Journal of Sedimentary Environments (2022) 7:261–282

https://doi.org/10.1007/s43217-022-00097-4

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Proterozoic sandstone of Rajgarh Formation, Alwar sub‑basin,

Northeastern Rajasthan: sedimentological and paleo‑hydrodynamical
implications
Sadia Khanam1   · K. F. Khan1 · M. A. Quasim1 · Shyam Kanhaiya2 · Faiz Ahmad1

Received: 8 November 2021 / Revised: 2 March 2022 / Accepted: 19 March 2022 / Published online: 7 April 2022
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022

Abstract
The Proterozoic Rajgarh Formation Sandstone, Alwar sub-basin, Northeastern Rajasthan, was studied utilising a range of
methodologies, including sedimentary features such as grain size, shape, and characteristics of microtextures presented
on the quartz grain surfaces (determined in Stereozoom Binocular microscope and scanning electron microscope). The
representative samples of sandstone were collected from different locations to determine the transportation behaviour of
the sediments and depositional environments on the basis of textural parameters such as mean size, sorting, skewness, and
kurtosis along with microtextures presented on the surface of quartz grains. As per textural analysis, majority of the samples
showing mean size ranging from coarse to medium sand (0.43–1.69 ϕ), sorting ranging from poorly to very well sorted
(1.36–0.26 ϕ), skewness ranging from fine to very fine skewed (− 0.36–0.69) and kurtosis values ranging from platykurtic
to very leptokurtic (0.84–1.71) size distribution. In the different textural plots, the samples are mainly distributed in river
and beach field showing fluvial to shallow marine environments for the studied samples. The rolling process for sediment
deposition in shallow marine environments is depicted in the C–M diagram. The superiority of marine environments with
lesser fluvial deposition areas is indicated by the Linear Discriminant Function (LDF). The microtextures presented on the
quartz grains indicating different physical and chemical processes caused by the sedimentary dynamics under fluvial to shal-
low marine environments. The grain size data interpretation of the hydrodynamic conditions evolution history is consistent
with the sedimentary structures proofs of the studied area.

Keywords  Grain size analysis · Quartz microtextures · Hydrodynamic condition · Depositional environment · Sandstone

1 Introduction transport, and deposition. As a result, grain-size analysis

The grain-size parameters, in combination with other tex-
tural characteristics, are key tools for defining sedimentary
environments such as beach, dune, and river, as well as some
other divisions of the continental shelf, using graphic and
mathematical moment methods. The most essential attribute
of sediments is grain-size, which influences entrainment,
Communicated by S. Bergamaschi
* Sadia Khanam
khanamsadia.amu@gmail.com
1 the deposition environment (Ahmad et  al., 2017, 2021;
Department of Geology, Aligarh Muslim University,
Aligarh 202002, India
2 Singh, 2014; Kanhaiya et al., 2017a; Quasim et al., 2020;
Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Prof. Rajendra
Singh (Rajju Bhaiya) Institute of Physical Sciences for Study
and Research, V.B.S.P.U., Jaunpur, India
provides important evidence about the provenance, trans-
port history, and depositional conditions of the sediments
(Ahmad et al., 2021; Ghaznavi et al., 2019; Quasim et al.,
2020; Sahu, 1964; Visher, 1969).
There are merits and demerits of grain-size analysis.
When a framework particle is subjected to diagenesis, it
undergoes alterations or subsequent modifications, which
are considered as restrictions (Ghaznavi et al., 2019; Ghosh
& Chatterjee, 1994). Nevertheless, these drawbacks, grain-
size analysis parameters have been successfully applied
in previous studies and and have been useful in determin-
ing provenance and identifying transport mechanisms and
Cheetham et al., 2008; Ghaznavi et al., 2019; Kanhaiya &
Weltje & Prins, 2007).

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262
The use of scanning electron microscope (SEM) to
examine the microtexture of quartz grains has long been
used to infer depositional settings. This is owing to the fact
that some sedimentary processes imbue quartz grains with
distinct surface textures which can be utilised to deduce
quartz grain sedimentary histories as per their frequencies
(Kanhaiya et al., 2017b; Mahaney & Kalm, 2000; Mahaney,
2002). Moreover, grain-size analysis becomes a crucial tool
for a better understanding of the depositional environments
when combined with other sedimentological features such as
microtexture, structures of sedimentary origin and their rela-
tionships, palaeoflow, fossil content, and geometry (Reading,
1996).
The depositional environment and hydrodynamic char-
acteristics of the Rajgarh Formation sandstone had hitherto
been inadequately described in the literature (Singh, 1982).
As a result, this research is nicely integrated with facies anal-
ysis to predict depositional environment and hydrodynamic
characteristics. During the last several decades, a significant
number of researches devoted to the sedimentation pattern,
diagenetic evolution, regional geology, and tectonic history
of the Alwar sub-basin, North Delhi Fold Belt (NDFB), have
Fig. 1  Geological map of
Aravalli craton showing the
distribution of Aravalli–Delhi
supracrustal sequences, large
sedimentary basins, and base-
ment complex (after Kaur et al.,
2015; Roy, 1988)
13
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S. Khanam et al.
gone unnoticed in terms of grain-size analysis of siliciclastic
rock to predict depositional environments (Khanam et al.,
2020, 2021; Singh, 1984). The grain size parameters of
sandstone are extremely important in the understanding of
sedimentary hydrodynamic conditions. The evolution his-
tory of sedimentary hydrodynamic conditions of the Pro-
terozoic Rajgarh Formation Sandstone, Alwar sub-basin,
Northeastern Rajasthan is reconstructed using an analysis
of sandstone grain size parameters.
2 Geological setting
The Paleoproterozoic Aravalli Fold Belt (AFB) and the Meso-
to Neoproterozoic Delhi Fold Belt (DFB), which together
encompass the majority of the Proterozoic period (2000 mil-
lion years), are portions of the Precambrian of the Aravalli
Mountain Region in Rajasthan, NW India. AFB and DFB are
both Proterozoic sequences that rest unconformably over an
Archaean basement (Fig. 1; Roy & Jakhar, 2002). DFB rocks
are found in a linear belt in central and southern Rajasthan,
as well as a considerably larger region in northern Rajasthan,
Proterozoic sandstone of Rajgarh Formation, Alwar sub‑basin, Northeastern Rajasthan:… 263

