3.K8 Full Report

i
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PROGRAMME
FINAL YEAR DESIGN PROJECT II
PRODUCTION OF AVIATION FUEL FROM WASTE COOKING OIL
SEMESTER II 2020/2021
GROUP K8
SUPERVISORS:
PROF. MADYA DR. MASLI IRWAN ROSLI UKM

DR. EBRAHIM MAHMOUDI UKM
YEOW EU LUN FAETH ASIA PACIFIC
GROUP MEMBERS:
KASHVINWARMA A/L BASKARAN A169128

NUR ZAFIRAH ALIAH BINTI BAHARUDDIN A169320
HUSNA BINTI AHMAD RADZUAN A167664
NOR EZZATI AMIRA BINTI MUSTAPA PADZIR A169229
MUHAMMAD NA'IM NAJMI BIN MOHAMAD SALJI A168963
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DECLARATION
We hereby declare that the work in this thesis is our own except for quotations and
summaries which have been duly acknowledged.
kash
20 MAY 2022 KASHVINWARMA A/L BASKARAN
A169128
zaf
NUR ZAFIRAH ALIAH BINTI
BAHARUDDIN
A169320
ana
HUSNA BINTI AHMAD RADZUAN
A167664
mira
NOR EZZATI AMIRA BINTI
MUSTAPA PADZIR
A169229
naim
MUHAMMAD NA'IM NAJMI BIN
MOHAMAD SALJI
A168963
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Praise to Allah, the most gracious the most merciful. Thank you for giving us strength
and spirit to us to complete this project. We will never complete this challenging Final
Year Design Project if we did not receive some help from these people.
First and foremost, we would like to express our highest appreciation to our
beloved supervisor, Assoc. Prof Dr Masli Irwan Rosli, Dr. Ebrahim Mahmoudi and our
industrial mentor, Mr. Yeow Eu Lun for their concern and guidance in this project.
Special thanks to our lecturers, Prof Dr Ir Siti Kartom Kamarudin, Dr Ir Syuhaida
Harun, Dr Rosiah Rohani, Prof Ir Dr Abdul Wahab, Dr Darman Nordin, Prof Ir Dr Sobri
Tarrif, Dr Teow Yeit Haan, Dr Ir Nor Yuliana Yuhana and Assoc Prof Dr Ir Dr Hassimi
Abu Hassan for guiding and giving us knowledge complete this project. Without the
encouragement and patience, we believe that we would hardly finish our tasks before
the due date. Also, we would like to express our highest gratitude to our parents for
giving us all the moral support when we really need one. Thank you very much and
may god bless your help,
Lastly, we would like to thank all our course mates, seniors, and those who are
involved in helping our in this project directly and indirectly. Without all of the help it
is impossible for us to complete this project. Your kindness and cooperation is highly
appreciated. Just words alone cannot illustrate how much we thank you all.
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
In this design project, In the plant design, we focus on production of decane as a

sustainable aviation fuel. Decane is a component of kerosene and gasoline (petrol)
which is a non-polar solvent that does not dissolve in water and is easily flammable.
The raw material of triglycerides and hydrogen gas are used to undergo hydrocracking
and hydrotreating process to produce decane. The source of triglycerides is from waste
cooking oil especially palm cooking oil because Malaysia known as second largest
producer of palm oil in world. These two processes produce decane and others by-
product such as paraffin, propane, petrol, carbon monoxide and water.
The annual production of the main product, which is the decane is 1232035
kg/year. This production is only taken 2% the shortage of supply, 1072.5 kilotons and
demand, 1485 kilotons in year of 2025. The working hours of the production are 7920
hours because our factory will be running only for 330 days with 30 days set aside for
maintenance. The production per hour in 2025 is estimated at 10416.67 kg/hr.
Mass and energy balance is conducted for the whole plant using manual and
simulation calculations. Superpro Designer® simulation software has been used in the
calculation of the designed plant. The manual calculation and simulation calculation
have been compared for both mass and energy balance. The error percentage at reactor
2 is quite high which is 41.04%.
Furthermore, the total heat energy recovery from heat integration is 50.86 %
obtained by using the pinch analysis steps to reuse the heat energy and reduce the use
of utilities that require high energy consumption like heater and cooler. Process flow
diagram (PFD) after heat integration have been drawn for the production plant.
Piping and instrumentation diagram (P&ID) refer to the diagram detail about the
specific process within plant. Process control is referring to methods that are used to
control process variables when manufacturing a product. There are several types of
configurations used in our P&ID, which is temperature control, pressure control, flow
control, level control and composition control. In the control configuration unit, we need
to find a mathematical model for each of the unit processes and from the degree of
freedom we can predict type configuration used for equipment. Meanwhile relief system
used in our plant is spring loaded valve that can be found at reactor and distillation
column.
There are several sorts of waste generated in this production plant to make
aviation fuel from waste cooking oil (WCO), including solid, liquid, and gaseous waste.
To reduce contamination to the environment and public health, these wastes can only
be discharged after treatment. For every waste produced during the process, it must
undergo treatment process before it can discharge through the drainage. The value of
COD and BOD of inlet stream wastewater containing is 11814.69 and 3544.41 mg/L
respectively. After the treatment process, the value of COD and BOD is reduced to 100
and 30 mg/L respectively which below standard B discharge limit.
For economic analysis, the sales price for decane, petrol, propane and paraffins
are RM 6.61/kg, RM 5.00/kg, RM 3.25/kg and RM 4.50/kg respectively. This
production is expected to have a profit after three years which is the estimated Payback
period is 3.2 years because a full production capacity of products at year 4. The
Minimum acceptable rate of return (MARR) is 0.1 which is a reasonable value for a
new capacity plant with establish corporate market position. Economic evaluation of
the design concept is carried out using analysis of net present value, NPV and
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discounted cash flow rate of return, DCFRR with the 25 years of design life. The NPV
value is positive, RM 75.47 million value with 31% DCFRR, the project can be
considered as profitable and favorable.
For plant safety, all the potential hazards of all chemicals involving in the
production are identified by referring to the material safety data sheet (MSDS). All the
chemical hazards, toxic and flammable materials in this production are identified.
Hazard identification, risk assessment and risk control (HIRARC) study is conducted
throughout the plant to evaluate all possible hazards and their related risks. As such, the
plant has undergone Hazard and Operability Study (HAZOP) to identify the possible
hazards and the actions taken at main units of operation The legal requirement followed
according to Environmental Quality Act 1974, Occupational Safety and Health Act
1994 and Factory and Machinery 1967.
A plant location is often a result of compromise among conflicting social,
economic, and geographical conditions. A proper decision has been made wisely for
future planning because it will have a long-term positive or negative effect on the
production process. Based on our research there are several proposals proposed for our
site location, which are Tanjung Langsat Industrial Complex, 81700 Pasir Gudang,
Johor, Pengerang Industrial Park (PIP), 81600, Pengerang, Johor, and Bukit Rambai
Industrial Park, 75250 Melaka. This site was the shortlist of our proposed site and
Tanjung Langsat Industrial Complex got the highest marks with value 253. This is
because all the factories we are looking for are suitable for our plant production.
Detailed designs for each unit operations are done, and design specifications are
obtained. This design step is important in determining the size of the equipment which
ultimately decides the location and arrangement of unit operations in plant layout. There
are total of 2 reactors, 6 separation units such as distillation column, gas absorption, stripper
and filter and utilities such as cooler, heat exchanger, condenser and reboiler being
designed.
Mechanical designs for pressure vessels are also done. The vessel's wall thickness
is estimated and ensured to be safe by comparing the maximum permissible working
pressure (MAWP) with the operating pressure, as well as performing a combined loading
analysis and an elastic stability test. Vessel supports and flanged couplings are also
constructed with this in mind. AutoCAD is also used to create mechanical drawings for the
planned pressure vessels. As a design foundation, several rules and standards, such as those
of the American Society of Mechanical Engineering (ASME) and the Tubular Exchanger
Manufacturers Association (TEMA), are employed. To ensure safe operations and a safe
working environment, mechanical design is critical in determining the maximum allowable
stress for each unit operation or pressure vessel.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
DECLARATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS vi
LIST OF TABLES xiv
LIST OF FIGURES xxii
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Source of Raw Material 1
1.3 Product Usage 2
1.4 Raw Material, Product and By Product 2
1.4.1 Raw Material 2
1.4.2 By Product 4
CHAPTER II MARKET ANALYSIS 10

2.1 Global Market Analysis 10
2.2 Global Supply and Demand 11
2.3 Market Price of Aviation Fuel 12
2.4 List of Company Producing Aviation Fuel by Waste Cooking Oil13
2.5 Plant Capacity 14
2.6 Future Market Potential 15
CHAPTER III CONCEPTUAL DESIGN 16

3.1 Process Overview 16
3.2 Process Design Level 1 16
3.2.1 Raw Material Selection 16
3.2.2 Process Selection 17
3.2.3 Reaction Stoichiometry 20
3.2.4 Design Constraint 20
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3.3.1 Input-Output Structure 22

3.3.2 Design Capacity 22
3.3.3 Overall Mass Balance 23
3.3.4 Economic Potential Analysis Level 2 23
3.4.1 Number of Reactors 25
3.4.2 Reactor Selection 25
3.4.3 Heat Effect on Reactor 25
3.4.4 Reactor Sizing 26
3.4.5 Cost of Reactor 27
3.5.1 Distillation Column (D-101) 30
3.5.2 Gas Absorption (G-101) 31
3.5.3 Stripper (G-102) 31
3.6 Production of Decane From Waste Cooking Oil 35
3.6.1 Process Flow Diagram 35
3.6.2 Process Description 36
3.7 Mass Balance 37
3.7.1 Mass Balance by Manual Calculation 37
3.7.2 Comparison Between Manual Calculation and Superpro43
3.7.3 Plant Wide Simulation 43
3.8 Energy Balance 45
3.8.1 Energy Balance on Reactors 46
CHAPTER IV HEAT INTEGRATION 50

4.1 Introduction 50
4.1.1 Pinch Analysis 50
4.2 Process Flow Diagram after Heat Integration 55
CHAPTER V PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTURMENT 56

5.1 Introduction 56
5.2 Process Control Analysis 56
5.3 Control Configuration of Unit Operation 57
5.3.1 Process Control System of Filtration 57
5.3.2 Process Control System of Reactor (R-101) 59
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5.3.3 Process Control System of Gas Absorption (G-

101) 60
5.3.4 Process Control System of Stripper (G-102) 62
5.3.5 Process Control System of Distillation Column (D-
101) 64
5.3.6 Process Control System of Reactor (R-102) 67
102) 68
103) 71
104) 74
5.3.10 Process Control System of Heater 77
5.3.11 Process Control System of Cooler 79
5.3.12 Process Control System of Heat Exchanger 80
5.4 Relief System 82
5.5 Piping System 83
5.5.1 Liquid flow 84
5.5.2 Vapor flow 84
CHAPTER VI WASTE MANAGEMENT 89

6.1 Introduction 89
6.2 Wastewater Characteristic 89
6.2.1 Waste Characteristic by Type 89
6.2.2 COD and BOD Calculation 91
6.3 Law and Regulated Related 94
6.4 Waste Minimization 96
6.5 Wastewater Treatment Plant 97
6.5.1 Process Block Diagram 97
6.5.2 Parameter Calculation 97
6.5.3 Equalizing Tank 97
6.5.4 Aeration Tank 101
6.5.5 Clarifying Tank 102
6.5.6 Sludge Tank 103
6.5.7 Design Summary 105
CHAPTER VII ECONOMIC ANALYSIS 106

7.1 Introduction 106
7.2 Estimation of total capital (CTC) 106
7.2.1 Fixed Investment capital, CFC 107
7.2.2 Land Capital, CL 110
7.2.3 Working Capital, CWC 111
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7.3 Estimation of total product cost 112

7.3.1 Cost of manufacturing 112
7.3.2 General Expenses, GE 118
7.3.3 Total Product Cost, CTPC 119
7.4 Depreciation, AD 119
7.5 Profitability analysis 120
7.5.1 The method that does not consider the time value
of money. 120
7.5.2 The method that considers the time value of money 127
7.5.3 Breakeven Analysis 132
7.6 Sensitivity analysis 133
7.6.1 Sensitivity analysis of Decane 133
7.6.2 Sensitivity analysis of Petrol 133
7.6.3 Sensitivity analysis of Propane 134
7.6.4 Sensitivity analysis of Paraffin 134
7.6.5 Overall Sensitivity Analysis 135
CHAPTER VIII HAZARD IDENTIFICSTION AND ANALYSIS 136

8.2 Legislative Requirement 136
8.2.1 Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994 (OSHA
1994) 137
8.2.2 Factories & Machinery Act 1967 (FMA 1967) 138
8.2.3 Environmental Quality Act 1974 Act 127 139
8.3 Hazard Identification 139
8.3.1 Identification of chemical hazard 140
8.4 Hazard System 143
8.5 Hazard Identification, Risk Assessment And Risk Control
(Hirarc) 145
8.5.1 HIRARC Study at Reactor (R-101) 147
8.5.2 HIRARC Study at Gas Absorption Column (G-
101) 148
8.5.3 HIRARC Study at Reactor (R-102) 149
8.5.4 HIRARC Study at Distillation Column (D-102) 151
8.5.7 Summary of HIRARC study 157
8.6 Hazard And Operability Study (Hazop) 157
8.6.1 HAZOP on reactor.R-101 158
8.6.2 HAZOP on reactor, R-102 166
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CHAPTER IX PLANT LOCATION 175

9.2 Possible location 176
9.2.1 Tanjung Langsat Industrial Complex 176
9.2.2 Pengerang Industrial Park (PIP) 178
9.2.3 Bukit Rambai Industrial Park, Melaka 180
9.3 Electricity Taarif 182
9.4 Selection On Site Location 183
9.5 Evaluation Of Plant Location 183
9.6 Plant Layout 184
CHAPTER X DETAILED DESIGN UNIT OPERATION 186

10.1 Detailed Design Of Packed Bed Reactor, R-101 186
10.1.1 Design Spesification 187

10.1.2 Rate law 188
10.1.3 Design dimension 189
10.1.4 Design of bed 190
10.1.5 Pressure drop 190
10.1.6 Summary of calculation 191
10.2 Detailed Design of packed bed reactor, r-102 191
10.3 Detailed design of Gas absorption, G-101 192
10.3.1 Design specification. 193
10.3.2 Design packing 194
10.3.3 Number of stages, 𝑵𝑶𝑮 calculation 195
10.3.4 Dimension of vessel 196
10.4 Detailed Design Of Distillation Column (D-101) 197
10.4.1 Material Selection 199
10.4.2 Heat Duty 199
10.4.3 Design of Distillation Column 200
10.4.4 Minimum Number of Stages 201
10.4.5 Reflux Ratio Calculation 202
10.4.6 Number of Equilibrium Stages 203
10.4.7 Column Diameter 204
10.4.8 Column Height 205
10.4.9 Feed-Stage Location 206
10.4.10 Summary of Distillation Column D-101 design 206
10.5 Detailed design of distillation column (D-102) 207
10.6 Detailed design of distillation column (D-103) 208
10.6.1 Operation condition 209
10.6.2 Type of tray 209
10.6.3 Material of Construction 209
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10.6.4 Number of stage 210

10.7 Detailed Design of distillation column, D-104 217
10.7.1 Process Description of Distillation Column D-104 217
10.7.2 Selection of construction materials 218
10.7.3 Design Specification 218
10.7.4 Ellipsoidal height 219
10.7.5 Design Pressure 219
10.7.6 Minimum Wall Thickness 220
10.7.7 Maximum allowable working pressure 221
10.7.8 Combined Loading analysis 223
10.7.9 Analysis of elastic stability 225
10.7.10 Vessel support 226
10.7.11 Design summary 230
10.8 Detailed design of condenser, n-101 231
10.8.1 Introduction 231
10.8.2 Summary of the detailed design of the condenser 232
10.12 Detailed Design Cooler. C-101 235
10.12.1 Dimension of Cooler 237
10.12.2 Tube-side coefficient 239
10.12.3 Shell side coefficient (mixture) 240
10.12.4 Overall coefficient 241
10.12.5 Pressure drop tube side 242
10.12.6 Pressure drop shell side 242
10.13 Detailed design of cooler, C-106 244
10.13.1 Dimension of cooler 244
10.13.2 Tube-side coefficient 245
10.13.3 Shell-side coefficient 246
10.13.4 Overall Coefficient 247
10.13.5 Pressure Drop of tube 247
10.13.6 Pressure drop of shell 247
10.13.7 Summary of detailed design of C-106 248
10.14 Summary of other cooler and heat exchangers. 248
10.15 Detailed Design Of Reboiler, B-101 254
10.15.1 Heat Loads 256
10.15.2 Boiling coefficient and overall coefficient 257
10.15.3 Maximum allowable heat flux 257
10.15.4 Reboiler layout design 258
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CHAPTER XI MECHANICAL DESIGN 260

11.1 Packed Bed Reactor, R-101 260
11.1.1 Material selection 260
11.1.2 Design Specification 260
11.1.3 Detailed design of reactor 261
11.1.4 Minimum wall thickness 262
1.1.1 Summary maximum allowable working pressure 263
1.1.2 Design of Cooling Jacket 264
11.1.6 Flanged Joint 266
11.1.7 Summary of design 267
11.2 Distillation Column, D-104 268
11.2.1 Introduction 269
11.2.2 Selection of construction material 269
11.2.3 Tray selection 269
11.2.4 Key components selections and classifications 270
11.2.5 Minimum number of stages 270
11.2.6 Minimum and actual reflux ratio 272
11.2.7 Type and sizing of vessel 273
11.2.8 Diameter distillation column D-104 273
11.2.9 Height of regeneration column 275
11.2.10 Sizing of head 275
11.2.11 Design pressure 276
11.2.12 Design temperature 276
11.2.13 Maximum allowable stress,S 276
11.2.14 Joint efficiency 276
11.2.15 Corrosion allowance 277
11.2.16 Minimum thickness of vessel 277
11.2.17 Maximum allowable working pressure for vessel
(MAWP vessel) 277
11.2.19 Design of flanged Joints 281
11.2.20 Design Summary 282
11.3 Gas absorption, G-101 283
11.3.1 Material selection 283
11.3.2 Dimension of gas absorption column 284
11.3.3 Vessel support and flanged joint 284
11.3.4 Design summary of G-101 286
11.4 Reboiler, B-101 287
11.4.1 Design specification 287
11.4.2 Maximum Allowable Working Pressure 288
11.4.3 Combined Loading 289
11.4.4 Support Design 290
11.4.5 Flanged Joint 291
11.5 Detailed design of cooler, C-101 291
11.5.1 Design pressure and thickness 292
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11.5.2 Elastic Stability 299

CONCLUSION 304
REFERENCE 305
Appendix A Mass And Energy Balance 308
Appendix B Process Flow Diagram 323
Appendix C Simulation 326
Appendix D Process Flow Diagram After Heat Integration 330
Appendix E Piping And Intrumentation Diagram Before And After Hazop 333
Appendix F Wastewater Treatment Plant 336
Appendix G Hirarc 338
Appendix H Hazop 345
Appendix I Plant Layout 361
Appendix J Mechanical Design 362
Appendix J.1 Mechanical Design Of Reactor, R-101 363
Appendix J.2 Mechanical Design Of Gas Absorption Column 376
Appendix J.3 Mechanical Design Of Reflux Drum 386

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LIST OF TABLES
Table No. Page
Table 1.1 Properties of waste cooking oil 2
Table 1.2 Properties of hydrogen gas 3
Table 1.3 Properties of decane 4
Table 1.4 Properties of Carbon monoxide 5
Table 1.5 Properties of hydrogen gas 6
Table 1.6 Properties of water 6
Table 1.7 Properties of propane 7
Table 1.8 Properties of petrol 8
Table 1.9 Properties of paraffin 9
Table 2.1 List of companies producing Aviation Fuel by using WCO 13
Table 2.2 Analysis Supply and Demand of Aviation Fuel 14
Table 3.1 Comparison of various of aviation fuel production 18
Table 3.2 External constraint 21
Table 3.3 Internal constraint 21
Table 3.4 The overall mass balance 23
Table 3.5 The price of raw materials and products 23
Table 3.6 Conversion and FPE2 24
Table 3.7 Adiabatic temperature on reactors 26
Table 3.8 Height, Dimension and Volume of Reactor R-101 27
Table 3.9 Height, Dimension and Volume of Reactor R-102 27
Table 3.10 Design Material Factor Data 28
Table 3.11 Cost of Packed Bed Reactor R-101 28
Table 3.12 Cost for Packed Bed Reactor R-102 28
Table 3.13 Gross profit for future economic potential level 3 29

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Table 3.14 Sizing and cost of distillation column (D-101) 30
Table 3.15 Costing of Gas absorption column (G-101) 31
Table 3.16 Costing of Stripper (G-102) 31
Table 3.20 Gross profit for future economic potential level 4 34
Table 3.21 Mass balance at reactor (R-101) 38
Table 3.22 Mass balance at reactor (R-102) 39
Table 3.23 Input streams flowrate 41
Table 3.24 Output stream flowrate 42
Table 3.25 Comparison between calculation of manual and simulation 43
Table 3.26 The heat of formation for each component 46
Table 3.27 Heat capacity of each component 46
Table 3.28 Heat capacity of R-101 47
Table 3.29 Heat capacity of R-102 48
Table 4.1 Data for each utility stream. 51
Table 4.2 Heat cascade iteration. 52
Table 4.3 Total energy recovery 55
Table 5.1 Types of configuration and objectives 56
Table 5.2 Control strategy for Filter (F-101) 58
Table 5.3 Control strategy for Reactor (R-101) 60
Table 5.4 Control Strategy for Gas absorption (G-101) 62
Table 5.5 Control Strategy for Stripper (G-102) 63
Table 5.6 Control strategy for Distillation Column (D-101) 66
Table 5.7 Control strategy for Reactor (R-102) 68
Table 5.8 Control strategy for Distillation Column (D-102) 70

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Table 5.9 Control Strategy of Distillation Column (D-103) 74
Table 5.10 Control Strategy of Distillation Colum (D-104) 76
Table 5.11 Control Strategy of Heater 78
Table 5.12 Control Strategy of Cooler 80
Table 5.13 Control Strategy of Heat Exchanger 82
Table 5.14 The Relieves System Summary 83
Table 5.15 The sizing for the piping system of liquid flow 86
Table 5.16 The sizing for the piping system of vapor flow 88
Table 6.1 Waste Generation 89
Table 6.2 Gas Waste Composition 90
Table 6.3 Liquid Waste Composition 90
Table 6.4 Solid Waste Composition 91
Table 6.5 Wastewater Composition 91
Table 6.6 Parameter of Wastewater 92
Table 6.7 Standard A and Standard B 94
Table 6.8 Recommended Malaysian Air Quality Guidelines (Ambient

Standards, T=250°C and P=91.13kPa) 96
Table 6.9 Filter belt data 104
Table 6.10 The summary of design dimension for all wastewater treatment
units 105
Table 7.1 Component in section manufacturing and non- manufacturing 107
Table 7.2 Summary of purchased equipment and installation cost 108
Table 7.3 Direct costs estimation 109
Table 7.4 Summarized indirect cost estimation 110
Table 7.5 Summary of calculation of total investment 111
Table 7.6 Cost annual of raw material 113
Table 7.7 Operator per shift for each equipment type 114
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Table 7.8 Estimation of operating labor cost 114
Table 7.9 Summary of cost involved in COM 117
Table 7.10 Estimation of FMC 118
Table 7.11 Summary of general expenses 118
Table 7.12 The Summary of Project Investment 120
Table 7.13 Investment description 121
Table 7.14 Estimation of ROI, PBP and Rn Calculations 125
Table 7.15 Estimation of NPV Calculations 129
Table 7.16 Estimation of DCFRR Calculations 130
Table 7.17 Summary of sensitivity analysis Decane 133
Table 7.18 Summary of sensitivity analysis Petrol 133
Table 7.19 Summary of sensitivity analysis Petrol 134
Table 7.20 Summary of sensitivity analysis Paraffin 134
Table 8.1 Chemical Hazard Identification 141
Table 8.2 Hazard System 144
Table 8.3 Description of likelihood 146
Table 8.4 Description of severity 146
Table 8.5 Risk matrix 146
Table 8.6 Explanation on risk matrix 146
Table 8.7 HIRARC study at reactor (R-101) 147
Table 8.8 HIRARC Study at gas absorption column (G-101) 148
Table 8.9 HIRARC Study at Reactor (R-102) 149
Table 8.10 HIRARC study at Distillation Column (D-102) 151
Table 8.11 HIRARC Study at Distillation Column (D-103) 153
Table 8.12 HIRARC Study at Distillation Column (D-104) 154
Table 8.13 Node 1 of R-101 159

xviii
Table 9.1 Water bill for industrial and commercial in Johor 177
Table 9.2 Water bill for industrial and commercial in Melaka 181
Table 9.3 Electric tariff for the industrial and commercial 182
Table 9.4 Mark analysis for each factor 183
Table 9.5 Evaluation and rate of each of the location 183
Table 10.1 Operating condition and specification of reactor, R-101 187
Table 10.2 Design dimension of R-101 190
Table 10.3 Result for design of packed bed reactor (R-101) 191
Table 10.4 Result for design of packed bed reactor (R-102) 192
Table 10.5 Operating conditions in G-101 193
Table 10.6 Shape of each part of G-101 193
Table 10.7 Dimension of G-101 197
Table 10.8 Temperature and pressure of inlet and outlet streams 198
Table 10.9 Molar flowrate and composition at Distillation Column D-101 198
Table 10.10 Data for heat capacity in J/kmol K of paraffin and triglycerides 199
Table 10.11 Data for heat capacity in kJ/kmol K of water 200
Table 10.12 Heat vaporization for IPA, DIPE and water 200
Table 10.13 K-value of components at distillate and bottom 201
Table 10.14 Data to calculate Rmin 202

xix
Table 10.15 Molar flowrate and mole fraction of components 204
Table 10.16 Specifications of Distillation Column D-101 206
Table 10.17 Specifications of Distillation Column D-102 208
Table 10.18 Operation condition of distillation column (D-103) 209
Table 10.19 Constants A, B and C for Antoine Equation 210
Table 10.20 Values of X and K for distillation column 210
Table 10.21 Summary of number of stages 213
Table 10.22 Summary of column diameter 215
Table 10.23 Components and flowrates of Distillation column D-104 217
Table 10.24 Height of Imperial Unit 219
Table 10.25 Internal Pressure and MAWPvessel for Each Part 222
Table 10.26 Primary Stresses 223
Table 10.27 Skirt Support Analysis 228
Table 10.28 Size of flanges used for fitting on each pipe on D-104 230
Table 10.29 Summary of Mechanical Design for D-104 230
Table 10.30 Summary of detail design of condenser N-101 233
Table 10.31 Summary of detail design of condenser N-102 233
Table 10.32 Summary of Detail design of condenser N-103 234
Table 10.33 Summary of Detail design of condenser N-104 235
Table 10.34 Data for cooler C-101 237
Table 10.35 Design specification of cooler C-101 243
Table 10.36 Physical properties if cooler, C-106 244
Table 10.37 Summary of detailed design, C-106 248
Table 10.40 Detailed design of cooler C-104 250

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Table 10.43 Detailed design of heat exchanger, J-101 252
Table 10.46 Physical properties of mixture in boiler B-101 255
Table 10.47 Summary detail design reboiler (B-101) 259
Table 11.1 Operating condition and specification of reactor, R-101 261
Table 11.2 Dimension of reactor, R-101 261
Table 11.3 Internal pressure and MAWPvessel for each part of the reactor R-
101 263
Table 11.4 Primary stress for R-101 263
Table 11.5 Size of flanges used for fitting on each pipe on R-101 267
Table 11.6 Summary for design condition of reactor R-101 268
Table 11.7 Component properties and flowrates in D-104 269
Table 11.8 Operating condition in D-104 269
Table 11.9 Relative volatilities of products 270
Table 11.10 Plot for equilibrium curve 271
Table 11.11 Number of stages and tray spacing 275
Table 11.12 Height of ellipsoidal height 275
Table 11.13 Design pressure 276
Table 11.14 Maximum allowable working pressure 277
Table 11.15 Skirt Design 279
Table 11.16 Dimension of welding neck flanges 282
Table 11.17 Summary of distillation column design 282
Table 11.18 Operating conditions in G-101 283
Table 11.19 Shape of each part of G-101 283
Table 11.20 Dimension of G-101 284

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Table 11.21 Specification of skirt support 285
Table 11.22 Value of bolt size and root area 285
Table 11.23 Summary mechanical design of Gas absorption, G-101 286
Table 11.24 Specification of reboiler (B-101) 287
Table 11.25 Maximum Allowable Pressure Specification 288
Table 11.26 tcalc calculation 288
Table 11.27 tmin calculations 289
Table 11.28 MAWP part 289
Table 11.29 Combined loading and weight analysis 290
Table 11.30 Saddle Support dimensions 291
Table 11.31 Dimension of the flanges 291
Table 11.32 Design data for cooler C-101 292
Table 11.33 Maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP) 294
Table 11.34 Standard Dimensions for Saddle Supports with Vessel Diameter
0.3m 301
Table 11.35 Size of flanges used for fitting on each pipe on C-101 302
Table 11.36 Summary for design condition of Cooler C-101 302
Table 11.37 HIRARC Study at filter (F-101) 338
Table 11.38 HIRARC Study at stripper (G-102) 339
Table 11.39 HIRARC study at Distillation Column (D-101) 341
Table 11.40 HIRARC Study at heat exchanger 343

xxii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No. Page
Figure 1.1 Molecule of hydrogen 3
Figure 1.2 Molecular Structure of Decane 4
Figure 1.3 Structure of carbon monoxide 5
Figure 1.4 Structure of hydrogen 6
Figure 1.5 Structure of water 6
Figure 1.6 Structure of propane 7
Figure 1.7 Structure of petrol 8
Figure 1.8 Structure formula of paraffin 9
Figure 2.1 Global Demand and Supply of Aviation Fuel from 2019-
2030 11
Figure 2.2 Market price of aviation fuel 13
Figure 3.1 Production pathway of waste cooking oil biojet fuel. 19
Figure 3.2 Input-output structure of production of decane 22
Figure 3.3 Economic potential graph for level 2 24
Figure 3.4 Heat effect on Reactors 26
Figure 3.7 Economic potential graph level 2, 3 and 4 35
Figure 3.8 Reactor (R-101) 38
Figure 3.9 Reactor (R-102) 39
Figure 3.10 plantwide simulation of the production plant 44
Figure 4.1 Relationships between Tint hot and cold stream 52
Figure 4.2 Grid design for heat exchanger network 53
Figure 4.3 Design network above the pinch 54

xxiii
Figure 4.4 Design network below the pinch 55
Figure 5.1 Control configuration on Filter (F-101) 58
Figure 5.2 Control configuration on Reactor (R-101) 60
Figure 5.3 Control configuration on Gas Absorption (G-101) 61
Figure 5.4 Control configuration on Stripper (G-102) 63
Figure 5.5 Control configuration on Distillation Column (D-101) 66
Figure 5.6 Control configuration on Reactor (R-102) 68
Figure 5.7 Control configuration on Distillation Column (D-102) 70
Figure 5.8 Control Configuration on Distillation Column (D-103) 73
Figure 5.9 Control Configuration on Distillation Column (D-104) 76
Figure 5.10 Heater (H-101) 78
Figure 5.11 Cooler (C-103) 80
Figure 5.12 Heat Exchanger 82
Figure 6.1 Process Block Diagram 97
Figure 7.1 General Breakeven analysis 132
Figure 7.2 Specific Breakeven analysis 132
Figure 7.3 Overall sensitivity analysis 135
Figure 8.1 Node on reactor, R-101 158
Figure 8.2 Node on reactor, R-102 166
Figure 9.1 Proposal site location 178
Figure 10.1 Reactor R-101 186
Figure 10.2 Dimension of packed bed reactor, R-101 187
Figure 10.3 Reactor R-102 192
Figure 10.4 Gas Absorption, G-101 193
Figure 10.5 Inlet and outlet stream for G-101 194

xxiv
Figure 10.6 Distillation Column D-101 198
Figure 10.7 Distillation Column D-102 207
Figure 10.8 Distillation Column, D-103 209
Figure 10.9 Distillation Column, D-104 217
Figure 10.10 Cross section of condenser 232
Figure 10.11 Cooler C-101 236
Figure 10.12 Temperature profile of Cooler (C-101) 236
Figure 10.13 Temperature profile of cooler C-106 244
Figure 10.14 Reboiler (B-101) 255
Figure 10.15 Cross-sectional of top view othe cylinder reboiler 258
Figure 11.1 Type 1 jacket vessel 264
Figure 11.2 Closure of the type (b-1) for jacket vessel 264
Figure 11.3 Diagram of Weld Neck Flange ASME B16.5 267
Figure 11.4 Diagram of Weld Neck Flange ASME B16.5 267
Figure 11.5 Equilibrium curve 272
Figure 11.6 Plot of actual number of stages 273
Figure 11.7 Reboiler, B-101 287
Figure 11.8 Saddle support dimension 290
Figure 11.9 Steel welding neck flanges 291
Figure 11.10 Horizontal Cylindrical Vessel on Saddle Supports 300
Figure 11.11 Standard Steel Saddles 301
Figure 11.12 Diagram of weld neck flange ASME B16.5 302
Figure 11.13 Reflux Drum E-104 386

1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
C10H22 is the chemical formula for decane, an alkane hydrocarbon. Although decane
has 75 structural isomers, it is most associated with the normal-decane ("n-decane"),
which has the formula CH3(CH2)8CH3. All isomers, on the other hand, have similar
qualities, and the composition isn't given much thought. These liquid isomers are
combustible. Decane is a component of kerosene and gasoline (petrol). It is a nonpolar
solvent that does not dissolve in water and is easily flammable, just like other alkanes.
Despite being a component of fuels, unlike a few other alkanes, it has minimal use as a
chemical feedstock (Gao & Demain 2001).
1.2 SOURCE OF RAW MATERIAL
The main raw material used in our production plant is triglycerides that contain in waste
cooking oil (WCO). WCO is one of waste oil that have been used mostly is palm
cooking oil. Since Malaysia known as second largest producer of palm oil in world, thus
mostly cooking oil used made up from palm oil. Malaysia has contributed share of
global production in 1999 at 51% however it decreased to 38% in 2011 (MPOB 2017).
We decided to build our plant location at Pasir Gudang, Johor and the area is an
industrial area. Thus, the companies can supply for our raw material is Pacific Edible
Oil Industries Sdn Bhd and SE Resources Sdn Bhd. As stated before palm oil has often
been used in cooking thus we also can collect the used cooking oil at household,
restaurant and industrial palm oil waste nearby our production process.
2
1.3 PRODUCT USAGE
Decane is a component of petroleum's paraffin fraction and is also found in small

amounts as a component of gasoline. It's utilized as a solvent in organic synthesis
operations, as a hydrocarbon standard in the production of petroleum products, rubber,
and paper, and as an ingredient in polyolefin manufacturing wastes. Decane is a
flammable liquid that is lighter than water at normal temperature (Clough 2014).
1.4 RAW MATERIAL, PRODUCT AND BY PRODUCT
1.4.1 Raw material
a. Waste cooking oil
In our production process, the main raw material is Waste Cooking Oil (WCO). This
raw material contains accumulated free fatty acid (FFAs) that can be used to produce
biofuel and biodiesel (De Feo et al. 2020). There are five FFAs composition which is
myristic acid, palmitic acid, steric acid, oleic acid and linoleic acid. The main FFA
chosen in this project is palmitic acid and we used triglycerides as our raw material.
Supplier for this raw material easilyget from household or supplier Pacific Edible Oil
Industries Sdn Bhd The table below describethe properties of WCO. Table 1.1 shows
the properties of waste cooking oil.
Table 1.1 Properties of waste cooking oil

