.g. Prosopis (kikar), Acacia (Mimosoideae family) and some members of Rubiaceae family and Mango, Litchi. (v) MALACOPHILY OR MALMACOPHILY :- This pollination brings about by Snails e.¢., Lemna, Aspidistra lurida and Chrysanthemum. ‘SOME EXTRA POINTS (1) Mango is pollinated by wind or insect (mainly by insect). (2) _ Rose is pollinated by insect (Red or orange species are pollinated by birds) (3) Banana is pollinated by bats or birds (mainly by bats) ‘ Santalum (Sandal) (5) Night flowering plants are pollinated by Moths. They are highly scented. Their flowers are generally white coloured 21 Y- (6) The flowers pollinated by flies and beetles secrete foul odour to attract these animals. (7) Favourable colour of Honey bees is yellow, but they are blind to red colour, (8) Among the animals, insects, particularly bees are the dominant biotic pollinating agents. (9) Larger animals such as some primates (Lemurs), arboreal (tree-dwelling) rodents, or even reptiles (Gecko lizard and garden lizard) have also been reported as pollinators in some species. 4 The fusion of male gamete with female gamete is called fertilization. This process is completed in the following steps :- [A] GERMINATION OF POLLEN GRAINS : After pollination, pollen grains germinate on the stigma. They absorb moisture and sugar contents from stigma and swell up. The intine of pollen grain grows out through the any one germ pore of exine, in the form of tube like out growth which is called pollen tube. © One pollen tube develops in Capsella and most of Angiosperms it is called monosiphonous condition, but more than one pollen tubes develop in Malvaceae and Cucurbitaceae family. It is called polysiphonous condition. “= Pollen tube produces enzymes which digest the tissue of the stigma and solid style. ‘© When the pollen tube comes down from the stigma into the styl, first of all vegetative nucleus enters, into the pollen tube then it is followed by generative cell. The tube nucleus always occupies the terminal position in pollen tube. The vegetative nucleus (tube nucleus) controls the growth of the pollen tube. Mean while, the generative cell divides mitotically to form two male gametes. © Both of the male gametes are non motile. "© Boron and calcium elements (mainly Boron) are essential for the growth of pollen tube and best temperature for growth of pollen tube is 20-30°C. Pollen tube shows apical growth. Pollen tube shows chemotropic movement towards synergid due to Ca-B-inositol sugar complex. ‘© Pollen tube was discovered by G.B. Amici in Portulaca plant. Longest pollen tube is found in Zea mays (Maize). 4 «© The solid style, has a core of transmitting (transmission) tissue while in hollow style the stylar canal is lined by glandular cells (glandular tissue). IB] ENTRY OF POLLEN TUBE INTO OVULE : Finally, the pollen tube enters in the ovary at that time, ovule becomes mature. Inside the ovary obturators uide the passage of pollen tube towards the micropyle. A mature owule in which embryo sac has also matured, has three paths for the entry of pollen tube:- () POROGAMY :- In this, pollen tube enters into the ovule through the micropyle. Itis found in most of Angiosperms [Capsella]. 110 ee i £5 re e | | el tly i) In this method, the pollen tube enters into the ovule through the chalaza. This a [29 rEaWONE ANAC AENDIE WOO. 25S RIRERIIOHOVUCERS m {cq 5 method was discovered in Casuarina by Treub [1891] e.g. Betula and Jugians (walnut), (ii) MESOGAMY :- In this method, pollen tube enters into the ovule either through integuments (eg. Cucurbita) or through the funiculus (eg. Pistacia and Populus). Poregamy ‘Chalazogamy Mesogamy Various methods of entry of pollen tube into the ovule Note: The pistil has the ability to recognise the pollen whether it is of the right type (compatible) or of the wrong type (incompatible). If it is of right type the pistil accepts the pollen and promotes post pollination events. If the pollen is of wrong type, the pistil rejects the pollen by preventing pollen germination on the stigma or the pollen tube growth in the style. All the events from pollen deposition on the stigma until pollen tube enters the