following the central axis of the Aravalli Mountain range. DFB
has two types of rocks: continental volcanic rocks and sedi-
mentary rocks that reflect fluvial to shallow marine deposi-
tional environments. The Delhi Supergroup has been divided
into two domains based on sediment ages: an older domain
of NDFB sediments dating back to < 1.7 Ga and a younger
realm of SDFB sediments dating back to 1.20–1.0 Ga. (Kaur
et al., 2020). From east to west, the NDFB is divided into three
sub-basins: Lalsot-Bayana, Alwar, and Khetri sub-basins. The
lower Raialo Group (mixed carbonate-siliciclastic, < 2.3 Ga),
the Alwar Group (siliciclastic dominated, < 1.74 Ga, < 2.1 Ga),
and the upper Ajabgarh Group (mixed siliciclastic-carbon-
ate, < 1.7 Ga) make up the NDFB (Kaur et al., 2020). In the
Alwar sub-basin, the Alwar Group is further subdivided into
the Rajgarh, Kankwarhi, and Pratapgarh formations (Table 1).
The research area the Rajgarh Formation separates the Alwar
sub-basin from the Bayana sub-basin by the northeastern
extension of the Dausa uplift (Fig. 2; latitudes 27° 5′ and 27°
17′ and longitudes 76° 35′ and 76° 45′) (Singh, 1982, 1984).
Thatra graben, Surer graben, Baswa horst, and a section of
the major Alwar sub-basin are among the fault-bounded tec-
tonic units (Singh, 1988). Several faults with NNE–SSW to
NE–SW and NW–SE to WNW–ESE tendencies may be seen
on the geological map of the Alwar sub-eastern basin por-
tion (Fig. 2) (Singh, 1982). The Rajgarh Formation consists
of feldspathic sandstone, quartzite, shale, and polymictic con-
glomerate units with a maximum thickness of 1200 m. Short
𝜙 = −log2 D,
transportation, fast deposition, and high relief in the rapidly
lowering fault-bounded basin best explain the deposition of the
Rajgarh Formation rocks (Khanam et al., 2020). The Rajgarh
Formation was deposited in a variety of environments, from
fault-bounded river to marginal marine settings. The Rajgarh
Formation lithounits in the study area has been reconstructed
as a river-dominated estuary to wave-dominated shoreface to
foreshore facies association, which gave rise to the develop-
ment of the fining up sequence (Khanam et al., 2020, 2021).
3 Materials and methods
Thirty-eight representative samples covering the five strati-
graphic lithosections (Fig. 3) were selected for grain-size anal-
ysis based on measurements, which were carried out using the
conventional thin section method. In each thin section, more
than 250 grains were measured. The resulting grain-size data
was then grouped into half-phi (ϕ) scale intervals and used to
produce cumulative frequency curves which were plotted on a
log probability paper. Different percentiles were obtained from
cumulative curves and used in calculating various statistical
parameters. The grain diameter in phi (ϕ) units represented by
5, 16, 25, 50, 75, 84 and 95 ϕ percentiles was calculated. After
converting these (ϕ) values to their sieve equivalents with the
help of Friedman's (1958) graph, statistical parameters such
as mean, standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis were cal-
culated from these values according to Folk (1968, 1980). The
frequency of grain-size ranges was calculated to determine
grain-size classes using the Udden–Wentworth grade scale
(Udden, 1914; Wentworth, 1929). The dimension of grain
sizes (mm) was converted to a ϕscale which is a logarithmic
scale to base 2.
where ϕ is the phi size and D is the grain diameter in
millimetres.
The results of the grain-size analysis were graphically
represented in the form of cumulative curves which were

Table 1  Stratigraphic sequence of Delhi Supergroup in eastern part of Alwar sub-basin, NE Rajasthan (after Singh, 1982)
Group Formation Lithology Thickness

Ajabgarh Arauli- Madan Predominantly carbonaceous phyllite with thin intercalation of grey quartzite 80 m
Bharkol Interbedded sequence of quartzite, phyllite and schist 150 m
Thana Ghazi Carbonaceous phylite with thin bands of grey and ferruginous brecciated quartzite, Grey marble 150 m
Seriska Ferruginous quartzite, calcareous quartzite, siliceous marble and thin bands of phyllite and schist 150 m
Kushalgarh Banded siliceous marble, calc gneiss, amphibolite, amphibole quartzite, phyllite and quartzite 200 m
DISCONFORMITY
Alwar Pratapgarh Quartz-sericite schist, schistose quartzite, siltstone and minor bands of white marble 900 m
Kankwarhi Quartz-sericite schist, schistose quartzite, siltstone and minor bands of white marble 250 m
Rajgarh Arkose, sandstone, feldspathic quartzite, shale and polymictic conglomerate 1200 m
UNCONFORMITY
Raialo Tehla Basic flows with conglomerate, quartzite, schist, phyllite, marble and calc gneiss 2020 m
Serrate Quartzite Quartzite, conglomerate and quartz- sericite schist 300 m
Dogeta White crystalline marble with thin quartzite, schist and phyllite interbeds, conglomerate 900 m
UNCONFORMITY
Pre-Delhi Basement—granites, pegmatites, schists, marble, shales, phyllite, quartzite, amphibolite and banded iron formation

13

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264 S. Khanam et al.

Fig. 2  Generalized geological map of the Rajgarh area, the eastern part of the Alwar sub-basin, Northeastern Rajasthan (after Singh, 1982)

Fig. 3  Detailed sedimentological logs of Rajgarh Formation along Macheri, New Macheri, Reni, Pinnan, and Jhakad sections, showing lithofa-
cies variations, distribution of sedimentary structures, and palaeocurrent patterns (after Khanam et al., 2020, 2021)

13

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Proterozoic sandstone of Rajgarh Formation, Alwar sub‑basin, Northeastern Rajasthan:…
used to derive statistical parameters using mathematical
techniques to describe grain-size distribution. The calcu-
lation was made using the equation proposed by Folk and
Ward (1957). Skewness (third moment) and kurtosis (fourth
moment) values and sorting coefficients, both graphical and
moment measures, were computed.
For microtextural analysis the fine material (< 63 µm) was
separated from the sands (63–2000 µm) by dissolution (dis-
solve the samples in hydrofluoric acid, HF) and wet sieving
of the collected samples. Following the Wentworth scale,
the sands were oven dried at 110 °C and fractionated into
coarse (500–2000 µm), medium (500–250 µm), and fine
(250–63 µm) fractions (Folk, 1968). These various fractions
were sub-sampled and examined under a Stereozoom Binoc-
ular microscope to collect representative quartz samples for
scanning electron microscopy analysis (SEM). These grains
were then coated and placed on SEM stubs for examination.
The SEM study was performed at University Sophisticated
Instrument Facility (USIF), Aligarh Muslim University, Ali-
garh. To identify microtextures on the surface of the quartz
grain, about thirty grains from sandstone samples were ran-
domly picked and imaged using a (SEM) instrument JEOL
JSM–5800 LV with a magnification of 200–2000×.
4 Results
4.1 Textural analysis
4.1.1 Frequency and cumulative curves
The cumulative curves of the data are plotted on the arithme-
tic scale with the combination of the cumulative frequency
percentage at the Y-axis and ϕ values at the X-axis. The
cumulative curves of the sandstones of the Rajgarh Forma-
tion are characterized by initially (coarse size) moderately
Fig. 4  Grain-size trends of examined samples are shown in cumulative (a) and frequency (b) curves, respectively for Rajgarh Formation Sand-
stone, Alwar sub-basin
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265
steep, with a concave middle part and gentle (fine size) end
portion (Fig. 4a). The narrower the distribution range, the
more moderately sorted the sediments are, and the gentler
the slope, the poorer the sorting and the greater the distri-
bution range. From the plotted curve (14 samples) forming
38% population of the collected samples are poorly sorted,
11 samples (29%) are moderately sorted, 9 samples (23%)
are moderately well sorted, and 4 samples (10%) are well
sorted. Frequency curves show the particle size distribution
and are good indicators of the frequency distribution of the
sediment population. 21 samples are coarse-grained, and 17
samples are medium-grained sand (Table 2). The analysed
sandstone samples show unimodal (21 samples), bimodal
(11 samples), and polymodal (6 samples) nature of curve
(Fig. 4b).
4.2 Statistical parameters
4.2.1 Graphical method
The mean size of these sediments ranges from 0.43 ϕ (coarse
sand) to 1.71 ϕ (medium sand), with an average (n = 38)
value of 1.01 ϕ, which suggests the major sediment class is
medium-grained (Table 2). The standard deviation values
of the sediments under investigation ranges from 0.26 ϕ to
1.37 ϕ, with an average (n = 38) of 0.87 ϕ (Table 2). The
samples show a variable range of standard deviation from
poorly sorted to very well sorted whereas the majority of the
samples lye in the range of moderately well-sorted category.
Skewness exhibited values ranging from − 0.36 to 0.69 indi-
cating the occurrence of very fine skewed to fine skewed
sediments in nature. The sample average (n = 38) skewness
value is 0.38; showing dominance of very fine skewed nature
of the sediment (Table 2). The kurtosis values of these sam-
ples range from 0.84 to 1.71, with an average (n = 38) of
1.11 (Table 2). These results indicate the platykurtic to
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Table 2  Statistical parameters of the grain size distribution of the Rajgarh Formation Sandstone, Alwar sub-basin, Northeastern Rajasthan, calculated by graphical method
266