Properties of waste cooking oil Value
Molecular weight 822.03±5.63
FFA (%) 1.02±0.02
Flash point (ºC) 309±1
Moisture content (wt%) 0.12
Fatty acid composition Myristic acid 0.98±0.01
(wt%) Palmitic acid 39.02±0.35
Steric acid 4.52±0.28
Oleic acid 44.57±0.62
Linoleic acid 10.91±0.10
Glycerides (wt%) Monoglycerides 0.10±0.04
Diglycerides 3.47±0.15
Triglycerides 96.43±0.35
3
Density (g/cm3) at 20ºC 0.91567±0.00003

at 40ºC 0.90195±0.00004
at 60ºC 0.88844±0.00003
Source: De Feo et al. (2020)
b. Hydrogen
Hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, melting, and boiling point below 0°C and (SDS,
2019). The hydrogen will use two different process which is hydrotreating,
hydrocracking and deoxygenation process. This gas required will pump into two
different reactors (R-101 & R-102) to break the bond between molecule in triglycerides.
Figure and Table shows the molecule and properties of hydrogen gas.
Figure 1.1 Molecule of hydrogen
Table 1.2 Properties of hydrogen gas

Chemical properties Value
Molecular formula H2
Molecular weight (g/mol) 2
Boiling point (ºC) -253
Melting point (ºC) -259
Vapour density 0.07
Gas density (lb/ft3) 0.083
Vapor Density (g/mol) 1.250
Source: SDS (2019)
1.4.2 Product
a. Decane
The main product in this process is synthesis decane. The decane will generated in the
second reactor (R-102) and separated with other component is at distillation column (D-
103). Decane a flammable hydrocarbon that is colorless and petroleum distillates.
Decane is one of material applications in jet engine fuel, fire entertainment, and
chemical industry. The Figure and Table 1.3 shows the molecular structure and
properties of decane.
4
Figure 1.2 Molecular Structure of Decane
Table 1.3 Properties of decane

Molecular formula C10H22
Molecular weight (g/mol) 142.28
Boiling point (ºC) 174
Flash point (ºC) 46
Physical state in room temperature Liquid
Solubility Immiscible
Source: Fisher (2010)
1.4.2 By product
From our production process produce decane as main product, there are several by
product from the production such as organic waste, waste gas, wastewater, synthetic
propane, synthetic petrol, and paraffin. This section will describe all the properties our
by product.
a. Waste gas
This waste gas consists unreacted syngas which is carbon monoxide (CO) and
hydrogen. This waste gas will be removed from the top of the reactor (R-102)
i. Carbon monoxide
Carbon monoxide is a highly poisonous gas that is colorless, odorless and tasteless. It
is highly flammable and easily mixed with air that resulting explosive if mixture. The
Figure and Table 1.4 below shows the structure and properties of carbon monoxide.
5
Figure 1.3 Structure of carbon monoxide
Table 1.4 Properties of Carbon monoxide

Chemical Properties Data
Molecular Formula CO
Molecular Weight (g/mol) 28
Boiling Point (°C) -191.5
Melting point (°C) -205.02
Solubility in water (mg/mL) 1.48
Density (g/L) 1.250 at 0 °C or 4 °C
Source: National Center for Biotechnology Information (2021a)
ii. Hydrogen
The molecular formula of hydrogen gas is H2. Hydrogen gas is a colorless, odorless,
melting, and boilingpoint is below 0°C and (SDS, 2019). The hydrogen required in all
process in two different reactors (R-101 & R-102) to break the bond between molecule
in triglycerides. Figure and Table 1.5 shows the molecules and properties of hydrogen
gas.
Hydrogen also is our plant's raw material, but it becomes waste because it is unreacted gas.
This gas is a colorless, odorless, melting, and boiling point below 0°C and (SDS, 2019).
The hydrogen will be removed at different unit processes which are gas absorption (G-
101) and reactor (R-102). Gas hydrogen separated from gas absorption is pure gas
which will be sold since this gas is valuable and expensive. Meanwhile hydrogen
consists of waste gas will undergo further treatment before release to the environment.
Figure and Table 1.5 shows the molecules and properties of hydrogen gas.
6
Figure 1.4 Structure of hydrogen
Table 1.5 Properties of hydrogen gas

Molecular formula H2
Boiling point (ºC) -253
Vapour density 0.07
Source: SDS (2019)
b. Wastewater
Molecular formula of water is H2O. Water is a clear, colorless, odorless, and tasteless
liquid that freezes to ice below 0°C and boils above 100°C (National Center for
Biotechnology Information, 2021) . The water produced in this production is in liquid
form. This wastewater produces from synthesis in reactor (R-102) and separated at
distillation column (D-103). The Figure and Table 1.6 shows the structure and
properties of water.
Figure 1.5 Structure of water
Table 1.6 Properties of water

Chemical Properties Data
Molecular Formula H2O
Molecular Weight (g/mol) 18
Boiling Point (°C) 100
Melting point (°C) 0
Solubility Very soluble in type of alcohol
7
Density (kg/m3) 997

Vapor Pressure (mmHg) 760
Source:National Center for Biotechnology Information (2021)
c. Propane
Propane is an odorless and colorless liquid gas. It known as liquefied petroleum gas
(LPG) or propane auto gas. In production, this propane is product from hydroprocessing
in reactor (R-101) and will removed at stripper (G-102) and benzene as solvent to
produce pure propane. The Figure and Table 1.7 shows the structure and properties of
propane.
Figure 1.6 Structure of propane
Table 1.7 Properties of propane

Boiling point (ºC) -42.1
Melting point (ºC) -187.6
Vapour density 1.6
Solubility in water (g/L) 0.0244
Source: Monoxide (2017)
d. Petrol
Petrol in this production also known as hexane because of the molecular formula is
C6H14. Physical state in normal condition is clear, colorless liquid and mild
hydrocarbon. This liquid is flammable bur very useful material especially for movement
8
of vehicle as petroleum. In production, this synthesis of product comes from hydro-

cracking process in reactor (R-102) and will be removed at distillation column (D-103).
The figure and table below describe the structure and properties of petrol.
Figure 1.7 Structure of petrol
Table 1.8 Properties of petrol

Liquid density (lb/ft3) 41.16
Vapour density (lb/ft3) 0.2228
Solubility in water Insoluble
Source: National Center for Biotechnology Information (2021)
e. Paraffin
Paraffin is known as methyl palmitelaidate or methyl (E)-hexadec-9-enoate. Methyl

palmitelaidate is a fatty acid methyl ester that can be obtained from the formal
condensation of methanol and palmitoleic acid. In simple way, this chemical was
derived from palmitoleic acid. The synthesis of paraffin was reaction of triglycerides
with hydrogen, and it will undergo second reaction in reactor (R-102) to synthesis petrol
and decane. This chemical also can be used in production of cosmetic product which is
Vaseline and food additives or as supplement source of fat (Stephen F. Previs 2015).
The Figure 1.8 and Table 1.9 below shows structure formula and properties of paraffin.
9
Figure 1.8 Structure formula of paraffin
Table 1.9 Properties of paraffin

Molecular formula C10H32O2
Melting point (ºC) -0.5
Liquid density (lb/ft3) 73.29
Vapour density (lb/ft3) 0.012
Solubility in water Insoluble
Source: Pubchem (2016)

10
CHAPTER II
MARKET ANALYSIS
2.1 GLOBAL MARKET ANALYSIS
Aviation fuel is a petroleum- or kerosene-based fuel that is used to power airplane. The
quality of aviation gasoline is superior to that of other modes of transport. Kerosene,
kerosene-gasoline, kerosene-biofuel, and other blends are used to make them. The use
of additives such as corrosion inhibitors and other additives in aviation fuels reduces
the risk of icing or explosion owing to high temperatures. To improve fuel efficiency
and decrease operational costs, most military and commercial aircraft use aviation fuel.
The increase in worldwide passenger traffic of 10 to 12 percent per year is

expected to augment aircraft fuel demand. However, due to pandemic of COVID-19,
brought airports worldwide to a standstill in the second quarter of 2020, resulting in
airport traffic and revenue losses in all regions. The demand expected to be back on
track after the vaccination program. (ACI, 2021)
North America was the largest shareholder in terms of revenue in 2018, owing
to presence of key players in the developing countries and rise in number of air travelers.
However, Asia-Pacific is expected to grow at a higher CAGR, owing to increase in
investment by the government, introduction of new flight routes, increased fleet sizes,
and high demand for fuel from emerging economies in the region.(Parihar & Prasad
2020)
11
2.2 GLOBAL SUPPLY AND DEMAND
The global aviation fuel market was worth $179.2 billion in 2018 and is expected to be
worth $238.5 billion by 2026. From 2019 to 2026, the market is expected to increase at
a CAGR of 3.5 percent. Major factors contributing to market expansion are projected
to include an increase in demand from the military sector and an increase in air
transportation. New flight routes and airports also increase demand for fuel, propelling
the aviation fuel market forward. However, because of the high amount of carbon
emissions, strict laws regarding the use of fuel types and additives, as well as volatility
in crude oil prices, the aviation fuel market is hampered. Meanwhile, biofuels, which
can greatly cut carbon emissions, and new sustainable aviation fuel (SAF), which is
now being researched and developed, provide attractive potential for the aviation fuel
business to flourish. Alternative environmentally friendly sources for aviation fuel
production will have a significant future impact on the aviation fuel sector.
(AlliedMarketResearch, 2020)
Figure 2.1 Global Demand and Supply of Aviation Fuel from 2019-2030
below shows the global supply and demand of aviation fuel between year 2018 until
forecast period, 2019-2030. This year also witness some loss in the aviation fuel
production as a result of the pandemic, Covid-19.
Figure 2.1 Global Demand and Supply of Aviation Fuel from 2019-2030
12
One of the major factors driving the growth of aviation fuel is due to the
worldwide vaccination program that grant the opportunity for the industry to get back
on track. Travelling and transportation were slowly operating which contribute to the
increment.
2.3 MARKET PRICE OF AVIATION FUEL
In the forecast period, the jet fuel market is predicted to grow at a CAGR of more than
1%, reaching a market value of USD 120 billion (RM 502.62 million) in 2026, up from
USD 114 billion (RM 477.49) in 2019 (Mordor 2021). The COVID-19 pandemic, which
resulted in global lockdowns and drastically curtailed domestic & global travel,
impacted negatively on the aviation sector. In contrast to 2019, passenger traffic fell by
94% from February to April 2020. The COVID-19 pandemic, which forced
international commercial flights to be cancelled save for cargo, had a significant
influence on aviation fuel use. Commercial airlines have roughly 960 new aircraft slated
for delivery by 2020 (Mordor 2021). After the pandemic's recovery, the recent of
decreasing cost of ticket lead to the increasing the number of air passengers. This
situation can strengthen economic conditions and expanding disposable income which
are the major factors for the market (Mordor 2021).
13
Figure 2.2 Market price of aviation fuel
2.4 LIST OF COMPANY PRODUCING AVIATION FUEL BY WASTE COOKING

OIL
Globally, the number of renewable diesel plants is increasing, but only two facilities
generated aviation fuel in 2019 which are Neste, Rotterdam and World Energy,
California (Anon 2021). The Neste Singapore factory is undertaking infrastructural
upgrades to begin producing aviation on a regular basis by 2022. It's worth noting that
only around 15% of the overall capacity of these refineries can be differentiated for
aviation production. Although this proportion may be raised to a maximum of 50%, it
comes at a significant cost and yield loss (Renewable Energy Agency 2021). It is not
economically viable for enterprises to create a higher aviation proportion currently
(UOP, 2020).
Table 2.1 List of companies producing Aviation Fuel by using WCO

Company Location Capacity (L /yr)
Neste Rotterdam 1.3 billion
Singapore 1.3 billion
Porvoo, Finland 385 million
Porvoo 2, Finland 385 million
ENI Venice and Gela, Italy 1 billion
Diamond Green Diesel Norco, Louisiana 1 billion
UPM Lappeenranta, Finland 120 million
World Energy (AltAir) Paramount, California 150 million
Renewable Energy Green Geismar, Louisiana 284 million
Total La Mede 641 million
Source: Renewable Energy Agency, I. (2021)
14
2.5 PLANT CAPACITY
The plant is decided to start operating in 2025, since our plant will take four years to
build. The plant's capacity has been calculated based on a global market shortfall in
2025. Aviation fuel demand is predicted to be 1485 kilo tonnes per year, while supply
is expected to be 1072.5 kilo tonnes per year. In 2025, a global deficit of 412.5 kilo
tonnes per year is projected. To meet the global market's shortfall with Compound
Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) 3.5%, we decided to create aviation fuel at a rate of 91.25
kilo tonnes per year. Our factory is up and running for 330 days, with 30 days set aside
for maintenance. The total number of working hours in a year is 7920.
Table 2.2 Analysis Supply and Demand of Aviation Fuel

Analysis Value (kilotonnes/year)
Demand 1485.0
Supply 1072.5
Deficit 412.5
Plant Capacity 91.25
Thus, in year of 2025, the production rate of aviation fuel from waste cooking oil plant
is estimated as below:
Demand = 1485 kilotons
Supply = 1072.5 kilotons
Deficient = 1485-1072.5 kilotons

= 412.5 kilotons
= 412,500,000 kg
Production time =330 days’ x 24 hrs = 7920 hrs
Plant capacity = 2% x 412,500,000 kg x 1 years/ 7920 hrs
= 0.2 x 412,500,000 kg x 1 years/ 7920 hrs
=10416.67 kg/hr
15
2.6 FUTURE MARKET POTENTIAL
By 2050, this was expected to have more than doubled in the current state. The use of
sustainable aviation fuels will be critical to achieving early emissions reductions in the
2020s and 2030s, as well as profound reductions by 2050 (IRENA 2021). This is
because of the fuels produce lower emissions than conventional jet fuel. Bio-jet fuels
are the most widely accepted sort of sustainable aviation fuel currently available, with
a variety of other options being considered. Synthetic jet fuel produced by the
conventional pathway may only fit inside existing authorized paths in select situations,
and present production is extremely limited due to its high cost. Thus, in the future
decade, bio-jet fuels show the most potential for cost-effective scale-up and application.
The maximum percentage of bio-jet fraction which can be used might be increased from
15% to around 50%, however this would result in increased production costs based on
increased processing and hydrogen consumption, as well as a 10% loss in liquid product
yield (Pearlson, 2011).
16
CHAPTER III
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN
3.1 PROCESS OVERVIEW
After considering the economic aspect of the production, a production plant is designed
to produce aviation fuel from waste cooking oil. The production plant is designed level
by level, where in each level, a future potential economic analysis will be conducted to
ensure the production plant is profitable.
3.2 PROCESS DESIGN LEVEL 1
Process design level 1 requires determining the process and operating conditions in the
selected product's production. The required information in this process design involves
raw material, chemical reaction, operation conditions, physical and chemical properties
of the materials involved and design constraints.
3.2.1 Raw Material Selection
In our production, the raw material required are triglycerides that can be found in waste
cooking oil and hydrogen gas. The product formed is decane with purity 98% as main
product, propane and petrol as by-product.
17
3.2.2 Process Selection
There are many potential pathways for the production of aviation fuel from biomass
such as hydro-processing of esters and fatty acids (HEFA), gasification-to-Fischer-
Tropsch process, Alcohol-to-jet process (ATJ) and direct sugars to Hydrocarbons
(DSHC). Table 3.1 below shows the comparison of each process
18
Table 3.1 Comparison of various of aviation fuel production

Hydro-processed of esters Gasification-to- Fischer- Alcohol-to-jet process (ATJ) Direct Sugars to Hydrocarbons (DSHC)
and fatty acids (HEFA) Tropsch process
Raw Material Waste triglycerides feedstock Solid fraction of munipal Lignocellulosic biomass Lignocellulosic biomass, sugars, or
(Plant/Animal Oils and fats) solid wastes, coal, natural starches
gas
Pathway Pretreatment of WCO, Gasification (conversion of Pre-treatment (hydrolysis) of biomass, Deoxygenation, gas separation,
hydrotreating, deoxygenation, biomass to synthesis gas), ethanol fermentation, alcohol hydrocracking, and products separation
hydrocracking and Fischer- Tropsch synthesis, oglimerization, hydrogenation,
purification. refinery. fractional.
Potential •Mature technology •Devoid of sulphur •The main steps to convert alcohols to •Feedstock flexibility
•Uses exiting refinery •Have very low amounts of jet fuel are mature commercial scale •High specificity for jet fuel range
practices nitrogen technologies compounds
•High-energy density product •Emit lower particulate •Feedstock flexible •Potential for high- energy efficiency
matter during combustion •The jet fuel produced contains
aromatics
Limitation •Limited information on cost •The quantity of aromatic •Alcohol production costs are high, •Limited information for reaction
of the feedstock compounds is low leading to especially for lignocellulosic biomass pathways and kinetics for the entire
•Limited availability of problems in aircraft fuel •Limited experience with alcohols process
feedstocks system seals other than methanol/ethanol •Catalysts are under development
•Aromatics are not produced. •Inherent challenges to working with •Need to maintain specialized microbial
living microorganisms cultures
•High enzyme cost •Yields are not available from the open
literature
•Costs are largely unknown
Source: Morgan et al. (2019)
19
Among all the pathways, we choose hydro-processed of esters and fatty acids
(HEFA) process in our production because HEFA process has been considered the only
process commercially available that converts triglycerides into renewable jet fuel (Chen
& Wang 2019). There are three generations of types of raw materials for the production
of biojet fuels in general. The first generation raw materials consist of edible vegetable
oils, the second generation raw materials include inedible oil crops and lignocellulose
biomass, while the third generation raw materials are based on microalgae biomass
(Goh et al. 2020a). Today most first generation biojet fuels are commercially available
but the main disadvantage of first-generation biofuels is based on the food-versus-fuel
debate, which according to which the rise in food prices is due to an increase in energy
crops versus food crops. This issue caused scientists to shift their interest to second and
third generation biofuels that are based solely on waste biomass. Nevertheless, the
production of second and third generation biofuels is still non-commercial, although
pilot and demonstration facilities are being developed (Bezergianni et al. 2010).
Pollution problems are due to the high volume of WCO in which it is generated,
and there is usually an inappropriate disposal of such waste (Moreno‐Gómez et al.
2020). Therefore, WCO can substitute the edible of vegetable as the feedstock of biojet
fuels. Futhermore, the main advantage of hydroprocessing is that it requires widely
available infrastructure.
Figure 3.1 Production pathway of waste cooking oil biojet fuel.

Source: Goh et al. (2020)
20
3.2.3 Reaction Stoichiometry
In order to produce the jet fuel, we used a process named hydro-processed renewable
jet (HRJ) which converts oils and fat into renewable jet fuel. HRJ includes the hydro-
treating of glyceride-based oils into straight-chain alkanes which will occur in reactor
R-101 and hydrocracking of the produced long-chain alkanes into jet fuel which will
occur in reactor R-102. Both of this reaction used catalyst. The chemical reaction is
shown as below:
Reaction 1:
C54H102O6 + H2 → 3C17H32O2 + C3H8 (1)
Reaction 2:
C17H32O2 + 3H2 → C10H22 + C6H14 + CO + H2O (2)
Overall equation:
C54H102O6 + 10H2 → 3C10H22 + 3C6H14 + C3H8 + 3CO + 3H2O (3)
Both reactions took place at high temperature and pressure which is 375°C and 40 bar
with the need of catalyst NiMo/Al2O3.
3.2.4 Design constraint
Design constraints are restrictions on the design's needs to function at the expected
parameters to assure the plant's safety, economic aspect, and optimal production of the
desired output. There are two type of design which are design constrain external and
design constraint internal External constraints are those that are established on a
business. The limitation is beyond the company's (or little) control. The company's
product and systems must be developed around those constraints. The design constraint
external show in the Table 3.2
21
Table 3.2 External constraint

Economics SHE & Legal Requirement Resources
Production still in early stage Incurring WCO supply problem Limited availability of fatty/oil
feedstock due to poor recovery
rate of WCO especially in
Malaysia
High production cost compared No taxation on fuels and energy -
to the production of commercial product.
fuel.
High price of catalyst especially No government subsidies. -
platinum group because the
more acidic waste oil, the more
catalyst needed.
Design internal constraint can be defined the internal constraint is different and
there are two types which are good and bad. Internal constraints are constraints that a
company place on themselves. They are artificial. Good internal constraints are those
that are put in place to keep a company focused.
Table 3.3 Internal constraint

Design Constraint Internal Method to overcome
Long carbon chain length of WCO unsuitable for Perform two step of process which are
a direct use of jet fuel hydrotreating and hydrocracking.
Selected catalyst with poor performance that can The conjugation of a base and acid catalyst for a
lead to the undesirable cracking. better performance coke formation reducing.
Non-uniform morphology of support catalyst can By using continuous reactor with a fixed catalyst.
lead to a rapid deactivation of catalyst, poor
catalyst activity and bio-jet fuel conversion
Short alkanes that will form deposit in the jet Use zeolite to control the size of alkane formed
engine and may cover the catalyst which will
reduce its lifespan and effectiveness.
According to the hierarchy of Douglas 1988, level 2 in the design of process includes
process input-output structure and recycles structure. It can also be called as synthesis
of chemical transformation process since it involves the transformation of chemical
substances from reactants to products.
22
3.3.1 Input-Output Structure
Input-output structure is a simple black-box structure that able to relate reactants

and products involved in the process. It is also used as an indicator to calculate the gross
profit for a production plant in industry. Hence, the type of reactants that goes in and
the products which includes main product, by-product and wastes produced can identify
through the process.
Figure 3.2 Input-output structure of production of decane
The inputs for our designed plant are waste cooking oil, hydrogen gas, benzene
and water. WCO feedstock and hydrogen gas will react at a high temperature and
pressure to forms free fatty acids or paraffin. Propane gas will be produced, and it will
then be purified in the gas absorption and stripper. Benzene will act as solvent in the
gas absorption and water will acts as vaporizing agent in order to separate propane from
impurities. The paraffin is then converted into jet fuel through hydro-cracking and are
accompanied with the deoxygenation process which is also called decarbonylation with
the formation of carbon monoxide and water, which produce the main product decane
and by-product petrol. Carbon monoxide, paraffin, wastewater will exist as waste.
Figure below shows the input and output structure for our production.
3.3.2 Design Capacity
Design capacity of our plant is set according to supply and demand of aviation fuel
globally. It is decided to produce 91.25 kilo tonnes of decane per year, which accounts
for 2% of the shortage in global market in the future. The plant will operate for 330 days
per annum with 30 days shut down period.
23
3.3.3 Overall Mass Balance
The plant capacity used in the production of decane is 10416.67 kg/hr. From the overall
reaction, the mass balance of the production can be obtained. The overall mass balance
of this production is shown in Table 3.4 below.
Table 3.4 The overall mass balance

Components Molecular Inlet Stream Outlet Stream
weight Mole Flow Mass Flow Mole Flow Mass Flow
(kg/kmole) Rate Rate Rate Rate
(kmole/hr) (kg/hr) (kmole/hr) (kg/hr)
WCO 846 12.03 10176.10 2.41 2035.22

Hydrogen gas 2 120.28 240.57 24.06 48.11
Decane 142 0 0 28.87 4099.31
Petrol 86 0 0 28.87 2482.68
Propane 44 0 0 9.62 423.40
Carbon Monoxide 28 0 0 28.87 808.31
Water 18 0 0 28.87 519.63
Total 10416.67 10416.67
3.3.4 Economic Potential Analysis Level 2
Economy potential level 2 (FPE2) for the process is calculated in order to determine the
gross profit obtained from the production. Equation below is the general equation used
to determine economy potential level 2 with respect to product prices and prices of raw
material.
fPE2 = Cost for Main Product + Cost for byproduct − Cost for Raw material
Based on the feed composition, feed flowrate, product flowrate, byproduct

flowrate estimated for the production, the economic potential level 2 can be identified.
With the plant capacity for the product decane at 10416.67 kg/hr at a conversion of 0.8,
the feed flowrate and byproduct flowrate can be estimated for each conversion. The
price of waste cooking oil, hydrogen gas, propane, decane and petrol in the current
market as shown in
Table 3.5 The price of raw materials and products

24
Component Price per kg in RM

Raw materials Triglycerides 0.06
Hydrogen 6.23
Products Decane (Jet fuel) 6.61
Petrol 5
Propane 3.25
Results for calculation of economic potential level 2 versus conversion of process are
tabulated in Table 3.6 and Figure .
Table 3.6 Conversion and FPE2

X FEP 2
0.1 483237126.5
0.2 653039997.7
0.3 709640954.8
0.4 737941433.3
0.5 754921720.4
0.6 766241911.9
0.7 774327762.9
0.8 780392151.1
0.9 785108897.6
1 788882294.7
Figure 3.3 Economic potential graph for level 2

25
Level 3 of process design is synthesis of recycle system. Reactor and recycling systems
are considered in more detail at this stage, so that the distribution of the product can be
calculated with greater precision. The number, type and design of the reactor, excess
reactant, compressor requirement and its design, reactor heat management and
equilibrium reaction effect are design variables to be determined (Wan Ramli 2002).
3.4.1 Number of reactors
There is two reactions occur during synthesis of aviation fuel which are hydrocracking
and hydrotreating. Therefore, there are two packed bed reactors used in our plant.
3.4.2 Reactor Selection
The reactor that has been chosen for the hydrotreating is packed bed reactor.
Hydrotreating processes aim at the removal of impurities such as sulfur and nitrogen
from distillate fuels naphtha, kerosene, and diesel by treating the feed with hydrogen at
elevated temperature and pressure in the presence of a catalyst. (Parkash 2003)
For the second process which is hydrocracking, the reactor chosen is fixed bed reactor
that is packed with solid catalyst particles which is Ni-Mo/y-alumina. This is because
the reaction occurs heterogeneous reaction and can have high conversion per unit mass
of catalyst. Hydrocracking is a process by which the hydrocarbon molecules of
petroleum are broken into simpler molecules, as of gasoline or kerosene, by the addition
of hydrogen under high pressure and in the presence of a catalyst.
3.4.3 Heat effect on reactor
The adiabatic temperature of the reaction needs to be calculated so that the condition
whereby the reactor operates adiabatically or thermally can be determined. According
to the Figure as the conversion increases, the adiabatic temperature rises, indicating
that the process is exothermic. Estimation of Heat effects on both reactors can refer to
the Table 3.7.
26
Table 3.7 Adiabatic temperature on reactors

Conversion Adiabatic temperature Adiabatic temperature on
on reactor, R-101 reactor, R-102
0.10 266.24 323.72
0.20 264.86 359.95
0.30 264.28 387.54
0.40 263.97 409.24
0.50 263.77 426.76
0.60 263.63 441.20
0.70 263.53 453.30
0.80 263.45 463.60
0.90 263.39 472.46
1 263.34 480.17
Figure 3.4 Heat effect on Reactors
3.4.4 Reactor Sizing
The height, diameter and volume for packed bed reactor is calculated using the equation
of PFR with catalyst since there are catalyst used in the reactor.
𝑋𝐴
𝑉 𝑑𝑋𝐴
=∫
𝐹𝐴𝑜 0 𝜌𝑐 (1 − 𝜀)(−𝑟𝑎 )
Where,
𝑉 = Volume of reactor
FAo = Flowrate inlet
27
X = Conversion
ρc = Density of catalyst
ε = Bed voidage
By using the ratio of H/D = 3, then H = 3D. The summary of both reactor height,
volume and dimensions are shown in the table below.
Table 3.8 Height, Dimension and Volume of Reactor R-101

X V (m3) D (m) H (m)
0.1 0.0608 0.2956 0.8867
0.2 0.1217 0.3724 1.1172
0.3 0.1825 0.4263 1.2788
0.4 0.2434 0.4692 1.4075
0.5 0.3042 0.5054 1.5162
0.6 0.3650 0.5371 1.6112
0.7 0.4259 0.5654 1.6962
0.8 0.4867 0.5911 1.7734
0.9 0.5475 0.6148 1.8444
1 0.6084 0.6368 1.9103
For Reactor (R-102) shown in the table below,
Table 3.9 Height, Dimension and Volume of Reactor R-102

X V (m3) D (m) H (m)
0.1 0.1883 0.4690 1.4370
0.2 0.3766 0.6035 1.8105
0.3 0.5649 0.6908 2.0725
0.4 0.7531 0.7604 2.2811
0.5 0.9414 0.8191 2.4572
0.6 1.1297 0.8704 2.6112
0.7 1.3180 0.9163 2.7488
0.8 1.5063 0.9580 2.8740
0.9 1.6946 0.9963 2.9890
1 1.8829 1.0320 3.0959
3.4.5 Cost of Reactor
Annual cost of a reactor (Krt) can be estimated by the following equation.
𝐼𝑀𝑆𝐾 7775.3 1.066 0.82

𝐾𝑟𝑡 = ( )( )𝐷 𝐻 (2.18 + 𝐹𝑚 𝐹𝑃 )𝐹𝐼
𝐼𝑀𝑆𝐷 3
28
Where,
D = Diameter of the reactor

H = Height of the reactor
FP = Pressure Factor = 1
FI = Installation Factor = 1.72
IMSK = Recent Marshall and Swift index
IMSD = Early Marshall and Swift index
Design material factor, Fm and pressure factor, Fp is shown inTable 3.10 . Table
3.11 and Table 3.12shows the annual cost of reactor as a function of conversion.
Table 3.10 Design Material Factor Data

IMSK IMSD Fm FP FI
1773.4 1476.7 1 1 1.72
Table 3.11 Cost of Packed Bed Reactor R-101

X D, Diameter (m) H, Height (m) V,Volume (m3) Krt
0.1 0.2956 0.8867 0.0608 4206.9
0.2 0.3724 1.1172 0.1217 6504.4
0.3 0.4263 1.2788 0.1825 8392.8
0.4 0.4692 1.4075 0.2434 10056.6
0.5 0.5054 1.5162 0.3042 11571.2
0.6 0.5371 1.6112 0.3650 12976.4
0.7 0.5654 1.6962 0.4259 14296.9
0.8 0.5911 1.7734 0.4867 15548.9
0.9 0.6148 1.8444 0.5475 16744.0
1 0.6368 1.9103 0.6084 17890.6
Table 3.12 Cost for Packed Bed Reactor R-102

X D, Diameter (m) H, Height (m) V,Volume (m3) Krt2
0.1 0.4690 1.4370 0.1883 10457.0
0.2 0.6035 1.8105 0.3766 16168.0
0.3 0.6908 2.0725 0.5649 20862.1
0.4 0.7604 2.2811 0.7531 24997.9
0.5 0.8191 2.4572 0.9414 28762.6
0.6 0.8704 2.6112 1.1297 32255.7
0.7 0.9163 2.7488 1.3180 35538.0
0.8 0.9580 2.8740 1.5063 38650.1
0.9 0.9963 2.9890 1.6946 41620.6
29
1 1.0320 3.0959 1.8829 44470.8
It is essential to carry out an economic potential analysis at this level in order to

determine the profitability of the plant. In this plant, there is a reactor which has a
working volume of 440.83 m3. The economic potential for level is given by the equation
below.
fpe3 = fpe2 - Krt
where,
fpe3 = Economic potential of level 3
fpe2 = Economic potential of level 2
Krt = The cost of reactor
Hence, the economic potential can be evaluated from the data obtained from the
economic potential level 2. Table 3.13 and Figure showed the economic potential of
level 3.
Table 3.13 Gross profit for future economic potential level 3

X FEP 2 Total Cost Reactor (RM) FEP 3
0.10 483237126.47 483291575.16 483178470.91
0.20 653039997.71 653124182.76 652949308.27
0.30 709640954.78 709749581.77 709523934.98
0.40 737941433.32 738071594.82 737801215.19
0.50 754921720.45 755071484.17 754760385.56
0.60 766241911.86 766409863.89 766060983.40
0.70 774327762.88 774512805.79 774128423.03
0.80 780392151.13 780593398.43 780175354.91
0.90 785108897.56 785325612.05 784875439.10
1 788882294.70 789113849.69 788632849.11
30
At this level, separation processes are discussed. Separation process is important to the
overall process. It separates two or more mixtures to obtain the desired end products.
The separation units involved are gas absorption, stripper and distillation column.
3.5.1 Distillation Column (D-101)
Distillation column is used to separate mixture of solvent into two pure components.
This unit process usually used in plant production. Table 3.14 Sizing and cost of
distillation column (D-101) shows the sizing and cost of distillation column.
Table 3.14 Sizing and cost of distillation column (D-101)

X Nmin Stages Heigth (m) Diameter (m) Kmt (RM) Km (RM)
0.1 8.53 14 8.534 0.561 73572.28 220716.84
0.2 7.88 13 8.217 0.524 53626.29 160878.87
0.3 7.53 13 7.934 0.487 43528.19 130584.57
0.4 7.06 12 7.675 0.463 37151.03 111453.10
0.5 6.83 12 7.343 0.44 32650.33 97950.99
0.6 6.45 11 7.082 0.403 29259.15 87777.45
31
0.7 6.17 11 6.974 0.397 26587.53 79762.58

0.8 5.73 10 6.774 0.375 24410.88 73232.65
0.9 5.39 10 6.439 0.352 22589.45 67768.35
1 5.04 9 6.218 0.326 21031.42 63094.25
3.5.2 Gas Absorption (G-101)
Absorption is a procedure that involves bringing a gaseous mixture according to the

plant which are gaseous mixture of hydrogen gas and propane gas into contact with
benzene as a solvent to purify the propane gas. The chemical must be slightly
concentrated so that the result in the gaseous form may be dissolved in a liquid. Table
3.15 show the costing of gas absorption.
Table 3.15 Costing of Gas absorption column (G-101)

X Diameter (m) Height (m) kmt (RM) Km (RM)
0.1 0.39 1.05 6195.99 18587.96
0.2 0.49 1.44 10227.62 30682.87
0.3 0.61 1.81 15470.37 46411.11
0.4 0.58 1.72 14148.41 42445.24
0.5 0.87 2.60 30447.69 91343.06
0.6 1.03 3.08 41847.10 125541.30
0.7 1.23 3.69 58527.90 175583.69
0.8 1.51 4.54 86608.97 259826.92
0.9 2.04 6.11 151445.69 454337.06
1 2.20 6.40 170879.92 512639.76
3.5.3 Stripper (G-102)
Benzene and propane being separated from the feed in a steam. Stripping columns are
absorbed by the water vapor, effectively isolating them from the desired product.
Scrubbing is another name for steam stripping, which refers to how the constituent
molecules are "scrubbed" out of the feed. Steam stripping is often known as steam
distillation, although distillation is a separate chemical process.
Table 3.16 Costing of Stripper (G-102)

X Diameter (m) Height (m) kmt km
0.10 0.28 0.75 3304.48 9913.45
0.20 0.41 0.84 5338.60 16015.80
0.30 0.35 0.97 5071.57 15214.72
32
0.40 0.35 0.97 5071.57 15214.72

0.50 0.36 1.03 5541.88 16625.63
0.60 0.37 1.08 6003.53 18010.60
0.70 0.39 1.11 6373.43 19120.28
0.80 0.40 1.16 6883.49 20650.48
0.90 0.41 1.20 7302.23 21906.69
1 0.42 1.24 7708.22 23124.65
In our process, this distillation column (D-102) was used to separate four different
components which is wastewater and petrol will pump into distillate stream. Meanwhile
mixture of decane and paraffin out from bottom of distillation column. Table 3.17 shows
the sizing and cost of distillation column.