ovule are together referred to as pollen pistil interaction. It is mediated by chemical components of pollen and pistil. Pollen pistil interaction is a dynamic process involving pollen recognition followed by promotion or inhibition of the pollen. It is only in recent years that botanist have been able to identify some of the pollen and pistil components and interactions leading to the recognition, followed by acceptance or rejection. The knowledge gained in this area would help the plant breeder in manipulating pollen - pistil interaction, even in incompatible pollinations to get desired hybrids. ENTRY OF POLLEN TUBE INTO EMBRYOSAC : Pollen tube can enter into the ovule through the any passage but inside embryosac, it enters only through the egg apparatus cel (.c. synergid), After the entrance inside the ovule, it grows towards the egg apparatus because synergid cells secrete the chemicals with the help of fiiform apparatus which attract the pollen tube and guide the pollen tube. It means pollen tube shows chemotropic movement in ovary. Any one synergid starts degenerating when the pollen tube comes near the egg apparatus. The pollen tube enters into the embryosac through the degenerating synergid. When tip of the pollen tube enters into the embryosac, vegetative nucleus (tube nucleus) degenerates. The tip of the pollen tube swells and burst [Due to endosmosis] after reaching inside the embryosac. The pollen tube released all contents including both male gametes inside the degenerating synergid of embryosac. Two dark granules appear in the region of degenerating synergid. These are known as X-bodies. They are two in no. and both X-bodies are the degenerating tube nucleus and degenerating synergid nucleus. 44 Pre-Medical + [P]_ FUSION oF GAMETES: {© Before or after the entrance of pollen tube into the embryosac (means before fertilization), both polar nudei of the central cell fused together to form a diploid nucleus, which is known as secondary nucleus or definitive nucleus. © Out of two, one male gamete fertilize the egg cell to form a diploid zygote. This fusion is known as ‘syngamy. This is true fertilization process (Discovered by Strasburger in Monotropa). ‘© The second male gamete get fused with diploid secondary nucleus. This fusion is known as triple fusion or vegetative fertilization resulting, a triploid (3n) structure is formed. Itis called primary endosperm ‘nucleus (PEN). p i ‘© Fertilization takes place twice at a time in Angiosperm it is called double fertilization. ‘© Double fertilization was discovered by "Nawaschin" in Lilium and Fritillaria plants. ‘© Double fertilization and triple fusion is the specific or universal characteristic of Angiosperm. It is an event unique to flowering plants. Five nuclei and three gametes participate in double fertilization, {© A zygote is formed by true fertilization (syngamy) which develops into embryo. Triploid primary ‘endosperm nucleus (PEN) is formed in PEC by triple fusion. The central cell after triple fusion ‘becomes the primary endosperm cell (PEC) and develops into the endosperm which is used as fiutrition for growing embryo. {© Allthe remaining cells of embryosac. lke antipodal cells, synergid degenerate excluding zygote and primary endosperm nucleus after the fertilization. At this time. zygote obtains food from degenerating syneraid and antipodal cells. ‘© The fertilization in which non motile gametes are carried to female gamete through pollen tube is known as "Siphonogamy’ ‘Sperms = male gametes ‘and releases 2 male gametes 3 Primary endosperm nucleus Doutt fertigation ——> Antipodals and) ‘synergid degenerated ‘Syagamy 4 (Eagar gamete an Zygote Release of male gametes and double fertilization 112 i E é ne : Bear POST FERTILIZATION : STRUCTURES AND EVENTS rye) ee) ee _ Endosperm development precedes embryo development. The PEC divides repeatedly and forms a triploid endosperm tissue which stores food materials. It s utilized by the embryo during the early development then after at the time of seed germination. Food is present in endosperm. The endosperm is of three types on the basis of development ;- ‘ 1, NUCLEAR ENDOSPERM OR FREE NUCLEAR ENDOSPERM : This type of endosperm is found in Dicotyledon [Polypetalae]. Nuclear endosperm is also present in Capsella Such type of endosperm develops by free nuclear divisions in PEC, Thus a multinucleated endosperm is formed. Later on cytokinesis takes place, so that multicellular endosperm is formed at maturity © This type of endosperm is the most common in Angiosperms. 