Depositional environment Sample Id Median (ϕ 50) Mean size (Mz) Verbal limit Standard Verbal limit Skewness ­(Sk1) Verbal limit Kurtosis (KG) Verbal limit
deviation

13
(σ1)

Fluvial sandstone M1 0.62 0.95 CS 1.06 PS 0.60 VFS 1.04 MK

M2 1.23 1.36 MS 0.89 MS 0.33 VFS 1.00 MK
M3 0.54 0.90 CS 1.01 PS 0.65 VFS 1.30 LK
M5 0.71 0.93 CS 0.93 MS 0.48 VFS 1.04 MK
M7 0.49 0.86 CS 0.84 MS 0.63 VFS 0.88 PK
M10 0.71 0.89 CS 0.89 MS 0.45 VFS 1.14 LK
M14 0.60 0.79 CS 0.74 MS 0.46 VFS 1.04 MK
NM1 0.38 0.54 CS 0.53 MWS 0.53 VFS 1.04 MK
NM2 0.47 0.66 CS 0.64 MWS 0.54 VFS 0.97 MK
NM4 0.53 0.68 CS 0.65 MWS 0.45 VFS 1.03 MK
NM5 1.36 1.67 MS 1.34 PS 0.40 VFS 1.17 LK
NM8 0.54 1.01 MS 1.16 PS 0.69 VFS 1.13 LK
NM9 0.52 0.74 CS 0.77 MS 0.58 VFS 1.34 LK
Re1 0.78 1.19 MS 1.28 PS 0.59 VFS 1.12 LK
Re2 0.95 1.06 MS 0.77 MS 0.31 VFS 1.04 MK
Re3 0.99 1.30 MS 1.01 PS 0.50 VFS 1.10 MK
Re4 1.02 1.21 MS 1.14 PS 0.39 VFS 1.25 LK
Re5 1.04 1.34 MS 1.37 PS 0.52 VFS 1.53 VLK
Re6 0.97 1.16 MS 0.81 MS 0.39 VFS 1.03 MK
Re7 1.36 1.51 MS 1.08 PS 0.33 VFS 1.17 LK
Re8 1.06 1.43 MS 1.29 PS 0.59 VFS 1.28 LK
R2 2.16 1.69 MS 1.19 PS -0.36 VCS 1.50 LK
R3 1.38 1.47 MS 1.18 PS 0.24 FS 1.17 LK
R5 1.53 1.71 MS 1.36 PS 0.26 FS 0.91 MK
R6 1.08 1.26 MS 1.10 PS 0.39 VFS 1.27 LK

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S. Khanam et al.
 Table 2  (continued)
Depositional environment Sample Id Median (ϕ 50) Mean size (Mz) Verbal limit Standard Verbal limit Skewness ­(Sk1) Verbal limit Kurtosis (KG) Verbal limit
deviation
(σ1)

Shallow marine sandstone M11 0.46 0.71 CS 0.75 MS 0.58 VFS 0.97 MK
M12 0.43 0.43 CS 0.26 VWS 0.10 FS 0.92 MK
M13 0.48 0.66 CS 0.63 MWS 0.54 VFS 1.17 LK
NM10 0.57 0.61 CS 0.45 WS 0.20 FS 0.84 PK
NM11 0.74 0.76 CS 0.51 MWS 0.15 FS 1.00 MK
Re9 0.78 0.94 CS 0.66 MWS 0.43 VFS 0.98 MK
R4 0.72 0.88 CS 0.79 MS 0.40 VFS 1.01 MK
R7 0.53 0.53 CS 0.29 VWS 0.04 SS 1.04 MK
R8 0.62 0.67 CS 0.54 MWS 0.25 FS 0.93 MK
R9 0.68 0.71 CS 0.54 MWS 0.20 FS 0.86 PK
MR3 0.59 0.62 CS 0.47 WS 0.31 VFS 1.71 VLK
MR4 1.33 1.34 MS 0.79 MS 0.11 FS 0.92 MK
MR5 1.14 1.25 MS 0.69 MWS 0.29 FS 0.94 MK

CS coarse sand, MS medium sand, VWS very well sorted, NSS near symmetrical skewed, FS fine skewed, CSK coarse skewed, VFS very fine skewed, VPK very platykurtic, PK platykurtic, MK
mesokurtic, LK leptokurtic, VLK very leptokurtic
Proterozoic sandstone of Rajgarh Formation, Alwar sub‑basin, Northeastern Rajasthan:…