0.1 8.53 14 8.534 0.561 38248.87 114746.611
0.2 7.88 13 8.217 0.524 34488.09 103464.280
0.3 7.53 13 7.934 0.487 31000.99 93002.957
0.4 7.06 12 7.675 0.463 28582.16 85746.491
0.5 6.83 12 7.343 0.44 26109.45 78328.361
0.6 6.45 11 7.082 0.403 23086.26 69258.783
0.7 6.17 11 6.974 0.397 22433.1 67299.308
0.8 5.73 10 6.774 0.375 20602.29 61806.878
0.9 5.39 10 6.439 0.352 18473.63 55420.902
1 5.04 9 6.218 0.326 16541.57 49624.700
For third distillation column for our process is to separate mixture of petrol and
wastewater. This process, petrol will go to distillate which is top stream and wastewater
will pump into bottom stream. The Table 3.18 shows the sizing and cost of distillation
column.

X Nmin Stages Height (m) Diameter (m) Kmt (RM) Km (RM)
0.1 13.85 15 8.945 0.873 41713.71 125141.141
0.2 14.45 16 9.313 0.933 38621.44 115864.334
0.3 14.77 16 9.932 0.981 35303.54 105910.624
33
0.4 15.56 17 10.288 1.287 32259.2 96777.600

0.5 15.87 17 10.762 1.553 29233.12 87699.350
0.6 16.68 18 11.127 2.538 27256.78 81770.351
0.7 17.32 19 11.953 3.105 23969.99 71909.960
0.8 17.59 19 12.548 3.584 22552.39 67657.161
0.9 18.32 20 14.312 4.213 20190.67 60572.014
1 18.61 21 16.183 4.954 17796.7 53390.115
For the last distillation column, it used to separate mixture of decane and paraffin. These
two components in liquid phase with different boiling point. Because decane has lower
boiling point than paraffin thus decane will goes out at top stream of distillation and
paraffin at bottom stream. The Table 3.19 shows the sizing and cost of distillation
column.

0.1 2.65 5 3.734 0.484 16505.55 49516.660
0.2 2.88 5 3.992 0.503 18175.93 54527.783
0.3 2.96 5 4.056 0.518 19008.03 57024.093
0.4 3.21 6 4.435 0.523 20676.86 62030.573
0.5 3.57 6 4.857 0.556 23783.37 71350.111
0.6 3.83 6 5.174 0.586 26494.45 79483.349
0.7 4.02 7 5.429 0.592 27866.91 83600.729
0.8 4.34 7 5.734 0.604 29775.32 89325.965
0.9 4.82 7 6.064 0.627 32448.47 97345.411
1 5.63 8 6.728 0.645 36413.1 109239.297
The economic potential for level 4 is given by
fpe4 = fpe3 – Kpt
Where,
fpe4 = Economic potential level 4

34
fpe3 = Economic potential level 3
Kpt = The cost of separation units
Hence, the economic potential for level 4 is shown in Table 3.20 and Figure .
Table 3.20 Gross profit for future economic potential level 4

X FEP 3 Total Cost Separation Unit FEP 4
(RM) (RM)
0.10 483178470.91 8653282.68 474525188.24
0.20 652949308.27 6410802.88 646538505.40
0.30 709523934.98 5442357.39 704081577.58
0.40 737801215.19 4867971.13 732933244.05
0.50 754760385.56 4513518.56 750246867.00
0.60 766060983.40 4243269.44 761817713.96
0.70 774128423.03 4073722.87 770054700.16
0.80 780175354.91 3941377.20 776233977.70
0.90 784875439.10 3815797.46 781059641.64
1 788632849.11 3801566.38 784831282.74

35
At a conversion of 0.8, the gross profit is estimated to be RM 776 million. The

curve shows an increasing trend starting from conversion of 0.1, and slowly flattened
starting from conversion 0.6. Figure below shows the comparison between FEP2, FEP3
and FEP4.
Figure 3.7 Economic potential graph level 2, 3 and 4
3.6 PRODUCTION OF DECANE FROM WASTE COOKING OIL
Our plant will produce decane from waste cooking oil using the hydroprocess which
this reaction needs a large amount of hydrogen gas. Petrol and propane will be produced
as by-product.
3.6.1 Process Flow Diagram
The process flow diagram is attached in Appendix B.

36
3.6.2 Process Description
This hydro processing unit can be used for both hydrotreating and hydrocracking
reactions at high pressures and temperatures. It mainly consists of a liquid feed system,
hydrogen feed system, a packed-bed reactor system and a product separation system
(Bezergianni et al. 2010). In our process, we use waste cooking oil (WCO) with
molecular formula C54H102O6 as our feedstock. The WCO feedstock first undergoes
filtration to remove any food sediments from the mixture before entering the reactor
(Goh et al. 2020a). In the first reactor (R-101), WCO will undergoes hydro-treating
process where WCO will react with hydrogen gas in a high temperature and pressure
condition, where the glyceride-based oils will be converted into free fatty acids (FFAs)
or paraffin (Chen & Wang 2019). This catalytic reaction occurs in a packed bed reactor
at 40 bar and 375°C over NiMo/γ-Al2O3 catalyst. Propane gas will be produced, and it
will then be purified in the gas absorption and stripper. Benzene will act as solvent in
the gas absorption and water will acts as vaporizing agent in the stripper in order to
separate propane from impurities.
The liquid effluent produced from the first reactor will enter distillation column (D-101)
to make sure that the paraffin is purified before entering the second reactor. In this
distillation column, we want to separate paraffin from unreacted WCO. The paraffin
will exit as a top product at temperature 180°C and it will be condensed into liquid form
before entering the second reactor.
In the second reactor (R-102), again the hydrogen gas will be supplied to react with
paraffin also in a high temperature and pressure condition which is 40 bar and 375°C.
This reaction is called hydro-cracking where the produced paraffin is then converted
into jet fuel through the deoxygenation process which is also called as decarbonylation
(DCO), also using NiMo/γ-Al2O3 catalyst (Chen & Wang 2019). The jet fuel that will
be produced is decane, C10H22, with formation of water and carbon monoxide. Aside
from that, petrol with molecular formula C6H14 will also be produced as by-product.
The liquid product will enter distillation column to separate the jet fuel and petrol. The
distillation column (D-102) will operate at 100°C and petrol will exit as top product
37
while decane will exit as bottom product. Both products will enter distillation column
again to further be purified so that the product will be produced in a high purity. In the
third distillation column (D-103), the petrol with 95% purity will exit as top product at
70°C and it will be condensed at room temperature. Same goes to decane, it will also
exit as top product with 98% purity at 175°C and the temperature will be decreased so
that it can be kept in room temperature.
3.7 MASS BALANCE
Based on the principle of conservation of mass, the mass of the products will always be
equal to the mass of the reactants (Boundless 2015). If the total mass flowrate of the
inlet is almost equal to the total mass flowrate of the outlet, the mass balance of the
production is balance. Below shows the basic assumption used in our production.
Assumption:
1. The process is at steady state.
2. Production rate of decane (jet fuel) is 10416.67 kg/hr.
3. Conversion for waste cooking oil is 80%.
3.7.1 Mass Balance by manual calculation
The overall mass balance is calculated using formula manually for each major
equipment. Figure shows reactor (R-101) where waste cooking oil and hydrogen are
fed into as raw material to produce paraffin and propane. Table 3.21 shows the mass
balance at reactor (R-101).
38
Figure 3.8 Reactor (R-101)
Table 3.21 Mass balance at reactor (R-101)

Inlet Stream Outlet Stream
Components Molecular 7 11 12 16
Weight
Mass Mass Mass Mass
(kg/kmole) Flowrate Flowrate Flowrate Flowrate
(kg/hr) (kg/hr) (kg/hr) (kg/hr)
Triglycerides 846 0 32395.36 6479.07 0
Hydrogen gas 2 76.58 0 0 15.32
Decane 142 0 0 0 0
Petrol 86 0 0 0 0
Propane 44 0 0 0 1347.89
Paraffin 268 0 0 24629.66 0
Carbon Monoxide 28 0 0 0 0
Water 18 0 0 0 0
Benzene 78 0 0 0 0
Total stream 76.58 32395.36 31108.73 1363.21
TOTAL 32471.94 32471.94
∑ 𝐹𝑖𝑛 = ∑ 𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐹7 + 𝐹11 = 𝐹12 + 𝐹16
76.58 + 32395.36 = 31108.73 + 32471.94
32471.94 = 32471.94 Balance

39
The paraffin produced from reactor (R-101) will then enter reactor (R-102) and
reacts with hydrogen gas to produce our main product which is decane. Figure shows
reactor (R-102) and mass balance at reactor (R-102) is shown in Table 3.22.
Figure 3.9 Reactor (R-102)
Table 3.22 Mass balance at reactor (R-102)

Components Molecular 22 18 35 33
Weight
Mass Mass Mass Mass
(kg/kmole)
Flowrate Flowrate Flowrate Flowrate
Triglycerides 848 0 0 0 0
Hydrogen gas 2 0 551.41 0 110.28
Decane 142 0 0 10440.04 0
Petrol 86 0 0 6322.84 0
Propane 44 0 0 0 0
Paraffin 268 24629.66 0 4925.93 0
Carbon Monoxide 28 0 0 0 2058.60
Water 18 0 0 1323.38 0
Benzene 78 0 0 0 0
Total stream 24629.66 551.41 23012.19 2168.88
TOTAL 25181.07 25181.07
𝐹22 + 𝐹18 = 𝐹35 + 𝐹33
24629.66 + 551.41 = 23012.19 + 2168.88

40
25181.07 = 25181.07 Balanced
Overall mass balance is shown below with Table 3.23 shows the input streams flowrate
and
41
Table 3.24 shows the output stream flowrate. The mass balance for other unit is shown
in Appendix A.
Table 3.23 Input streams flowrate

Inlet Stream
Components 1 2 3 5
Mass Flowrate
(kg/hr)
Triglycerides 0 0 32395.36 0
Hydrogen gas 0 0 0 628
Decane 0 0 0 0
Petrol 0 0 0 0
Propane 0 0 0 0
Paraffin 0 0 0 0
Carbon Monoxide 0 0 0 0
Water 943.52 0 0 0
Benzene 0 92.83 0 0
Impurities 0 0 25.05 0
Total stream 943.52 92.83 32420.41 628
TOTAL 34084.76
42
Table 3.24 Output stream flowrate

Outlet Stream
Components 8 26 28 31 32 34 49 53 57 61
Mass Flowrate
(kg/hr)
Triglycerides 0 6479.07 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Hydrogen gas 0 0 15.32 0 0 110.28 0 0 0 0
Decane 0 0 0 0 0 0 52.20 52.20 10232.28 103.36
Petrol 0 0 0 0 0 0 6197.01 62.60 47.42 15.81
Propane 0 0 0 1347.89 0 0 0 0 0 0
Paraffin 0 0 0 0 0 0 246.30 246.30 44.33 4389.01
Carbon Monoxide 0 0 0 0 0 2058.60 0 0 0 0
Water 0 0 0 47.18 896.35 0 11.91 1179.14 92.64 39.70
Benzene 0 0 0 0 92.83 0 0 0 0 0
Impurities 25.05 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Total stream 25.05 6479.07 15.32 1395.07 989.18 2168.88 6507.42 1540.23 10416.67 4547.9
TOTAL 34084.76
𝐹1 + 𝐹2 + 𝐹3 + 𝐹5 = 𝐹8 + 𝐹26 + 𝐹28 + 𝐹31 + 𝐹32 + 𝐹34 + 𝐹49 + 𝐹53 + 𝐹57 + 𝐹61
943.52 + 92.83 + 32420.41 + 6208 =
25.05 + 6479.07 + 15.32 + 1395.07 + 989.18 + 2168.88 + 6507.42 + 1540.23 + 10416.67 + 4547.9
34084.76 = 34084.76 Balanced!

43
3.7.2 Comparison between Manual Calculation and Superpro
This section will discuss the comparison between the mass balance manual calculation
and simulation by SuperPro calculation. This comparison to check the final mass of
products that are obtained from manual calculation. Based on the result obtained in
SuperPro is different value get from manual calculation. These differences occur because
SuperPro® uses more accurate method to solve the equation during the simulation at each
of the streams. The table below shows the comparison between calculation of manual and
simulation for each unit process.
Table 3.25 Comparison between calculation of manual and simulation

Unit Operations Output Manual Output SuperPro Error (%)
Calculation (kg/h) Calculation (kg/h)
Reactor (R-101) 32471.94 32471.95 0.01
Gas Absorption (G-101) 1456.04 1083.75 34.35
Stripper (G-102) 3187.77 3031.64 5.15
Distillation Column (D-101) 31108.73 31481.02 1.18
Reactor (R-102) 25181.07 17854.11 41.04
3.7.3 Plant wide Simulation
Figure shows the plantwide simulation of the production plant. The details data will be
shown in Appendix C.
44
Figure 3.10 plantwide simulation of the production plant

45
3.8 ENERGY BALANCE
The relationship between energy in and out is referred to as energy balance. This
relationship, which is determined by thermodynamic rules, determines whether mass is
lost, gained, or remains constant. Energy, according to these rules, is never truly
generated and never truly destroyed. Energy is instead exchanged between entities. The
system's energy balance is used to determine the energy that must be fed into the system
as well as the energy that is released during the process. Engineers apply energy balance
calculations to determine the heat change of the unit process under consideration. The
assumption for energy balance calculation that we consider is as below:
1. The flow in unit processing is steady state.
2. There are no potential energy, kinetic energy and work done by the system because
the unit processing used is close system.
3. The references temperature is 25 °C.
According to the assumption, enthalpy change in each component for inlet and
outlet stream needed to determine by formula below:
𝑇2
∆𝐻 = ∫ 𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑡
𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓
To obtain the overall enthalpy, follow the formula below:
∆𝐻𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 = ∑ ∆𝐻𝑖𝑛 − 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 + ∆𝐻𝑟
While heat load, Q was calculated by using formula below:
𝑄 = 𝑚𝐶𝑃 ∆𝑇
46
The heat of formation for each component is show in Table 3.26
Table 3.26 The heat of formation for each component

Components Molecular Formula Heat of formation (J/moles)
Triglycerides C54H102O6 -1953.8
Hydrogen gas H2 -120000
Decane C10H22 -46200
Petrol C6H14 -44000
Propane C3H8 -46200
Paraffin C17H32O2 -14000
Cabon Monoxide CO -110525
Water H2O -285830
Source: NIST – JANAF Thermochemical Table 4th Ed. (2001)
The data for heat capacity of each component are shown in table Table 3.27
Table 3.27 Heat capacity of each component

Components Molecular Heat of capacity
Formula
a b c d
Triglycerides C54H102O6 2.3 - - -
Hydrogen gas H2 29.11 -0.00001916 0.000004003 8.704×10-10
Decane C10H22 2.01 - - -
Petrol C6H14 2.13 - - -
Propane C3H8 -4.04 0.3048 -0.0001572 3.174×10-8
Paraffin C17H32O2 2.13 - - -
Cabon Monoxide CO 28.16 0.001675 0.000005375 -2.222×10-9
Water H 2O 8.712 0.00125 -0.00000018 -
Source: Appendix A. II Sandler 4th
3.8.1 Energy balance on reactors
a. Reactor (R-101)
The chemical equation on reactor (R-101) was stated as below:
𝐶54 𝐻102 𝑂6 + 𝐻2 →3𝐶17 𝐻32 𝑂2 + 𝐶3 𝐻8 r = 34.1 kmol/h
Based on table A.8, standard heat of reaction was calculated by formula below:
47
̂ 𝑟 = ∑ 𝐻°
∆𝐻° ̂𝑓 (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠) − ∑ 𝐻°
̂𝑓 (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
∆𝐻𝑟𝑥𝑛 = 3∆𝐻𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑛 + ∆𝐻𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑒 − ∆𝐻𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑠

− ∆𝐻𝑓 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑙𝑦𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠
= 3(−14000) + (−46200)— 120000 − (−1953.8)
= -268633.8 kJ/mol
The molar enthalpy change of each component is given by formula below:
̂𝑖/𝑗 = ∫𝑇2 𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑡
∆𝐻 𝑇1
𝑇2
=∫𝑇1 (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑇 + 𝑐𝑇 2 + 𝑑𝑇 3 𝑑𝑡
𝑏𝑇 2 𝑐𝑇 3 𝑐𝑇 4
=[𝑎𝑇 + + + ]
2 3 4
Where Cp is the molar heat capacity of the component as stated on table C.2
while 𝑇1 is a reference temperature and 𝑇2 is an inlet or outlet temperature.The molar
heat capacity of component in the reactor (R-101) were calculated and simplify as table
below:
Table 3.28 Heat capacity of R-101

Components Molecular ∆𝑯𝟕 ∆𝑯𝟏𝟏 ∆𝑯𝟏𝟐 ∆𝑯𝟏𝟔
formular (kJ/kmol.K) (kJ/kmol.K) (kJ/kmol.K) (kJ/kmol.K)
Triglycerides C54H102O6 - 6333291.975 5215652.215 0
Hydrogen gas H2 192719.11 - 0 161589.8252
Decane C10H22 - - 0 0
Petrol C6H14 - - 0 0
Propane C3H8 - - 0 50560670.96
Paraffin C17H32O2 - - 18361411.72 0
Carbon CO - - 0 0
monoxide
Water H2O - - 0 0
Heat load, Q = 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝐻𝑖𝑛 + 𝑟𝐻𝑟𝑥𝑛

= (23577063.93+50722260.78) - (192 719.11 + 6333291.98) + (30.63× -
24726.2)
= -67773313.63 kJ/h (Exothermic process)
48
b. Reactor (R-102)
𝐶17 𝐻22 𝑂2 + 3𝐻2 → 𝐶10 𝐻22 + 𝐶6 𝐻14 + 𝐶𝑂 + 𝐻2 𝑂 r = 73.52

kmol/h
Based on table Table 3.26 standard heat of reaction was calculated by formula
below:
̂ 𝑟 = ∑ 𝐻°
∆𝐻𝑟𝑥𝑛 = ∆𝐻𝑓 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑒 + ∆𝐻𝑓 𝑃𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 + ∆𝐻𝑓 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 + ∆𝐻𝑓 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
− ∆𝐻𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑖𝑛 − 3∆𝐻𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛
= (−46200) + (−44000) + (−110525) +
(−285830) — (−46200) − (−120000)
= -860555 kJ/mol
The molar heat capacity of component in the reactor (R-102) were calculated
and simplify as table below:
Table 3.29 Heat capacity of R-102

Components Molecular ∆𝐻22 ∆𝐻18 ∆𝐻33 ∆𝐻35
Triglycerides C54H102O6 0 0 0 0
Hydrogen gas H2 0 1387577.60 0 1163446.741
Decane C10H22 0 0 7344564.688 0
Petrol C6H14 0 0 4713675.844 0
Propane C3H8 0 0 0 0
Paraffin C17H32O2 4459199.99 0 3672282.344 0
Carbon CO 0 0 0 21573754.18
monoxide
Water H2O 0 0 4289618.533 0
= (22737200.92+20020141.4) - (1387577.60 +4459199.99) + (73.52× -

860555)
49
= -8106635.39 kJ/h (Exothermic process

50
CHAPTER IV
HEAT INTEGRATION
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Energy conservation has always been important in process design. Heat integration or
pinch analysis is a simple method for systematically analyzing chemical processes and
the surrounding utilities with the aid of first and second laws of thermodynamics. The
heating and cooling cost of a chemical processes plant contributes to the total production
cost significantly. A stream that needs to be heated is called a cold stream while a stream
that needs to be cooled is called a hot stream. In a process, a hot stream can be used to
heat a cool stream so that the utility costs can be reduced.
4.1.1 Pinch Analysis
Pinch analysis is the most generally used technique developed to design a process in
such a way that optimum usage of available energy within the process itself is
achieved. It is a systematic method to analyze potential for heat integration in a
process. The actual temperature Tact is converted into interval temperature Tint using
equations below in the problem table method.
1
Hot Stream: 𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑇𝑎𝑐𝑡 − (2)∆𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛
1
Cold Stream: 𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑇𝑎𝑐𝑡 + (2)∆𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 20°C
51
a. Data extraction
b. Pinch Point
In order to get pinch point, there are two methods which are temperature enthalpy
diagram and problem-table method. In our calculation, we selected the problem-table
method. The following heat capacity for each stream placed at the very right position in
the is calculated from respective heat capacity of intermediate temperature. Table 4.1
shows the data for each utility.
Table 4.1 Data for each utility stream.
Stream Type Heat 𝑻𝒊𝒏 (°𝐂) 𝑻𝒐𝒖𝒕 (°𝐂) Heat 𝑻𝒊𝒏,𝒊𝒏𝒕 𝑻𝒐𝒖𝒕,𝒊𝒏𝒕
No Capacity, load, (°𝐂) (°𝐂)
CP
Q
(kW)
1 Cold 0.7 25 110 59.5 35 120

14 Hot 0.4 375 25 140 365 15
15 Cold 18.17 25 180 2816.35 35 190
12 Cold 18.17 26 110 6359.5 36 120
25 Hot 14.57 180 100 1165.6 170 90
33 Hot 15.80 375 25 5530 365 15
48 Hot 3.8 220 70 570 210 60
31 Hot 3.8 190 25 627 180 15
56 Cold 5.9 25 220 1150.5 35 230
c. Heat cascade
Heat cascade is worked out to find the pinch point which is the pinch temperature to get
the above and below pinch for the addition of heater and cooler. The pinch point is
35°C. Heat cannot be transferred across the pinch. Hot utilities should be below the
pinch and cold utilities should be above the pinch. Figure shows the relationship
between inlet cold and hot temperatures. Table 4.2 also shows the heat cascade
iterations.
52
Figure 4.1 Relationships between Tint hot and cold stream
Table 4.2 Heat cascade iteration.
𝑻(°𝐂) Intermediate 𝑻𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒆 (°𝐂) Heat Mass +/-

number Capacity, balance,
∆𝑯𝒊
CP
365 0.00 0.00

230 1.00 135.00 -5.40 -729.00 +
220 2.00 10.00 0.50 5.00 -
210 3.00 10.00 -5.40 -54.00 +
170 4.00 40.00 -6.03 -241.20 +
120 5.00 50.00 -6.03 -301.50 +
90 6.00 30.00 22.70 681.00 -
60 7.00 30.00 15.80 474.00 -
36 8.00 24.00 23.50 564.00 -
35 9.00 1.00 37.77 37.77 -
15 10.00 20.00 -11.13 -222.60 +
d. Heat exchanger network
A grid can represent a heat exchanger network where the process streams are
drawn as horizontal lines, with the stream number shown in square boxes. Hot streams
are drawn at the top of the grid and flow from left to right. The streams are drawn at the
53
bottom and flow from right to left for the cold streams. Figure shows a heat exchanger
network in grid form for this process.
Figure 4.2 Grid design for heat exchanger network
For heat exchanger design above the pinch, the condition that must be fulfilled is
CpH<CpC. Only hot utilities are allowed for this design. The heat transfer design for
the above pinch is shown in Figure .
54
Figure 4.3 Design network above the pinch
For heat exchanger design below the pinch, the condition that must be fulfilled is
Total heat recovery indicates that energy saved after heat integration by using pinch
analysis. It can be calculated using formula. Heat transfer design for the above pinch as
in Figure .
e. Total Heat Recovery
The total energy recovery is the energy saved after heat exchanger network is performed
using pinch analysis.
Energy before integration − Energy after integration

Percentage recovery (%) = X 100%
Energy before integration
55
Figure 4.4 Design network below the pinch
Table 4.3 Total energy recovery

Energy Requirement (kW) Total Energy Recovery (%)
Before After
18418.45 9050 50.86
4.2 PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM AFTER HEAT INTEGRATION
The process flow diagram after heat integration is attached in Appendix D.

56
CHAPTER V
PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTURMENT
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Piping and instrumentation diagram (P&ID) refer to the diagram detail about the
specific process within plant. This specific process which shows comprises of piping,
vessels, control valves and equipment in system. In the process industry widely used
this drawing to represent their plant and a standard set of symbols was used to prepare
the drawing. This chapter will explain about P&ID and analysis based on process
control on our production process
5.2 PROCESS CONTROL ANALYSIS
Process control is referring to methods that are used to control process variables when
manufacturing a product. It is the most important part in production plant because it
allows complex plant operations to be carried out automatically. Automatic control of
process offers many advantages such as increasing efficiency of product, energy usage
and enhanced process safety. The table below shows the type of configuration and
objectives of each control.
Table 5.1 Types of configuration and objectives

Types of control Instrumentation Objectives
Temperature Temperature transmitter (TT) Detect the changes in temperature and send
control signal to controller
Temperature controller (TC) Control the temperature of vessel pipeline after
receiving signal from transmitter to achieve
within set point
57
Pressure control Pressure transmitter (PT) Detect the changes in pressure and send signal
to controller
Pressure controller (PC) Control the pressure of vessel pipeline after
receiving signal from transmitter to achieve
within set point
Flow control Flow transmitter (FT) Detect the changes of flow in pipeline and send
signal to flow controller.
Flow controller (FC) Control the flow rate of pipeline to prevent
flooding of vessel.
Level control Level transmitter (LT) Detect the changes of level and send signal to
level controller.
Level controller (LC) Controlling the level of vessel is within set
point
Composition Composition analyser (AT) Detect the changes of component composition
control in the process and send signal to controller
Composition controller (AC) Control the composition in the process to
obtain required purity
5.3 CONTROL CONFIGURATION OF UNIT OPERATION
5.3.1 Process Control System of Filtration
Filter (F-101) is used to separate out all the undesired substances in the waste cooking
oil before entering the reactor. This is to ensure that the reaction can occur smoothly.
Information below shows the mathematical model for filter (F-101).
a. Mathematical Model
i. Filter Equation:
1. Total mass balance,
𝑑𝜌
𝑉[ ] = 𝜌3 𝐹3 − 𝜌6 𝐹6 − 𝜌9 𝐹9 (1)
𝑑𝑡
2. Total energy balance,
𝑑𝑇
𝑉𝜌𝐶𝑣 [ ] = ∑ 𝜌3 𝐹3 𝐶𝑝 𝑇3 + ∑ 𝜌6 𝐹6 𝐶𝑝 𝑇6 + ∑ 𝜌9 𝐹9 𝐶𝑝 𝑇9 (2)
𝑑𝑡
58
b. Degree of freedom
Number of variables = 6 (F3, F6, F9, T3, T6, T9)
Disturbances = 2 (Tref, P)
Number of equations = 2
Degree of freedom = 6-2-2 = 2
c. Control Configuration Table of Filter (F-101)
Figure 5.1 Control configuration on Filter (F-101)
Table 5.2 Control strategy for Filter (F-101)

Type of Control Controlled Manipulated Control action Type of
controller Objective variable variable valve
Level To control The level of Amount liquid LT transmits the level Globe
controller the level the liquid in flow out of the of the fluid in the filter valve used
of fluid in the filter needs filter at stream 9 to the LC. The LC to handle
the filter to be then will control the liquid level
maintained to outlet flow of the in pipeline.
allow the solid liquid stream after
particles to be reaching certain level
suspended by controlling the
opening of the valve
of the outlet stream.
Flow To control The amount of Flowrate FT indicates the value Diaphragm
controller the flowrate in the mixture inlet at of flowrate in the filter valve used
amount of filter to stream 6 pump and transfer the signal suitable to
flowrate prevent into the filter. to FC. FC then control control fluid
into the overflow from the flowrate inlet of flow with
filter the system the mixture by changing
controlling the the flowrate
opening of the inlet velocity.
stream valve.
59
5.3.2 Process Control System of Reactor (R-101)
Hydro-treating process will occur in the first reactor (R-101) is where the triglycerides
from the WCO and hydrogen will react to produce paraffin and propane gas. This
reaction will occur in a high pressure and temperature. Information below shows the
mathematical model packed bed reactors (R-101).
(a) Mathematical Model
i. Reactor Equation:
Total mass balance,
𝜕𝑉
𝜌( ) = 𝜌8 𝐹8 − 𝜌14 𝐹14 − 𝜌11 𝐹11 − 𝜌15 𝐹15 (1)
𝜕𝑡
Total energy balance,
𝜕𝑉
𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑉 ( ) = 𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝐹𝑖 (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 ) − ∆𝐻 + 𝑄 (2)
𝜕𝑡
Number of variables = 7 (F8, F14, F11, F15, T11, T15, V)
Disturbances = 3 (T8, T14, P)

60
c. Control Configuration Table of Reactor (R-101)
Figure 5.2 Control configuration on Reactor (R-101)
Table 5.3 Control strategy for Reactor (R-101)

Pressure To avoid the Pressure Outlet flowrate PT send signal to Diaphragm
controller reactor from inside the stream 11 PC which will valve used
overpressure reactor increase valve suitable to
and explode. within set opening when the handling
point at pressure inside vapour and
40 bar. reactor higher control
than the set point. pressure
Temperature To avoid Outlet Flowrate of TT send the Globe
controller reactor from temperature cooling signal to TC to valve used
overheating of reactor medium. increase valve suitable to
(set point opening when regulate the
375℃). temperature liquid
higher than set
point.
5.3.3 Process Control System of Gas Absorption (G-101)
The gas effluent from reactor (R-101) will enter gas absorption (G-101) to separate
propane gas from other impurities. Benzene will enter as solvent to absorb propane.
Information below shows the mathematical model for Gas Absorption (G-101).
61
i. Gas Absorption Equation:
𝜕𝑉
𝜌( ) = ∑ 𝜌𝐹𝑖 − ∑ 𝜌𝐹𝑜 = 𝜌𝐹1 − ( 𝜌𝐹2 + 𝜌𝐹3 ) (1)
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑉
𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑉 ( ) = 𝐶𝑝 𝐹1 𝑇1 − 𝐶𝑝 𝐹1 𝑇1 − 𝐶𝑝 𝐹1 𝑇1 − 𝑈𝐴(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑐 ) + 𝑄 (2)
𝜕𝑡
Number of variables = 8 (F1, F2, F3, V, r, hi, T, Q)
c. Control Configuration Table of Gas Absorption (G-101)
Figure 5.3 Control configuration on Gas Absorption (G-101)

62
Table 5.4 Control Strategy for Gas absorption (G-101)

Pressure To control the Pressure Outlet PT will detect Diaphragm
controller pressure of inside the flowrate at the pressure valve used
absorption absorption stream 29 changes and suitable to
within set within set send signal to handling
point at 1.5 bar point at 1.5 PC which will vapour and
bar adjust the valve control
accordingly pressure
Flowrate To maintain Flowrate of Flowrate of FT will detect Diaphragm
controller the flowrate of solvent into solvent at the flowrate valve used
solvent inside absorption set stream 16 changes and suitable to
absorption point at 92.83 send signal to control fluid
kg/hr FC which will flow with
adjust the valve changing the
accordingly flowrate
velocity
5.3.4 Process Control System of Stripper (G-102)
After the propane has been separated from other impurities, the propane then needs to
be separated from the solvent which is benzene. In order to do that, the propane-benzene
mixture will enter stripper (G-102) to produce propane with 97% purity. Information
below shows the mathematical model for Stripper (G-102)
i. Stripper Equation:
𝜕𝑉
𝜌( ) = ∑ 𝜌𝐹𝑖 − ∑ 𝜌𝐹𝑜 = 𝜌𝐹1 − ( 𝜌𝐹2 + 𝜌𝐹3 ) (1)
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑉
𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑉 ( ) = 𝐶𝑝 𝐹1 𝑇1 − 𝐶𝑝 𝐹1 𝑇1 − 𝐶𝑝 𝐹1 𝑇1 − 𝑈𝐴(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑐 ) + 𝑄 (2)
𝜕𝑡
3. Ideal gas law,
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 (3)
63
4. Design of volume
4
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ1 + 𝜋𝑟 3 (4)
3
Number of variables = 8 (F1, F2, F3, V, r, hi, T, Q)
c. Control Configuration Table of Stripper (G-102)
Figure 5.4 Control configuration on Stripper (G-102)
Table 5.5 Control Strategy for Stripper (G-102)

Temperature To control the Temperature Inlet flowrate TT will detect the Globe
controller temperature of inside the of hot water at temperature valve used
stripper within stripper within top unit changes and send suitable to
set point at set point at process. signal to TC regulate
25ºC 25ºC which will adjust the liquid
the valve
accordingly
64
Level To control the Level of fluid Flowrate LT will detect the Globe
controller level of fluid inside stripper bottom of level changes and valve used
and avoid at set point product at send signal to LC to handle
spillage of 75% stream 39 which will adjust liquid
containment the valve level in
accordingly pipeline.
5.3.5 Process Control System of Distillation Column (D-101)
Distillation column is used to separate heavy and light components inside the feed flow.
Distillation column (D-101) is used to separate paraffin from the unreacted WCO that
will entering the reactor for the second rection. Information below shows the
mathematical model for Distillation Column (D-101).
i. Distillation Column Equation:
𝜕𝐴ℎ
𝜌( ) = ∑ 𝜌𝐹𝑖 − ∑ 𝜌𝐹𝑜 = 𝜌𝐹1 − ( 𝜌𝐹2 + 𝜌𝐹3 ) (1)
𝜕𝑡
2. Total energy balance
𝑑𝑇 𝑑ℎ 𝑄
𝐴 (ℎ + 𝑇 ) = 𝜌𝐹1 − 𝜌𝐹2 − 𝜌𝐹3 − (2)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜌𝐶𝑝
3. Ideal gas law,
4. Equilibrium vapor composition each stage,
𝛼𝑥𝑖
𝑦𝑖 = (4)
1 + (∝ −1)𝑥𝑖
ii. Reflux Drum
1. Total mass balance

65
𝜕𝐴ℎ
𝜌( ) = ∑ 𝜌𝐹𝑖 − ∑ 𝜌𝐹𝑜 (1)
𝜕𝑡
2. Reflux ratio
𝐹𝑖
𝑅= (2)
𝐹𝑜
i. Distillation Column
Number of variables = 9 (F20, F21, F25, F20X, F21X, F25X, T, Q, h)
Disturbances = 2 (Tref, R)
ii. Reflux Drum
Number of variables = 4 (F22, F23, F24, h)
Disturbances = 1 (F22)

66
c. Control Configuration Table of Distillation Column (D-101)
Figure 5.5 Control configuration on Distillation Column (D-101)
Table 5.6 Control strategy for Distillation Column (D-101)

Pressure To avoid Pressure Inlet flowrate PT will detect the Diaphragm
controller over inside into partial pressure inside valve used
pressure distillation condenser at when it is higher suitable to
and explode column at 1.1 stream 21. than the set point handling
within set bar. and send the vapour and
point 1.1 signal to PC to control
bar. open the valve to pressure
get optimum
pressure.
Temperature To maintain Temperature Flowrate of TT will send the Globe valve
controller a desired inside steam. signal to TC and used
temperature distillation will open valve suitable to
of the column at when the regulate the
calculated 100℃. temperature liquid
rate of higher then set
separation point and close
to occur. the valve when
the temperature
lower than set
point.
Level To avoid Level of fluid Flowrate of LT will detect the Globe
controller of spillage of in distillation bottom level changes and valve used
distillation containment column product at send signal to LC to handling
column stream 36 which will adjust liquid level
67
the valve in pipeline.