2. CELLULAR ENDOSPERM : i This type of endosperm is found in Gamopetalae group. During the development, each division of primary 5 endosperm nucleus is followed by cytokinesis, So that endosperm remains celular from the beginning. _ 3. HELOBIAL ENDOSPERM : During the development of this type of endosperm, first division of primary endosperm nucleus is followed by unequal cytokinesis so that two unequal sized cells are formed (Cell towards the micropyle is large). Now free nuclear divisionstake place in each cell, results it becomes multinucleated. Eventually cytokinesis takes place so that it is changed into a cellular endosperm. This type of endosperm is found in Order helobiales (Monocots). Itis intermediate type of endosperm. Developing embryo <——§$ Wicropylar eng ———> (* ° Ms i Caliulartype Endosperm /& [evee\ Different types of endosperms in Angiosperms, Pe 13 ee ‘SPECIAL POINTS :' # M (1) _ Endosperm is absent in some of Angiosperms e.g. In Orchidaceae, Podostemaceae. and Trapaceae. (2) Exceptionally, some of the plants have diploid endosperm instead of triploid such as in Oenothera. (3) Maize and Tomato have mosaic endosperm in which patches of different colours are present, (4) The endosperm in Betelnut or Arecanut (Arecaceae) and Annonaceae family is rough surfaced. It is known as "ruminate endosperm". . (5) The drinking portion (coconut water) is nuclear endosperm and edible portion is cellular endosperm in Coconut. (6) _ Starchy endosperm is found in rice, wheat, maize ete. Development of embryo in Capsella was discovered by "Hanstein' ‘+ Embryo develops at the micropylar end of the embryo sac where the zygote is situated, Most zygote divides only after certain amount of endosperm is formed. This is an adaptation to provide assured nutrition to the developing embryo. ‘+ The first division of Oospore is transverse, resuits two cels are formed, The one cal lies towards micropyle 's called basal cell or suspensor celll. The other cell lies towards chalaza is called apical cell or terminal cell or embryonal cell. ‘© The basal cell (suspensor cell) and embryonal cell divide simultaneously. Kite embryonal cell divides by mitotic divisions to gives rise to the proembryo and subsequently to the globular, heart shaped and mature embryo. ‘© The suspensor cell divides by transverse divisions forming a 6-10 celled. Jong filament like structure which is termed suspensor. The main function of suspensor is to push the developing embryo into food Jaden endosperm to provide nutrition. ‘© The micropylar cell of the suspensor swells up. This cell of suspensor is known as haustorial-celll ‘© — Incapsella due to curved position of body of ovule embryo! ‘becomes curved. This curved position of the embryo is called Torpedo (Mature embryo). — © — Anaxis is present between plumule and radicle is called embryonal axis. It is also called Tigellum [main embryonal axis]. Both the cotyledons are present at lateral position of embryonal axis and plumule is formed in terminal position in Dicotyledon embryo. ‘© This type of development of embryo is known as Crucifer type or Onagrad type. It is the most common type of embryo development in Dicots. ‘* — Crucifer type of embryo development is found in Capsella. } | P suspensor Rade 2ygote CCotyledons Heart-Shaped ‘embryo °° Puma Globular embryo Mature embryo ‘THE DEVELOPMENT OF EMBRYO IN A DICOT (Capsella) 2 Wocesa ots AARCETDANEODE NE OM RERERUCTERO AEE seen ARE NENW SRL REPRODUCTION EES 114 S E Biology MONOCOT a The early stages of embryo development are similar in both dicot and monocot embryos upto globular stage. fey © Inthe grass family the cotyledon is called scutellum (shield shaped) that is situated towards one side (lateral) of the embryonal axis. At its lower