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13
267

268
very leptokurtic nature of the samples while the average
value (KG = 1.10) suggests that majority of the samples are
mesokurtic in nature.
4.2.2 Moment measures method
Grain-size parameters were also calculated by the math-
ematical method of moment (Krumbein & Pettijohn, 1938).
Mean size ranges from 0.75 to 2.05, indicating a signifi-
cant distribution of coarse- to medium-sand (Table 3). The
average value of 1.32 shows the dominance of the medium-
sand sized sediments. Values of standard deviation range
from 0.13 to 2.64, indicating that the sediments are very
well sorted to very poorly sorted. The average value of 1.12
shows poorly sorted sediment (Table 3). Skewness values
range from − 3.65 to 4.11, which indicates that the sediments
are very finely skewed to fine skewed, whereas the aver-
age value of 1.37 indicate that the deposits are very finely
skewed (Table 3). Kurtosis values ranging from 2.73 to 212
suggest mesokurtic and very leptokurtic states, respectively.
The average kurtosis value of 17.79 indicates that the sedi-
ments are very leptokurtic (Table 3).
4.3 Surface microtextures
Microtextures on quartz grain surfaces are indicators of
mechanical and chemical processes that take place in dif-
ferent sedimentary environments (Madhavaraju et al., 2006).
Several kinds of microtextures were observed in this inves-
tigation. The surfaces of quartz grains are pitted as well as
smooth. Pits of varying sizes are observed in quartz grains
of the study area. These irregular or regular pits appear in
a range of sizes, from little to large having a wide range
of environmental implications. Small and medium cir-
cular pits are common on quartz grain surfaces, but big
pits are sporadically distributed. Conchoidal fractures are
observed as large dish-shaped, which appear as depression
with a smooth interior and curved outline (Fig. 5a). The
frequency of both straight and arcuate steps is more com-
mon in quartz grains (Fig. 5b). The dominance of angular
and subangular grains and linear and arcuate steps reveals
that quartz grains underwent short transportation and rapid
deposition (Fig. 5b, e). The surface of the grains shows a
high density of small V-shaped or rounded pits randomly
oriented and irregularly distributed (Fig. 5c). V-shaped pits
(fractures) on the grain surfaces may be characterized by
irregular sides and deep central areas (Figs. 5c, 6a). Quartz
grains also exhibit two types of precipitation features, i.e.,
silica globules and chemical etching surface (dissolution
pits). The silica globule having a smooth texture, indicate
that silica might been overprinted on it (Fig. 5c). The grain
showing irregular topography resembles upturned plates
and has a more rounded appearance (Fig. 5d). Smooth and
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S. Khanam et al.
clean fracture faces are also developed on the grain surface
(Figs. 5e, 6f). Angular quartz grain has stepped cleavage all
over the surface (Fig. 5f). The deep, curved, linear troughs
or grooves are also generated on the mineral surface (Fig. 6a,
b). The roughness of the surfaces of the quartz grains is also
seen within the grains (Fig. 6c). The sub-rounded grains
(Fig. 6d), dissolution pits (Fig. 6e) and straight fracture
plane also marked their presence on surface of quartz grain
(Fig. 6f).
5 Discussion
Grain-size distributions of sediments, as well as the sedi-
mentological characteristics derived from them, have been
investigated to relate the transportation mechanism, deposi-
tion, and as environmental indicators (Ahmad et al., 2017,
2021; Ghaznavi et  al., 2019; Kanhaiya & Singh, 2014;
Kanhaiya et al., 2017a; Quasim et al., 2020). The grain-
size frequency curve has single, double, or triple peaks. The
width of the single peak of majority of samples is narrow,
indicating well-sorted sediments. Furthermore, the breadth
of double or more peaks is high, indicating that the sedi-
ments have not been well sorted. The unimodality of the
sediments shows that the sediments may have been derived
by one single transporting agent while the bi and polymodal
distribution curves indicate that the sediments were brought
by different transporting agents.
The majority of the sediments show medium- to coarse-
grained sand and more or less absence of fine sediment,
which reflects moderately high energy conditions for the
sandstone. The samples are showing a variable range of
standard deviation from poorly to very well sorted and
majority of the samples are lying in the range of moderately
well-sorted category. The partial winnowing activity and
the influx of previously sorted sediments into the marine
environment are responsible for the somewhat well-sorted
nature of the sediments (Ramanathan et al., 2009).
The average skewness value indicates dominance of
the very fine skewed nature of these samples. Fine skewed
sediment was found in the present investigation as a result
of high wave energy, coastline erosion, and a variety of
other factors that may have altered the textural properties
of coastal sediments. These samples are showing variable
range of platykurtic to very leptokurtic nature whereas
the majority of the samples are mesokurtic in nature. The
graphic kurtosis is the qualitative measure of sediments
already sorted elsewhere in a high-energy environment and
later transported and modified by another environment.
Beach sediments show high kurtosis values due to well
sorting achieved in high-energy conditions (Folk & Ward,
1957). The variations in kurtosis values are due to changes
 Table 3  Representative data on statistical parameters of the grain size distribution of the Rajgarh Formation Sandstone, Alwar sub-basin, Northeastern Rajasthan, calculated by Moment method
Depositional environ- Sample Id ∑fm ∑f(m − x)2 ∑f(m − x)3 ∑f(m − x)4 1st moment Verbal limit 2nd moment Verbal limit 3rd moment Verbal limit 4th moment Verbal limit
ment

Fluvial sandstone M1 133.44 176.28 503.68 2894.62 1.33 MS 1.76 PS 2.15 VFS 9.32 VLK
M2 170.26 95.83 121.39 465.72 1.70 MS 0.96 MS 1.29 FS 5.07 LK
M3 121.15 159.16 359.88 4116.05 1.21 MS 1.59 PS 1.79 VFS 16.25 VLK
M5 127.83 128.43 291.82 1459.84 1.28 MS 1.28 PS 2.01 VFS 8.85 VLK
M7 109.88 85.51 105.69 368.85 1.10 MS 0.86 MS 1.34 VFS 5.04 LK
M10 122.93 106.28 183.84 706.87 1.23 MS 1.06 PS 1.68 VFS 6.26 LK
M14 106.79 220.33 − 1194.9 10,164.6 1.07 MS 2.20 VPS -3.65 VCS 20.94 VLK
NM1 80.57 35.05 23.80 48.74 0.81 CS 0.35 VMS 1.15 FS 3.97 LK
NM2 94.12 47.75 35.93 88.55 0.94 CS 0.48 WS 1.09 FS 3.88 LK
NM4 97.29 52.17 46.71 122.77 0.97 CS 0.52 MWS 1.24 FS 4.51 LK
NM5 195.40 183.34 229.54 957.99 1.95 MS 1.83 PS 0.92 FS 2.85 MK
NM8 137.39 202.74 586.83 3434.73 1.37 MS 2.03 VPS 2.03 VFS 8.36 VLK
NM9 105.53 95.72 177.82 661.19 1.06 MS 0.96 MS 1.90 VFS 7.22 LK
Re1 155.26 260.41 961.70 6941.44 1.55 MS 2.60 VPS 2.29 VFS 10.24 VLK
Re2 138.42 105.44 311.19 1931.74 1.38 MS 1.05 PS 2.87 VFS 17.38 VLK
Re3 156.87 148.18 476.43 3816.96 1.57 MS 1.48 PS 3.91 VFS 17.38 VLK
Re4 154.37 148.68 263.95 1120.18 1.54 MS 1.49 PS 1.46 VFS 5.07 LK
Re5 179.89 263.98 770.83 4286.53 1.80 MS 2.64 VPS 1.80 VFS 6.15 LK
Re6 144.68 72.26 64.08 218.75 1.45 MS 0.72 MS 1.04 FS 4.19 LK
Proterozoic sandstone of Rajgarh Formation, Alwar sub‑basin, Northeastern Rajasthan:…