accordingly.
Flow To control Inlet flowrate Output FT will detect the Globe
controller of outlet flow of reflux flowrate of the inlet flowrate of valve used
reflux drum of reflux drum distillate the reflux drum to handle
drum product at and send signal to liquid flow
stream 23 the FC to control in pipeline.
the valve so that
the inlet stream
flow to the correct
outlet stream.
5.3.6 Process Control System of Reactor (R-102)
In the second reactor (R-102) hydro-treating process will occur is where the purified
paraffin will be converted into fuel jet. This reaction will occur in a high pressure and
temperature. Information below shows the mathematical model packed bed reactors (R-
102).
(b) Mathematical Model
i. Reactor Equation:
𝜕𝑉
𝜌( ) = 𝜌24 𝐹24 − 𝜌27 𝐹27 − 𝜌32 𝐹32 − 𝜌33 𝐹33 (1)
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑉
𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑉 ( ) = 𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝐹𝑖 (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 ) − ∆𝐻 + 𝑄 (2)
𝜕𝑡
Number of variables = 7 (F24, F27, F32, F33, T32, T33, V)
Disturbances = 3 (T24, T27, P)
68
c. Control Configuration Table of Reactor (R-102)
Figure 5.6 Control configuration on Reactor (R-102)
Table 5.7 Control strategy for Reactor (R-102)

Pressure To avoid the Pressure Outlet flowrate PT send signal to Diaphragm
controller reactor from inside the stream 32 PC which will valve used
overpressure reactor increase valve suitable to
and explode. within set opening when the handling
point at pressure inside vapour and
40 bar. reactor higher control
than the set point. pressure
Temperature To avoid Outlet Flowrate of TT send the Globe
controller reactor from temperature cooling water. signal to TC to valve used
overheating of reactor increase valve suitable to
(set point opening when regulate the
375℃). temperature liquid
higher than set
point.
The effluent from Reactor (R-102) will enter Distillation column (D-102) to separate
the products which is petrol and decane based on their boiling point. Information below
shows the mathematical model for Distillation Column (D-102).
69
𝜕𝐴ℎ
𝜌( ) = ∑ 𝜌𝐹𝑖 − ∑ 𝜌𝐹𝑜 = 𝜌𝐹1 − ( 𝜌𝐹2 + 𝜌𝐹3 ) (1)
𝜕𝑡
𝐴 (ℎ + 𝑇 ) = 𝜌𝐹1 − 𝜌𝐹2 − 𝜌𝐹3 − (2)
3. Ideal gas law,
𝛼𝑥𝑖
𝑦𝑖 = (4)
1 + (∝ −1)𝑥𝑖
ii. Reflux Drum
𝜕𝐴ℎ
𝜌( ) = ∑ 𝜌𝐹𝑖 − ∑ 𝜌𝐹𝑜 (1)
𝜕𝑡
2. Reflux ratio
𝐹𝑖
𝑅= (2)
𝐹𝑜

70
ii. Reflux Drum
Figure 5.7 Control configuration on Distillation Column (D-102)
Table 5.8 Control strategy for Distillation Column (D-102)

71

Pressure To avoid over Pressure Inlet flow rate PT will detect Diaphragm
controller pressure and inside into partial the pressure valve used
explode within distillation condenser at inside when it is suitable to
set point 1.4 column at 1.4 stream 41 higher than the handling
bar. bar. set point and vapour and
send the signal to control
PC to open the pressure
valve to get
optimum
pressure.
Temperature To maintain a Temperature Flowrate of TT will send the Globe valve
controller desired inside steam. signal to TC and used
temperature distillation will open valve suitable to
of the column at when the regulate the
calculated 100℃. temperature liquid
rate of higher then set
separation to point and close
occur. the valve when
the temperature
lower than set
point.
Level To avoid Level of fluid Flow rate of LT will detect Globe
controller of spillage of in distillation bottom the level valve used
distillation containment column product at changes and to handle
column stream 47 send signal to liquid level
LC which will in pipeline.
adjust the valve
accordingly.
Flow To control Inlet flowrate Output FT will detect Globe

controller of outlet flow of of reflux flowrate of the inlet flowrate valve used
reflux drum reflux drum drum the distillate of the reflux to handle
product at drum and send liquid flow
stream 23 signal to the FC in pipeline.
to control the
valve so that the
inlet stream flow
to the correct
outlet stream.
The gas effluent from Distillation column (D-102) will first condensed until its liquid
form before entering Distillation column (D-103). In Distillation Column (D-103), the
petrol will be purified so that it can be sold in a high purity. Information below shows
the mathematical model for Distillation Column (D-103).
72
𝜕𝐴ℎ
𝜌( ) = ∑ 𝜌𝐹𝑖 − ∑ 𝜌𝐹𝑜 = 𝜌𝐹1 − ( 𝜌𝐹2 + 𝜌𝐹3 ) (1)
𝜕𝑡
𝐴 (ℎ + 𝑇 ) = 𝜌𝐹1 − 𝜌𝐹2 − 𝜌𝐹3 − (2)
3. Ideal gas law,
𝛼𝑥𝑖
𝑦𝑖 = (4)
1 + (∝ −1)𝑥𝑖
ii. Reflux drum
𝜕𝐴ℎ
𝜌( ) = ∑ 𝜌𝐹𝑖 − ∑ 𝜌𝐹𝑜 (1)
𝜕𝑡
2. Reflux ratio
𝐹𝑖
𝑅= (2)
𝐹𝑜
73
ii. Reflux Drum
Figure 5.8 Control Configuration on Distillation Column (D-103)

74
Table 5.9 Control Strategy of Distillation Column (D-103)

Temperature To maintain a Temperature Flowrate of TT will send the Globe valve
controller desired inside steam. signal to TC and used
temperature of distillation will open valve suitable to
the calculated column at when the regulate the
rate of 60℃. temperature higher liquid
separation to then set point and
occur. close the valve
when the
temperature lower
than set point.
Pressure To control the Pressure of Outlet PT will detect the Diaphragm
controller pressure of the distillation flowrate gas pressure changes valve used
distillation column at set of the and send signal to suitable to
column point to be 1.4 distillate PC which will handle
bar product at adjust the valve vapour and
steam 49 accordingly control
pressure
Level To avoid Level of fluid Flow rate of LT will detect the Globe
distillation containment column product at send signal to LC to handle
column stream 55 which will adjust liquid level
the valve in pipeline.
accordingly.

controller of outlet flow of of reflux flowrate of inlet flowrate of valve used
reflux drum reflux drum drum. the distillate the reflux drum to handle
product at and send signal to liquid flow
stream 51. the FC to control in pipeline.
the valve so that
the inlet stream
flow to the correct
outlet stream.
Finally, to produce decane with 98% purity, the effluent from Distillation Column (D-
102) will enter Distillation Column (D-104). In this distillation column, the product will
be purified and exit as top product. Information below shows the mathematical model
for Distillation Column (D-104).
75
1. Total mass balance for all substance
𝜕𝐴ℎ
𝜌( ) = ∑ 𝜌𝐹𝑖 − ∑ 𝜌𝐹𝑜 = 𝜌𝐹1 − ( 𝜌𝐹2 + 𝜌𝐹3 ) (1)
𝜕𝑡
𝐴 (ℎ + 𝑇 ) = 𝜌𝐹1 − 𝜌𝐹2 − 𝜌𝐹3 − (2)
3. Ideal gas law
𝛼𝑥𝑖
𝑦𝑖 = (4)
1 + (∝ −1)𝑥𝑖
ii. Reflux drum
𝜕𝐴ℎ
𝜌( ) = ∑ 𝜌𝐹𝑖 − ∑ 𝜌𝐹𝑜 (1)
𝜕𝑡
2. Reflux ratio
𝐹𝑖
𝑅= (2)
𝐹𝑜

76
ii. Reflux Drum
Figure 5.9 Control Configuration on Distillation Column (D-104)
Table 5.10 Control Strategy of Distillation Colum (D-104)

Pressure To control Pressure of Outlet PT will detect the Diaphragm
controller the pressure distillation flowrate gas pressure changes and valve used
77
of the column at set of the send signal to PC suitable to

distillation point to be 1.2 distillate which will adjust the handle
column bar product at valve accordingly vapour and
steam 57 control
pressure
Temperature To maintain Temperature Flowrate of TT will send the Globe

controller a desired inside steam. signal to TC and will valve used
temperature distillation open valve when the suitable to
of the column at temperature higher regulate
calculated 170℃. then set point and the liquid
rate of close the valve when
separation to the temperature
occur. lower than set point.
Level To avoid Level of fluid Flow rate of LT will detect the Globe
distillation containment column product at send signal to LC to handle
column stream 63 which will adjust the liquid
valve accordingly. level in
pipeline.
controller of outlet flow of reflux drum flowrate of inlet flowrate of the valve used
reflux drum of reflux the distillate reflux drum and send to handle
drum product at signal to the FC to liquid flow
stream 59. control the valve so in pipeline.
that the inlet stream
flow to the correct
outlet stream.
5.3.10 Process Control System of Heater
The function of heater is to increase the temperature of stream to certain desired value.
There are 3 heaters sin the process which is H-101, H-102, and Information below
shows the mathematical model for Heater (H-101).
𝜕𝑉
𝜌 = 𝜌𝑖𝑛 𝐹𝑖𝑛 − 𝜌𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑡 (1)
𝑑𝑡
2. Energy balance
𝜕𝑉
𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑉 = 𝐶𝑃 𝜌𝐹𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝑖𝑛 − 𝐶𝑃 𝜌𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑄 (2)
𝑑𝑡
78
3. Energy balance on hot water
𝑑𝑇ℎ
𝜌ℎ 𝐶𝑝ℎ 𝑉ℎ = 𝐶𝑃ℎ 𝜌ℎ 𝐹ℎ𝑖 𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝐶𝑃ℎ 𝜌ℎ 𝐹ℎ𝑜 𝑇ℎ𝑜 + 𝑈𝐴(𝑇ℎ − 𝑇) (3)
𝑑𝑡
4. Assumption:
a) The density of the material is constant
b) The heat capacity of component is constant
c) Steady flow rate (no accumulation)
b. Degree of Freedom of Heater
Number of variables = 6 (Fin, Fout, Tin, Tout, T, Th )
Disturbances = 2 (F, T)
Degree of Freedom = 6-3-2 = 1
c. Control Configuration Table of Heater
Figure 5.10 Heater (H-101)
Table 5.11 Control Strategy of Heater

79
Temperature To heat up the Temperature Inlet flowrate TT will detect the Globe
controller temperature of of the stream of the stream temperature valve used
flowrate changes and send suitable to
stream to the signal to TC regulate
desired point which will adjust the liquid
the valve
accordingly
5.3.11 Process Control System of Cooler
Total mass balance,
𝜕𝑉
𝑑𝑡
Energy balance
𝜕𝑉
𝑑𝑡
Energy balance on cooler water
𝑑𝑇𝑐
𝜌𝑐 𝐶𝑝𝑐 𝑉𝑐 = 𝐶𝑃𝑐 𝜌𝑐 𝐹𝑐𝑖 𝑇𝑐𝑖 − 𝐶𝑃𝑐 𝜌ℎ 𝐹𝑐𝑜 𝑇𝑐𝑜 + 𝑈𝐴(𝑇𝑐 − 𝑇) (3)
𝑑𝑡
Assumption:
b. Degree of Freedom of Cooler
Number of variables = 6 (Fin, Fout, Tin, Tout, T, Tc)
80
c. Control Configuration Table of Cooler
The function of cooler is to decrease the temperature of a stream to desired value. There
are 8 coolers in the process which is C-101, C-102, C-103, C-104, 1-105, C-106, C-107
and C-108. Information below shows the mathematical model for Cooler (C-104).
Figure 5.11 Cooler (C-103)
Table 5.12 Control Strategy of Cooler

Temperature To cool the Temperature Inlet flowrate TT will detect the Globe
controller temperature of of the stream of cooling temperature valve used
flowrate stream changes and send suitable to
stream to the signal to TC regulate
desired point which will adjust the liquid
the valve
accordingly
5.3.12 Process Control System of Heat Exchanger
The main purpose of heat exchanger is to provide a place for the process fluid to
exchange heat with other fluid. So, the main objective is to increase or decrease the
temperature of process fluid to desired temperature. Information below shows the
mathematical model for Heat Exchanger (J-101).
81
𝜕𝑉
𝑑𝑡
2. Energy balance
𝜕𝑉
𝑑𝑡
3. Energy balance on cooler water
𝑑𝑇𝑐
𝜌𝑐 𝐶𝑝𝑐 𝑉𝑐 = 𝐶𝑃𝑐 𝜌𝑐 𝐹𝑐𝑖 𝑇𝑐𝑖 − 𝐶𝑃𝑐 𝜌ℎ 𝐹𝑐𝑜 𝑇𝑐𝑜 + 𝑈𝐴(𝑇𝑐 − 𝑇) (3)
𝑑𝑡
4. Assumption:
b. Degree of Freedom of Heat Exchanger
Number of variables = 6 (Fin, Fout, Tin, Tout, T, Tc)

82
c. Control Configuration Table of heat Exchanger
Figure 5.12 Heat Exchanger
Table 5.13 Control Strategy of Heat Exchanger

Temperature To heat up Temperature Inlet flowrate TT will detect the Globe
controller the of the of the stream temperature changes valve used
temperature stream and send signal to TC suitable to
of flowrate which will adjust the regulate the
stream to valve accordingly liquid
the desired
point
5.4 RELIEF SYSTEM
A pressure relief system is a device that prevents pressure from exceeding a

predetermined limit. It is essentially a safety precautionary system used in industry to
protect unit operations.
Pressure relief devices are an essential requirement for the safe use of pressure
vessels. Pressure relief devices provide a mechanical means of ensuring that the
pressure inside a vessel cannot rise to an unsafe level. All pressure vessels within the
scope of Section VIII of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code must be fitted with
a pressure relief device. The purpose of the pressure relief device is to prevent
catastrophic failure of the vessel by providing a safe means of relieving over-pressure
if the pressure inside the vessel exceeds the maximum allowable working pressure.
Three different types of relief devices are commonly used:
83
Directly actuated valves: weight or spring-loaded valves that open at a

predetermined pressure, and they normally close after the pressure has been relieved.
The system pressure provides the motive power to operate the valve.
Indirectly actuated valves: pneumatically –or electrically-operated valves that

are activated by pressure-sensing instruments.
Bursting discs: thin discs of material that are designed and manufactured to fail
at a predetermined pressure.
Table 5.14 The Relieves System Summary

Location Type Function
R-101 Spring Loaded Valve Vessel rupture prevention due
to overpressure
R-102 Spring Loaded Valve Vessel rupture prevention due
to overpressure
D-101 Spring Loaded Valve Avoid damage due to
overpressure inside the column
5.5 PIPING SYSTEM
One of the most fundamental aspects of developing a chemical industry facility is the
pipe system. Pipes are used to transport solid, liquid, and gaseous material from one
unit activity to another. Fiberglass, steel, aluminum, and other materials are utilized to
create plumbing systems. Pipes, plates, gaskets, fittings, valves, bolts, and pipe support
are all part of the piping system. The pipe diameter is the most important factor to
consider when building a pipe system. The pipe's ideal diameter had to be estimated to
reduce the piping system's cost and get the pipe's optimum size. The ideal diameter for
a pipe system varies depending on the condition of the material. With optimal diameter
calculations, its nominal size specifies the diameter of pipes. Because of its capacity to
endure pressure and temperature for our chemical plant process, we chose stainless steel
as the piping system material for our plant. Schedule 10 stainless steel piping was
84
utilized throughout. The pipe's size is established using ASME/ANSI B36.19 Stainless
Steel Pipe as a guide.
5.5.1 Liquid flow
The diameter for stainless steel pipe can be determined by the equation below.
𝐷𝑖,𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 = 0.465𝑚0.51 𝜌−0.36
Where, 𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 is inside optimum diameter, m is flowrate (kg/s) and 𝜌 is

density (kg/𝑚3 ). The estimation diameter of liquid piping show as the Table 5.15.
5.5.2 Vapor flow
For a long pipe, the gas velocity can approach the sonic velocity. The vapor velocity
is determined using the thermodynamic relationship.
𝑅𝑇
𝑈=√
𝑀
Where
R = gas constant, 8.314 J/mol.K
T = The temperature of the stream, K
M = Molecular weight of the vapour, g/mol
The vapour velocity value, U then will be used in the equation below,
𝑄𝑚 = 𝜌𝑈𝐴
85
Where 𝑄𝑚 is the gas flow rate (kg/s), 𝜌 is the density of the fluid (kg/𝑚3 ), U is the sonic
velocity (m/s) and A is the cross sectional area of pipe (𝑚2 ),
Thus, the diameter of the pipe can be determined by the equation below,
4𝐴
Dv=√ 𝜋
The diameter determined from the equation above will be compared with the standard
ANSI/ASME B36.10/19 Stainless Steel Pipe to determine nominal pipe dimension. The
estimation diameter of vapor piping show as the Table 5.16.
86
Table 5.15 The sizing for the piping system of liquid flow
Stream G(kg/h) G(kg/s) Density Doptimum Doptimum Schedule Dnominal Dout (in) t(in) Din(in)
(kg/m3) (m) (in) No (in)
1 943.52 0.26 997.00 0.02 0.88 10s 1.00 1.32 0.11 1.10
2 92.83 0.03 876.00 0.01 0.28 10s 3.00 3.50 0.12 3.26
3 32395.36 9.00 923.20 0.14 5.52 10s 6.00 6.63 0.13 6.36
6 32395.36 9.00 923.20 0.14 5.52 10s 6.00 6.63 0.13 6.36
9 32395.36 9.00 923.20 0.14 5.52 10s 6.00 6.63 0.13 6.36
13 32395.36 9.00 923.20 0.14 5.52 10s 6.00 6.63 0.13 6.36
14 32395.36 9.00 923.20 0.14 5.52 10s 6.00 6.63 0.13 6.36
15 31108.73 8.64 900.00 0.14 5.46 10s 6.00 6.63 0.13 6.36
16 92.83 0.03 876.00 0.01 0.28 10s 3.00 3.50 0.12 3.26
18 31108.73 8.64 900.00 0.14 5.46 10s 6.00 6.63 0.13 6.36
19 31108.73 8.64 900.00 0.14 5.46 10s 6.00 6.63 0.13 6.36
20 31108.73 8.64 900.00 0.14 5.46 10s 6.00 6.63 0.13 6.36
21 24629.66 6.84 900.00 0.12 4.84 10s 5.00 5.56 0.13 5.30
22 24629.66 6.84 900.00 0.12 4.84 10s 5.00 5.56 0.13 5.30
23 24629.66 6.84 900.00 0.12 4.84 10s 5.00 5.56 0.13 5.30
24 24629.66 6.84 900.00 0.12 4.84 10s 5.00 5.56 0.13 5.30
25 6479.07 1.80 923.20 0.06 2.43 10s 2.50 2.88 0.12 2.64
26 6479.07 1.80 923.20 0.06 2.43 10s 2.50 2.88 0.12 2.64
30 92.83 0.03 876.00 0.01 0.28 10s 3.00 3.50 0.12 3.26
31 92.83 0.03 876.00 0.01 0.28 10s 3.00 3.50 0.12 3.26
33 23012.19 6.39 3427.00 0.07 2.89 10s 3.00 3.50 0.12 3.26
34 23012.19 6.39 3427.00 0.07 2.89 10s 3.00 3.50 0.12 3.26
35 23012.19 6.39 3427.00 0.07 2.89 10s 3.00 3.50 0.12 3.26
36 6479.07 1.80 923.20 0.06 2.43 10s 2.50 2.88 0.12 2.64
87
37 6479.07 1.80 923.20 0.06 2.43 10s 2.50 2.88 0.12 2.64
38 1395.07 0.39 1490.00 0.02 0.93 10s 1.00 1.32 0.11 1.10
39 989.18 0.27 1873.00 0.02 0.72 10s 0.75 1.05 0.08 0.88
41 8047.65 2.24 3427.00 0.04 1.69 10s 2.00 2.38 0.11 2.16
42 8047.65 2.24 3427.00 0.04 1.69 10s 2.00 2.38 0.11 2.16
43 8047.65 2.24 3427.00 0.04 1.69 10s 2.00 2.38 0.11 2.16
44 8047.65 2.24 3427.00 0.04 1.69 10s 2.00 2.38 0.11 2.16
45 14964.54 4.16 3427.00 0.06 2.32 10s 2.50 2.88 0.12 2.64
46 14964.54 4.16 3427.00 0.06 2.32 10s 2.50 2.88 0.12 2.64
47 14964.54 4.16 3427.00 0.06 2.32 10s 2.50 2.88 0.12 2.64
48 14964.54 4.16 3427.00 0.06 2.32 10s 2.50 2.88 0.12 2.64
49 6507.42 1.81 3427.00 0.04 1.52 10s 2.00 2.38 0.11 2.16
88
Table 5.16 The sizing for the piping system of vapor flow
Stream TºC T(K) M G Velocity Density A Doptimum Dopt Dnominal Dout T Din
(g/mol) (kg/s) (kg/m3) (m2) (m) (inch) (inch) (inch) (inch)
4 25 300 2 1.28 10.19 83.77 0.16 0.22 8.75 10.00 10.75 0.13 10.48
5 25 300 2 1.28 10.19 83.77 0.16 0.22 8.75 10.00 10.75 0.13 10.48
7 90 365 2 1.28 19.34 83.77 0.29 0.31 12.06 12.00 12.75 0.16 12.44
8 110 385 2 9.19 21.38 83.77 2.35 0.86 34.02 36.00 36.00 0.31 35.38
11 375 650 35 22.72 9.44 122.80 1.75 0.75 29.35 30.00 30.00 0.25 29.50
12 100 375 35 22.72 4.87 122.80 0.90 0.54 21.09 22.00 22.00 0.19 21.62
17 25 300 35 22.72 2.44 122.80 0.45 0.38 14.91 16.00 16.00 0.17 15.67
27 110 385 2 9.19 21.38 83.77 2.35 0.86 34.02 36.00 36.00 0.31 35.38
28 110 385 18 15.73 7.13 997.00 0.11 0.19 7.45 8.00 8.00 0.11 8.41
29 25 300 2 0.26 10.19 83.77 0.03 0.10 3.92 4.00 4.00 0.08 4.33
32 375 650 16.86 36.15 13.60 1040.00 0.47 0.39 15.27 16.00 16.00 0.17 15.67
40 25 300 16.86 36.15 3.51 1040.00 0.12 0.20 7.76 8.00 8.63 0.11 8.41
57 220 495 233.29 173.61 2.80 900.00 0.54 0.41 16.32 18.00 18.00 0.17 17.67
58 150 425 233.29 173.61 2.31 900.00 0.45 0.38 14.83 14.00 14.00 0.16 13.69
89
CHAPTER VI
WASTE MANAGEMENT
6.1 INTRODUCTION
In this production plant to produce aviation fuel from waste cooking oil (WCO), there
are a few types of wastes generated which are solid, liquid and gaseous waste. These
wastes can only be discharged after treatment to reduce the pollution towards
environment and public health. The waste generated from the plant is summarized in
the table below.
Table 6.1 Waste Generation

Component Stream Flowrate (kg/h)
Organic Waste (Solid) 10 25.05
Waste gas 40 220.56
Wastewater 56 1540.23
Benzene 39 989.18
Paraffin 64 4547.87
For improved productivity and a cleaner environment, the waste generated must be
monitored. The waste must be examined to guarantee that the final effluent of
wastewater released into the environment complies with government environmental
laws.
6.2 WASTEWATER CHARACTERISTIC
6.2.1 Waste Characteristic by Type
The waste is categorized into three different categories which are gaseous waste, liquid
waste and solid waste.
90
a. Gaseous Waste
The characteristics of gaseous waste generated are shown in the Table 6.2.
Table 6.2 Gas Waste Composition

Stream 40
Compositions (kg/h)
Triglycerides 0
Hydrogen Gas 110.28
Decane 0
Petrol 0
Propane 0
Paraffin 0
Carbon Monoxide 110.28
Water 0
Benzene 0
Impurities 0
Total 220.56
b. Liquid Waste
The liquid waste produced are shown in the Table 6.3 these wastes are also known as
wastewater.
Table 6.3 Liquid Waste Composition

Stream 56
Compositions (kg/h)
Triglycerides 0
Hydrogen Gas 0
Decane 52.20
Petrol 62.60
Propane 0
Paraffin 246.30
Carbon Monoxide 0
Water 1179.14
Benzene 0
Impurities 0
Total 1540.23
91
c. Solid Waste
In solid waste, only impurities are present. Impurities stated here is from waste cooking
oil. The composition of the impurities is shown in the Table 6.4
Table 6.4 Solid Waste Composition

Stream 10
Compositions (kg/h)
Triglycerides 0
Hydrogen Gas 0
Decane 0
Petrol 0
Propane 0
Paraffin 0
Carbon Monoxide 0
Water 0
Benzene 0
Impurities 25.05
Total 25.05
6.2.2 COD and BOD calculation
The parameters that are taken into consideration are Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD),
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and the temperature. Below shows the
wastewater composition and the summary of COD and BOD calculation in the Table
6.5 and Table 6.6.
Table 6.5 Wastewater Composition

Flowrate Flowrate (kg/h) Flowrate (m3/h)
Composition
Triglycerides 0 0
Hydrogen Gas 0 0
Decane 52.20 0.0522
Petrol 62.60 0.0626
Propane 0 0
Paraffin 246.30 0.2463
Carbon Monoxide 0 0
Water 1179.14 1.1791
Benzene 0 0
Impurities 0 0
Total 1540.23 1.5402
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Table 6.6 Parameter of Wastewater

Parameter Effluent Standard B
Temperature(oC) 25 40
pH 6.0 5.5-9.0
BOD5(mg/l) 3544.41 50
COD(mg/l) 11814.69 100
a. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
The amount of oxygen required for the oxidation of all organic compounds in water is
known as Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD). If the COD value is high, it means the
sample contains a lot of oxidizable organic material, which reduces the soluble oxygen.
The COD value can be computed using the component concentrations in the
wastewater. The equation below is used to calculate the COD in wastewater.
Oxidation reaction of Decane: 2𝐶10 𝐻22 (𝑙) + 31𝑂2 (𝑔) → 20𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔) + 22𝐻2 𝑂(𝑔)
𝑛𝑂2 × 𝑀𝑂2
𝐶𝑂𝐷 = × 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑛𝑐 × 𝑀𝑊 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡
Where,
𝑛𝑐 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑛𝑂2 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛
𝑀𝑂2 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛
𝑚𝑔 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 × 1000 × 100000

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝐿𝑥 ( )=
𝐿 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑥
The concentration of Decane is calculated as below:
52.20×1000×10000
𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑒: = 3389.10 𝑚𝑔/𝐿
1540.23×1000
93
COD calculation for Decane:
Oxidation reaction of Decane:
2𝐶10 𝐻22 (𝑙) + 31𝑂2 (𝑔) → 20𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔) + 22𝐻2 𝑂(𝑔)
31 × 32 × 3389.10
𝐶ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑, 𝐶𝑂𝐷 = = 11814.69 𝑚𝑔/𝐿
2 × 142.28
b. Biological Chemical Demand (BOD)
The amount of oxygen consumed by microorganisms during oxidation is referred to as

biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). It's worth noting that COD readings are almost
always higher than BOD values. Due to several hazardous components that are difficult
to handle, the normal values for the BOD/COD ratio are 0.3. The BOD may be
computed using the following formula:
𝐵𝑂𝐷 = 𝐶𝑂𝐷 × 0.3
Thus, the calculation of BOD for Decane is shown below:
𝐵𝑖𝑜𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑, 𝐵𝑂𝐷 = 11814.69 × 0.3 = 3544.41 𝑚𝑔/𝐿
c. Waste Gas Emission
Waste gas need to be determined to ensure it is safe to be purge or need to undergo

treatment. Carbon monoxide is released as a waste gas from R-102 from stream 40.
However, CO contributes to climate change indirectly through participating in chemical
processes in the atmosphere that result in the production of ozone, a climate change gas.
CO has a minor direct impact on climate. CO is classed as a short-lived climate forcing
agent as a result of these factors, prompting CO emission reductions to be evaluated as
a feasible technique to limit global warming consequences. Carbon monoxide has a
recommended exposure limit (REL) of 35 ppm (40 mg/m3) set by the National Institute
for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).
94
The amount of carbon monoxide released from our waste gas streams is as follows: The
concentration of carbon monoxide releases from waste gas streams from our process as
below:
110.28 × 1000 × 10000

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶𝑂 = = 5 𝑔/𝐿
220.56 × 1000
Concentration of CO emitted,
22.4 25 + 273.15 1
𝐶𝑐𝑜 = ( ) ( ) (5) = 3.12 𝑝𝑝𝑚
28.01 273.15 1.4
Since Cco,1hour = 3.12 ppm ≤ 35 ppm, it is safe to be release at atmosphere.
6.3 LAW AND REGULATED RELATED
To comply with pre-treatment standards, industries must pre-treat waste before it is

discharged into a central biological treatment system. No treated or untreated effluent
from industries can be released into open channels. Before being discharged into the
sea after treatment, recovered water must meet direct discharge regulations. All garbage
generated by industrial activity in Malaysia must adhere to a few environmental laws
and regulations. The following are the regulations:
Environmental Quality (Industrial Effluent) Regulations 2009
Environmental Quality (Scheduled Waste) Regulations 2005
Environmental Quality (Clean Air) Regulations (Amendment) 2014
Table 6.7 Standard A and Standard B

Parameters Unit Standard
A B
Temperature °C 40 40
pH value - 6.0-9.0 5.5-9.0
BOD, at 20 °C mg/L 20 50
COD mg/L 50 100
Suspended solid mg/L 50 100
95
Mercury mg/L 0.005 0.05

Cadmium mg/L 0.01 0.02
Chromium, hexavalent mg/L 0.05 0.05
Chromium trivalent mg/L 0.2 1
Arsenic mg/L 0.05 0.1
Cyanide mg/L 0.05 0.1
Lead mg/L 0.1 0.5
Copper mg/L 0.2 1
Manganese mg/L 0.2 1
Nickel mg/L 0.2 1
Tin mg/L 0.2 1
Zinc mg/L 2 2
Boron mg/L 1 4
Iron (Fe) mg/L 1 5
Silver mg/L 0.1 1
Aluminium mg/L 10 15
Selenium mg/L 0.02 0.5
Barium mg/L 1 2
Fluoride mg/L 2 5
Formaldehyde mg/L 1 2
Phenol mg/L 0.001 1
Free chlorine mg/L 1 2
Sulphide mg/L 0.5 0.5
Oil and grease mg/L 1 10
Ammoniael nitrogen mg/L 9 20
Colour ADMI 100 200
Source: Environmental Quality (Industrial Effluents) Regulations (2009)
No person should discharge industrial effluent containing any parameter in

concentrations larger than the limitations of Standard A and Standard B into any inland
waterways or Malaysian waters, according to the Environmental Quality (Industrial
Effluent) Regulations 2009. This chemical plant's waste contains higher levels of COD
and BOD than the norm, necessitating treatment to reduce the levels of BOD and COD
in order to comply with requirements.
In Malaysia, the air pollution index is used to assess the potential for harm to
people and the environment if gas emissions exceed safety standards. The averaging
time in Table 6.8 of the Recommended Malaysian Air Quality Guidelines (Ambient
Standards, T=25oC and P=91.13kPa) represents the amount of time during which
96
measurements are monitored and reported for the assessment of human health impacts
of various air contaminants.
Table 6.8 Recommended Malaysian Air Quality Guidelines (Ambient Standards, T=250°C and
P=91.13kPa)
Pollutant Averaging Time Malaysia Guidelines
(ppm) (µg/m3)
Carbon Monoxide 1 hour 30 35000
8 hour 9 9000
Carbon Dioxide 8 hour 5000 90
Source: Department of Environment (1996)
6.4 WASTE MINIMIZATION
Waste reduction is a waste management strategy that focuses on lowering the amount
of hazardous waste produced while also lowering its toxicity. Waste minimization is
also vital for environmental protection. By-products and surplus reactants that do not
fully react in reactions are considered waste. One of the reasons that prevents the
specification of the product required and is considered waste is the operational state.
Handling or regulating trash is riskier than minimizing or reducing waste. Waste
disposal is frequently costly; hence waste minimization should be considered in a
production operation to reduce costs. Waste minimization reduces the negative
consequences on the environment and human health. Some modifications should be
done in order to reduce waste.
In the production of aviation fuel from waste cooking oil plant, the waste emitted
by the process is the unreacted liquid waste that are cannot be reuse as a raw material.
Other than that, benzene and paraffin also exist as a liquid waste from the absorption
column and distillation column. In order to reduce waste emission, the unreacted
benzene can be recycling as a raw material needed in the process. The paraffin produced
can be further purified to be sell for other companies. In stream 37 produced waste that
contain triglycerides can be recycled to minimize waste discharge and reduce cost.
The other way to minimize the waste by increasing the retention time in order
to have higher conversion of product and reduce the unreacted component produced.
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Moreover, the gas waste can be purged since the emission value meet the condition of
Malaysian Air Quality Guidelines, which is below 30 ppm.
6.5 WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT
6.5.1 Process Block Diagram
Wastewater treatment plant to release the water used in the process of manufacturing
aviation fuel to the environment safely, consists of several processes. The wastewater
is treated by using primary and secondary treatment methods. The wastewater produce
needs to be treated until it fulfilled the discharge limit for BOD, COD. The unit includes
the equalization tank, skim tank, aeration tank, clarifier, sludge tank, and filter press in
the wastewater treatment plant. The wastewater treatment plant block diagram is shown
in Figure below.
Figure 6.1 Process Block Diagram
6.5.2 Parameter Calculation
6.5.3 Equalizing tank
Equalization tank is the first step for wastewater treatment in our plant. It is to minimize
and eliminate organic shock load besides stabilizing pH. Equalization tank minimizes
chemical treatment and flow surge to chemical treatment. Other than that, it is to reduce
number of toxic materials entering biological treatment system.
98
i. Design
Retention time,𝜏 = 1 day
Inlet flowrate, Q= 1540.24 kg/h
Density = 961.1101 kg/m3
Volume, V = 𝜏Q = 24*1540.24 /961.1101 = 38.46 m3
Nearest volume 40 m3
ii. Dimensions of tank
Height = 2 m
Length= 2 m
Width= 10 m
iii. Efficiency
An efficiency of 55% removal for COD and 70% for BOD are taking for equalization.
COD = 0.45 × COD = 5316.3 mg/l
BOD = 0.3 × BOD = 256.24 mg/l
b. Skim tank
The Skim tank act as an organic fuel-water separator as the mixture coming from the
equalization tank is a mixture with two layers. Thus, the separation will be using
physical separation, which is separation based on gravity difference. The organic
substance will rise at the top sludge will be settled at the bottom of the tank, and
99
wastewater leaving in the tank's middle layer. The reduction at this stage is 99% of
removal oil, 45% COD and 40% BOD and gives the outlet discharge shown. The
calculation for the designed skim tank is shown below.
i. Design
Rise velocity rate, Vt = [g(ρw-ρo)(d2)]/18μw
Where,
Vt = The rise rate of the oil droplet (m/s)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
ρw = Water density (kg/m3)
ρo = hydrocarbon density at design temperature (kg/m3)
μw = absolute viscosity of water (Ns/m2)
ρw = 1000kg/m3 at 30°C
ρo = 361.1 kg/m3 at 30 C
μw = 7.97x10-4 (Ns/m2) at 30°C (Appendix 6)
free hydrocarbon-globule diameter = 0.072 cm
Vt = [9.81(1000-391.1) (0.072x10-2)2]/ (18x7.97x10-4) = 0.05995 m/s
Area of the tank is based on following criteria,
Separator water depth, 1 ≤ d ≤ 2 m (to minimize turbulence)