end, the embryonal axis has the radical and root cap enclosed in an undifferentiated sheath called > coleorrhiza. The portion of the ES embryonal axis above the level of attachment of scutellum is the epicotyl. Epicotyl has a shoot apex and a few leaf primordia enclosed in a hollow foliar structure, the coleoptile. LS. of an embryo of grass AT Ovary (2) Ovule (3) Ovary wall\2n) (4) Integument (6) Outer integument (©) _Innerintegument (7) Nucellus : 5 3 | (8) Synergids and antipodals a (9) _Hilum of ovule | (10) Funiculus of ovule E (11) Micropyle of ovule Ferns ere tA! SEAL RERRCOUCTONNOD FEES (12) Chalaza of ovule ‘ - Fruit Seed ~-Pericarp or fruit wall: ¢ 29) Seed coat - Testa (Outer seed coat) ‘Tegmen (Inner seed coat) - Degenerates (Sometimes present in the form of, pbrisperm - Degenerate Hilum of seed (Scar on seed) Stalk of seed (may be left or broken) Micropyle of seed - Chalaza of seed —— Ss Pre-Medical _ ot PLOIDY LEVEL IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF PLANT ‘SPOROPHYTE (21) Zygote Embryo Radicle Plumule Cotyledon Nucellus Integument Microspore mother cell Megaspore mother cell Ovary wall, Fruit wall Carpel Sepal, Petal Stamen Leaf, Root, Stem Per AHA Eene rs BS Microspore/Pollen grain Tube cell, Generative cell Male gamete, Female gamete Megaspore Embryosac Synergid ‘Antipodals Egq cell 2 Polar nuclei a Angiospermic plant —~ Carpel (Megasporophyll) Germination Sporophyte (2n) Endosperm Syngamy Triple fusion (Fertilization) Sec. Nucleus (2n) Female Gamete (Oosphere or egg) 2 Male Gametes 4 Ovule (Megasporangium) Megas pore Mother cell. Stamen (Microsporophyil) Pollen sac (microsporangium) Microspore Mother cells ‘Reduction division (Meiosis) Gemetophyte (n) Megaspore Female Gametophyte . (Embryosac) | Microspores. (Pollen grains) Male Gametophyte OUT LINE DIAGRAM OF LIFE CYCLE OF ANGIOSPERMS Pre-Medical E ft Paco on “Reproduction in which new individuals are formed without fusion of gametes is called asexual reproduction." Apomixis is a form of asexual reproduction that mimics sexual reproduction. Eg. Some species of Asteraceae and grasses. [In Greek - Apo = without; mixis = mixing] Apomixis term was suggested by Winkler. ‘The Apomixis is characterised by quick multiplication and reproduction 6f genetically similar plants from the single parent. Such a population produced from single individual is called “clone” and each member of the clone is called ramet. In flowering plants, there are two main types of Asexual reproduction, (i) Agamospermy (ii) Vegetative propagation/Vegetative reproduction. RO eciesituhe In this type of method embryo is formed without fertilization and meiotic division, It means plants belonging in this category propagated through seeds but the embryo formation does not involve meiosis and syngamy. It occurs by following methods :- IA] DIPLOSPORY : In this method megaspore mother cell directly gives rise to an embryosac without meiosis. ‘This embryo sac is diploid and a diploid embryo is formed without fertilization from diploid egg of this cembryosae. Example : Parthenium, Taraxacum (Asteraceae) [B] ADVENTIVE EMBRYONY : In this method, an embryo is formed from any diploid cel Cell of nucellus or integuments] of the ovule. This diploid cell behaves like a zygote. Adventive embryony derived from Nucellus can be seen in Citrus, Mangifera (Mango), Opuntia, Onion and from Integuments in Spiranthus australis. Sporophytic budding : In this process embryo is formed outside the embryosac, thus it is pushed into the embryosac. It is adventive embryony. [C]_APOSPORY : Formation of gametophyte directly from sporophyte without meiosis is called apospory. Ik was discovered by Rosenberg in Heiracium plant. In this method embryosac or female gametophyte is directly formed from any diploid cell of the sporophyte Le. nucellus or integument (except megaspore mother cel) without metosis. In this gametophyte always remains diploid, e.g, Hetracium, Ranunculus and Rubus. Hybrid varieties of several of our food and vegetable crops are being extensively cultivated. Cultivation of hybrids has tremendously increased productivity. One of the problems of hybrids