Re7 183.68 157.27 398.90 2441.45 1.84 MS 1.57 PS 2.02 VFS 9.87 VLK
Re8 186.26 224.42 598.13 2970.52 1.86 MS 2.24 VPS 1.78 VFS 5.90 LK
R2 164.21 145.76 140.52 635.55 1.64 MS 1.46 PS 0.80 FS 212.46 VLK
R3 179.05 153.09 220.35 1013.35 1.79 MS 1.53 PS 1.16 FS 4.32 LK
R5 205.07 189.22 221.09 1273.16 2.05 FS 1.89 PS 0.85 FS 3.56 MK
R6 161.71 140.14 243.84 1023.37 1.62 MS 1.40 PS 1.47 VFS 5.21 LK

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13
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Table 3  (continued)
270

Depositional environ- Sample Id ∑fm ∑f(m − x)2 ∑f(m − x)3 ∑f(m − x)4 1st moment Verbal limit 2nd moment Verbal limit 3rd moment Verbal limit 4th moment Verbal limit
ment

13
Shallow marine sand- M11 103.14 69.11 65.80 191.39 1.03 MS 0.69 MWS 1.15 FS 4.01 LK
stone
M12 74.50 28.05 61.08 227.99 0.75 CS 0.28 VWS 4.11 VFS 28.97 VLK
M13 91.48 52.06 47.53 114.45 0.91 CS 0.52 MWS 1.27 FS 4.22 LK
NM10 87.26 23.97 5.38 15.69 0.87 CS 0.24 VWS 0.46 FS 2.73 MK
NM11 101.67 26.48 5.90 19.54 1.02 MS 0.26 VWS 0.43 FS 2.79 MK
Re9 126.19 52.01 41.30 109.57 1.26 MS 0.52 MWS 1.10 FS 4.05 LK
R4 118.39 70.33 60.15 180.37 1.18 MS 0.70 MWS 1.02 FS 3.65 MK
R7 77.99 12.96 4.96 10.97 0.78 CS 0.13 VWS 1.06 FS 6.53 VLK
R8 95.31 37.28 21.95 57.53 0.95 CS 0.37 WS 0.96 FS 4.14 LK
R9 97.14 32.41 10.53 30.15 0.97 CS 0.32 VWS 0.57 FS 2.87 MK
MR3 95.00 45.89 89.00 291.63 0.95 CS 0.46 WS 2.86 VFS 13.85 VLK
MR4 166.81 87.49 147.26 743.40 1.67 MS 0.87 MS 1.80 VFS 9.71 VLK
MR5 155.45 55.95 45.34 141.74 1.55 MS 0.56 MWS 1.08 FS 4.53 LK

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S. Khanam et al.
Proterozoic sandstone of Rajgarh Formation, Alwar sub‑basin, Northeastern Rajasthan:… 271

Fig. 5  SEM images of quartz grain surface from Rajgarh Formation
a mechanically formed large dish-shaped conchoidal fracture which
appears as depression on grain surface, smooth interior and curved
outline. b Surface textures including classic example of arc-shaped
steps and parallel steps. c Surface of marine sand grain showing
dense pattern of non-oriented impact pits such as irregular V-shaped
pits, small and medium circular pits, coalescing pits, adhering par-
ticles and silica globules. d Quartz grain surface showing irregu-
lar topography which resembles upturned plates and etched surface
caused by the solution of silica. e Angular quartz grain with curved
fracture surface show edge roughness and curved grooves. f Quartz
grain surface showing stepped cleavage planes

in the flow characteristics of the depositional medium (Han-
amgond & Chavadi, 1998).
5.1 Inter‑relationship of textural parameters
The use of bivariate plots can help to evaluate energy condi-
tions, transportation medium, and deposition mode (Essien
et al., 2016). An attempt has been made to interpret the dep-
ositional environment of the Rajgarh Formation Sandstone
using the multiple plots. The sediments are mostly coarse
to medium sand and moderately well to poorly sorted, as
seen by the bivariate plot of standard deviation vs. mean
size (Fig. 7a). Poorly sorted sediments were probably depos-
ited close to the source area or deposited quickly in nearby

13

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272
Fig. 6  Surface features of quartz sand grains are observed in SEM.
a quartz grain showing the deep V-shaped depression and straight
and curved grooves characteristics of medium energy beach (litto-
ral) action. b Step like rippled curved fractures associated with sharp
angular ridge and V-shaped trough. c Surface of grain showing a high
density of deep V-shaped indentations, deep trough and high rough-
regions. Most of the Rajgarh Sandstone is coarse-grained
and poorly sorted, which means that the sediments have
undergone short transport and have had insufficient time for
grain-to-grain interaction and therefore their sizes have not
been reduced. The bivariate plot of graphic standard devia-
tion (sorting) vs. skewness (Fig. 7b) gives a linear trend or
13
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S. Khanam et al.
ness which may be increased by chemical weathering. d Sub-rounded
grains showing deep and crescent shaped grooves, randomly oriented
cryogenic cracks and breakage blocks. e Grain showing pitted and
etched surface caused by the solution of silica. f Angular grain with
smooth and clean fracture plane
clustering of grains in one sector of the nearly circular ring.
This may be due to the mixture of two modes in equal pro-
portion in unimodal sediments. However, the considerable
number of moderately well-sorted sediments indicates con-
tinuous reworking by currents and waves (Moiola & Weiser,
1968).
Proterozoic sandstone of Rajgarh Formation, Alwar sub‑basin, Northeastern Rajasthan:… 273

Fig. 7  Bivariate plots to show the position of studied samples in the size vs skewness, d standard deviation vs kurtosis, e mean grain size
model plot introduced by Folk and Ward (1957) a mean grain size vs vs kurtosis and f skewness vs kurtosis
standard deviation, b skewness vs standard deviation, c mean grain

Skewness vs. mean size reveals that sediments are fine
to very finely skewed, with grain sizes limited to coarse to
medium sand. Except for one sample, which has negative
skewness, the entire sample plots are positively skewed
(Fig. 7c). It shows that the sediment proportion is unimodal
in nature. The positive skewness and unimodal nature
also support the abundance of the coarser grain. The plot
of skewness against mean size shows clustering of values
near inside the sinusoidal curve of established trend (Folk
& Ward, 1957), which also point towards a coarse range of
the grains. The sinusoidal nature of the studied sediments
is due to the proportionate admixture of two size classes of
the sediments, i.e., coarse and medium sand. The unimodal
sediments are positively skewed due to the admixture of size
classes. The field between kurtosis and standard deviation
shows the scattering of samples in the region of the nor-
mal curve, which depicted that, on an average, samples are
mesokurtic and moderately to poorly sorted (Fig. 7d). The