100
ii. Dimensions
Choose depth, d = 2 m
Width, w = 10 m
A= d x w = 20 m2
Horizontal velocity, U
U = flowrate/area = (1540.24 /1000)/2 = 0.77012 m/s
U/Vt = 0.77012 /0.05995 = 12.85 (below 15, hence acceptable)
After interpolation, F factor at U/Vt = 12.85 is 128.5
Plant area, Ad = QF/Vt = 1540.24 /1000(1.003)/ 0.047 = 1.30 m2
Length, Ls = Ad/w = 1.30/4.5 = 1.30 m
Let the length, L= 2 m
iii. Efficiency
An efficiency of 55% removal of COD and BOD are taken to the skim process
COD = 0.45 × COD = 2392.335 mg/l
BOD = 0.3 × COD = 717.701 mg/l

101
6.5.4 Aeration tank
Aeration tank function to reduce chemical oxygen demand (COD) and biochemical
oxygen demand (BOD) in a waste management system aeration tank function. Aeration
tanks use bacteria to oxidize organic substances in wastewater, which will reduce the
COD and BOD. It promotes the growth of bacteria by the quantity of food and oxygen
supplied in the wastewater. In the aviation fuel, production plant wastewater, the most
contributed COD and BOD are Decane, Petrol and Paraffin. The design calculation is
shown below:
i. Design
V = RT x Q ; Aeration retention time,t =72 hours
𝑘𝑔
1186.362
ℎ𝑟
Q= 𝑘𝑔
1000 3
𝑚
Q = 1.187608 m^3/hr
V = 72 h x 1.187 m3/hr
ii. Dimension
Minimum required volume, V = τ x Q = 72 x (1186.362/1000) = 85.46 m3
Take minimum required volume = 100 m3
Take Height (H) = 5.5 m, Width (W) = 5.2 m, Length (L)= 3 m
iii. Efficiency
Taking 55% of the removal efficiency,
COD residual = 0.45 x COD = 484.45 mg/l

102
BOD residual = 0.3 x COD = 145.33 mg/l
6.5.5 Clarifying tank
Clarifier used to remove heavier sludge solids by settling and being separated from the
liquid. The settled solids or sludge are directed towards the center by using a collection
scrapper. The treated effluent will at the top be separated from sludge produce. The
design of the clarifier depends on the surface of the tank and the time of water retained
in the systems.
i. Design
Volume of tank, V= HRT x Q
Q = 1.1865.46 m3
Taking HRT = 6 hrs
Volume = 6h x 1.186 m3
= 7.116 m3
𝑉
Height of tank, H = 𝜋𝑟 2
= 7.116 / 3.142 x r2
= 0.92
ii. Dimensions
Height,h = 1 m
Radius,r =2.45 m
103
iii. Efficiency
By taking 55 % removal efficiency of SS, BOD and COD:
COD = 0.5 x COD = 218.01 mg/l
BOD = 0.3 x COD = 65.40 mg/l
6.5.6 Sludge tank
The most common unit that is used for thickening the sludge is by using gravity sludge.
All the sludge forms will be collected in a tank to let it settle and compact at the bottom
by gravity, and then the sludge will be discharge from the bottom of the tank to the filter
press. The sludge is collected once a day.
i. Design
ST = 4 m3/h
𝑉 = 𝜏𝑥𝑄
= 4(6)
= 24 m3;
HRT, t = 6h
ii. Dimensions
Rectangular tank used to collect the sludge
Length, L = 2 m
Width, W = 2 m
104
Height, H = 6 m
Efficiency
By taking 55 % removal efficiency
COD = 0.45 x COD = 218.00 mg/l
BOD = 0.3 x COD = 65.400 mg/l
b. Filter
Filter press is operating 22 hours a day and Q = 40 m3/hr. The amount of sludge
collected room the wastewater treatment is assuming as 2.0% from suspended solid,
0.2% from flocculation tank and 0.2% from aeration tank. From Table 57 below, 40 cm
width of belt is used for filter press capacity (International Dehydration Equipment Co.
Ltd. 2012).
i. Design
St = 40 m/hr(0.02 + 0.002 +0.002)
=0.96 m3/hr
Volume = t xQ = 0.96 m3/h x 22h
= 21 m3
Table 6.9 Filter belt data

Type of sludge
Width of belt Primary paper Chemical sludge Digest sludge Raw sludge
(cm) sludge flow (m3/h) (m3/h) (m3/h)
capacity (m3/h)
40 1-2 0.5-1.5 0.5-1.3 0.5-1
60 2-3 1.5-3 1-2.5 1-2
80 3-5 2.5-4 2-3.5 2-3.5
105
100 4-6 3.5-5 3-4.5 3-4.5

150 10-15 8-13 8-12 8-12
200 20-25 18-23 17-22 17-22
250 30-36 27-32 25-30 25-30
300 40-50 38-45 35-40 35-40
6.5.7 Design summary
The summary of design dimension for all wastewater treatment units is shown in Table
58 below.
Table 6.10 The summary of design dimension for all wastewater treatment units
Treatment Unit Dimension Value
Equalization tank Width 10 m
Height 2m
Length 2m
Skim tank Height 2m
Length 2m
Width 10 m
Aeration Tank Height 5.5 m
Length 3m
Width 5.2 m
Clarifying Tank Radius 2.45 m
Height 0.92 m
Sludge Tank Width 2m
Length 2m
Height 6m
The wastewater treatment plant after production of decane will bw shown in Appendix
F.
106
CHAPTER VII
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
7.1 INTRODUCTION
In chemical plant, was built to gain a profit and an estimate of the investment required
is needed before gain a profit. Economic analysis is one of important factor in designing
a plant which helps to determine the feasible the plant that will be in commercial level.
It also can calculate and shows how many years is needed to get the profit. In order to
fulfill the criteria, economy analysis have to be calculated. This section will discuss
about the profitability analysis by calculate the payback period, return on investment,
net present value (NPV), internal rate of return and discounted cash flowrate rate of
return (DCFRR).
7.2 ESTIMATION OF TOTAL CAPITAL (CTC)
The start-up of industrial plant needed a large amount of money to be prepare. The usage
of money for purchase and installed needed equipment, building and other facilities.
The large amount of money will be used to several factor like purchase and install
equipment, utility services, construction building and more the amount of investment
can be estimated through the calculation of the total capital investment. The factor
include in calculation of capital investment is fixed capital investment, working capital
and capital purchased land. Capital investment calculation can be simplify based on the
formula below.
𝐶𝑇𝐶𝐼 = 𝐶𝐹𝐶 + 𝐶𝑊𝐶 + 𝐶𝐿𝐶
Where, CFC = Fixed Capital Investment

107
CWC = Working Capital
CLC = Land Capital
All the factor involved in capital investment calculation will be discussed

mordepth in the next subtopic.
7.2.1 Fixed Investment capital, CFC
Amount of money that need to be invested for starting plant is fixed investment capital.
This investment divided into two component which is manufacturing fixed capital
investment and non-manufacturing investment. Manufacturing fixed investment is
known as direct cost that necessary for installed process equipment and all component
needed in process operation. Meanwhile, non-manufacturing fixed capital investment
as indirect cost that refers to component that not directly related to manufacturing and
construction overheads. To calculated cost fixed investment can be calculated through
the summation of direct cost estimation and indirect estimations. The table below shows
component in section of manufacturing and non-manufacturing for process operation.
The calculation and description for direct and indirect cost is below section.
Table 7.1 Component in section manufacturing and non- manufacturing

Manufacturing Non-manufacturing
Site preparation Buildings
Foundations Warehouses
Supporting vessels and equipment Laboratories
Piping (fittings and valves) Utilities
Instrumentation Firefighting facilities
Insulation Transportation, shipping and receiving facilities
Auxiliary facilities Construction overheads cost
108
a. Purchased equipment cost
Direct cost and indirect cost calculation can be done based on purchased equipment
cost. The estimated purchased equipment cost is related to the following formula which
is.
𝐶𝑒 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑆 𝑛
Which is a and b = Constant value
S = Size parameter
n = Exponent for the type of equipment
The constant value of a b and n is referred to the Towler & Sinnott (2013) .
Other than that, the value used as installation factor also stated in the same book
Meanwhile the size parameter based on sizing each equipment used in our production
plant and there are range each equipment sizing. From the calculation result cost of the
past time and the cost at the present time can be determined by multiplying the original
cost by the ration of the present index value to the index value applicable. The equation
of equipment cost as time function is shown below and the value of index was estimated
from the (Marshall Swift Valuation Services 2018). Since the purchased equipment cost
is 2010, thus the index value is 1695.1 and at present time is 2021 which is 2217.3.
Table 7.2 shows a summary of purchased equipment and installation cost for all plant
equipment in our production.
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 × ( )
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
Table 7.2 Summary of purchased equipment and installation cost

Equipment Unit Purchased cost Installation factor Installation cost
(RM million) (fraction) (RM million)
Filter 2 0.7 0.40 0.28
Pump 14 1.32 0.40 0.528
Blower 1 0.33 0.5 0.165
Heat exchanger 3 1.98 0.5 0.99
109
Reactor 2 2.59 0.5 1.295

Gas absorption 1 0.43 0.40 0.172
Stripper 1 0.37 0.40 0.148
Distillation Column 4 0.76 0.7 0.532
Heater 1 0.16 0.5 0.08
Cooler 6 1.2 0.5 0.6
Equalization tank 1 1.12 0.45 0.504
Skim Tank 1 0.46 0.45 0.207
Aeration Tank 1 0.27 0.45 0.122
Clarifying 1 0.55 0.45 0.248
Sludge Tank 1 0.78 0.45 0.351
Total 13.02 6.22
b. Direct cost
The cost value from purchased cost will be used to calculate direct cost. The direct cost
comprises calculation of all components that are needed for complete process operation
such as instrumentation and controls, piping, electrical system, building, yard
improvements and service facilities. The percentage uses for purchased equipment has
stated in Plant Design and Economics for Chemical Engineers (1920). The table below
shows summarized the cost value for direct costs estimation.
Table 7.3 Direct costs estimation

Component Total purchased equipment cost Cost (RM million)
(%)
Purchased equipment - 13.02
Purchased equipment delivery 100 13.02
Purchased equipment - 6.22
installation
Instrument and control 40 6.26
Piping 68 10.642
Electrical system 20 3.13
Building 25 3.913
Yard improvement 10 1.565
Services facilities 35 5.478
Total 60.87
c. Indirect costs
Same as direct cost, this cost is estimated based on purchased equipment cost by
multiply with percentage of equipment cost. Each indirect cost has different percentage,
110
and this percentage is mostly affected by the size of the plant and other. The Table 7.4
shows summarized calculation cost for indirect cost.
Table 7.4 Summarized indirect cost estimation

Component Equipment cost (%) Cost (RM Million)
Engineering and supervision 31 4.852
Construction expenses 41 6.417
Legal expenses 4 0.626
Contractor fee 22 3.443
contingencies 44 6.886
Total 22.224
From the calculation have been calculated therefore, the fixed capital investment
for our plant is RM 91.092 M. Calculation of fixed capital investment shows as below
Fixed Capital Investment, CFC = Direct Cost + Indirect Cost
= RM 60.87 M + RM 22.224 M
= RM 83.094 M
7.2.2 Land Capital, CL
Land capital is the most important cost involved in building a plant. The selected plant
location at Pasir Gudang, Johor with the price Rm 50 per square feet and we decided to
get size of the plant is 435600 square feet. The below calculation is the land capital cost.
Land Capital Costs, CL = RM 50 X 435600 square feet
= RM 21,780,000
= RM 22 million
111
7.2.3 Working Capital, CWC
Working capital is the additional investment that needed for start the plant up. This
additional amount of money has to be invested in for the raw material and supplies to
be kept as stock, accounts receivable, finished product in stock and semi-finished
materials in the process of being manufactured, cash kept on hand for monthly payment
of operating expenses, and also tax payable. Set point for the working capital is 20% of
total fixed capital investment for our plant design (Towler & Sinnott 2013). However,
in the calculation there are some unknown that call as total capital investment. It can
calculate based on the derivation of formula below
𝐶𝑊𝐶 = 𝐶𝑇𝐶 −𝐶𝐹𝐶 − 𝐶𝐿
𝐶𝑊𝐶 = 0.2𝐶𝐹𝐶
(𝐶𝐹𝐶 + 𝐶𝐿 )
𝐶𝑇𝐶 =
0.8
Thus, total capital investment is RM 121,492,800
Meanwhile the working capital is
CWC = 20% X Total fixed capital, CFC
= 20% X RM 83.094 M
= RM 16.6188 M
= RM 17 M
Table 7.5 Summary of calculation of total investment

Aspect Cost (RM)
Fixed Capital Investment 83,094,000
Land Capital 21,780,000
Working Capital 16,618,800
Total 121,492,800
112
7.3 ESTIMATION OF TOTAL PRODUCT COST
The total product cost is related to the cost of operation of the plant, selling product, price
of raw material and other. This estimation cost is divided into two categories which is
manufacturing cost and general expenses. Basically, total product cost is the sum of two
component which comprises the general expenses in the plant and the manufacturing cost.
CTPC = COM + GE
Where,
CTPC = Total product cost
COM = Cost of manufacturing
GE = General expenses
7.3.1 Cost of manufacturing
Manufacturing cost is required in production and processing the main product of the
palnt which is decane. Manufacturing cost can be classified into three categories which
is direct manufacturing costs or variable production costs, fixed charges or fixed
manufacturing costs, and plant overhead costs. Below equation is the calculation that will
be used to find cost of manufacturing.
COM = DMC + FMC + PO
Where,
DMC = Direct manufacturing costs
FMC = Fixed manufacturing costs
PO = Plant overhead costs

113
a. Direct Manufacturing Cost, DMC
Direct manufacturing cost are the expenses that directly involved in the production of
products. DMC value also is depending on the rate of production. There are some cost need
to consider when calculating the direct manufacturing cost. The section below was the cost
need to consider in direct manufacturing cost.
i. Raw material
The cost of raw material is calculated based on our production rate which is 10232.28
kg/hr for decane. The Table 7.6 shows the feed flowrate and calculation annual cost
each raw material in our plant.
Table 7.6 Cost annual of raw material

Raw material Feed flow rate (kg/h) Price (RM/kg) Annual cost (RM
million/year)
Waste cooking oil 32395.36 0.06 9.394
Hydrogen 627.99 6.23 20.986
Benzene 92.83 2.20 1.62
Water 943.52 0.25 1.86
Decane 155.56 6.61 8.14
Propane 1347.89 3.25 7.45
Petrol 78.41 5.00 3.1
Paraffin 4389.01 4.50 10.424
Total 60.284
ii. Utilities
Based on Towler & Sinnott, (2013) utilities cost usually covered about 10% to 20% of
the total product cost. Steam, compressed air, electricity and cooling water is each
component for cost utilities. Thus, we decided to assumed our plant utilities cost to be 10%
and the formula as below.
Utilities Cost = 0.12 CTPC

114
iii. Operating labor, COL
This section was divided into two categories which are skilled labor and unskilled labor.
To determine the operating labor cost, Ulrich method has been chosen. Meanwhile hourly
wage rate for operating labor is obtained from the Labor Department of the Ministry of
Human Resources. The Table 7.7 shows operating per shift based on equipment type in
our plant.
Table 7.7 Operator per shift for each equipment type

Equipment Number of Operators per shift Operators per shift
equipment per equipment
Filter 2 1 2
Pump 14 0 0
Blower air 1 1 1
Heat exchanger 3 1 3
Reactor 2 2 4
Gas absorption 1 1 1
Stripper 1 1 1
Distillation Column 4 1 4
Heater 1 1 1
Cooler 6 0.5 3
Equalization tank 1 1 1
Skim Tank 1 1 1
Aeration Tank 1 1 1
Clarifying 1 1 1
Sludge Tank 1 1 1
Total 25
The basic average salary in Malaysia was range RM 1500 to RM 2000 per month
(tarrence tan 2021). The Table 7.8 shows the labor cost estimation per year.
Table 7.8 Estimation of operating labor cost

Condition Value/Units
Operation per hour 25 h
Operation hour in year 7920 h
Shift per day 2 (morning and night)
Hour per shift 12h
Total shift per year 660
Shift per week per operator 6
Shift per year per operator 330
Operator required to fulfill all shifts per year 2
Total operator per shift 25
Total operating labor 50
Labor monthly salary (RM/month) 1500
115
Cost of one labor (RM/year) 18000

Cost of total operating labor (RM million/year) 900,000.00
iv. Supervision and clerical labour, CSE
In manufacturing operation, there are certain amount of direct direct supervisory and
clerical assistance is required. This amount cost for supervisory and clerical assistance is
related to the complexity of the operation and product quality standards.This type of cost
estimated covered about 15% of the total cost for operating labor. Calculation for this
type is shows as below:
Cost of direct supervisory and electrical labour = 0.15 COL
= 0.15 x RM 0.9 Million
= RM 135,000.00
= RM 0.135 M per year
v. Maintenance and repair, CMR
Range of the total cost maintenance and repairs for chemical plant is about 2% to 10%
from the fixed capital investment (CFC). We decided to estimate our total cost
maintenance and repairs is cover about 6%. Below is calculation for our cost
maintenance and repairs.
Cost of maintenance and repair = 0.06 x CFC
= 0.06 x RM 83.094 million
= RM 4.9856 Million per year
vi. Operating supplies, COS
Operating supplies are the consumable items such as charts, lubricants, test chemicals,
custodial supplies and similar supplies which cannot be considered as raw materials or
maintenance and repairs. The annual cost for type of supplies is 15% of the cost
maintenance and repairs. Calculation shows as below:
116
Cost operating supplies = 0.15 x cost maintenance repair
= 0.15 x RM 5.4655 million
= RM 819, 825.00
vii. Laboratory Charges, CLC
Laboratory expenses involves the test for control of operations, product quality control
and improvement of the current product. The cost may be taken as 10% to 20% of
operating labour. For laboratory expenses in our plant is about 10% and calculation
show as:
Cost of laboratory charges = 0.10 x cost of operating labor
= 0.10 x RM 0.9 million
= RM 90,000.00
= RM 0.09 million per year
viii. Catalyst and Solvent
In our production plant, catalyst is required in the reactor for our chemical reaction. Cost
for catalyst and solvents are important and should be estimated based on catalyst
requirement and price for the process. The cost for this type is about 6% of the total cost
for raw material.
Cost of catayst and solvent = 0.06 x total cost of raw material
= 0.06 x RM 60.284 million

117
ix. Patents and royalty
Patents covers many products and manufacturing processes. Patents are the payment
due to usage of process that is developed by other company or person. It necessary to pay
for the patent rights or royal. A rough approximation of this cost is 0 to 6% of the CTPC
and for our production plant is 2%.
Cost of patents and royalty = 0.02 x CTPC
x. Summary
The Table 7.9 shows summary of cost involved in cos of manufacturing
Table 7.9 Summary of cost involved in COM

Component Standard Cost Cost Equation Back-calculated Cost
Factor (RM million/year) from CTPC
(RM million/year)
Raw Material 10 – 15% of CTPC 60.284 60.284
Waste treatment and disposal - - -
Utilities 10 – 20% of CTPC 0.10CTPC 13.168
Operating labour cost 10 – 20% of CTPC 1.03 0.9
Direct supervisory and clerical 10 – 25% of COL 0.154 0.135
labour
Maintenance and repair 2 – 10% of CFC 4.99 4.57
Operating supplies 15% of CMR 0.875 0.819
Laboratory charges 10 – 20% of COL 0.102 0.09
Catalyst and solvent 6% CRW 2.99 3.617
Patents and loyalties 0 – 6% of CTPC 0.02CTPC 2.633
Direct Manufacturing Cost 70.425 + 0.12 CTPC 86.216
(DMC)
b. Fixed Manufacturing Costs. FMC
Fixed charge which is also known as fixed costs are the costs that change in little or not at
all with the amount of production in the plant. Financing cost is the interest payable for the
capital obtained by borrowing from financial institutions. Meanwhile local taxes are the
magnitude of local property taxes depends on the locality of the plant and regional laws.
For insurances rates it depends on the type of process being carried out in the manufacturing
operation The table below shows the estimation of FMC of our production plant.
118
Table 7.10 Estimation of FMC

Component Percentage of CFC Cost (RM million/ year)
Interest 0.10 of CFC 9.11
Taxes 0.05 of CFC 4.55
Insurances 0.01of CFC 0.91
Total 14.57
c. Plant overhead costs, PO
Plant overheads costs are expenditures required for routine general plant service whereby
non-manufacturing machinery, equipment and buildings are required to provide such
services. The range for this PO is about 50% to 70% of the total expenses for operating
labor, supervision, and maintenance.
Plant overhead, PO = 0.55 x (COL + CSE + CMR)
= 0.55 X (RM 0.9 M+ RM 0.135 M + RM 5.4655 M)
Thus, the calculation for the COM is shows as below:
Cost of manufacturing = DMC + FMC + PO
= (RM 86.216 M + RM 14.57 M+ RM 3.575 M)
= RM 104.361 Million per year
7.3.2 General Expenses, GE
General expenses are the cost that is related to the management and administrative level
which is not directly involved to the manufacturing process. It may be classified into
three categories which is administrative expenses, distribution and marketing expenses,
and research and development expenses. Table 7.11 shows the summary of GE for our
production.
Table 7.11 Summary of general expenses

General Expenses Standard Percentage Cost Back-calculated Cost
Factor of CTPC (RM from CTPC
million/year) (RM million/year)
119
Administrative 15 – 25% of 0.15 0.134 0.134

Cost COL
Distribution and 2 - 20% of 0.15 0.15 CTPC 19.752
Marketing Cost CTPC
Research and 5% of CTPC 0.05 0.05 CTPC 6.584
Development Cost
General Expenses 0.134 + 0.20 CTPC 26.47
(GE)
7.3.3 Total Product Cost, CTPC
Total product cost of our production plant is calculated as below:
Total Product Cost, CTPC = COM + GE
= (RM 105.26 M+ RM 26.47 M)
= RM 131.73 million per year
7.4 DEPRECIATION, AD
Depreciation is a measure of the decrease in the value of an asset over time. There are
several methods for depreciation, and we decided to used method straight-line to determine
our depreciation value. In this calculation the value of scrap value is 0% after 25 years. This
scrap value has been stated in Chemical Process (2012) since for chemical plant does not
sell the unit process in production plant. The annual depreciation charge is given:
𝐶𝐹𝐶 − 𝑆
𝐴𝐷 =
𝑛
Where,
CFC = fixed capital investment
S = scrap value of plant at the end of its service life
n = service life of plant
Thus, from calculation the depreciation cost for the plant is RM 3.324 Million
120
7.5 PROFITABILITY ANALYSIS
Profitability analysis is an essential part of enterprise resource planning that guides

administrators in evaluating the profitability of a project. Probability analysis can
evaluate sales and benefit potential particular to market variables such as client age
groups, geographic locations, or product categories. This cost and income analysis of
the firm will determine whether it will profit, how much profit it will earn, and when it
will begin to profit.
There are two types of profitability analysis for a development project which are
the techniques that do not consider the time value of money and methods that do
consider the time value of money. The project's success is totally dependent on sales,
taxes, depreciation, and operational expenses.
Table 7.12 The Summary of Project Investment

Parameter Unit Value
Production at full capacity Kg/year
Fixed Investment Capital RM (Million) 83.094
Working capital RM (Million) 17
Land Capital RM (Million) 22
Total Capital Investment RM (Million) 121.49
Direct Manufacturing Cost RM (Million)/year 86.216
Total Product Cost RM (Million)/year 131.73
Design life Years 25
Taxation Rate % 5.00
Scrap Value RM (Million) 0
Annual Depreciation Cost RM (Million) 3.64
Minimum Acceptable Rate of % 10
Return (MARR)
7.5.1 The method that does not consider the time value of money.
a. Return on Investment, ROI
Net profit for our project is typically not consistent from 1st year to 25th year, and total
investment fluctuates if further investments are made throughout project operation.
121
Thus, the ROI for a project is calculated as an average across the project's life cycle,
and the equation to be employed is:
1
(𝑛) ∑𝑛𝑗=1(𝑁𝑃𝐽 )
𝑅𝑂𝐼 =
∑𝑛𝑗−𝑏 𝐶𝑗
Where,
ROI = Annual return on investment
𝑁𝑃𝐽 = Net profit for the year j
𝐶𝑗 = Amount of investment made for the year j
n = Design life of the project
Following that, the calculated ROI, 0.21 is compared to a rate of return value
known as the Minimum Acceptable Rate of Return (MARR), which is denoted by the
sign mar. According to Table 7.13, the project's minimum acceptable rate of return,
mar, is set at 10% because the range of new capacity plant with established corporate
market position is between 8% - 16%.
Table 7.13 Investment description

Investment description Level of risk Minimum acceptable rate of
return, MARR (percent/year)
Safe corporate investment opportunities or cost of Safe 4-8
capital
New capacity with established corporate market Low 8-16
position
New product entering established market, or new Medium 16-24
process technology
New product or process in a new application High 24-32
Everything new, high R&D and marketing effort. Very high 32-48
122
b. Payback period, PBP
Payback Period (PBP) or pay out period is a profitability ratio that measures the time it
takes for the total return to exceed the initial invested. The strategy is predicated on the
idea that the sooner fixed capital is returned, the better the enterprise. The following
equation is used to calculate the initial fixed capital investment and the annual cash
flow:
𝑉 + 𝐴𝑥
𝑃𝐵𝑃 =
𝐴𝑗
Where
PBP = Payback period
V = Manufacturing fixed capital investment
𝐴𝑥 = Non- manufacturing fixed capital investment
V + 𝐴𝑥 = Total fixed capital investment
𝐴𝑗 = Annual cash flow
The PBP reference might well be calculated using the equation below, which
can then be used as a parameter to compare the PBP calculated above. If the project's
PBP will be less than PBPref, the project is considered as acceptable.
123
0.85
𝑃𝐵𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓 =
0.85
𝑀𝐴𝑅𝑅 + 𝑛
Where
MARR = Minimum acceptable rate of return
n = Number of years
The PBPref is calculated and get a value of 6.34. By comparing the calculated
PBP and 𝑃𝐵𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓 , the value of PBP calculated is less than PBPref. Then, the plant is
acceptable.
c. Net Return, Rn
The amount of cash flow required to obtain the minimal acceptable return rate and
return the total capital investment is more than the amount of cash flow required to
achieve the net return. The formula for calculating the net return is as follows:
𝑛 𝑛
𝑅𝑛 = ∑ 𝑁𝑝, 𝑗 − 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑟 (𝑛 ∑ 𝐶𝑗
𝑗=1 𝑗=−𝑏
Where
𝑅𝑛 = money value of rate return
𝑁𝑝,𝑗 = net profit of year j
𝐶𝑗 = Total capital investment of year j

124
To simplify, the equation is divided by n. The average Rn, ave is obtained as

shown below:
𝑅𝑛,𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝑁𝑝,𝑎𝑣𝑒 − 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑟 𝐶𝑇𝐶
The calculated value of net return in this plant is RM 629.08 million. The
positive net return value means that the cash flow to the project currently higher than
the amount required to repay the investment and earn a return that satisfies the minimum
reasonable rate. The project profits at a rate higher than the margin
125
Table 7.14 Estimation of ROI, PBP and Rn Calculations

Year (n) Production Expenditure Income (RM Gross Profit Depreciation Taxable Tax Net Profit Cash Flow Cummulative
Rate (RM million) million) (RM (RM million) Income (RM Payable (RM (RM Cash Flow
million) million) (RM million) million) (RM million)
million)
0 0.00 121.49 0.00 -121.49 3.64 -125.13 -31.28 -68.06 -64.42 -64.415
1 0.50 41.55 65.87 24.32 3.64 20.68 5.17 -18.66 -15.02 -79.43125
2 0.90 74.78 118.56 43.77 3.64 40.13 10.03 20.86 24.50 -54.9285
3 1.00 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 -20.546
4 1.00 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 13.8365
5 1.00 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 48.219
6 1.00 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 82.6015
7 1.00 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 116.984
8 1.00 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 151.3665
9 1.00 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 185.749
10 1.00 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 220.1315
11 1.00 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 254.514
12 1.00 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 288.8965
13 1.00 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 323.279
14 1.00 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 357.6615
15 1.00 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 392.044
16 1.00 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 426.4265
17 1.00 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 460.809
18 1.00 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 495.1915
19 1.00 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 529.574
20 1.00 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 563.9565
126
21 1.00 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 598.339
22 1.00 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 632.7215
23 1.00 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 667.104
24 1.00 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 701.4865
25 1.00 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 735.869
TOTAL 735.869 8027.44
AVERAGE 54.48 594.28
ROI 0.21
PBP 2.9
Rn
629.08
127
7.5.2 The method that considers the time value of money
a. Net Present Value (NPV)
The time value of capital, Net Present Value (NPV) and Discounted Cash Flow Rate of
Return are considered by two techniques (DCFRR). The discount factor for both
methods should be determined by using the equation below:
1 1
𝑓𝑑𝑖,𝑛 = =
𝑓𝑖,𝑛 (1 + 𝑖)𝑛
The current total value of a cash flow time series is defined as the Net Present
Value (NPV). If Mar is positive for a project's NPV value at the lowest acceptable rate
of return, the project is considered to have a higher return than Mar and is desirable.
The NPV value of the project is calculated using the calculation below.
NPV =∑𝑁 𝑁
𝑗=1 𝑓𝑑𝑖,𝑗 [𝐴𝑗 + 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑗 + 𝑑𝑗 ] − ∑𝑗=1 𝑓𝑑𝑖,𝑗 𝐶𝑗
Where
Aj = Cash flow in year j
𝑓𝑑𝑖,𝑗 = Selected present worth factor for the cash flows with interest rate I in year j
𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑗 = return earning in year j
𝑑𝑗 = depreciation charge in year j
𝐶𝑗 = Total capital investment in year j

128
Table 7.15 show the estimation of the NPV value of this project. The NPV value for
this project at a minimum acceptable rate of return, MARR = 0.1 is RM 75.47 million
which is positive. Then this project is to earn a return greater than MARR and
acceptable.
b. Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return (DCFRR)
The return gained from an investment in which all investments and cash flows are
discounted is known as the discounted cash flow rate of return, or DCFRR. The value
of the interest rate, I such that NPV = 0 is obtained using this procedure. The discounted
cash flow rate of return, or DCFRR, is calculated in
129
Table 7.15 Estimation of NPV Calculations

Year Production Expenditure Income Gross Depreciation Taxable Tax Net Cash Discounted Discounted Cumulative
Rate (RM (RM Profit (RM Income Payable Profit Flow factor Cash Flow (RM
million) million) (RM million) (RM (RM (RM (RM (RM million)
million) million) million) million) million) million)
0 0 121.49 0.00 -121.49 3.64 -125.13 -31.28 -68.06 -64.42 1.00 -64.42 -64.42
1 0.5 41.55 65.87 24.32 3.64 20.68 5.17 -18.66 -15.02 0.91 -13.65 -78.07
2 0.9 74.78 118.56 43.77 3.64 40.13 10.03 20.86 24.50 0.83 20.25 -57.82
3 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.75 25.83 -31.98
4 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.68 23.48 -8.50
5 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.62 21.35 12.85
6 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.56 19.41 32.26
7 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.51 17.64 49.90
8 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.47 16.04 65.94
9 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.42 14.58 80.52
10 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.39 13.26 93.78
11 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.35 12.05 105.83
12 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.32 10.96 116.78
13 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.29 9.96 126.74
14 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.26 9.05 135.80
15 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.24 8.23 144.03
16 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.22 7.48 151.51
17 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.20 6.80 158.31
18 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.18 6.18 164.50
19 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.16 5.62 170.12
20 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.15 5.11 175.23
130
21 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.14 4.65 179.88
22 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.12 4.22 184.10
23 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.11 3.84 187.94
24 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.10 3.49 191.43
25 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.09 3.17 194.60
NPV 75.47
Table 7.16 Estimation of DCFRR Calculations

Year Production Expenditure Income Gross Depreciation Taxable Tax Net Cash Discounted Discounted Cumulative
Rate (RM (RM Profit (RM Income (RM Payable Profit Flow factor Cash Flow (RM million)
million) million) (RM million) million) (RM (RM (RM (RM
million) million) million) million) million)
0 0 121.49 0.00 -121.49 3.64 -125.13 -31.28 -68.06 -64.42 1.00 -64.42 -64.42
1 0.5 41.55 65.87 24.32 3.64 20.68 5.17 -18.66 -15.02 0.91 -13.65 -78.07
2 0.9 74.78 118.56 43.77 3.64 40.13 10.03 20.86 24.50 0.83 20.25 -57.82
3 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.75 25.83 -31.98
4 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.68 23.48 -8.50
5 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.62 21.35 12.85
6 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.56 19.41 32.26
7 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.51 17.64 49.90
8 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.47 16.04 65.94
9 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.42 14.58 80.52
10 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.39 13.26 93.78
11 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.35 12.05 105.83
12 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.32 10.96 116.78
13 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.29 9.96 126.74
131
14 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.26 9.05 135.80
15 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.24 8.23 144.03
16 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.22 7.48 151.51
17 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.20 6.80 158.31
18 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.18 6.18 164.50
19 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.16 5.62 170.12
20 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.15 5.11 175.23
21 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.14 4.65 179.88
22 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.12 4.22 184.10
23 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.11 3.84 187.94
24 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.10 3.49 191.43
25 1 83.09 131.73 48.64 3.64 45.00 11.25 30.74 34.38 0.09 3.17 194.60
DCFRR 31%
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7.5.3 Breakeven Analysis
The breakeven point, which is 0.9 years, is calculated using the total income and
total expenditure in the design plant at full capacity, as illustrated in the diagram
below. Based on figure 7.1, the profit start to increase after 1 year because the
production start to produce at a full capacity. To conclude, a production does not
make a profit or a loss at the breakeven point. As a result, the break-even point is
sometimes known as the "no-profit" or "no-loss" position.
Figure 7.1 General Breakeven analysis
Figure 7.2 Specific Breakeven analysis
The plant capacity of the main product, Decane is 100585.97 tonnes/year. Based
on the specific breakeven analysis in Figure 7.2 Specific Breakeven analysis, the
133
breakeven point is approximately approaching 45000 tonne/year. That means the

project is favourable since the capacity of the production is larger than the breakeven
point value.
7.6 SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS
Sensitivity analysis is a financial model that analyzes how changes in other factors,
known as input variables, influence target variables. By employing the Microsoft Excel
function "Data Table," this model is also known as a what-if. It is a method of predicting
the result of a choice based on a set of factors. An analysis can identify how changes in
one variable impact the outcome by generating a collection of variables.
7.6.1 Sensitivity analysis of Decane
Based on our analysis, a suitable selling price for Decane can be calculated as RM 6.60
per kg, considering the capacity of Decane, which is 1232035 kg/year. The sensitivity
analysis for Decane is shown in Table 7.17
Table 7.17 Summary of sensitivity analysis Decane

Cost (RM/kg) Full Capacity of Decane (kg/year)
8131431 600000 900000 1232035 1500000 1800000
3.6 2160000 3240000 4435326 5400000 6480000
4.6 2760000 4140000 5667361 6900000 8280000
5.6 3360000 5040000 6899396 8400000 10080000
6.6 3960000 5940000 8131431 9900000 11880000
7.6 4560000 6840000 9363466 11400000 13680000
8.6 5160000 7740000 10595501 12900000 15480000
9.6 5760000 8640000 11827536 14400000 17280000
7.6.2 Sensitivity analysis of Petrol
Based on our analysis, a suitable selling price for Petrol can be calculated as RM 5 per
kg, considering the capacity of Petrol, which is 621007 kg/year. The sensitivity analysis
for Petrol is shown in Table 7.18.Table 7.19 Summary of sensitivity analysis Petrol
Table 7.18 Summary of sensitivity analysis Petrol

134
Cost Full capacity of Petrol (kg/year)

(RM/kg)
3105035 400000 500000 621007 700000 800000
1 400000 500000 621007 700000 800000
2 800000 1000000 1242014 1400000 1600000
3 1200000 1500000 1863021 2100000 2400000
4 1600000 2000000 2484028 2800000 3200000
5 2000000 2500000 3105035 3500000 4000000
6 2400000 3000000 3726042 4200000 4800000
7.6.3 Sensitivity analysis of Propane
Based on our analysis, a suitable selling price for Propane can be calculated as RM 3.25
per kg, considering the capacity of Propane, which is 10675288 kg/year. The sensitivity
analysis for Propane is shown in Table 7.19
Table 7.19 Summary of sensitivity analysis Petrol

Cost Full Capacity of Petrol (kg/year)
(RM/kg)
34694686 8000000 9000000 10675288 11000000 12000000
1 8000000 9000000 10675288 11000000 12000000
2 16000000 18000000 21350576 22000000 24000000
3 24000000 27000000 32025864 33000000 36000000
3.25 26000000 29250000 34694686 35750000 39000000
4 32000000 36000000 42701152 44000000 48000000
5 40000000 45000000 53376440 55000000 60000000
7.6.4 Sensitivity analysis of Paraffin
Based on our analysis, a suitable selling price for Paraffin can be calculated as RM 4.5
per kg, considering the capacity of Paraffin, which is 34760959 kg/year. The sensitivity
analysis for Paraffin is shown in Table 7.20
Table 7.20 Summary of sensitivity analysis Paraffin

Cost Full Capacity of Paraffin (kg/year)
(RM/kg)
156424316 20000000 30000000 34760959 4000000 5000000
1 20000000 30000000 34760959 4000000 5000000
2 40000000 60000000 69521918 8000000 10000000
135
3 60000000 90000000 104282877 12000000 15000000

4 80000000 120000000 139043836 16000000 20000000
4.5 90000000 135000000 156424316 18000000 22500000
5 100000000 150000000 173804795 20000000 25000000
6 120000000 180000000 208565754 24000000 30000000
7.6.5 Overall Sensitivity Analysis
To investigate the effects of unclear parameters, a sensitivity analysis was performed.