is that hybrid seeds have to be produced every year. If the seeds collected from hybrids are sown, the plants in the progeny will segregate and do not maintain hybrid characters. Production of hybrid seeds is costly and hence the cost of hybrid seeds become too expensive for the farmers. If these hybrids are made into apomicts, there is no ‘segregation of characters in the hybrid progeny. Then the farmers can keep on using the hybrid seeds to raise new crop year after year and he does not have to buy hybrid seeds every year. Because of the importance of apomixis in hybrid seed industry, active research is going on in many laboratories around the world to understand the genetics of apomixis and to transfer apomictic genes into hybrid varieties. 118 ae Biology «© PARZHENOGENESIS : Formation of embryo from unfertilized egg is called parthenogenesis In this process haploid egg cell of female gametophyte is responsible to form a haploid embryo without fertilization © APOGAMY : In this process any haploid cell of female gametophyte except egg cals responsible to form a haploid embryo without fertilization or Formation of sporophyte directly from gametophyte without fertilization is called apogamy, Note : If both gametophyte and sporophyte are diploid in parthenogenesis and apogamy then it is called diploid parthenogenesis and diploid apogamy respectively, = ~—PARTHENOCARPY : Formation of fruit from unfertilized ovary is known as pathenocarpy. Jn some of the Angiosperms, frit formed from the ovary without fertilization which is known as parthenocarpic fruit. In some fruits parthenocarpy is useless (If edible part is endosperm or seed). eg. Pomegranate (Punica granatum). © POLYEMBRYONY : ‘When many embryos are present inside the single seed then itis called polyembryony. first of all, it was observed by Leeuwenhoek in Citrus (Orange) seeds. Polyembryony is commonly found in Gymnosperms but itis also found in some of Angiospermic plants such as Orange, Lemon and Nicotiana etc. [Adventive embryony is also an example of polyembryony in which additional number of embryos are formed from nucellus or integuments] ds “= ANDROGENIC HAPLOID PLANTS : The concept of totipotency was given by Haberlandt and practically proved by Steward. Anther of the Dhatura plant was grown on culture medium by Guha and Maheshwari. As a result of this culture, haploid and diploid two different types of plants were formed. Diploid plants developed from the wall of the anther and haploid plants developed from the pollen grains. Such type of haploid plants which were obtained from the pollen grains by tissue culture are known as androgenic haploid plants Nia selec Plants belonging to this category are propagated by a part of thelr body other than a seed. The structural unit that is employed in place of seed for the propagation of new plants is called propagule. In Angiosperms any parts of the plants roots, stems and leaves can be used for vegetative propagation. Generally methods of vegetative propogation have been further divided into two types- Natural and Artificial [Al NATURAL VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION : (a) By roots :- Modified tuberous root of Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatus), Asparagus, Tapioca, ‘Yam, Dahlia and Tinospora can be propagated vegetatively when planted in In some plants, adventitious buds develop on the ordinary roots like-Dalbergia sissoo, Populus, Guava, Murraya, Albizia lebbek etc. which grow to form new plants. The buds present on the roots grow into leafy shoots above the ground are called ‘Slips. (b) Under ground Stems :- Rhizomes - Typha; Canna, Ginger, Turmeric, Lotus, Musa (Banana) et. Cort - Gladiolus, Colocasia, Crocus, Amorphophallus etc. Bulbs - Onion, Gerlic and Lilies Tubers - Potato, Helianthus tuberosus etc. which grow to form a new plants, IM #8ecaxco.cunicewomowore Nxsoun RC 19 PreMed _ Ea (© Sub aerial stem: Ih Ereeping stems of the some plants adventitious roots are developed from the nodes and to form, i a aerial shoot such as (i) Runners - Cunodon, Osalis and Centella E G {i) Stolon - Fragaria (Strawbery) & Vallisneria (i) Offset - Pistia, Eichhornia (water hyacinth) ote. (ix) Sucker - Mint and Chrysanthemum; (@) Aerial stem - Opuntia (e) Leaves: ¢ Some plants produce adventitious buds on their leaves e.g.. Bryophyllum, Begonia, Streptocarpus, Saintpaudia. These buds remain dormant when the leaves are attached with plants but after separation, when it comes in contact with moist soil it develops into new plantlets In Kalanchoe plant. whole portion of leaf blade regenerate a new plant BULBILS ‘ In some plants, fleshy buds are developed which are called bulbils These buds form new plants. Example ~ Dioscorea (Wild Yam) Oxalis, Dentaria, Globba. Agave, Lilium, Cucas, Lily "= Some special type of fleshy buds develop in aquatic plants which are called Turions. e.g. Potamogeton, Utricularia. [B] ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION = T] By Cutting = A cutting is separated portion of root, stem or leai which is used for propagation. Some time the stem cuttings are treated with rooting hormone [IBA IAA or NAA] for proper development of adventitious roots e.g, Sugar cane, Rose, Croton, Tapioca, Chinarose Stem cutting) Lemon, Tamarind (Root Cutting), Sanseviria (Leaf cutting). [Favourable time for cutting - Rainy season] [ii] By Grafting : - Grafting is done between two closely related dicotyledonous plants having vascular ‘cambium. The root supported portion of one plant is called Stock which is joined with a twig of another plant called Scion. Generally, the root stock belongs to wild variety which is resistant to disease & pest or having efficient root system. The scion is derived from the plant possessing better characters. ¢.g., Grafted Mango, Roses, orange, Seedless Grapes and Guava. Apple, Pear, Rubber plant, [Favourable time for grafting - Spring season] Grating 120 1m ‘a, ats, Sid item Morphologically, ripened ovule is known as seed. In other words, seed is a mature fertilized, integumented megasporangium (Ovule). Allthe structures, which are present inside the seed coat are collectively termed as Kernel. ‘Typical mature seed is having three main parts : (1) Seed coat (2)Embryo (3) Endosperm Endosperm - Itisthe nutritive tissue which may be present or absent in the seeds, The angiospermic seeds are classified into two categories on the basis of presence or absence of endosperm in seeds - 1. Non Endospermic or Ex-albuminous seed or Non albuminous seeds Such type of seeds do not have an endosperm at maturiy, therefore they are called non endospermic or Ex-albuminous seeds. The endospermic tissues are absorbed during the development of embryo. ‘The absorbed food materials from the endosperm is stored in cotyledons, that's why they become so large and fleshy e.g. Capsetla and most of dicotyledons. eg. Gram, Pea, Bean, Ground nut, Sunflower. But in Castor, seeds are endospermic. Non-endospermic dicot seeds : e.g,, Gram, Bean, Pea, Cucumber, Tamarind, Groundnut or Peanut, Sun flower. Non-endospermic monocst seeds : Orchid, Pothos (money plant), Valisneria, Aisma, Amorphophalhs, Endospermic or Albuminous seed : In this type of seeds, food is stored in endosperm. The endospermic tissue in these seeds are utilized during the germination of seed and their cotyledons are thin and membranous e.g. Most of Monocot seeds e.g. Wheat, Rice, Coconut, Barley and Maize etc. But in Orchid seeds are non- endospermic. Endospermic dicot seeds : e.g., Castor, Papaya, Cotton. Endospermic monocot seeds : e.g., Maize, Rice, Wheat, Coconut, Barley. ‘STRUCTURE OF SOME SEEDS halamus Thatamus Aleurone layer (30) (Protein ayer) Coleoptle ‘Seutellum (cotyledon) Prumule Radice Coleorhiza STRUCTURE OF MAIZE GRAIN Germination is basically of two types, depending upon behaviour of cotyledons but viviparous germination is also found :- 1, EPIGEAL GERMINATION : Here due to hypocotyl growth or elongation, cotyledons are pushed out of sol. This type of germination occurs in Capselia, Castor, Tamarind, Bean, etc. In some cases, these above ground cotyledons become green leaf like (cotyledonary leaves) and perform photosynthetic function til the seedling assumes independency. 