13

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274
plot of kurtosis against mean size reveals sample clustering
around the bottom and above the conventional kurtosis curve
(Fig. 7e). The clustering of samples may have resulted in the
mixing of two particle size classes, which altered the sorting
of the sediments, as shown in the plot (Fig. 7e). The grain
mixture is dominantly coarse sand mixed with a subordinate
amount of medium sand. The proportion of the grain mix-
ture makes the degree of sorting moderate to poor sorting,
mesokurtic to leptokurtic conditions. The bivariate plot of
graphic kurtosis and skewness shows that Rajgarh Sandstone
samples are mesokurtic to leptokurtic and are finely skewed
(Fig. 7f) characters indicating lesser amount of fine grained
material. This combination of depositional characteristics
indicates that fluvial to shallow marine processes predomi-
nate in the study area.
The plot of mean size vs. standard deviation is a useful
tool for distinguishing between beach and river sands (Fried-
man, 1967). The bivariate plots of mean size vs. standard
deviation reveal that all of the sediment samples are found
in both beach and riverine setting, demonstrating that both
shallow marine and riverine influences were prevailing at
Fig. 8  a Bivariate plot of mean versus standard deviation for Rajgarh
Formation Sandstone to differentiate between beach and river sands
(Friedman, 1967; Moiola & Weiser, 1968). b Bivariant plot of skew-
13
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S. Khanam et al.
the time of deposition of the sediments. Apart from that,
a linear trend indicates that as sediment size reduces, so
does sediment sorting (Fig. 8a). The both beach and river
environment for sediment deposition was determined by
simple skewness against simple sorting (Fig. 8b). Stewart
(1958) employed median size versus standard deviation to
discriminate between wave, beach, and river processes. The
graphical and moment analysis plot depicts beach and river
depositing processes (Fig. 8c).
5.2 Linear discriminate function analysis
Discriminant function analyses were used for further dif-
ferentiation among depositional environments (Sahu, 1964).
The linear discriminant functions of Y1 (< − 2.7411 = shal-
low agitated water and > − 2.7411 = beach), Y 2
(< − 63.3650 = beach and > − 63.3650 = shallow marine),
Y3 (> − 7.4190 = shallow marine and < − 7.4190 = deltaic or
lacustrine), and Y4 (< 9.843 = turbidity and > 9.8433 = del-
taic) were modified and used to discriminate between the
different processes and depositional environments. The
ness versus inclusive standard deviation, after Friedman (1967). c
Bivariant plot of inclusive standard deviation versus mean diameter,
after Stewart (1958) and Moiola and Weiser (1968)
Proterozoic sandstone of Rajgarh Formation, Alwar sub‑basin, Northeastern Rajasthan:…
values for Y1, Y2, Y3, and Y4 linear discriminant functions
for the Rajgarh Formation Sandstone samples are given in
Table 4.
The Y1 values, all the samples by the graphical and
moment method fall in the beach environment. Y2 values
from the moment methods fall in the shallow agitated water
whereas, in the graphical approach, Y2 values confirm that
the majority of the samples are of the shallow agitated type.
Few samples fall in the beach environment. Regarding the
Y3 values, samples fall in both shallow marine and fluvial
environments. Y4 values in the case of the moment method
fall in turbidity processes whereas, in the graphical method,
Y4 values fall in both turbidity and fluvial environment.
The binary plot of Y2 versus Y1 shows that most of the
Rajgarh samples fall in the shallow agitated water/beach
while some samples are plotted into the beach/littoral envi-
ronment (Fig. 9a). Furthermore, the plot of Y3 against Y2
(Fig. 9b) indicates that half of the samples by the graphical
method are plotted into shallow marine/beach, and half of
the samples are plotted into fluvial/agitated environment. In
contrast, most of the samples from the moment method fall
in fluvial/agitated conditions, whereas few samples fall in
shallow marine/agitated environments. The binary plot of Y4
versus Y3 signifies that most of the samples from the moment
method are categorized into fluvial environments, with few
samples falling into fluvial/shallow marine conditions. In
contrast, samples from the graphical method fall into fluvial,
shallow marine as well as turbidity environments (Fig. 9c).
Another multivariant linear discriminant function analysis
diagram (Sahu, 1983) was utilised to differentiate the depo-
sitional environment of the Rajgarh Formation Sandstone,
Alwar sub-basin. The values of V1 and V2 were displayed on
the multigroup multivariant discriminant diagram (Fig. 9d).
The majority of the samples fell in the beach and in shallow
marine environments.
The beach environment is characterized by the presence
of sediments supplied by rivers and reworked by wave activ-
ity, whereas the shallow marine environment refers to sedi-
ment deposited up to 200 m and reworked by wave actions.
Field observations, such as fining upward sequences, pal-
aeocurrent pattern, and sedimentary structures indicate that
the sandstone of Rajgarh Formation in the studied area was
deposited in a river-dominated estuary to wave-dominated
shoreface to foreshore facies associations (Khanam et al.,
2020, 2021; Singh, 1982) are in agreement with the results
obtained by the grain-size analysis.
5.3 C–M plot to identify hydrodynamic conditions
The C–M pattern is an important graphic to understand
the mechanisms of sediment transport prior to deposition
(Passega, 1957; Passega & Byramjee, 1969). C–M plot
is an inter-relationship of coarser one percentile value in
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275
micron (C) and median value in micron (M) of sediments
and used to determine the nature of sediment types and the
energy of the carrying medium (Passega, 1964; Visher,
1969). The position of plotted points within a whole C–M
pattern region for a sediment deposition revealed the likely
conditions of sediment transport prior to deposition. The
plot of the locations for the studied samples reveal that
sediments are inhabited in NO segments (Fig. 10), imply-
ing that the majority of the sediments are carried only
by rolling (Passega, 1957; Passega & Byramjee, 1969).
Rolling transports over 95% of the sediments is showing
the simplicity of the hydrodynamic mechanisms in this
system. The first percentile value for 97% of the sediment
samples is between 100 and 1000 micron (Fig. 10), imply-
ing moderate to less violent hydrodynamic conditions
that contribute to deposition as also supported by Passega
(1957) and Passega and Byramjee (1969).
5.4 Log‑normal distribution curve
Cumulative percentage probability curves are drawn on a
log probability scale. Cumulative frequency percentages
and the phi values were plotted on Y and X-axis, respec-
tively (Fig. 11a,b). Each log-normal sub-population may
be related to a different sediment transport and deposition
mode, such as suspension, saltation, and rolling (Visher,
1969). Each curve segment shows a separate sub-popu-
lation within a grain-size distribution transported by dif-
ferent modes simultaneously. The log probability curve
generally exhibits two or three straight line segments.
The plot shows all three types of the population- traction,
saltation, and suspension lodes in sediments (Fig. 11a,
b). However, the most frequent mode of transportation is
saltation. The grain-size distribution curve also shows a
moderately sorted grain-size population in the saltation
domain. This may be due to the mixture of coarse and
medium-grained sediments. Sediments coarser than fine
sand i.e., very coarse-, coarse- and medium-grained sands
are mostly transported as traction load being rolled over
the bed.
The river to marginal marine Rajgarh Formation has
a bi- and unimodal pattern with a rare polymodal pattern
with the vector mean oriented northwest and southeast.
The unimodal flow direction near Rajgarh indicates a
fluvial environment, and this viewpoint is backed up by
additional evidences (Khanam et al., 2020, 2021; Singh,
1982). The Rajgarh palaeocurrent pattern, as determined
by cross-stratified siliciclastics, reveals a bipolar and uni-
directional palaeoflow pattern directed NW and NW–SE.
The bipolar palaeocurrent pattern was discovered in a tid-
ally influenced coastal environment (Selley, 1980).
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Table 4  Linear discriminate function analysis to interpret depositional environment and variation in energy condition
276