If the overall product cost rises by 25%, the NPV will increase as well. Figure 7.3
depicts a tornado plot for sensitivity analysis.
OVERALL SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS

Total Production Cost
Land Capital
Depreciation
150 100 50 0 50 100 150 200
Direct
Total
Depreciation Working Capital Land Capital Manufacturing
Production Cost
Cost
25% increment 4.55 27.50 108.89 164.66 22.50
25% decrement -2.73 -16.5 -65.3325 -98.7975 -13.5
25% increment 25% decrement
Figure 7.3 Overall sensitivity analysis

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CHAPTER VIII
HAZARD IDENTIFICSTION AND ANALYSIS
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Safety is one of the crucial aspects that must be consider in any industrial facilities. This
is because the consequences of hazards and incidents affect more than people and
property on the factory floor. Fires at work, missed days due to injuries or chemical
hazards can affect your production output, which can delay delivery schedules,
fulfillment, vendor relationships and customer satisfaction. Practicing good industrial
safety is the best way to ensure smooth operations that have the best interests of
employees, vendors and customers at heart. Industrial safety plays a major role to
prevent workplace hazards, including chemical exposure, poor ergonomics and physical
hazards so that business can continue as normal without disruption to production. In
this chapter, we will identify the possible hazard and also will further discuss the
legislative requirement regarding our plant. In addition, we will also elaborate on the
preventive steps or measures to reduce or eliminate the hazards.
8.2 LEGISLATIVE REQUIREMENT
To ensure the safety of the public, property and the environment, the government has
enacted regulations and act for every industrial category in Malaysia. Department of
Environment (DOE) and the Department of Occupational Safety and Health (DOSH) is
the body that responsible for measuring and ensuring compliance with the act and
environmental quality standards. In order to operate any plant, we must first comply
and obtain permission from them.
137
DOE is a department that is responsible for ensuring sustainable development

in the process of development of the country and nature is always clean, healthy and
safe for the people. DOE also serves as a disseminator of information, skills and ideas
for the development of the people's minds to the continuous appreciation of the
environment. This includes promoting the concept of self-regulation by industry and
the public. While DOSH is a department under the Ministry of Human Resources that
is responsible for ensuring the safety, health and welfare of people at work as well as
protecting other people from the safety and health hazards arising from the activities
sectors such as manufacturing, construction, hotels and restaurants and others. The
applicable acts which must be followed by our production plant are:
i. Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994 (OSHA 1994)
ii. Factories & Machinery Act 1967 (FMA 1967)
iii. Environmental Quality Act 1974 Act 127
8.2.1 Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994 (OSHA 1994)
OSHA 1994 defines the general duties of employers, employees, the self-
employed, designers, manufacturers, importers and suppliers of plant or substances. The
Act provides a comprehensive and integrated system of law to deal with the safety and
health of virtually all people at work and the protection of the public where they may
be affected by the activities of people at work. In part IV of OSHA 1994, it stated the
general duties of employers and self-employed persons. “It shall be the duty of every
employer and every self-employed person to ensure, so far as is practicable, the safety,
health and welfare at work of all his employees” and “It shall be the duty of every
employer and every self-employed person to conduct his undertaking in such a manner
as to ensure, so far as is practicable, that he and other persons, not being his employees,
who may be affected thereby are not thereby exposed to risks to their safety or health.”
This emphasize that as an employer, we not only have to ensure the safety of our
workers but also other people that maybe exposed to the risk. In order to ensure the
employees safety, we can provide information, instructions, training and supervision to
138
ensure safety and health such as handling reactor that operates in a high pressure and
temperature while to persons other than their employees, we have to conduct our
activities, so far as is practicable, that others are not exposed to risks of their safety and
health.
Besides, there is also regulation for general duties of designers, manufacturers

and suppliers. “It shall be the duty of a person who designs, manufactures, imports or
supplies any plant for use at work to ensure, so far as is practicable, that the plant is so
designed and constructed as to be safe and without risks to health when properly used.”
The designers, manufacturers and suppliers should make sure that our plant is designed
and constructed to be safe and without risk to health when properly used and make
available adequate information for the user including condition of use regarding its
safety and risks to health.
8.2.2 Factories & Machinery Act 1967 (FMA 1967)
FMA 1967 is an Act to provide for the control of factories with respect to matters
relating to the safety, health and welfare or persons therein, the registration and
inspection of machinery and for matter connected therewith. As stated in part II, safety,
health and welfare, section 18, machinery for hire or sale must comply with regulations.
“No person shall sell or let on hire any machinery other than transmission machinery
which does not comply with any regulations made under this Act applicable to the
machinery.” It is important to make sure to ensure that all the machinery that we will
used in our plant such as reactor, distillation column, gas absorption comply with any
regulations made under this Act applicable to all machinery.
Furthermore, it is also crucial to use personal protective clothing and appliances

as stated in section 24. Where in any factory persons are exposed to a wet or dusty
process, to noise, to heat or to any poisonous, corrosive or other injurious substance
which is liable to cause bodily injury to those persons the Minister may prescribe the
provision and maintenance for use of those persons suitable and adequate personal
protective clothing and appliances including where necessary goggles, gloves, leggings,
139
caps, foot-wear and protective ointment or lotion. This is as protection to a person while
handling a risky situation.
8.2.3 Environmental Quality Act 1974 Act 127
During planning stage is required to carry out an Environmental Impact

Assessment (EIA) the to ensure that the safety of the public is safeguarded, the
environment is protected, and sustainability criteria is considered. In Section 22, there
is restrictions on pollution of the atmosphere where no person shall, unless licensed,
emit or discharge any environmentally hazardous substances, pollutants or wastes into
the atmosphere in contravention of the acceptable conditions. As our production
produce waste gas such as carbon monoxide, thus releasing it to the atmosphere will not
only pollute the air but also threatening to human health.
Considering that we will produce jet fuel, so there is also waste that contain oil.
We can’t discharge our waste into any river, lake or ocean. In section 27, there is
prohibition of discharge of oil into Malaysian water where, “No person shall, unless
licensed, discharge or spill any oil or mixture containing oil into Malaysian water in
contravention of the acceptable conditions. We must take a good care while treating our
waste containing oil because it will cause a severe pollution to the environment and also
will cause fires and explosions that will result in death of many lives.
8.3 HAZARD IDENTIFICATION
In term of workplace, hazard can be defined as a chemical or physical condition that

has the potential for causing damage or harm to people, property, or the environment.
Hazard can be divided in several categories such as chemical hazard, mechanical
hazard, electric and electromagnetic hazard, thermodynamic hazard and health hazard.
In a chemical plant, the chances of accident to occur is high. Therefore, it is essential
for us to identify the hazard so that we can reduce the risk well in advance of an accident.
140
8.3.1 Identification of chemical hazard
In our production, there are some chemicals that identified as hazardous material such
as flammable, irritation, toxicity, corrosive, explosive or hazard to environment. The
identified of hazard will analyze which material is hazard and need to take more caution
when handle. Table 8.1 below shows the chemical hazard identification.
141
Table 8.1 Chemical Hazard Identification

Chemical Hazard Analysis Description Precaution
Hydrogen gas -Flammable -Extremely flammable gas. -Keep away from heat, hot surfaces, sparks, open flames and other
-Compressed gas -Contains gas under pressure; may explode if heated ignition sources.
-May displace oxygen and cause rapid suffocation.
-Burns with invisible flame.
-May form explosive mixtures with air
Decane -Flammable -Flammable liquid and vapor. -Keep away from heat/sparks/open flames/hot surfaces.
-Health hazard -May be fatal if swallowed and enters airways. -Keep container tightly closed
-Use explosion-proof electrical/ventilating/lighting equipment
-Use only non-sparking tools
-Take precautionary measures against static discharge
-Wear protective gloves/protective clothing/eye protection/face
protection
Petrol -Flammable -Highly flammable liquid and vapour. -Keep away from heat/sparks/open flames/hot surfaces.
-Health hazard -May be fatal if swallowed and enters airways. -Keep container tightly closed.
-Hazardous for -Causes skin irritation. -Ground/bond container and receiving equipment.
environment -May cause drowsiness or dizziness. -Use explosion-proof electrical/ ventilating/ lighting/ equipment.
-Skin irritation -Suspected of damaging fertility or the unborn child. -Use only non-sparking tools.
-May cause damage to organs (Nervous system) -Take precautionary measures against static discharge.
through prolonged or repeated exposure if swallowed. -Do not breathe dust/ fume/ gas/ mist/ vapours/ spray.
-Toxic to aquatic life with long lasting effects -Wash skin thoroughly after handling.
-Use only outdoors or in a well-ventilated area.
-Avoid release to the environment.
-Wear protective gloves/ protective clothing/ eye protection/ face
protection.
Propane -Flammable Extremely flammable gas. Contains gas under -Keep away from heat, hot surfaces, sparks, open flames and other
-Compressed gas pressure; may explode if heated ignition sources.
May cause frostbite.
May displace oxygen and cause rapid suffocation.
May form explosive mixtures with air.
142
Paraffin -Flammable -Highly flammable liquid and vapor -Keep away from heat/sparks/open flames/hot surfaces.
-Wear protective gloves/protective clothing/eye protection/face
protection
Carbon -Flammable -Extremely flammable gas. -Close valve after each use and when empty.
Monoxide -Health hazard -Contains gas under pressure; may explode if heated. -Use equipment rated for cylinder pressure.
-Toxic -Toxic if inhaled. -Do not open valve until connected to equipment prepared for use.
-Skin irritation -May damage fertility or the unborn child. -Use a back flow preventative device in the piping.
-Compressed gas -Causes damage to organs through prolonged or -Use only equipment of compatible materials of construction.
repeated exposure -Approach suspected leak area with caution.
-Asphyxiating even with adequate oxygen.
-May form explosive mixtures with air.
Waste cooking Not classified as a - -
oil hazardous chemical.
Water Not classified as a - -
hazardous chemical.
143
From the hazard identification, most of our chemicals are hazardous materials
in this plant. Therefore, a lot of precautions need to follow to make sure any accident
can be prevented.
8.4 HAZARD SYSTEM
Occurrence of the unwanted event is due to the realization of a hazard system. A hazard
system mainly consists of 4 elements which is hazard source, receptors, transmission
paths and barrier. A source has the capacity to be realized at many different levels of
severity. The effect from realization of a hazard system may be chronic or acute.
Receptors is the suffer harm due realization of hazard. There are two types of receptors
which are voluntary receptor and involuntary receptor. A receptor may be a receptor for
more than one source. Transmission path is a medium via which the consequence of a
hazard is “transfer” from the source to the receptor while barrier is a physical and non-
physical means planned to prevent, control, mitigate undesired event or accident.
In our production, we use waste cooking oil as the raw material and our process will
operates at high temperature and pressure. The product which is the jet fuel, petrol and
propane gas will be stored in the warehouse. There are other industries, residential area,
school and other facilities are located nearby our plant location which is at Tanjung
Langsat Industrial Complex. Since all the raw material, the process, and the product in
our plant has the potential to cause harm, thus it is essential to identify the hazards and
reduce the risk well in advance of an accident. Table 8.2 below shows the hazard system
for our plant.
144
Table 8.2 Hazard System

Source Receptors Transmission Barriers
Voluntary Involuntary path Physical Non-physical
Packed bed reactor, Personnel Nearby residents, residential Fire caused by Fire extinguisher, Schedule maintenance/inspection, safety
R-10 and R-102 that workers community, neighboring thermal emergency & training, hazard signage, insurance to
containing mixture of companies, commercial and radiation shutdown facility protect workers and property
oil and hydrogen at government workers, and
temperature 375°C environment
Packed bed reactor, Personnel Nearby residents, residential Explosion due Bund wall surrounding Schedule maintenance/inspection, safety
R-101 and R-102 workers community, neighboring to a storage tank and training, hazard signage, insurance to
operating at pressure companies, commercial and overpressure explosion proof protect workers and property
40 bar government workers, and control room
environment
Gas absorption, G- Personnel Nearby residents, residential Dispersion of Fire extinguisher, Schedule maintenance/inspection, safety
101 that containing workers community, neighboring propane gas in emergency & training, hazard signage, insurance to
propane companies, commercial and the air shutdown facility protect workers and property
government workers, and
environment
Distillation column, Personnel Nearby residents, residential Dispersion of Fire extinguisher, Schedule maintenance/inspection, safety
D-101, D-102, D- workers community, neighboring methanol gas emergency & training, hazard signage, insurance to
103 and D-104 companies, commercial and in the air, shutdown facility protect workers and property
containing mixture of government workers, and thermal
oil environment radiation
145
8.5 HAZARD INDENTIFICATION, RISK ASSASMENT AND RISK CONTROL

(HIRARC)
As a basic of risk management, Hazard Identification, Risk Assessment, and Risk

Control (HIRARC) have become key to the practise of organizational planning,
management, and operation. A hazard identification and risk assessment are processes
that are used to recognize and analyse current and prospective hazards on a workplace,
as well as the measures required to control or eliminate the hazards that are discovered
(Ahmand et al. 2016). Organizations that have conducted workplace risk assessments
have noticed significant changes in their working practises. Those who have already
conducted risk assessments at work have reported positive improvements in their
working practises; they notice poor acts and working conditions as they emerge and
take remedial action. Legislation mandates that this procedure be methodical and
transparent.
The priorities of HIRARC implementation are to identify all of the factors that
may cause harm to employees and others (the hazards), to consider what the chances
are of that harm actually falling on anyone in the circumstances of a specific case and
the potential severity that could result from it (the risks), and to enable employers to
plan, implement, and monitor preventive measures to ensure that risks are adequately
controlled at all times (Ahmad et al 2016).
According to the Table 8.3, Table 8.4, Table 8.5 and Table 8.6 the hazard is
directly related to the risk. Risk is a scale used to analyse and assess hazards. The
measurement is made by determining how serious the hazard is and when it is likely to
occur. In other words, risk assessment is a thorough examination of circumstances,
processes, and other potentially hazardous actions or hazards in the workplace (Ahmad
et al 2016). Risk is communicated in several methods to express the distribution of risk
throughout a plant and workplace environment (Ahmad et al 2016). The findings of risk
assessment, as provided in a risk matrix, are critical for making risk control decisions.
According to the table below, risk may be assessed using the following formula:
146
The risk (R) is equal to the likelihood (L) multiplied by the severity (S)
Table 8.3 Description of likelihood

Likelihood Example Rating
Most likely The most likely result of the hazard/ event being realized 5
Possible Has a good chance of occurring and is not unusual 4
Conceivable Might be occur at sometimes in the future 3
Remote Has not been known to occur after many years 2
inconceivable Is practically impossible and has never occured 1
Table 8.4 Description of severity

Severity Example Rating
Catastrophic Numerous fatalities, irrecoverable property damage and 5
productivity
Fatal Approximately one single fatality major property damage if 4
hazard is realized
Serious Non-fatal injury, permanent disability 3
Minor Disabling but not permanent injury 2
Negligible Minor abrasion, bruises, cuts, first aid type injury 1
Table 8.5 Risk matrix

Likelihood Severity (S)
(L) 1 2 3 4 5
5 5 10 15 20 25
4 4 8 12 16 20
3 3 6 9 12 15
2 2 4 6 8 10
1 1 2 3 4 5
Table 8.6 Explanation on risk matrix

Risk Description Action
15-25 High A HIGH risk requires immediate action to control the hazard as detailed
in the hierarchy of control. Actions taken must be documented on the risk
assessment form including date for completion.
5-12 Medium A MEDIUM risk required a planned approach to control the hazard and
applies temporary measure if required. Actions taken must be documented
on the risk assessment from which includes the date for completion.
1-4 Low A risk identified as LOW may be considered as acceptable and further
reduction may not be necessary. However, if the risk can be resolved
quickly and efficiently, control measures should be implemented and
recorded.
147
8.5.1 HIRARC Study at Reactor (R-101)
In our project, we use packed bed reactor that function can be used in chemical process. These tubular reactors are packed with solid catalyst
particles and are often used to stimulate gas processes/ The chemical reaction occur on reactor, R-101 are triglyceride react with the hydrogen
gas producing propane gas and paraffins. According to the MSDS, the product from the reactor, R-101 not too hazardous.
Table 8.7 HIRARC study at reactor (R-101)

Hazard Risk Assessment Risk Control
Identification
Hazardous Likelihood Severity Risk Rating Preventive Measures Mitigating Measures
Scenario Description Ranking Description Ranking
Overpressure 3 Numerous fatalities, 5 15 -Perform schedule inspection -Installation of the
inside reactor may Might be occur irrecoverable High and maintenance (Corrective, pressure alarm.
cause rupture and in the future. property damage and preventive, risk-based and -Monitor the pressure
explosion. productivity condition – based maintenance) alarm frequently.
on pressure controller.
-Perform a safety training for
workers to overcome the
hazard.
Overtemperature Might be occur 3 Numerous fatalities, 5 15 -Perform schedule inspection -Installation of the
inside reactor may in the future. irrecoverable High and maintenance (Corrective, temperature alarm.
cause rupture and property damage and preventive, risk-based and -Monitor the temperature
explosion. productivity condition – based maintenance) alarm frequently.
on temperature controller.
-Perform a safety training for
workers to overcome the
hazard.
148
Fail to pump Possible to occur 3 May cause spillage 2 6 Perform schedule inspection Install leakage sensor
triglyceride to the and not permanent Medium and maintenance on efficiency system.
reactor injury occur. pump.
Fail to pump in Possible to occur 3 May cause gas 2 6 Perform schedule inspection Install gas leakage
hydrogen gas to leaking but not Medium and maintenance on efficiency detector system.
the reactor. permanent injury pump.
occurs.
8.5.2 HIRARC Study at Gas Absorption Column (G-101)
Gas absorption was used to separate propane gas from waste gas by using benzene as solvent. Propane gas not a toxic gas but it is an asphyxiating
gas.
Table 8.8 HIRARC Study at gas absorption column (G-101)

Identification
Scenario Description Ranking Description Ranking
Overpressure Might be occur 3 Propane gas is not a 5 15 -Perform schedule -Installation of the
inside gas in the future. toxic gas but inhaled a High inspection and maintenance pressure alarm.
absorption may significant amount of (Corrective, preventive, -Monitor the pressure
cause rupture and propane or high risk-based and condition – alarm frequently.
explosion. concentration can led to based maintenance) on
the difficult/impossible pressure controller.
breath.
149
-Perform a safety training

for workers to overcome the
hazard.
Overtemperature Might be occur 3 Propane gas is not a 5 15 -Perform schedule -Installation of the
inside gas in the future. toxic gas but inhaled a High inspection and maintenance temperature alarm.
absorption may significant amount of (Corrective, preventive, -Monitor the
cause overheating propane or high risk-based and condition – temperature alarm
and explosion. concentration can led to based maintenance) on frequently.
the difficult/impossible temperature controller.
breath. -Perform a safety training
for workers to overcome the
hazard.
8.5.3 HIRARC STUDY AT REACTOR (R-102)
In the reactor (R-102), paraffin will react to the hydrogen gas and produce, decane, petrol, water, and carbon monoxide.
Table 8.9 HIRARC Study at Reactor (R-102)

Hazard Identification Risk Assessment Risk Control
Hazardous Scenario Likelihood Severity Risk Rating Preventive Mitigating
Description Ranking Description Ranking Measures Measures
150
Overpressure inside 3 Numerous fatalities, 5 15 -Perform schedule -Installation of the

reactor may cause rupture Might be occur in irrecoverable High inspection and pressure alarm.
and explosion. the future. property damage maintenance -Monitor the
and productivity (Corrective, pressure alarm
preventive, risk- frequently.
based and condition
– based
maintenance) on
pressure controller.
-Perform a safety
training for workers
to overcome the
hazard.
Overtemperature inside Might be occur in 3 Numerous fatalities, 5 15 -Perform schedule -Installation of the
reactor may cause the future. irrecoverable High inspection and temperature
overheating and property damage maintenance alarm.
explosion. and productivity (Corrective, -Monitor the
preventive, risk- temperature alarm
based and condition frequently.
– based
maintenance) on
temperature
controller.
-Perform a safety
to overcome the
hazard.
Fail to pump in hydrogen Possible to occur 3 May cause gas 2 6 Perform schedule Install gas leakage
gas to the reactor. leaking but not Medium inspection and detector system.
permanent injury maintenance on
occurs. efficiency pump.
151
Pipeline leakage (Gas Has a good chance 5 -May cause toxic 4 20 Schedule inspection -Installation of gas
Outlet) of occurring and is gas leaking. High and maintenance on leakage detection
not unusual. -Pollution inhalation the pipe frequently. system.
-Choose suitable -Follow
material for pipeline emergency plan.
to avoid leakage.
Pipeline leakage Has a good chance 5 -Flammable 4 20 Schedule inspection -Installation of gas
(Liquid Outlet) of occurring and is product. High and maintenance on leakage detection
not unusual. -Chemical spillage. the pipe frequently. system.
-Choose suitable -Follow
material for pipeline emergency plan
to avoid leakage.
8.5.4 HIRARC Study at Distillation Column (D-102)
Table 8.10 HIRARC study at Distillation Column (D-102)

Hazard Indentification Risk Assessment Risk Control
152
High pressure inside 3 Numerous fatalities, 5 15 -Perform schedule -Installation of the

distillation column led Might be occur in irrecoverable High inspection and pressure alarm.
to the rupture and the future. property damage maintenance -Monitor the
explosion of the D-102 and productivity (Corrective, pressure alarm
based and condition
– based
maintenance) on
-Perform a safety
to overcome the
hazard.
High temperature inside Might be occur in 3 Numerous fatalities, 5 15 -Perform schedule -Installation of the
distillation may cause the future. irrecoverable High inspection and temperature alarm.
overheating and property damage maintenance -Monitor the
explosion of the D-102. and productivity (Corrective, temperature alarm
based and condition
– based
maintenance) on
temperature
controller.
-Perform a safety
to overcome the
hazard.
Internal corrosive of Has not been 2 -May cause leaking 5 10 -Choose suitable Ensure no ignition
distillation column wall known to occur and flammable Medium material to overcome source nearby.
led to the rupture. after many years chemical. or decrease corrosive
-Air pollution effect.
Valve malfunction Might be occur in 3 -Overflow mixture. 4 12 Implement -Install low/high
the future. -No or fewer flow Medium scheduled inspection level alarm.
mixture and maintenance. - Monitor the
valve by using
153
valve monitoring
app as an example
Siemens.
Table 8.11 HIRARC Study at Distillation Column (D-103)

Hazard Indentification Risk Assessment Risk Control

High pressure inside 3 Numerous fatalities, 5 15 -Perform schedule -Installation of the

distillation column led Might be occur in irrecoverable High inspection and pressure alarm.
to the rupture and the future. property damage maintenance -Monitor the
explosion of the D-103. and productivity (Corrective, pressure alarm
preventive, risk-based frequently.
and condition – based
maintenance) on
-Perform a safety
to overcome the
hazard.
154
High temperature inside Might be occur in 3 Numerous fatalities, 5 15 -Perform schedule -Installation of the
distillation may cause the future. irrecoverable High inspection and temperature alarm.
overheating and property damage maintenance -Monitor the
explosion of the D-103. and productivity (Corrective, temperature alarm
preventive, risk-based frequently.
and condition – based
maintenance) on
temperature
controller.
-Perform a safety
to overcome the
hazard.
Internal corrosive of Has not been 2 -May cause leaking 5 10 -Choose suitable Ensure no ignition
distillation column wall known to occur and flammable Medium material to overcome source nearby.
led to the rupture. after many years chemical. or decrease corrosive Follow SOP and
-Air pollution effect. Emergency plan.
-Regular maintenance
Valve malfunction Might be occur in 3 -Overflow mixture. 4 12 Implement scheduled -Install low/high
the future. -No or fewer flow Medium inspection and level alarm.
mixture maintenance. - Monitor the
valve by using
valve monitoring
app as an example
Siemens.
Table 8.12 HIRARC Study at Distillation Column (D-104)

155
Hazard Identification Risk Assessment Risk Control

Measures Measures
Description Ranking Description Ranking
High pressure inside 3 Numerous 5 15 -Perform schedule -Installation of
distillation column led Might be occur in fatalities, High inspection and the pressure
to the rupture and the future. irrecoverable maintenance alarm.
explosion of the D-104 property damage (Corrective, -Monitor the
and productivity preventive, risk- pressure alarm
– based
maintenance) on
-Perform a safety
to overcome the
hazard.
156
High temperature Might be occur in 3 Numerous 5 15 -Perform schedule -Installation of

inside distillation may the future. fatalities, High inspection and the temperature
cause overheating and irrecoverable maintenance alarm.
explosion of the D-104. property damage (Corrective, -Monitor the
and productivity preventive, risk- temperature alarm
– based
maintenance) on
temperature
controller.
-Perform a safety
to overcome the
hazard.
Internal corrosive of Has not been 2 -May cause leaking 5 10 -Choose suitable Ensure no
distillation column wall known to occur and flammable Medium material to ignition source
led to the rupture. after many years chemical. overcome or nearby.
-Air pollution decrease corrosive Follow SOP and
effect. Emergency plan.
-Regular
maintenance
Valve malfunction Might be occur in 3 -Overflow mixture. 4 12 Implement -Install low/high
the future. -No or fewer flow Medium scheduled level alarm.
mixture inspection and -Monitor the
maintenance. valve by using
valve monitoring
app as an
example Siemens.
157
8.5.7 Summary of HIRARC study
Based on the HIRARC result, there are two major risk that can considered as high risk
at mostly unit operation which are overpressure and overheating that should be assess.
With a risk rating 15, it can cause irrecoverable property damage and numerous
fatalities for the hydrocracking and hydrotreating process especially at reactor. The risk
can be controlled by installing the high alarm for pressure and temperature to increase
the safety and alert among workers. Next, pipeline leakage can also cause highest risk
with rating of 20 because the chemical spillage can endanger the environment with the
pollution and the random and contamination mixed chemical spillage can cause the
explosion. To overcome this hazard, suitable material to avoid leakage and perform
schedule inspection and maintenance about corrective, preventive, risk- based and
condition. Every worker also needs to undergo a safety training to overcome the hazard.
The parameters of an operational reactor and other unit must be managed to obtain a
decent result as well as avoid having undesired products that might pose a problem.
Even if it is a less essential procedure, safety measurement should be evaluated from all
angles since it might function as one of the receptors for an injury incidence. The
HIRARC studies for minor unit operations such as filter (F-101), Stripper (G-102), heat
exchanger (J-101) are shown in Appendix G.
8.6 HAZARD AND OPERABILITY STUDY (HAZOP)
The HAZOP (Hazard and Operability) study is a formal, systematic analysis of a

processing plant to detect hazards, failures, and operability issues, as well as to estimate
the implications of such failures. The key equipment in the production of aviation fuels
from waste cooking oils is the subject of a HAZOP investigation in this chapter. The
next sections detail HAZOP investigations on packed bed reactor: R-101 and R-102 as
the major unit operation. The HAZOP studies for the remaining unit activities are shown
in Appendix H.
158
8.6.1 HAZOP on reactor.R-101
Figure 8.1 Node on reactor, R-101

159
Table 8.13 Node 1 of R-101

HAZARD AND OPERABILITY STUDY REPORT
Project Title: HAZOP study on Reactor (PBR)
Project Number: 1 Date: 20 May 2022
P & ID Number: R-101 Chairman: Kashvinwarma A/L Baskaran
Study Node: Node 1 Study Team:
1. Muhammad Na’im Najmi Bin Mohamad Salji
2.Nor Ezzati Amira Binti Mustapa Padzir
3. Nur Zafirah Aliah Binti Baharudin
4. Husna Binti Ahmad Radzuan
Item: Inside reactor Parameter: Flow
Guide Word Deviation Cause Consequences Safeguards Action

160
Low Low flow of raw Valve partially closed Low production None Schedule inspection and
material into reactor Pipe partially blocked rate maintenance
Longer time to fill Install flow controller
the reactor to
desired volume.
High High product flow into Valve failed opened Pipeline rupture or None Schedule inspection and
reactor cause leakage maintenance
Install high level alarm
No No product flow to Valve failed closed Process cannot be None Scheduled inspection and
next process Pipe blocked proceed maintenance
Total ruptured of the Reactor become
pipeline overpressure
Pumps fail to operate
Project Title: HAZOP study on reactor (PBR)

161
Item: Inside the reactor Parameter: Level
Low Low level inside Pipe partial clogged & Overheating in None Schedule inspection and
reactor leakage reactor maintenance
High High level inside Output pipe blockage Overflow inside None ▪ Schedule inspection
reactor reactor and maintenance
▪ Install level
controller

162
Item: Output liquid stream Parameter: Pressure
Less Less pressure in Blower before enter -Low Pressure Schedule inspection and
output liquid production rate controller maintenance
stream reactor failed to operate
-Incomplete
Pressure control valve reaction
failure
High High pressure in Pressure control valve -Vessel or -Pressure relief -Schedule inspection and
output liquid failure. pipeline valve maintenance
stream rupture
-Pressure -Install high pressure
-Explosion controller alarm

163
Item: Cooling water stream Parameter: Temperature
Low Too low Cooling watertank ▪ No reaction ▪ Temperature ▪ Schedule inspection

temperature of temperature detector occur controller and maintenance
cooling water broken
High High temperature ▪ Cooling water tank ▪ Explosion of ▪ Temperature ▪ Schedule inspection
of cooling water temperature detector reactor occur • controller and maintenance
broken Pipeline
around the ▪ Install high
reactor rupture temperature alarm
▪ Emergency shutdown
system
164
Item: lnlet stream Parameter: Temperature
Low Low temperature in Valve cooled water failed Low ▪ Temperature ▪ Schedule inspection and
inlet stream opened controller maintenance
production
rate
Incomplete
165
reaction
High High temperature Valve cooled water failed Vessel or ▪ Temperature ▪ Schedule inspection and
in inlet stream closed pipeline controller maintenance
rupture
▪ Install high temperature
alarm
166
8.6.2 HAZOP on reactor, R-102
Figure 8.2 Node on reactor, R-102

167
Item: Inlet Stream of PBR, R-102 Parameter: Temperature
Less Less temperature Low set temperature in -Temperature Temperature • Schedule

of cooling water water cooling system of the reactor controller inspection and
becomes low maintenance
-Insufficient Install temperature

energy supply indicator
for reaction
168
inside reactor
High High temperature High set temperature in -Temperature Temperature • -Schedule

of cooling water water cooling system of reactor is controller inspection and
high maintenance
-Affects the -Install temperature

reaction inside indicator
the reactor


169
Item: Outlet stream of PBR, R-102 Parameter: Pressure
Guide Deviation Cause Consequences Safeguards Action

Word
Less Less pressure Outlet flow is to high • Low None • Schedule

inside reactor production inspection and
rate maintenance
Incomplete reaction Install low pressure

alarm
High High pressure Outlet flow is too • Lead to vessel • Pressure • Schedule
inside reactor low or pipeline relief inspection and
rupture. valve maintenance
• The desired
product Pressure Install high pressure
unachievable. controller alarm
Release of flammable
biogas cloud


170

Item: Outlet Stream of PBR, R-102 Parameter: Temperature
Less Low temperature of Heat inside reactor is not The pipeline become Temperature Schedule inspection and
flowrate from the working cold and danger to controller maintenance
reactor touch by hands Install low temperature
alarm
High High temperature of Cooling water at reactor not Overheat or damage to Temperature Schedule inspection and
flowrate from the working well the pipeline controller maintenance
reactor Install high temperature
alarm
171

Project Title: PRODUCTION OF DECANE FROM WASTE COOKING OIL
Item: Inside reactor Parameter: Flow
No No product flow to the next • Pipe blocked • Process cannot be proceed • Temperature • Scheduled inspection
process • Pipeline is • Reaction cannot occur inside controller and maintenance
ruptured reactor • Install flow indicator
• Temperature inside reactor
increase
Low Low flow of raw material • Valve • Low production rate • Temperature • Schedule inspection and
inside reactor partially • Temperature inside reactor controller maintenance
closed increase • Install flow controller
• Pipe partially
blocked
172
High High product flow inside • Valve failed • Pipeline rupture or cause • Temperature • Schedule inspection and
reactor opened leakage controller maintenance
• Temperature inside reactor • Install flow meter
become low
173

▪ Project Number: 1 ▪ Date: 20 May 2022
▪ P & ID Number: R-101 ▪ Chairman: Kashvinwarma A/L Baskaran
▪ Study Node: Node 4 ▪ Study Team:
▪ 1. Muhammad Na’im Najmi Bin Mohamad Salji
▪ 2.Nor Ezzati Amira Binti Mustapa Padzir
▪ 3. Nur Zafirah Aliah Binti Baharudin
▪ 4. Husna Binti Ahmad Radzuan
Item: Inside the reactor Parameter: Level
Low Low level inside reactor • Pipe partial • Overheating in reactor None • Schedule inspection and
clogged and maintenance
leakage
High High level inside reactor • Output pipe • Overflow inside reactor None • Schedule inspection and
blockage maintenance
• Install level controller
174