2. HYPOGEAL GERMINATION : Here due to growth in epicotyl, plumule comes out of the ground and cotyledons remain underground. This type ‘of germination occurs in most of the monocotyledons and few dicotyledons, ¢.g., Maize, Rice, Wheat, Coconut, Gram, Pea, Peanut and Mango, etc. ‘ Tih ecuscumonircancen anne enema nemccrcatanereentt | conOneON ANS ARGEN MONEE NE A RCA EE m* 122 | | | EPIGEAL GERMINATION OF CASTOR SEED HYPOGEAL GERMINATION OF RICE SEED 3. VIVIPAROUS GERMINATION OR VIVIPARY : Itis a special type of seed germination which is characteristic of Mangrove vegetation, found in muddy, saline conditions, e.g., Rhizophora, Avicennia, Ceriops, Breguira, Sonneratia, etc. Here there is no resting period of embryo and germination occurs inside the fruit, while itis attached to the parent plant, Le, "in-situ germination". This is called viviparous germination or vivipary. Note : Seeds offer several advantages to angiosperms. Firstly since reproductive processes such as pollination and fertilisation are independent of water, seed formation is more dependable (reliable). 1/Moisture or water VIVIPAROUS GERMINATION IN RHIZOPHORA, ‘The moisture or water is the most important factor for germination of seed. Generally, the cells of embryo contain about 10-15% water in dormancy period. The vital activities like growth and development is unable to continue in this less amount of water. For active life processes, water must be present about 75-90%. The seed absorbs water and swell up to increase their size before germination. Water is absorbed through seed coat and micropyle. 2. Oxygen [0,] The process like cell division, cell elongation etc. of the embryo requires energy. This energy is released by the oxidation of organic substances. Oxygen is essential for oxidation process. The upper surface of soll | ‘ 123, Pre-Medical . £ contains sufficiést amount of O,. The healthy germination of seed does not take place in the absence or 1 scarcity of oxygen in deep soil so; crop seed sown inthe sol by the farmers are usualy upto 5-7 cam. deep, 3. Temperature : 13 ‘The suitable temperature is essential for germination of seed. The protoplasm and en2y the ce remains active at certain range of temperature. Most of seeds do not germinate in between the ious: O°C to 5°C and above the 45°C. The favourable range of temperature is 20-25°C for germination of seed. 4. Food or Nutrition : 14 ‘The growing embryo requires [needs] nutrition during germination. The embryo depends upon stored food materials in cotyledons or endosperm in the germination period upto the formation of primary root from the radicle and first leaf from the plumule. y 5. Light :(Leact imp. facto) Light produces different effect in different variety of seeds. Most of the plants do not require light up to the formation of first leaf. But for some plants light is very essential for germination, They will not germinate in the I dark. For example seed of Orchids, Tobacco, Lettuce, Capsella, Mistletoe etc. (+ve photoblastic seeds) After the development of newly leaves on shoot light becomes very essential factor. The chlorophyll is not formed in the absence of light and this new formed plant [uvenile] will die in the absence of photosynthesis and deficiency of food. EONS . 1. Highest amount of fat is found in endosperm of Coconut. O18 meiotic divisions are essential for development of 100 grains of Wheat. ‘ 3. Two generation and three type of genotypic cells are present in Angiospermic seed. 5 4. Largest and heaviest seed (6 k.g.) is found in Lodoicea maldivica. Its fruit is 1 meter in length and wt. of fruit is 18kg. e \_ 5 Smallest or minute seeds are found in Orchids which are lightest in plant kingdom and are called "Dust seeds” {wt. 20.33 jig]. ‘ 6. "Xenia (by Focke) - Effect of pollens inside Embryosac on Endosperm (except Embryo) e.g Maize. ; 7. Metaxenia - Effect of pollen outside the Embryosac on seed coat or pericarp. In Datepalm, maturity time as well as size of fruits can be changed by using different pollens. 