Depositional environment Moment method Graphical method

13
Sample id Y1 Env Y2 Env Y3 Env Y4 Env Y1 Env Y2 Env Y3 Env Y4 Env

Fluvial sandstone M1 31.27 B 436.41 SAW − 36.97 F 66.01 T 2.76 B 118.84 SAW − 12.45 F 10.70 F
M2 10.43 B 204.27 SAW − 13.67 F 37.15 T 0.51 B 97.57 SAW − 8.09 F 8.78 T
M3 51.92 B 518.53 SAW − 29.92 F 99.95 T 3.23 B 116.58 SAW − 11.77 F 12.30 F
M5 9.01 B 139.03 SAW − 7.98 F 33.03 T 2.12 B 99.63 SAW − 9.65 F 9.75 F
M7 11.72 B 182.80 SAW − 12.42 F 36.79 T 0.99 B 87.67 SAW − 9.01 F 9.79 T
M10 15.79 B 239.65 SAW − 17.49 F 45.76 T 2.36 B 94.68 SAW − 8.77 F 9.97 F
M14 86.94 B 657.00 SAW − 23.45 F 88.95 T 1.47 B 76.09 SAW − 6.80592 SM 9.38 F
NM1 7.55 B 114.88 SAW − 6.29 SM 29.36 T 1.27 B 55.76 B − 4.85 SM 9.59 T
NM2 7.31 B 121.29 SAW − 6.89 SM 28.65 T 1.06 B 64.95 B − 5.99 SM 9.39 T
NM4 9.01 B 139.03 SAW − 7.98 F 33.03 T 1.39 B 65.74 SAW − 5.69 SM 9.16 F
NM5 12.42 B 320.93 SAW − 33.29 F 24.07 T 3.50 B 172.89 SAW − 17.13 F 10.78 F
NM8 32.11 B 483.03 SAW − 45.21 F 60.56 T 3.49 B 138.24 SAW − 14.89 F 11.90 F
NM9 18.15 B 244.64 SAW − 16.71 F 52.11 T 2.52 B 86.10 SAW − 7.78 F 11.74 F
Re1 46.68 B 700.76 SAW − 69.73 F 73.43 T 4.10 B 158.41 SAW − 16.93 F 11.41 F
Re2 47.31 B 468.31 SAW − 22.66 F 112.77 T 1.00 B 80.69 SAW − 6.42 SM 8.60 T
Re3 48.53 B 561.39 SAW − 37.19 F 120.38 T 1.56 B 117.07 SAW − 10.99 F 10.54 F
Re4 15.43 B 289.55 SAW − 25.83 F 38.63 T 3.59 B 134.60 SAW − 12.89 F 10.60 F
Re5 34.79 B 632.43 SAW − 69.07 F 48.76 T 5.92 B 182.70 SAW − 18.61 F 13.32 F
Re6 7.65 B 153.38 SAW − 9.09 F 30.45 T 0.68 B 87.45 SAW − 7.29 SM 9.19 T
Re7 29.13 B 410.55 SAW − 30.62 F 68.18 T 1.91 B 128.07 SAW − 11.37 F 9.96 F
Re8 26.66 B 501.45 SAW − 52.04 F 46.57 T 3.82 B 166.27 SAW − 17.01 F 12.46 F
R2 661.85 B 4111.27 SAW − 12.96 F 1131.93 T 4.61 B 139.89 SAW − 9.98 F 7.29 T
R3 13.33 B 283.10 SAW − 25.53 F 32.95 T 3.02 B 139.80 SAW − 12.82 F 9.42 T
R5 15.24 B 348.54 SAW − 34.78 F 27.46 T 3.01 B 169.05 SAW − 16.84 F 8.51 T
R6 14.67 B 277.40 SAW − 23.71 F 39.43 T 3.11 B 129.92 SAW − 12.12 F 10.76 F

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S. Khanam et al.
 Table 4  (continued)
Depositional environment Moment method Graphical method
Sample id Y1 Env Y2 Env Y3 Env Y4 Env Y1 Env Y2 Env Y3 Env Y4 Env

Shallow marine sandstone M11 8.19 B 142.42 SAW − 9.32 F 29.86 T 1.33 B 76.17 SAW − 7.47 F 9.80 T
M12 79.30 B 627.38 SAW − 19.35 F 181.59 T 1.36 B 30.25 B − 0.95 SM 5.90 T
M13 8.26 B 133.18 SAW − 8.12 F 31.64 T 1.62 B 67.42 SAW − 5.82 SM 10.40 F
NM10 4.65 B 76.29 SAW − 2.38 SM 18.20 T 0.76 B 41.95 B − 2.53 SM 6.30 T
NM11 4.41 B 79.92 SAW − 2.32 SM 18.42 T 1.04 B 49.88 B − 2.71 SM 6.92 T
Re9 6.82 B 132.42 SAW − 7.22 SM 29.87 T 0.43 B 69.42 SAW − 5.66 SM 8.95 T
R4 6.84 B 136.97 SAW − 8.83 F 27.22 T 1.46 B 80.47 SAW − 7.11 SM 8.91 T
R7 15.40 B 153.41 SAW − 4.85 SM 42.29 T 1.57 B 33.58 B − 0.71 SM 6.16 T
R8 8.00 B 118.11 SAW − 5.49 SM 29.14 T 1.05 B 51.19 B − 3.50 SM 7.16 T
R9 4.67 B 85.56 SAW − 3.31 SM 19.78 T 0.82 B 50.00 B − 3.32 SM 6.56 T
MR3 34.57 B 336.85 SAW − 14.99 F 93.35 T 3.28 B 61.41 B − 3.18 SM 11.65 F
MR4 23.38 B 288.69 SAW − 14.62 F 65.02 T 0.18 B 81.15 SAW − 5.61 SM 6.84 T
MR5 7.46 B 148.30 SAW − 7.41 SM 32.50 T − 0.39 B 73.44 SAW − 5.17 SM 8.05 T

B beach, SAW shallow agitated water, F fluvial, T turbidity

Proterozoic sandstone of Rajgarh Formation, Alwar sub‑basin, Northeastern Rajasthan:…