▪ Project Number: 1 ▪ Date: 20 May 2022
▪ P & ID Number: R-101 ▪ Chairman: Kashvinwarma A/L Baskaran
▪ Study Node: Node 4 ▪ Study Team:
▪ 1. Muhammad Na’im Najmi Bin Mohamad Salji
▪ 2.Nor Ezzati Amira Binti Mustapa Padzir
▪ 3. Nur Zafirah Aliah Binti Baharudin
▪ 4. Husna Binti Ahmad Radzuan
▪ Item: Inside the reactor ▪ Parameter: Temperature
▪ Guide Word ▪ Deviation ▪ Cause ▪ Consequences ▪ Safeguards ▪ Action
▪ Low ▪ Low temperature ▪ Failed of valve ▪ Production rate become low ▪ Temperature ▪ Schedule inspection and
inside reactor cooled water to ▪ No reaction occur controller maintenance
closed
▪ High ▪ High temperature ▪ Failed of valve ▪ Vessel or pipeline rupture ▪ Temperature ▪ Schedule inspection and
inside reactor cooled water to controller maintenance
opened ▪ Install high temperature
alarm
175
CHAPTER IX
PLANT LOCATION
9.1 INTRODUCTION
A plant should be located at a place where inhabitants are interested in its success,
the product can be sold profitably and production cost is minimum. A plant location
is often result of compromise among conflicting social, economic and geographical
conditions. A proper decision must be made wisely for future planning because it will
have a long-term positive or negative effect on the production process. There are many
factors that need to be evaluated when selecting a suitable location. There are three
main locations that have been shortlisted to be conceived as the most strategic site
location in Malaysia. All proposal site was been obtained in Federation of Malaysian
Manufacturing (Manufacturers 2018)The proposed location is:
a. Tanjung Langsat Industrial Compkex, 81700 Pasir Gudang, Johor
b. Pengerang Industrial Park (PIP), 81600, Pengerang, Johor
c. Bukit Rambai Industrial Park, 75250 Melaka
The geographical location of the final plant can have a strong influence on the
success of an industrial venture. Great care must be taken in choosing a plant site, and
many varied factors must be considered. Especially the plant must be located where
minimum production and distribution costs can be obtained but other factors such as
space for expansion and safe living conditions for plant operations as well as the
surrounding community as well important. The location of the plant can also have a
significant impact on the profitability of a project. The selection of the final site should
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first be based on a complete survey of the advantages and disadvantages of various

geographical areas and finally, on the advantages and disadvantages of vacant
properties. The various key factors that must be considered when selecting a suitable
plant site are discussed briefly in this section. The factors to be considered are:
1. Raw material availability.
2. Location (with respect to the marketing area.)
3. Availability of suitable land.
4. Transport facilities.
5. Availability of labors.
6. Availability of utilities (Water, Electricity).
7. Environmental impact and effluent disposal.
8. Local community considerations.
9. Climate.
10. Political strategic considerations.
9.2 POSSIBLE LOCATION
9.2.1 Tanjung Langsat Industrial Complex
Tanjung Langsat Industrial Complex is one of few industrial park that located in
southern Malaysia. This location site specifically designated for heavy industries and
there also already several heavy industries built at this site. For our production that
involves with palm oil thus, it very suitable with target market this site which wanted
palm oil and chemical industries. The industrial area can be accessed by two roads
177
linking which is Highway Senai – Desaru about 4 km from the site and Jalan Persiaran
Tanjung Langsat with road code E17. For transportation, there are several which is it
near to Senai International Airport within 59km, and since this site located near to the
port thus the distance between Tanjung Langsat Port is on 0.5 km. Besides, it near to
Johor Port within 16 km which will easy facilitate the delivery production to the
international level. Furthermore, this Johor port one of the largest port in Malaysia to
import local product to international. In terms of utility, this industrial area was
supported by the power supplied from Tenaga Nasional Berhad Johor (TNB) and there
are small power supplies at this area that known as PMU TLIE under Perindustrian
Tanjung Langsat (2.5 km away from site). For availability of water supplied by Syarikat
Air Johor, Pasir Gudang 9 km away from the site and well internet accessibility. The
below Table 9.1shows the water tariff for this industrial site.
Table 9.1 Water bill for industrial and commercial in Johor

Usage Rate per cubic meter (RM)
Below 20m3 0.8
21m3- 35m3 2.80
Above 35m3 3.00
Minimum Rate 30.00
Source: SAJ (2020)
Currently Tanjung Langsat Industrial Complex (TLIC) covers a total

development of areas 2,835 arces within which 3,395 arces are leasable to investors.
Based on our land location it can be purchased at RM 50 per square feet. For land taxes
this is is 99.75% under Johor Cooperation and 0.25% under TPM thus, the taxes 100
m3 with price RM18. For waste management, the schedules waste is managed by Kualiti
Alam with its management located at Chermalaya Sdn. Bhd and Daya Eco Techo Sdn
Bhd. This waste management component was located nearby TLIC. In term of the
availibility raw material, our production decided to use untreatnent waste cooking oil
where it can get from household and restoran. Other than that, there also several supplies
nearby our location which is SE Resources Sdn Bhd and Pacific Edible Oil Industries
Sdn Bhd. This supplier can delivery raw material through JB east Coast Highway
without tolls within 15.5kn away and through Jalan Timah- Jalan Pekeliling Pasir
Gudang (10.5 km) without tolls.
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Labor availability has high population where there are many household
settlements nearby. For example, Taman Kota Masai (5km), Kampung Tanjung Langsat
(3km) and Taman Tanjung Puteri (8km). In this area location also provided centralized
worker’s hostel easier for workers who live far away. The climate at this location is fine
even though it is near the port. However there some incident happened near TLIC area
which was an explosion of gasoline in 2006. This blast occurs at 6.30 p.m. after work
in TLIC area and away from residential areas. Unfortunately, this incident occurs in
2208 with the same source which is explosion of gasoline. To upgrade the level of
security in this area, we intend to improve the safety plant with design emergency plan
for workers and firefighters if this incident happens again. Figure 8.1 shows the proposal
land for our plant location.
Figure 9.1 Proposal site location
9.2.2 Pengerang Industrial Park (PIP)
Tanjung Langsat Industrial Complex is one of few industrial park that located in
southern Malaysia. This location site specifically designated for heavy industries and
there also already several heavy industries built at this site. For our production that
involves with palm oil thus, it very suitable with target market this site which wanted
palm oil and chemical industries. The industrial area can be accessed by two roads
linking which is Highway Senai – Desaru about 4 km from the site and Jalan Persiaran
179
Tanjung Langsat with road code E17. For transportation, there are several which is it
near to Senai International Airport within 59km, and since this site located near to the
port thus the distance between Tanjung Langsat Port is ony 0.5 km. Besides, it near to
Johor Port within 16 km which will easy facilitate the delivery production to the
international level. Furthermore, this Johor port one of the largest ports in Malaysia to
import local product to international. In terms of utility, this industrial area was
supported by the power supplied from Tenaga Nasional Berhad Johor (TNB) and there
are small power supplies at this area that known as PMU TLIE under Perindustrian
Tanjung Langsat (2.5 km away from site). For availability of water supplied by Syarikat
Air Johor, Pasir Gudang 9 km away from the site and well internet accessibilty. The
below table shows the electric tariff and water tariff for this industrial site.
Pengerang Industrial Park was under TPM Technopark Sdn Bhd specifically developed
for Oil & Gas supporting industries. This area was designated to welcome Heavy and
medium industries. Furthermore, this specializes area is one of the development areas
for industry area Pengerang. This location can be access only through one way which
is Pengerang Highway (Jalan Raya Pengerang) that runs from Kota Tinggi to Sungai
Rengit. This highway known as federal route 92 which is 6km away from our plant
location.In terms of transportation, this site were near with Johor Port which is 79km,
Tanjung Langsat Port (75 km) and Senai International Airport that 107 km. However,
transportation for taxi and bas stop still available in that area since this park was
industrial site. For electric and water supported can be obtained from Pengerang Power
Sdn Bhd (1.5 km) and Pengerang Deepwater (4.2 km). At our plant, we can easily obtain
electric power since there are substation electric about 1.2 km away. For water tariff is
same value as table 8.1 because this site location is under Johor Government.
The developed of Pengerang Industrial Park (PIP) is 790.3 acres width to

encourage the expansion of industry in the field Oil & Gas especially. The price for our
plant is RM 60 per square feet and availability for this land is 8 arces and total is RM
21 Million. However this land no area available for future expansion since the area
limited each company. Availability of labour is high since this area near to
neighborhood such as Taman Rengit (5km), Kampung Bukit Buloh (6km), Kampung
Sg Buntu (8km) and more household. In terms of raw material, supplier company is
180
Malaysian Palm Products and Pacific Edible Oil. This company was away from plant
area which is their need to through Lebuhraya Senai Desaru and with tolls before
arriving to our site location that is 90 km away. In case for waste management, it could
be sent to Pengerang Integrated Complex Management that its specialty is waste for oil
refinery that located 8.5 km away. The Figure below shows proposal our site location
and power supply.
9.2.3 Bukit Rambai Industrial Park, Melaka
Currently, Bukit Rambai Industrial Park has been built up to phase 4. Our site location
in phase 4 which is suitable for mixed industry and suitable for our production involves
with chemical. It also located at area industrial area which suitable to build factory for
our plant. In this case, our site location can be access through one way which is federal
route 19 and 5 that known as Lebuhraya AMJ. There are also several highways nearby
which is Highway Shah Alam Expressway (6.5 km from site) and Sungai Besi-Ulu
Klang Expressway (6.8 km). Batu Berendam Airport and Melaka International Jetty one
of transportation nearby site which is 127 km and 162 km. This transportation the
important transport in Melaka to import product to outside Melaka. It also available
transporation for taxi and bas stop in that area since this park was industrial site and
easy to access for worker. Supplier for electricity and water is available where TNB
181
Bukit Rambai (3km) and Syarikat Air Melaka Berhad (SAMB) located 6km away. The
Table 9.2 shows the water tariff for this industrial site.
Table 9.2 Water bill for industrial and commercial in Melaka

Usage Rate per cubic meter (RM)
Below 20m3 1.6
21m3- 35m3 2.40
Above 35m3 3.20
Minimum Rate 30.00
For the land price is between RM 35 to RM 40 per square feet. The total size
industrial land available for this site maxima is 8.93 acres which is total price is RM 14
million. For land taxes the price RM 42 per 100 m3. Rather than that, the infrastructure
available is electricity, water, gas and internet accessibility also in better condition. Due
to labor available is high rate since this site nearby neighborhood such as Kg Bukit
Salleh (6.4km), Taman Bukit Rambai (3.5 km), Taman Rambai Utama (2.5 km) and Kg
Ayer Salak (3 km). In term raw material supplier there are several companies nearby
this site which is Evergreen Oil and Rintiz, Rezky (M) Sdn Bhd. The distance between
supplier companies with this site location is below 20 km and going through via Jalan
Tanjung Minyak without any tolls. However, there are several incidents happen within
radius of site location such as incident burning coal warehouse and water consumption
saving. This burning coal happen unidentifiable cause and 20% of industrial area
affected. For saving water due to air pollution at the high index at year 2005. The figure
8.3 shows proposal site at Bukit Rambai Industrial Park.
182
9.3 ELECTRICITY TARIFF
The tariff used in Malaysia is Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB) and this regulation was
applied to all around commercial and industrial sites. This tariff important to calculated
cost electricity used in industries. Table 9.3 below shows electric tariff for the
commercial and industrial.
Table 9.3 Electric tariff for the industrial and commercial

Tariff category Rate (RM)
Tariff E1- Medium Voltage General Industrial Tariff
Each kilowatt of maximum demand per month 0.30 / kWh
For all kWh 0.34/ kWh
The minimum monthly charge 600.00
Tariff E2 - Medium Voltage Peak/Off-Peak Industrial Tariff
Each kilowatt of maximum demand per month peak period 0.37/ kWh
For all kWh during peak period 0.36/kWh
For all kWh during off-peak period 0.22/kWh
Tariff E3 - High Voltage Peak/Off-Peak Industrial Tariff
Each kilowatt of maximum demand per month peak period 0.36/kWh
For all kWh during peak period 0.34/kWh
For all kWh during off-peak period 0.20/ kWh
Source: TNB (2020)
183
9.4 SELECTION ON SITE LOCATION
Before considering choosing our site plant location there are several factors need to
look. The various key factors that must be considered when selecting a suitable plant
site based on raw material, infrastructure, cost of land, labor availability and climate,
environment, and geographical factors. There are three places needed to choose and the
mark analysis for each factor is show in table below. This mark analysis shows the how
important the factor for our site location.
Table 9.4 Mark analysis for each factor

Factors Rate Description
Availability of raw 9 Raw material is the basic factor to choose site location. This is
material because raw material is basic component required to produce
products. The price of deliver will reduce if the raw material
location nearby.
Infrastructure 8 It is important to supporting services required for the operation
of the plant such as electric systems, water supply,
communication, sewage, and road.
Cost of Land and area 7 Cost of land play a big role in economic part where the price of
availability the land must be reasonable. Other than that, area availability
near site location needed for future expansion.
Labor Availability 6 To fully functional operation, needed worker to smoothness of
the operation. High amount of work force is necessary in a plant
with a huge production capacity. This site location important to
located nearby household to easier worker reach the plant
Climate, Environment 3 The climate conditions of the plant location need to be
and geographical factors. considered because it will affect the safety of workers,
manufacturing activity, and the plant’s productivity
Environmental impact was to create awareness towards

maintaining nature ecological balance. Proper effluent disposal
location and waste management need to obey the discharge
standards according standard B from the Environmental Act
Geographical factors is important to find land with width area

and soil shape to get a stable building and future expansion
9.5 EVALUATION OF PLANT LOCATION
To choose site location within three place an evaluation of the location was made as
shown in table below. The highest score indicates the location meet most of the
requirements and covered the important factors discussed above.
Table 9.5 Evaluation and rate of each of the location

184
Factor Rating 1= Tanjung Langsat Pengerang Industrial Bukit Rambai

Poor, Industrial Complex, Park (PIP), 81600 Industrial Park,
10= 81700 Pasir Gudang, Pengerang Johor 75250 Melaka
Excellent Johor
Rating Total Rating Total Rating Total

Availability of 9 8 72 5 45 8 72
raw material
Infrastructure 8 8 64 8 64 7 56
Cost of Land & 7 6 42 5 35 7 49
Area availability
Labor 6 9 54 7 42 7 42
availability
Climate, 3 7 21 9 27 6 21
environmentand
geographical
Total - - 253 - 213 - 236
9.6 PLANT LAYOUT
Plant layout is an important element before undertaking plant construction. It refers to

physical facilities such as machines and equipment involved, administrative buildings
and others. The ideal plant layout should provide an optimal relationship between
output, floor area and the manufacturing process. It simplifies the production process,
minimizes material handling, time and cost, allows for operational flexibility, easy
production flow, and economical building use. In addition, it must also promote the
effective use of manpower and provide convenience, safety, comfort in the workplace,
maximum exposure to natural light and ventilation of workers.
Layout arrangement and spacing is important to reduce the effect of

uncontrollable and controllable factors that will contribute to losses. One of the
uncontrollable factors that is considered is the wind direction. The wind direction at our
plant site location is the northeast. Based on our plant layout, we placed our main gate,
administrative buildings, car park, office and warehouse at the upwind. While we placed
all the tank farm and equipment that may spill flammable liquid at the downwind to
reduce the loss of potential from an explosion or fire.
There are two entrances located at the front of our plant where it will be for the
general use. One is the main entrance, and one is for back up so that jam and accident
185
can be avoided during busy hour. This entrance can be used by all staffs, contractors
and visitors. There is also another entrance located near the storage house will be mainly
used for loading and unloading of storage and products. This is to ease the movement
of huge truck that will be used for transportation of goods to the plant. All the entrances
will be strictly guarded by the security team.
The entrances will be strictly guarded to stop anyone who simply enters the
premises. Non-employees of our production plant will have to register themselves
before entering the plant. There will be also an emergency response team where their
job is to ensure the safety of all personnel. It is located near the main process plant as it
is a high-risk area. Anyone who are in the premises are required to always wear their
personal protective equipment (PPE). Vehicles will have to parked at the designated
parking area to avoid any incidents. The assembly area is located at the center of plant
to facilitate the movement of people in any emergency cases.
Administrative building is located right after the entrance so that visitors and
staffs can easily reach the office. Other convenient facilities like cafeteria are also
located near this building. Visitors or contractors who are going to work in the plant for
a short period of time are required to do a working permit and an employee will assist
them throughout their work. All the main process which are the pretreatment plant and
main production plant are located near each other so that the materials can be transferred
easily and can also reduce the cost of piping. The control room positioned in a safe
distance from the processing units so that the operator can still control the plant in case
there are any incident happen at the process plant.
The wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) is located near at the lowest point of
the site to collect all effluent streams. This area is restricted because it may be hazardous
due to the waste released. The waste discharged will be checked every day by the lab
assistants to ensure the parameters are within range. There will have a future expansion
area provided so that the plant will expand if there are any possibilities of doing so in
the future. Plant layout is shown in Appendix I
186
CHAPTER X
DETAILED DESIGN UNIT OPERATION
10.1 DETAILED DESIGN OF PACKED BED REACTOR, R-101
(By: Nur Zafirah Aliah binti Baharuddin. A169320)
This type of unit process usually used by chemical industrial for chemical reaction.
Packed bed reactor is filled with solid catalyst particles that most often used to catalyst
gas reactions. Before this reaction the waste cooking oil has been filtered to separated
unwanted material and get the cooking oil. Conversion for this process is 80% with
catalyst used is NiMo/Al2O3.
Figure 10.1 Reactor R-101

187
10.1.1 Design Spesification
The mechanical design of Packed Bed Reactor R-101 is subjected to ASME internal
pressure procedure. This is because the absolute pressure of the vessel is higher than
the atmospheric pressure, which is higher than 15 psi. Figure below shows the shape of
the vessel and its dimension. Cylindrical body is chosen because this is the common
shape of reactor shell. And ellipsoidal heads are chosen for both bottom and top. This
is because it is more economical, and suitable for high pressure and domed to reduce
mechanical stresses.
Figure 10.2 Dimension of packed bed reactor, R-101
The table below shows the operating conditions of reactor, R-101 and design
specification of the reactor.
Table 10.1 Operating condition and specification of reactor, R-101

Condition Values
Operating pressure, Po 40 bar
Temperature, T 375ºC
Joint efficiency, E 0.8 (Single welded)
Corrosion allowance, CA 2mm
Length 1.773 m
Diameter 0.591 m
Material of reactor Stainless steel SA-240 grade 304
188
10.1.2 Rate law
Reaction 1:
C54H102O6 + H2 → 3C17H32O2 + C3H8 (1)
Differential mole balance for packed bed reactor,
𝑑𝑋
𝐹𝑎𝑜 = −𝑟𝑎 ′
𝑑𝑊
The rate law for the reaction is a first order reactor, therefore,
−𝑟𝑎′ = 𝑘𝑃𝑎
= 𝑘𝑅𝑇𝐶𝑎
Stoichiometry,
𝑃𝑜
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑒 (1 + 𝜀𝑋) ( )
𝑃
𝐹𝑎
𝐶𝑎 =
𝑣
𝐶𝑎𝑜 (1 − 𝑋) 𝑃𝑜 𝐶𝑎𝑜 (1 − 𝑋)
= ( )= 𝑦
1 + 𝜀𝑋 𝑃 1 + 𝜀𝑋
𝑃𝑜
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑦 = ( )
𝑃
For isothermal operation,
𝑑𝑦 𝛼
= (1 + 𝜀𝑋)
𝑑𝑊 2𝑦
By combining rate law and stoichiometry,

189
𝐶𝑎𝑜 (1 − 𝑋) 𝑃𝑜
−𝑟𝑎′ = 𝑘𝑅𝑇𝑂 ( )
1 + 𝜀𝑋 𝑃
10.1.3 Design dimension
Volume for reaction
Where 𝐹𝑜 is the total paraffin flowrate 24629.66 kg/hr
X is the conversion (0.8)
𝜌𝑐 is a density of catalyst 1024 kg/m3
𝜖 is the voidage 0.4 for sphere solid catalyst
r is the rate constant
For 80% conversion (X=0.8),
r1 = 30.6328,
(24629.66)(0.8)
𝑉=
1024(1 − 0.4)(30.6328)
= 0.4425 m3
By applying 10% safety factor;
𝑉 = 1.1 × 0.4425 = 0.4867 m3
Diameter of tank calculated using;

190
By taking ratio height shell to diameter 1:4 where Hvessel = 4D while taking ratio 1:2 for
diameter to height head for both bottom and top, D = 2Hhead. Hence the height for packed
bed reactor is 1.478 m with 0.2952m head for both bottom and top
Table 10.2 Design dimension of R-101

Condition Values
Operating pressure, Po 40 bar (580.15 psi)
Temperature, T 648.15K (375 oC)
Length Shell 1.478 m
Length Vessel 1.773 m
Diameter 0.591 m
10.1.4 Design of bed
By using catalyst solid sphere shape with diameter particle of 5 mm
Taking the diameter of bed, Dbed = Di = 0.591m

For the bed height, Hbed = 0.6 × 𝑉𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 𝐻
= 0.6 × 1.773
= 1.064 𝑚
Density catalyst, 𝜌𝑐 = 1024 kg/m3
Voidage = 0.267
Volume of catalyst required = 0.17 m3
Weight of catalyst = 𝜌𝑐 𝑉 (1 − 𝑒) = 1024 × 0.17 × (1 − 0.267)
= 127.6 kg
= 1251.76 N
10.1.5 Pressure drop
Pressure drop for this packed bed reactor can be calculated by using Ergun equation
shows as below;
191
∆𝑃 𝑉(1 − 𝜀)2 𝜌𝑓 𝑉 2 (1 − 𝜀)
= 150 2 2 + 1.75
𝐿 ∅𝑆 𝐷𝑃 𝜀 3 ∅𝑆 𝐷𝑝 𝜀 3
Where,
L is the bed length. 1.064m

Dp is the catalyst particle diameter, 5 mm
V is the superficial gas velocity, 0.4425m/s
Pc is a density of catalyst, 1024kg/m3
𝜀 is the bed porosity 0.4
Pf is the gas density 0.083kg/m3
µf is the gas viscosity, 0,0418 cP
Thus the pressure drop of the packed bed reactor, R-101 ∆P = 0.0941bar
10.1.6 Summary of calculation
The table below shows the summary of the calculation of packed bed reactor R-101.
Table 10.3 Result for design of packed bed reactor (R-101)

Parameter Results
Operating pressure 40 bar
Operating temperature 375 °C
Height of reactor, H 2.069 m
Diameter of reactor, D 0.591 m
Volume for reaction 0.4867 m3
Height of bed, Hbed 1.064 m
Diameter of bed, Dbed 0.591 m
Weight of catalyst 127.6 kg
10.2 DETAILED DESIGN OF PACKED BED REACTOR, R-102
(By: Kashinwarma A/L Baskaran, A169128)

192
In reactor R-102, paraffin will reacts with hydrogen to produce our main product which
is decane and by-product, petrol. The operating condition are same as reactor R-101.
Figure 10.3 Reactor R-102
The table below shows the summary of the calculation of packed bed reactor R-102.
Table 10.4 Result for design of packed bed reactor (R-102)

Parameter Results
Operating pressure 40 bar
Operating temperature 375 °C
Height of reactor, H 1.983 m
Diameter of reactor, D 0.560 m
Volume for reaction 0.39 m3
Height of bed, Hbed 0.980 m
Diameter of bed, Dbed 0.560 m
Weight of catalyst 127.6 kg
10.3 DETAILED DESIGN OF GAS ABSORPTION, G-101
(By: Nor Ezzati Amira binti Mustapa Padzir A169229)
In the production of decane by hydrocracking process of waste cooking oil, gas

absorption is used to recover propane gas from by-product in gas form from reactor, (R-
102) by using benzene as liquid absorbent. The operating pressure at 1.6 bar with
absorption occur at room temperature, 25°C. Metal, Carbon steel was chosen as the
material for packing in the absorption columm as it has a great efficiency, hydraulic
resistance and more cheaper than stainless steel.
193
Figure 10.4 Gas Absorption, G-101
10.3.1 Design specification.
The absorber is designed with a vertical layout with 2:1 ellipsoidal head at the top and
bottom. The column is designed under internal pressure with random packing column.
The construction material is carbon steel with corrosion allowance (CA) of 4 mm is
chosen as the strean contain high consentration of propane gas. The operating condition
and the shape of each part of the gas absorption had shown in table below.
Table 10.5 Operating conditions in G-101

Condition Values
Operating Pressure, 𝑷𝟎 (bar) 1.6
Temperature (°C) 25
Type of material Carbon Steel
Corrosion allowance, CA (mm) 4
Joint efficiency, E 0.85
H/D 4
Table 10.6 Shape of each part of G-101

Assumption Type
Top head Ellipsoidal 2:1
Shell Cylindrical
Bottom head Ellipsoidal 2:1
194
Hydrogen
gas
Benzene (Stream 29)
(Stream 16)
Gas in
Propane gas
(Stream 17)
+ Benzene
(Stream 30)
Figure 10.5 Inlet and outlet stream for G-101
Gas flowrate = 1363.21 kg/s
Liquid flowrate = 93 kg/s
10.3.2 Design packing
Metal, carbon steel (76 mm size) was chosen as the packing for the adsorption
column, with void fraction of 50% (Towler & Sinnot 2013), packing factor, 𝐹𝑝 is
105𝑚−1.
Gas density, 𝜌𝑣 = 1.96 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
Gas liquid, 𝜌𝑙 = 876 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
Liquid viscosity, 𝜇1 = 0.0006 𝑁𝑠/𝑚2
𝐿𝑤 𝜌𝑣
𝐹𝑙𝑣 = √ = 1.44
𝑉𝑤 𝜌𝐿
Design for a pressure drop of 30mmHg per packing area

195
From Figure 5.2 in Towler and Sinnot (2013), 𝐾4 = 0.8 and flooding = 1.8
Percentage flooding = 66.67%
1
2
𝑘4 𝜌𝑣(𝜌𝑙−𝜌𝑣)
Gas mass flowrate per unit column cross-sectional area, 𝑉𝑤 = [ 𝜇𝐿 0.1
]
13.1𝐹𝑝 ( )
𝜇𝑉
=200.73 kg/𝑚2 . 𝑠
Column area required = Gas flowrate/ 𝑉𝑤
= 1363.21/ 200.73 = 6.79 𝑚2
4
Column diameter = √𝜋 × 6.79
=2.94 𝑚, Round off column diameter to 3.0 m
By taking column height to diameter ratio of 1:4, column height = 11.76m
𝜋
Column area after rounding of the diameter = 4 × 32 = 7.069 𝑚2
𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑

Percentage of flooding at selected diameter = 66.67% × 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓𝑓
= 64%
Since percentage of flooding is near to 70%, the design is considered safe.
Cornell’s equation is used to estimate the packing height.
Number of stages, 𝑵𝑶𝑮 calculation

196
Mole fraction in vapor, 𝐺𝑚 = 0.2
Mole fraction in liquid, 𝐿𝑚 = 0.025
Fraction, m = mole fraction in vapor/ mole fraction in liquid = 8
𝑦1 1
= = 50
𝑦2 1 − 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑎𝑙
Cornell’s method is used to estimate the height of an overall gas – phase transfer units
𝐻𝑂𝐺 .
Liquid diffusion coefficient factor, 𝐷1 = 2.08 × 10−9 𝑚2 /𝑠
Gas diffusion coefficient factor, 𝐷𝑣 = 2.24 𝑚2 /𝑠
𝜇𝑣
Gas Schmidt number, (𝑆𝑐)𝑣 = 𝜌 = 1.08
𝑣 𝐷𝑣
𝜇1
Liquid Schmidt number, (𝑆𝑐)𝑙 = =9.18
𝑝 𝑙 𝐷𝑙
Cornell’s equations:
𝐷𝑐 1.11 𝑍 0.33
0.011𝜓ℎ(𝑆𝑐)𝑣 0.5 ( ) ( )
0.305 3.05
𝐻𝐺 = = 5.07 m
𝐿𝑤 ∗𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓3 0.5
0.5 𝑍
𝐻𝐿 = 0.605𝜙ℎ (𝑆𝑐)𝐿 𝐾3 (3.05)0.15 = 0.17 m
Packing height, 𝐻𝑂𝐺 = 𝐻𝐺 + 𝑚𝐺𝑚 /𝐿𝑚 𝐻𝐿 = 6.18 m
10.3.3 Dimension of vessel
For ellipsoidal height, the ratio of the ellipsoidal head is 2:1

197
𝐷𝑖 2.94
ℎ𝑒 = = = 0.735𝑚
4 4
For cylindrical shell height
ℎ𝑐 = H – 2ℎ𝑒 = 11.76 – 2(0.735) = 10.29m
Table 10.7 Dimension of G-101

Dimension Value (m) Value (mm) Value (in) Value (ft)
Vessel Height, H 11.76 11762.28 463.08 38.59
Vessel inside diameter, Di 2.94 2940.57 115.77 9.65
Shell Height, hc 10.29 10291.99 405.20 33.77
Top Head height, he 0.73 735.14 28.94 2.42
Bottom head height, he 0.74 735.14 28.94 2.41
10.4 DETAILED DESIGN OF DISTILLATION COLUMN, D-101
(By: Husna binti Ahmad Radzuan, A167664)
The goal of distillation is to achieve a distillate rich in the light key and a bottom rich
in the heavy key. The feed of distillation column consists of three components which
are triglycerides, paraffin and water This separation process is to achieve paraffin in a
higher purity before entering the second reactor. The feed contains a more volatile
component which is light key (LK) and a less volatile component which is the heavy
key (HK). In this separation process at distillation column D-101, our LK is paraffin,
and our HK is triglycerides.
198
Figure 10.6 Distillation Column D-101
The operating temperature of the process is 98°C at 2 bar. Table 10.8 below shows the
temperature and pressure of inlet and outlet streams.
Table 10.8 Temperature and pressure of inlet and outlet streams

Properties Feed Distillate Bottom
Temperature (K) 371.15 371.65 374.15
Pressure (bar) 2 1.8 2
The compositions and flowrates of each of the components in feed, distillate and bottom
part is shown in the Table 10.9 below.
Table 10.9 Molar flowrate and composition at Distillation Column D-101
Component Feed Distillate Bottom
Molar ZiF Molar XiD Molar XiB

flowrate flowrate flowrate
(kmol/h) (kmol/h) (kmol/h)
Paraffin 138.80 0.9775 2.25 0.6923 136.55 0.9841
Triglycerides 1.42 0.0100 1.00 0.3077 0.42 0.0030
Water 1.78 0.0125 0 0 1.78 0.0128
Total 142 1.0000 3.25 1.0000 138.75 1.0000

199
10.4.1 Material Selection
The material selected for the construction of column is Stainless Steel type 304. The
maximum allowable stress of this type of material is 21030 psi. Ellipsoidal head with
ratio of 2:1 is chosen as it is suitable for high pressure and able to reduce mechanical
stresses (Towler & Sinnot 2013). Ellipsoidal heads are generally considered as weldable
steel, as well as easily manufactured and more economical. Cylindrical body is chosen
because this is the common shape of distillation column body.
10.4.2 Heat Duty
To calculate heat duty, some assumptions must be made:
1. The process is at steady state

2. Reference temperature is 25°C
3. No potential energy, kinetic energy and work done by the system
4. The equation to get heat capacity is
Cp = A + BT + CT2 + DT3
𝑇2
Qsensible = n∫𝑇𝑟 𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇
Qc = Qsensible +Qlatent
The data for heat capacity of water, triglycerides and paraffin are shown in the tables
below.
Table 10.10 Data for heat capacity in J/kmol K of paraffin and triglycerides
Component a b c d
Paraffin 1.5876 x 105 -6.35 x 102 1.969 x 100 -
Triglycerides 4.8466 x 105 -2.7613 x 103 6.5555 x 100 -

200
Source: Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook 7 th Ed. 1997
Table 10.11 Data for heat capacity in kJ/kmol K of water

Component a b c d
Water 32.24 0.1923 x 10-2 1.055 x 10-5 -3.595 x 10-9
Source: Appendix A. II Sandler 4th Ed. 2001
Table 10.12 Heat vaporization for IPA, DIPE and water

Component Heat of vaporization (kJ/mol)
Paraffin 44.0
Triglycerides 32.7
Water 40.8
Source: NIST Chemistry WebBook 2018
The inlet temperature for inlet stream 20 is 459.15 K. For temperature of outlet stream
21 and 25 are 326.05 K and 459.85 K respectively.
Q = Ĥ25N25 + Ĥ21N21 – Ĥ20N20
= (1697027.115) + (52323.1) – (1733522.8)
= 15,827.415 kJ/h
10.4.3 Design of Distillation Column
In this separation process, we use tray distillation column. There are three important
variables in designing the tray type distillation column, which are the number of trays,
feed stage and reflux ratio. Capital cost of a column is related to the number of trays,
and operating cost depends on the feed stage and reflux ratio (Chua et al. 2017).
Short-Cut Method
Minimum number of equilibrium stages an distribution of non-key components can

determined by using Fenske equation. Minimum reflux ratio can be determined by the
201
Underwood method, number of equilibrium stages for a reflux ratio greater than
minimum by the Gilliland correlation and feed stage.
10.4.4 Minimum Number of Stages
In determining the number of stages within the column, Fenske and Underwood
equations can be applied. To solve it, the K-value of each components are computed by
using Antoine equation which is to obtain the saturated pressure first for each of the
components.
By assuming the liquid and vapor phases are in ideal state, the K-value can be
calculated by using Raoult’s Law equation which is Ki = Pisat /P. Its volatility, 𝛼 can be
calculated by using 𝛼i,j = Ki / KHK.
Table 10.13 K-value of components at distillate and bottom

Stream component Distillate (stream 21) Bottom (stream 25)
XiD KiD XiB KiB
Triglycerides (HK) 0.6923 0.5900 0.9841 0.5806
Paraffin (LK) 0.3077 1.3416 0.0030 1.2880
Water 0 0.5335 0.0128 0.5250
By using Fenske equation,
𝑑𝑖 𝑏𝑗
ln [( )( )]
Nmin = 𝑑𝑗 𝑏𝑖
𝑙𝑛𝛼𝑚
Let, i = Light Key (LK) = Paraffin
j = Heavy Key (HK) = Triglycerides
Relative volatility:
𝐾𝑃,𝐷 1.3416
𝛼𝑖,𝑗(𝐷) = = = 2.2739
𝐾𝑇,𝐷 0.5900
202
𝐾𝑃,𝐵 1.2880
𝛼𝑖,𝑗(𝐵) = = = 2.2184
𝐾𝑇,𝐵 0.5806
Mean relative volatility,
𝛼𝑚 = ((𝛼𝑖.𝑗(𝐵) )(𝛼𝑖,𝑗(𝐷) ))0.5

= ((2.2184)(2.2739))0.5 = 2.2460
Minimum number of stages, Nmin is calculated using Fenske equation,
0.3077 0.9841
ln [(0.6923)(0.0030)]
Nmin = = 6.16
ln (2.2460)
10.4.5 Reflux Ratio Calculation
The reflux ratio, Rmin is determined using Underwood equation.
Table 10.14 Data to calculate Rmin

Component ZF,i K 𝜶𝒊 XD,i
Triglycerides (HK) 0.9775 0.5215 1 0.6923
Paraffin (LK) 0.0100 1.1918 2.2853 0.3077
Water 0.0125 0.4716 0.9043 0
The first Underwood equation,
𝛼𝑖 𝑍𝐹,𝑖
Σ( )=1−𝑞
𝛼𝑖 − 𝜃
By using q = 0.785 and solving by secant method, the value of 𝜃 is 1.9784.
From the second Underwood equation,
𝛼𝑖 𝑥𝐷,𝑖
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 1 = Σ( )
𝛼𝑖 − 𝜃
203
𝛼𝑖 𝑥𝐷,𝑖
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = Σ ( )−1
𝛼𝑖 − 1.9784
= 0.5837
Assume R= 2Rmin
Therefore, R= 2(0.5837) = 1.1674
10.4.6 Number of Equilibrium Stages
By using Gilliland correlation equation,
𝑅 − 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 1.1674 − 0.5837

𝑋= = = 0.2693
𝑅+1 1.1674 + 1
𝑁 − 𝑁𝑚𝑖𝑛 1 + 54.4𝑋 𝑋−1

𝑌= = 1 − exp (( ) ( 0.5 ))
𝑁+1 11 + 117.2𝑋 𝑋
𝑁 − 𝑁𝑚𝑖𝑛
= 0.4041
𝑁+1
𝑁 = 11.02
The number of stages obtained is 11.02, which is approximately 11 stages.
The tray efficiency is calculated using this formula,
𝑁𝑚𝑖𝑛 6.16
Tray efficiency = × 100% = 11.02 × 100% = 55.9%
𝑁
The tray efficiency is 55.9%.
With the number of theoretical stages and the tray efficiency, the actual number of
stages can be calculated. Actual number
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠 11.02

Actual number of stages = = 0.559 = 19.71
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑦 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
Hence, the number of actual stages is approximately 20 stages.