8. Seeds of a large number of species live for several years. Some seeds can remain alive for hundreds of years. There are several records of very old yet viable seeds. The oldest is that of a lupine, Lupinus arcticus excavated from Arctic Tundra, The seed germinated and flowered after an estimated record of 10,000 years of dormancy. A recent record of 2000 years old viable seed is of the date plam, Phoenix dactylifera discovered during the archeological exca- vation at King Herod's palace near the Dead Sea. 9. The seed of Cuscuta and Santalum lacks cotyledons, 10. Dormancy is absent in Mangrove plants like Rhizophora. 11. Occurence of more than two male gametes into the ovule is called "Polyspermy". It may be due to entry of more than one pollen tube into embryosac. 4 924 o In) vex wrcacacen acne Wet 5 SOAM RECITES RENKIN WOE. N02 SEUAL PRELIM 12. 13. 14. ‘When tworpbllen tube enter into an ovule and release their contents. Its possible that the one male gamete of cone pollen tube fertlzes the egg cell and one male gamete of another pollen tube participates in triple fusion (with secondary nucleus) tis called heterofertilization, You can easily study pollen germination by dusting some pollen from flowers such as pea, chickpea, Crotalaria, balsam and Vinea on a glass sie containing a drop of sugar solution (about 10 per cent). After about 15-30 minutes, observe the slide under the low power lens of the microscope. You are likely to see pollen tubes coming out of the pollen grains. Water is a regular mode of transport for male gametes among the lower plants like algae, bryophytes and pteridophytes. Its believed that bryophytes and pteridophytes are limited in their distribution because of the need of water for the transport of male gametes and fertilisation. VIABILITY , This is called existence of life in a seed. The vidbility of seed can be tested out by T.T.C. (2, 3, 5, triphenyl tetrazolium chloride). The embryonal axis of living seed becomes pink in colour in the solution of LIC. POLLINATION, FERTILIZATION, ENDOSPERM, EMBRYO, SEED ETC. Which flowers are small and unattractive : (1) Zoophilous (2) Anemophilous (3)Entomophilous (4) Ornithophilous Which of the following is monoecious : (1) Papaya (2)Date palm (3) Vallisneria (4) Cucurbita Which type of pollination is quite rare in flowering plants ? (1) Wind (2) Insect (3) Water (4) Animal Persistent endosperm in mature seed is found in : (1) Pea 2)Gram (3) Groundnut (4) Wheat An event unique to flowering plants is (1) True fertilisation (2) Double fertilisation (3) Embryogenesis (4) Polination GOLDEN KEY POINTS Pollen, pistil interaction is mediated by chemical components ofthe pollen interacting with those of the pis Endosperm is generally triploid in angiosperms, Many insects may consume pollen or the nectar without bringing about pollination. Such floral visitors are referred to as pollen/nectar robbers. ‘Nucellar adventive embryony is found in citrus and mango. Dehydration and dormancy of mature seeds are crucial for storage of seeds. 1. Androphore structure is formed by (1}ftemode (2) Node (3) Sepals (4) Petals, 2. Which of the following is monocarpic plant : 4. 10. 126 (1) Shisham (3) Pinus (2)Mango |(G2Bamboo Capsellais angiosperm because it possess - (1) Naked Seed (2)Pollen grain (8)Vascular issue (4) Frat/Covered seeds Which part ofthe reproductive structure produces both enzyme & hormone (1) Arcbesporium (2) Middle layer (3)7petum (4)Endothecium Ubisch bodies are produced in (1) Embryosac (2)Endothecium (3) Pollen grain rectum Tapetum is :- ) Parietal in origin and is the inner most layer of anther wall (2) Modified endothecium of anther wall {3) Outer most layer of sporogenous tissue modification (4) Parietal in origin and is the inner most layer of ovule wall Example of polyploid tissue present in an angiosperm plant is (a) Per (2) Embryo (3)opetum (4) Placenta Pollen grain represents (1) Female ametophyte (2)—ale gametophyte (3) Sporophyte (4) Anther Anther is generally composed of (1)One sporangium (2) Two sporangia (3) Three sporangia ‘sporangia Occurence of more than four spores in a tetrad is called (1)Polysipbony (2) Polyspermy Bite (4)Poly embryony 11. 12, 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. eee Dehiscence 20. (1) Monocolpate

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