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13
277

278
Fig. 9  Linear discriminate function analysis plot for Rajgarh Forma-
tion Sandstone after Sahu (1964) a Y1 vs Y2 discriminates between
beach and aeolian environment, b Y2 and Y3 between beach and
Fig. 10  C–M plot to determine depositional mechanisms for Rajgarh
Formation Sandstone (after Passega, 1957)
13
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S. Khanam et al.
shallow marine sub-environment, c Y3 vs Y4 discriminates between
marine turbidity and fluvial environment, d Multigroup discriminant
diagram for Rajgarh Formation Sandstone after Sahu (1983)
5.5 Interpretation of the microtrextures
on the surface of quartz grains
The impact of mechanical and chemical processes on the
examined quartz grains are revealed by examining the sur-
face textures of quartz grains from Rajgarh Sandstone.
Sub-angular, sub-rounded, and rounded outlines, rounded
and crescent pits, small circular pits, stepped cleavage
plane large V-shaped pits, and straight and curved grooves
all result from the mechanical origin. Quartz grains from
the Rajgarh Formation show mechanical features like con-
choidal fractures and linear and arcuate steps, indicating
that quartz grains were many derived from the crystal-
line source rocks as also corroborated from the findings
of Krinsley and Margolis (1969). The polygenetic fractur-
ing processes generate arc-shaped steps and conchoidal
fractures on the grain surface with main characteristics of
Proterozoic sandstone of Rajgarh Formation, Alwar sub‑basin, Northeastern Rajasthan:…
Fig. 11  Log probability curves showing the trend of various modes of transportation a for fluvial sandstone, b for shallow marine sandstone
(after Visher, 1969)
arcuate or smooth curved fractures. Distinct sharp angular
edges on the grain boundaries are produced due to poly-
genetic or fracturing processes. Angular quartz grain has
stepped cleavage all over the surface. The high-stress frac-
turing processes generate deep, curved, linear troughs or
grooves on the mineral surface. Mechanical V-shaped pits
have been caused by grain-to-grain collision, abrasion, and
attrition process during transportation of sediments as also
reported by Manickam and Barbaroux (1987). Thus, one
set of V-shaped pits may have resulted from the projection
of one grain striking another grain with linear motion. In
contrast, the second collision may cause another set of
V-shaped pits with different orientations as also observed
by Krinsley and Donahue (1968). V-shaped patterns of
mechanical origin are generally found in a subaqueous
environment having high energy conditions (Mahaney,
1998). V-shaped pits occurred on the surface of the grains
in the form of V-shaped fractures, mainly due to percus-
sion or fracturing (Campbell & Thompson, 1991; Mahaney
& Mahaney, 2002). The V-shaped pits on the grain sur-
face also indicate robust hydrodynamic processes prior to
deposition (Costa et al., 2012). These might have origi-
nated from grain-to-grain collision and formed in a littoral
high energy environment (Krinsley & Doornkamp, 1973).
These conchoidal fractures and pits suggest the strong
mechanical impact encountered by quartz grains in high-
energy conditions (Mahaney et al., 2004). The surface
features of quartz grain from beach sand are represented
by mechanical V-shaped pits, curved and straight grooves
and, surface roughness (Abd-Alla, 1991). Littoral action
is characterized by irregular V-shaped pits, straight and
curved grooves (Al-Saleh & Khalaf, 1982). V-shaped and
crescent pits are also prominent in nearshore sands (Wasel,
2012). The roughness of the surfaces of the quartz grains
is the result of differential chemical weathering related to
the differences in chemical resistance within the grains.
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279
The sub-rounded grains suggest the recycling nature of the
sediments and the high-energy environment.
Chemical action is manifested on quartz grain surfaces by
dissolution or precipitation textures such as silica globules,
and dissolution pits on the grain surface are formed by the
precipitation of silica from chemical solution due to pro-
longed residence of the sediments in the depositional basin
under a saturated silica environment (Armstrong-Altrin &
Natalhy-Pineda, 2014; Udayaganesan et  al., 2011). The
quartz grain surface exhibits dissolution pits resulting from
chemical action, which could be formed in the marine envi-
ronment. The silica globule is abundant in the river-domi-
nated sediments. Chemical features such as solution pits and
silica globules are the result of the diagenetic environment.
This chemical feature forms immovable grains in contact
with the solution, supersaturated with silica (Madhavaraju
et al., 2006). In general, the microtextural investigations cou-
pled with the field observations indicates that the Rajgarh
Formation Sandstone was deposited in fluvial to marginal
marine settings.
6 Conclusion
Thirty-eight representative samples of sandstone from the
Proterozoic Rajgarh Formation in Alwar sub-basin were col-
lected from recognised paleo-depositional settings in five
different lithosections. The grain-size data were obtained
by standard thin section approach and were represented as
grain-size distribution curves ultimately to delineate the fol-
lowing important observations and conceptual model about
the study area:
1. The cumulative frequency percentage curves and grain-
size statistics primarily indicate that the sediments are
medium- to coarse-grained. Furthermore, the grain-size
13

280
distribution of the studied sandstone samples is uni-
modal (n = 21), bimodal (n = 11), and polymodal (n = 6).
2. Sediments of Rajgarh Formation are generally poor to
moderately well sorted, very fine to fine skewed, and
platykurtic to very leptokurtic in nature, implying depo-
sition under different energy conditions in various geo-
morphic regimes ranging from a river-dominated estuary
to shallow marine settings. Marine and fluvial processes
were active throughout the deposition of the Rajgarh
Formation Sandstone, as evident from bivariant plots
incorporating textural characteristics.
3. The graphic mean value reveals a prevalence of medium-
to coarse-sized sand particles, indicating relatively
medium to high energy deposition circumstances. The
linear discriminant functions (LDF) results indicate that
the Rajgarh Formation Sandstone was deposited in a
medium to high energy environment, implying a shallow
marine/beach to fluvial/agitated environment.
4. The C–M pattern displays a clustered distribution of par-
ticles in the NO section, indicating that the sediments
were largely deposited by rolling. The log probability
curves for the Rajgarh Formation Sandstone indicates
variation in the hydraulic depositional conditions.
Although traction plays a role in the deposition of the
sediments where saltation was the most common mecha-
nism of transportation. Most sediments, from medium
to very coarse-grained sands, are transported as traction
loads rolled over the bed.
5. The relative frequency distribution study of mechanical
and chemical microtextures (from the analysis of SEM
photos of quartz grains) allowed the identification of sig-
nificant differences in the sediment texture assemblages.
It allowed to distinguish river-dominated environments,
underwater beach sands; nearshore sands and; chemi-
cally active sands.
6. The grain size analysis and microtextures of sand-sized
quartz grains from the Proterozoic Rajgarh Formation
Sandstone, Alwar sub-basin, Northeastern Rajasthan,
and associated environments show overlap similarity.
Such would be expected for a river-dominated estuary
to wave-dominated shoreface to foreshore facies asso-
ciation. This is also corroborated with the findings of
Khanam et al. (2020) in the Proterozoic Rajgarh Forma-
tion.
Acknowledgements  Authors are thankful to Chairperson, Department
of Geology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh for providing nec-
essary facilities in the Department. SK is grateful to the University
Grants Commission (UGC), New Delhi, for the financial assistance in
the form of Non-NET fellowship. We thank the Editor for the editorial
support, and the two anonymous reviewers for their constructive sug-
gestions, that significantly improved the manuscript.
13
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
S. Khanam et al.
Author contributions  SK, MAQ and FA have carried out the fieldwork.
SK has processed the data. KFK, MAQ, SK and SK drafted the first
outline of the manuscript. All authors have read and approved the final
manuscript.
Funding  The financial aid for the current work has been provided by
the University Grants Commission (UGC), New Delhi, in the form of
Non-NET fellowship.
Availability of data and material  The authors presented the data from
this work in the tables.
Declarations 
Conflict of interest  The authors declare that they have no competing
interests.
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