204
10.4.7 Column Diameter
Parameter known:
Tray spacing = 24 inches
𝜎= liquid surface tension = 23.3 dynes/cm
L= Liquid flowrate= 138.75 kmol/h
V= Vapor flowrate= 3.25 kmol/h
Table 10.15 Molar flowrate and mole fraction of components

Component Density (kg/m3) Molecular Weight XD XB
(kg/kmol)
Triglycerides 785 60.1 0.6923 0.9841
Paraffin 725 102.18 0.3077 0.0030
Water 1000 18 0 0.0128
MV = (0.6923) (60.1) + (0.3077) (102.18) + (0) (18)
= 73.05 kg/kmol
ML = (0.9841) (60.1) + (0.0030) (102.18) + (0.0128) (18)
= 59.68 kg/kmol
PMv (180)(73.05)
𝜌V = = (8.314)(371.65) = 4.2555 kg/m3
RT
𝜌L = (0.9841) (785) + (0.0030) (725) + (0.0128) (1000) = 787.4935 kg/m3
Flood factor, f = 0.8
LM ρV (138.75)( 59.68) 4.2555

FLV = (VML )(ρL)0.5 = ( )(787.4935)0.5 = 2.56
v (3.25)(73.05)
205
The value of Cf depends on tray spacing and abscissa ratio, FLV. From Separation
Process Principle (Seader, JD et.al. 2011), we get Cf = 0.03 ft/s when FLV = 2.56. The
value of C can be calculated from the equation below:
𝐶 = 𝐹𝑆𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐻𝐴 𝐶𝐹
Where,
FST = surface-tension factor = (𝜎/20)0.2 = 0.9564
FF = foaming factor = 1.0 (assuming nonfoaming system)
FHA = 1.0, Ah/Aa ≥ 0.1
Hence,
𝐶 = (0.9564)(1.0)(1.0)(0.03) = 0.0287
1 1
ρ𝐿 −ρ𝑣 2 787.4935−4.2555 2
Uf = C(
ρ𝑣
)= (0.0287)(
4.2555
) = 0.3893 ft/s = 0.1187 m/s
Since FLV≥ 1.0, Ad/A = 0.2
4𝑉𝑀𝑣 4(3.25/3600)(73.05)
DT = √ 𝐴 = √(0.8)(0.1187)𝜋(1−0.2)(4.2555) = 0.51 m
𝑓𝑈𝑓 𝜋(1− 𝑑 )ρ𝑣
A
Therefore, the diameter of the distillation column is 0.51m
10.4.8 Column Height
Height of the trays, Hσ = Tray spacing x Number of stages
= (24)(11)
= 264 inches
= 6.71 m
206
10.4.9 Feed-Stage Location
The approximation of the optimal feed-stage location can be made with the Kirkbride
empirical equation:
2 0.206 0.206
𝑁𝑅 𝑧𝐻𝐾,𝐹 𝑥𝐿𝐾,𝐵 𝐵 0.9775 0.003 2 138.75
= [( )( ) ( )] = [( )( ) ( )] = 0.592
𝑁𝑆 𝑧𝐿𝐾,𝐹 𝑥𝐻𝐾,𝐷 𝐷 0.01 0.6923 3.25
Therefore,
0.592
𝑁𝑅 = ( ) (11.02) = 4.1
1.592
𝑁𝑆 = 11.02 − 4.1 = 6.92
Rounding the estimated stage requirements leads to 7 stages below the feed, and 4 stages
above the feed.
10.4.10 Summary of Distillation Column D-101 design
The data obtained from the distillation column D-101 design is shown in Table 10.16
below.
Table 10.16 Specifications of Distillation Column D-101
Parameter Value
Operating temperature, T (°C) 98
Operating pressure, P (bar) 2
Material Stainless Steel type 304
Minimum number of stages, Nmin 7
Reflux ratio, Rmin 0.5837
Number of stages 11
207
Tray efficiency (%) 55.
Actual no. of stages 20
Tray spacing (in) 24
Column diameter, D (m) 0.51
Column Height, H (m) 6.71
The function of this distillation column is to separate the mixture stream containing
decane, petrol, paraffin and water due to their boiling point and volatility which suits
the criteria. In this distillation unit, the product, decane will be separated from the by-
product, petrol. Final product petrol would be light key component (LK) while decane
as the heavy key (HK) component since petrol has lower boiling point compared to
decane, so petrol will be vaporized as top product and leaves distillation system as
distillate. Water is categorized in non-heavy key component because it does not directly
contribute to the separation.
Figure 10.7 Distillation Column D-102

208
The operating temperature of the process is 68°C at 100 kPa.
10.5.1 Summary of Distillation Column D-102 design
The data obtained from the distillation column D-102 design is shown in
Table 10.17 below.
Table 10.17 Specifications of Distillation Column D-102
Parameter Value
Operating temperature, T (°C) 69
Operating pressure, P (kPa) 100
Material Stainless Steel type 304
Minimum number of stages, Nmin 8
Reflux ratio, Rmin 1.2793
Number of stages 13
Tray efficiency (%) 63.4
Tray spacing (in) 24
Column diameter, D (m) 0.84
Column Height, H (m) 8.712
(By: Nur Zafirah Aliah binti Baharuddin, A169320)
One of usually separater unit process used is distillation column with functional
deperate component with different volatility using boiling point as references. In the
inlet stream there contain paraffin, decane, petrol and water. In this unit process to
separate petrol from water to get the purity petrol at the end. Since petrol has the lower
boiling point it identify as light key component (LK) meanwhile water is the heavy key
(HK).
209
Figure 10.8 Distillation Column, D-103
10.6.1 Operation condition
The table below shows operating condition of distillation column
Table 10.18 Operation condition of distillation column (D-103)

Parameter Temperature (ºC) Pressure (bar)
Feed 55 1.5
Distillate 70 1.2
Condensate 80 1.3
10.6.2 Type of tray
For the type of tray used in this unit separation is sieve tray column. This type of tray
gives the high efficiency to separate the component and this due to its minimum back
mixing. Furthermore, this type also easy to find in market and can get at the lower price.
10.6.3 Material of Construction
The pressure vessel design codes and standards lists of acceptable material in
accordance with the appreciate material standard. Stainless steel SA-304 has been
chosen since it provides good corrosion resistance and good weldability. It also provides
a good to resist intergranular corrosion. (International Stainless Steel Forum 2012).
210
10.6.4 Number of stage
a. Minimum number of stage
By using Antoine equation, we can have calculated K-value for each component. K
value is obtained by using Raout’s law that assume the solution at ideal gas. (Christie
John Geankoplis, 2003)
𝐵
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 𝐴 −
𝐶+𝑇
𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝐾=
𝑃
Table 2.3 shows the constant each component for Antoine equation. By using
formula obtained using Raout’s law can calculated the value of K-values. The Table 2.4
shows summary of K values and relative volatility of distillate and bottom.
Table 10.19 Constants A, B and C for Antoine Equation

Chemical A B C
Decane 0.21021 440.616 -156.896
Petrol 3.45604 1044.038 -53.893
Water 5.07 1659.79 -45.85
Paraffin 6.24662 3709.672 -1.062
Table 10.20 Values of X and K for distillation column

Chemical Xd Xb Kd Kb
Decane 0.008 0.034 0.013 0.012
Petrol 0.952 0.041 0.095 0.088
Water 0.002 0.766 0.066 0.061
Paraffin 0.038 0.160 0.001 0.001
Using the specified flow of light key (LK) and heavy key (HK) component, the
minimum number of stages of column is calculated by using the following formula,
211
𝑋 𝑋
log [(𝑋𝑑 ) (𝑋𝐵 )]
𝐵 𝐷
𝑁𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
log 𝛼𝑚
Where, Nmin = Minimum number of equilibrium stages
Xd = Mole fraction in distillate product
Xb = Mole fraction in bottom product
𝛼𝑚 = Mean relative volatility of rectifying and stripping section
while mean relative volatility can be calculated by using,
1/2
𝛼𝑚 = [(𝛼𝐿𝐾,𝐻𝐾 )𝑁 (𝛼𝐻𝐾,𝐿𝐾 )1]
Thus, minimum number of stages can be determined as Nmin= 17.59
b. Minimum reflux ratio
Reflux ratio of the distillation column can be calculated by using Underwood equation.
Minimum reflux ratio, Rmin that consist of first and second Underwood equation. First
Underwood equation is used to determine the theta value and using it to solve in second
Underwood equation in order to obtain Rmin.
i. First Underwood equation
(𝛼𝑖,𝑟 )∞ 𝑧𝑖,𝑓
1−𝑞 = ∑
(𝛼𝑖,𝑟 )∞ − 𝜃
𝜃 = 0.146
212
ii. Second Underwood equation
(𝛼𝑖,𝑟 )∞ 𝑋𝑖,𝐷
1 − (𝑅∞ )𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ∑
(𝛼𝑖,𝑟 )∞ − 𝜃
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0.0891
The actual reflux ratio and the number of theoretical stages must be greater than
minimum values. The actual reflux ratio considered in this design is 1.2 of the minimum
reflux ratio. Hence, the actual reflux ratio,
𝑅 = 1.2𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑅 = 0.1069
iii. Number of stages
Gilliland equation is used to determine the number of theoretical stages. Gilliland

correlation for determination of number of theoretical stages is as shown below:
𝑅 − 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑋=
𝑅+1
1 + 54.4𝑋 𝑋−1 𝑁 − 𝑁𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝑌 = 1 − exp [( ) ( 0.5 )] =
11 + 117.2𝑋 𝑋 𝑁+1
𝑌 + 𝑁𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑁=
1−𝑌
While the equation for tray efficiency is using the O’Connell correlation,
[50.3 (𝛼𝜇) − 0.226]

𝐸𝑜 =
100
Where, Eo = Stage efficiency

213
𝛼 = Average relative volatility
𝜇 = Average viscosity
From the definition of fractional overall stage efficiency, actual number of stages can be
determined.
𝑁𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑁𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 =
𝐸𝑜
Table 2.5 below shows the summary of number of stages after calculation.
Table 10.21 Summary of number of stages

Parameter Values
Stage efficiency, Eo 0.58
Number of theoretical equilibrium stages,N 11.02
Actual number of stages required, Na 19
iv. Feed stage location
Kirkbride empirical equation is used to estimate the optimal feed stage location at
distillation column. The equation is as shown below
2 0.206
𝑁𝑅 𝑧𝐻𝐾,𝐹 𝑥𝐿𝐾,𝐵 𝐵
= [( )( ) ( )]
𝑁𝑆 𝑧𝐿𝐾,𝐹 𝑧𝐻𝐾,𝐷 𝐷
𝑁𝑅 + 𝑁𝑆 = 𝑁𝑎
where 𝑁R = number of stages above the feed, including any partial condenser
𝑁𝑠 = number of stages below the feed, including the reboiler
By solving the two equations above, the optimal feed stage location is at stage 9 from
top of the distillation column which NR = 15.67 and NS = 9.46.
214
v. Column diameter
The column diameter is determined such that vapor velocity in the column is less than
flooding velocity. Assumption
Tray spacing = 0.6 m
Surface tension = 22.7 dyne/cm
Foaming factor, f = 0.8
The flooding velocity can be determined by using formula,
𝑃𝐿 − 𝑃𝑉 0.5
𝑈𝐹 = 𝐶 ( )
𝑃𝑉
where, C = Capacity parameter of Sounders and Brown
𝜌𝐿 = Liquid density
Vp = Vapour density
Capacity parameter of Sounders and Brown can be calculated by,
C = FSTFFFHACF
where, FST = Surface tension factor = (𝜎20)0.2
𝜎 = liquid surface tension
FF = Foaming factor
FHA = 1.0 for Ah/Aa ≥ 0.1 and 5 (Ah/Aa) + 0.5 for 0.06 ≤ Ah/Aa ≤ 0.1
CF = Flooding capacity
215
FHA for this distillation column is 1.0. CF is determined by calculating the value of FLV
and obtaining the value from by Seader (2011) shown below.
The equation used to calculate the FLV is as shown below:
𝐿𝑀𝐿 𝜌𝑣 0.5
𝐹𝐿𝑉 = ( )( )
𝑉𝑀𝑉 𝜌𝐿
Diameter of the tray can be calculated by using the formula below,
0.5
4𝑉𝑀𝑣 − 𝜌𝑣
𝐷𝑇 = ( )
𝐴𝑑
𝑓𝑈𝜌𝜋 (1 − 𝐴 ) 𝜌𝑣
where, V = Molar vapor flow rate
MV= Molecular weight of vapour
UF = Flooding velocity
𝜌𝑉 = Density of vapour
f = fraction of flooding
0.1
𝐴𝑑 𝐹𝐿𝑉 − 0.1
= {0.1 + , 0.1 ≤ 1.0
𝐴 9
0.2
The table shows the summary of column diameter after the calculation
Table 10.22 Summary of column diameter
Parameter Values
Capacity parameter of Sounders and Brown, C 0.31 m/hr
Flooding velocity, UF 2.519 m/hr
216
Abscissa ratio, FLV 0.02

Column Diameter, DT 3.58 m
vi. Height of distillation column
Height of distillation tower,
𝐻𝑂 =𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑦 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 × 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠
=0.6×19
=11.4 𝑚
While the column height,
𝐻𝑆 =𝐻𝑂 ×1.1
=11.4 𝑚×1.1
=12.54 𝑚
The ratio between height and diameter is needed to be calculated in order to compare
with the industry distillation column. In industrial practice, the ratio is always between
2 to 3. Thus, the ratio between height and diameter of this distillation column is 2.96
which is acceptable.
vii. Summary of distillation column
The below shows the summary of specifications for distillation column, D-103.
Table 10.12 Specification of distillation column, D-103

Specifications Units Values
Type of column - Tray column
Material construction - SA-304 Stainless Steel
Type of tray - Sieve tray
217
Actual number of stages - 19

Tray spacing m 0.6
Feed location - 9
Column height, H m 12.54
Column inside diameter, DT m 3.58
10.7.1 Process Description of Distillation Column D-104
Distillation column (D-104) in the production of aviation fuel from waste cooking oil
is used to separate mainly Decane and Paraffin. There are also other components in
small quantity such as water and petrol.
Figure 10.9 Distillation Column, D-104
Table 10.23 Components and flowrates of Distillation column D-104

Components Feed Flow rate Distillate flow rate Bottom flow rate
Decane 10335.63 10232.28 103.36
Petrol 63.23 47.42 15.81
Paraffin 4433.34 44.33 4389.01
Water 132.34 92.64 39.7
Total 10335.63 10232.28 103.36
218
10.7.2 Selection of construction materials
Hydrocarbons are generally non-corrosive because they possess allow electrical

conductivity and do not support the electrochemical reactions inherent in the corrosion
mechanism. The reactivity of metals in organic solvents is influenced by the type and
the structure of organic compounds. Even though the corrosion occurrence chances may
be low, but some precautionary measures have to be taken. Therefore, carbon steel is
used mainly for its construction. The material is readily available, cheap and has good
mechanical properties.
10.7.3 Design Specification
The total feed flowrate of distillation column D-104 is 14964 kg/h, which is the capacity
of D-104. The top product flowrate is 10416.67 kg/h while bottom product flowrate is
4547.88 kg/h.
Operating pressure, 𝑃𝑜 :1.7 bar

Maximum Temperature, T :155 ℃
Corrosion Allowance, CA :4 mm
Layout : Vertical
Shell : Cylindrical
Top and bottom head : Ellipsoidal Head (2:1)
The height to diameter ratio of cylindrical shell is about. This is within the typical
dimension ratio for distillation column.
𝐷𝑖
ℎ𝑜 = = 0.448𝑚
4
For shell height
𝐻𝑠 = 𝐻 − ℎ𝑜 = 5.586 𝑚
219
10.7.4 Ellipsoidal height
𝐷𝑖
ℎ𝑜 = = 0.448𝑚
4
For shell height
𝐻𝑠 = 𝐻 − ℎ𝑜 = 5.586 𝑚
Table 10.24 Height of Imperial Unit

Part m ft Inch
Top Head height 0.448 1.470 17.638
Bottom Head height 0.448 1.470 17.638
Cylindrical Shell height 5.586 18.326 219.921
Vessel height 6.262 20.545 246.535
Inside Diameter 1.550 5.085 61.024
Inside Radius 0.775 2.543 30.512
10.7.5 Design Pressure
Design pressure for each part of the vessel is calculated by using equation:
𝑃𝐷 = 𝑃𝑜 + 0.433ℎ
Were, 𝑃𝐷 = 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙
𝑃𝑜 = 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
ℎ = 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙
Hence,
i. Ellipsoidal 2:1 top head,
𝑃𝐷 = 21.756 + 0.433(1.470)
220
𝑃𝐷 = 21.756 + 0.433(1.470)
ii. Cylindrical shell,
𝑃𝐷 = 21.756 + 0.433(11.470)
𝑃𝐷 = 21.756 + 0.433(11.470)
iii. Ellipsoidal 2:1 bottom head
𝑃𝐷 = 21.756 + 0.433(20.545)
𝑃𝐷 = 21.756 + 0.433(20.545)
10.7.6 Minimum Wall Thickness
The wall thickness formulas for each part of the column are from ASME Code UG-32
(d) and UG-27 (c). It is assumed as thin wall where t/D < 1:10. Assume welding joint
efficiency is 85% and the stress design from ASME code is 21030 psi. $mm corrosion
allowance is included for non-corossive stream as suggested by Source
For top ellipsoidal head:
𝑃𝑅 (24.772 ×57.087)
Thickness, t = 𝑆𝐸−0.6𝑃 = 2(21030)(0.85)−(0.2)(24.772) = 0.056 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ
For cylindrical shell:

221
i. Circumferential stress
𝑷𝑹 (𝟐𝟒.𝟕𝟕𝟐 ×𝟓𝟕.𝟎𝟖𝟕)
ii. Thickness, t = = 𝟐(𝟐𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟎)(𝟎.𝟖𝟓)−(𝟎.𝟐)(𝟐𝟒.𝟕𝟕𝟐) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟔 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒉
𝑺𝑬−𝟎.𝟔𝑷
iii. Longitudinal Stress
𝑃𝑅 (24.772 ×57.087)
For bottom ellipsoidal head:
𝑃𝑅 (24.772 ×57.087)
We take highest thickness which is 𝑡𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑟 = 0.074 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ= 1.879 mm
Based on reliable source our 𝑡𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 is 10 mm
𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑡𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − 𝐶𝐴
=10 𝑚𝑚 − 4 𝑚𝑚
=6 𝑚𝑚 (0.2362 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠)
10.7.7 Maximum allowable working pressure
The maximum allowable working pressure for any type of pressure vessel, MAWP is
determined by calculating all MAWP for every part under internal pressure. The
formula of internal design pressure for each part of the column can be found in
ASMECode UG-32(d) and UG-27(c). By using tmin, the MAWPpart is calculated.
For the head and bottom ellipsoidal head:
2𝑆𝐸𝑡
MAW𝑃𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 = 𝐷+0.2𝑡
222
For cylindrical shell
i. Circumferential MAWP_part
2𝑆𝐸𝑡
=
𝐷+0.6𝑡
ii. Longitudinal MAWP_part
2𝑆𝐸𝑡
𝐷 + 0.4𝑡
To calculate the value of static head and MAW𝑃𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠:
Static head, 𝑃𝐻 = 0.433ℎ
MAW𝑃𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙 = min (MAW𝑃𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 − 𝑃𝐻 )
The value of internal pressure and MAW𝑃𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙 is obtained and shown in table
10.25.
Table 10.25 Internal Pressure and MAWPvessel for Each Part

Part Formula MAW𝑷𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕 (𝒑𝒔𝒊) MAWPpart Pressure MAWPvessel
MAW𝑷𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕 + CA (psi) at top (psi)
(psi)
Top head 2SEt/(D+0.2t) 42.175 42.332 41.852
ellipsoidal
Cylinder shell SEt/(R+0.6t) 42.156 42.314 33.187 32.725
circumferential
Cylinder shell 2SEt/(R-0.4t) 42.175 42.332 32.725
longitudinal
Bottom head 2SEt/(D+0.2t) 42.175 42.332 32.725
ellipsoidal
Thus, by choosing the smallest value, the MAW𝑃𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙 𝑖𝑠 32.725𝑝𝑠𝑖
Since MAW𝑃𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙 < 𝑃𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 where 32.725 psi > 25.656 psi so it is valid.
223
10.7.8 Combined Loading analysis
Pressure vessels are always exposed to other loads in addition to pressure and it must
be designed to withstand the maximum combination of loading without experiencing
failure.
Design pressure = 32.725 psi
Table 10.26 Primary Stresses

Stress Formula Value (N/𝒎𝒎𝟐 )
Longitudinal (𝜎𝐿 ) 𝑃 × 𝐷𝑖 65.572
𝜎𝐿 =
4𝑡
Circumferential (𝜎ℎ ) 𝑃 × 𝐷𝑖 132.241
𝜎ℎ =
2𝑡
Direct (𝜎𝑤 ) 𝑊 0.566
𝜎𝑤 =
𝜋(𝐷𝑖 + 𝑡)𝑡
𝑊𝑣
= 240𝐶𝑣 𝐷𝑚 (𝐻𝑣
+ 0.8𝐷𝑚 )𝑡
𝐷𝑚 = 𝐷𝑖 + 𝑡
𝐻𝑣 = 𝐿
𝑀 𝐷 19.163
Bending (𝜎𝑏 ) 𝜎𝑏 = ∓ ( 𝑖 + 𝑡)
𝑙𝑣 2
𝑊𝑥 2
𝑀=
2
x= 𝐻𝑣
𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝐷𝑜 = 𝐷𝑖 + 2𝑡
𝑃𝑤 = 1200 𝑁/𝑚2
W = 𝑃𝑤 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑓
𝜋
𝑙𝑣 = (𝐷4 − 𝐷𝑖4 )
64 𝑜
Torsional Shear (𝜏) Neglect 0
Principal stresses are :
1
𝜎1 = [𝜎ℎ + 𝜎𝑧 + √(𝜎ℎ − 𝜎𝑧 )2 + 4𝜏 2 ]
2
1
𝜎2 = [𝜎 + 𝜎𝑧 + √(𝜎ℎ − 𝜎𝑧 )2 + 4𝜏 2 ]
2 ℎ
𝜎3 = 0.5𝑃 ( 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 − 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙)
With torsional shear stresses = 0

224
𝜎1 = 𝜎ℎ ; 𝜎2 = 𝜎𝑧
Total longitudinal stresses for upwind and downwind:
𝜎𝑧 (𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑) = 𝜎𝐿 + 𝜎𝑊 + 𝜎𝑏 = 85.301 N/mm2
𝜎𝑧 (𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑) = 𝜎𝐿 + 𝜎𝑊 − 𝜎𝑏 = 46.975 N/mm2
For upwind, 𝜎1 + 𝜎2 = 𝜎ℎ + 𝜎𝑧 = 46.94 N/mm2
For downwind, 𝜎1 − 𝜎2 = 𝜎ℎ − 𝜎𝑧 = 85.266 N/mm2
Maximum allowable stress intensity, (∆𝜎)𝑚𝑎𝑥 is at downwind which is 85.266 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 .

From Source, maximum allowable stress at temperature 170 ℃, S= 145 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 .
(∆𝜎)𝑚𝑎𝑥 < 𝑆
85.266 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 < 145 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Therefore, the vessel wall thickness is sufficient to ensure the maximum stress intensity
does not exceed the design stress (nominal design strength) for the material of
construction at any point.
Principal stresses are :
1
𝜎1 = [𝜎ℎ + 𝜎𝑧 + √(𝜎ℎ − 𝜎𝑧 )2 + 4𝜏 2 ]
2
1
𝜎2 = [𝜎ℎ + 𝜎𝑧 + √(𝜎ℎ − 𝜎𝑧 )2 + 4𝜏 2 ]
2
𝜎3 = 0.5𝑃 ( 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 − 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙)
With torsional shear stresses = 0

225
𝜎1 = 𝜎ℎ ; 𝜎2 = 𝜎𝑧
Total longitudinal stresses for upwind and downwind:
𝜎𝑧 (𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑) = 𝜎𝐿 + 𝜎𝑊 + 𝜎𝑏 = 91.907 N/mm2
𝜎𝑧 (𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑) = 𝜎𝐿 + 𝜎𝑊 − 𝜎𝑏 = 43.801 N/mm2
For upwind, 𝜎1 + 𝜎2 = 𝜎ℎ + 𝜎𝑧 = 43.057 N/mm2
For downwind, 𝜎1 − 𝜎2 = 𝜎ℎ − 𝜎𝑧 = 91.162 N/mm2
Maximum allowable stress intensity, (∆𝜎)𝑚𝑎𝑥 is at downwind which is 91.162 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 .

From Source, maximum allowable stress at temperature 170 ℃, S= 145 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 .
(∆𝜎)𝑚𝑎𝑥 < 𝑆
91.162 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 < 145 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Therefore, the vessel wall thickness is sufficient to ensure the maximum stress
intensity does not exceed the design stress (nominal design strength) for the material
of construction at any point.
10.7.9 Analysis of elastic stability
𝐸 𝑡
Critical buckling stress, 𝜎𝑐 = (𝑅 )
√3(1−𝑉 2 ) 𝑝
For steel at ambient temperature, E= 20,000 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 with safety factor of 12

the
(∆𝜎)𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜎𝑏 + 𝜎𝑤 = 29.53 N/mm2
(∆𝜎)𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 24.425 N/mm2 < 𝜎𝑐 , 29.53 N/mm2

226
Since the value of (∆𝜎)𝑚𝑎𝑥 < 𝜎𝑐 , therefore, the design is safe to use
10.7.10 Vessel support
The method used to support vessel will depend on the size, shape and wight of vessel,
the design temperature and pressure, the vessel location and arrangement and internal
fittings and attachments. Skirt support is used as they are particularly suitable for tall
column subject to wind loading.
Let thickness of skirt equal to thickness of vessel, t=12 mm with 2 mm corrosion

allowance.
a. Skirt thickness
The minimum height of the skirt is normally set by the process based on the NPSH
requirements of the pumps or the reboiler hydraulic requirements, Tus, skirt support
height for reactor, hsk = 1 m.
Assume skirt thickness tsk = 10 mm
X = H+ hsk= 6.162 +2 =8.763 m
Ds=Di = 11352.53 mm
W = 1733.84 N/m
𝑊𝑥 2
Bending moment at the base of skirt Ms = = 66568.048Nm
2
For the bending stress in the skirt 𝜎𝑏𝑠
4𝑀𝑠
𝜎𝑏𝑠 =
Π(𝐷𝑠 + 𝑡𝑠𝑘 )𝑡𝑠𝑘 𝐷𝑠
𝑁
= 2861766.307 𝑚𝑚2
227
For the dead weight stress in the skirt, 𝜎𝑤𝑠
𝑊𝑠
𝜎𝑤𝑠 =
Π(𝐷𝑠 + 𝑡𝑠𝑘 )𝑡𝑠𝑘
= 0.025 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Therefore, resultant stresses
𝜎𝑆 (𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒) = 𝜎𝑏𝑠 − 𝜎𝑤𝑠 = 4.247 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝜎𝑆 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒) = 𝜎𝑏𝑠 + 𝜎𝑤𝑠 = 4.247 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Assumptions:
Welded- joint efficiency, J =1.0
Base angle, 𝜃𝑠 = 90
Maximum allowable design stress, 𝑓𝑠 = 135 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Young’s modulus, E = 200000 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝑓𝑠 𝐽𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠 = 90 × 1.0 × sin 90 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝑡𝑠𝑘 16
0.125𝐸 ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠 = 0.125 × 200000 × ( ) sin 90 = 264.386 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝐷𝑠 1352.56
𝜎𝑠 (𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒) < 𝑓𝑠 𝐽𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 → 4.247𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 < 120.690 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝑡
𝜎𝑆 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒) < 0.125𝐸 ( 𝐷𝑠𝑘 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠 → 2.837𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 < 264.386 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝑠
Since both criteria are satisfied, the assumed value of skirt thickness 𝑡𝑠 = 0.010 m is
acceptable. With corrosion allowance of 2mm, the design skirt thickness, 𝑡𝑠 =0.012 m
=18 m. Table 10.27 shows the summary of skirt design.
228
Table 10.27 Skirt Support Analysis

Details Unit Value
Bending stress, 𝜎𝑏𝑠 N/mm2 0.739
Dead weight stress, 𝜎𝑤𝑠 N/mm2 0.358
𝜎𝑠 (tensile) N/mm2 1.097
𝜎𝑠 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒) N/mm2 0.733
Skirt thickness mm 12
b. Base ring and Anchor belt design
The loads carried by the skirt will be transmitted to the foundation slab by the skirt base
ring. The moment produced by wind other lateral loads will tend to overturn the pressure
vessel. This will be opposed by the couple set up by the weight of vessel and tensile
load of anchor bolts, For our column, single plate with gusset as the base ring design of
the skirt support is used. The anchor bolts assumed to share the overturning load
equally, and the bolt area required is given by:
1 4𝑀𝑏
𝐴𝑏 = [ − 𝑊]
𝐴𝑏 𝐴𝑏 𝐷𝑏
Assumption:
Pitch circle diameter, 𝐷𝑏 =1.4 m is approximated
Circumference bolt circle = 1400𝜋
For ASTM A325 high stress bolt,
maximum allowable bolt stress, 𝑓𝑏 = 140 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Number of bolts would be 8

229
1 66568.048
𝐴𝑏 = [4 × − 1733.840]
8 × 125 1.4
= 188.461 mm
The base ring must be sufficiently wide to distribute the load to the foundation. The
total compressive load on the base ring is determined.
4𝑀 𝑊
𝐹𝑏 = [𝜋𝐷2𝑠 − 𝜋𝐷 ]= 46.73 kN/m
𝑠 𝑠
𝐹𝑏 1
The minimum width of the base ring, 𝐿𝑏 = × 103
𝑓𝑐
With maximum allowable bearing pressure, 𝑓𝑐
𝐹𝑏 1
𝐿𝑏 = × 103 = 13.35 mm
𝑓𝑐
This is the minimum width required, actual width depends on the chair design.
As the bolt diameter calculated is 45.80 mm. Nominal bolt size M48 (BS 4190 1967) is
used.
Actual width required = 𝐿𝑟 + 𝑡𝑠 + 50 𝑚𝑚 = 76 + 20 + 50 = 146 𝑚𝑚
Actual bearing pressure on concrete foundation, 𝑓𝑐′
𝐹 46.731
= 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ𝑏 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = = 0.320 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
146
Base Ring minimum thickness, 𝑡𝑏
√3(𝑓𝑐′ ) √3(0.568)
𝐿𝑟 = 𝐿𝑟 = 6.294mm (round off to 10 mm)
𝐹𝑟 140
230
c. Design of Flanged Joints
Flanged joints are used for connecting pipes and instruments to vessels, for manhole
cover, and for removable vessel heads when ease of access is required. Welding neck
flange can reduce high-stress concentration at the base of the flange by transferring
stress to the adjoining pipe. It has high strength and high resistance to dishing,
manufacturing with a long-tapered hub. The welding next flange diagram and
dimensions is shown in Table 10.28.
Table 10.28 Size of flanges used for fitting on each pipe on D-104
Connectio D1(mm D2(mm D3(mm D4(mm H1(mm H2(mm T(mm
n ) ) ) ) ) ) )
A 406.40 25 254.51 323.85 101.60 71.37 30.23
B 342.90 18 202.69 269.75 101.60 73.15 28.45
C 342.90 18 202.69 269.75 101.60 73.15 28.45
D 406.40 25 254.51 323.85 101.60 71.37 30.23
E 342.90 18 202.69 269.75 101.60 71.15 28.45
Manhole 1 698.50 25 488.95 584.20 144.53 101.60 42.93
Manhole 2 698.50 25 488.95 548.20 144.53 101.60 42.93
10.7.11 Design summary
The summary of mechanical design of Distillation Column D-104 is shown in table

below.
Table 10.29 Summary of Mechanical Design for D-104

Design specification Design parameter Values/Description
Operating condition Operating temperature 155 °C
Operating pressure 1.7 bar
Type of Vessel and heads Shell Cylinder
Top heads Ellipsoidal

231
Bottom heads Ellipsoidal
Vessel Dimension Inner diameter 1.550m

Height of vessel 6.262
Height of heads 0.448
Height of shell 5.586
Thickness of vessel Without corrosion allowance 6 mm

With corrosion allowance 10mm
Design Factor Type of material Carbon steel

Maximum allowable stress
Joint efficiency 1.0
Types of trays Sieve tray

Corrosion allowance 4 mm
Maximum Allowable Working 𝑴𝑨𝑾𝑷𝒗𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒍 32.725 psi

Pressure
Vessel Support Type of skirt Cylinder (𝜽 = 𝟗𝟎 °)

Skirt thickness 12 mm
Flanges Type of flanges Welding neck flanges
10.8 DETAILED DESIGN OF CONDENSER, N-101
10.8.1 Introduction
From the top of distillation column 24629.66 kg/h of paraffin, in aqueous vapour is
being discharged and sent to a condenser to be recovered into liquid. The condenser
used is shell and tube type of heat exchanger. Shell and tube design is being chosen due
toits several advantages than over bear the others.Shell and tube condenser also known
as surface condenser make up for the majority of installed base for industrial
applications. It is more compact in size and come in a wider variety of physical
configurations. The most important is that it suited for large pressure drop and yet is
less expensive as compared to plate type condenser. Due to its design, this type of
condenser offers a large heat transfer area and provides a high heat transfer efficiency
in comparison with others. So it can be employed for our process as it requires large
232
quantity of vapour to be condensed. Besides that cleaning and maintenance are

relatively straightforward since the equipment can be dismantled.
Figure 10.10 Cross section of condenser
The floating head of this condenser is split ring floating head. The floating head cover
is secured against the floating tube sheet by bolting it to an ingenious split backing ring.
This floating head closure is located beyond the end of the shell and counted by a shell
cover of a larger diameter. While the tube layout pattern used in square pitch pattern.
This condenser is used to condense the outlet stream of distillation column ( N-101)
from 185 °C to 125 °C. Due to higher viscosity and flowrate concerns of process fluid,
condensation happens at horizontal shell side with vertical tube suide filled with cooling
water as coolant. It is designed as counter current flow pattern. Cooling water is
introduced at 30 °C and rise to 40 °C. Tubes of 38.1 mm outside diameter, 16.8mm
inside diameter, 5 m long, of carbon steel are adopted. The vapor is to be totally
condensed and no subcooling is required. The general schematic diagram of condenser
can be seen from figure below.
10.8.2 Summary of the detailed design of the condenser
The table 10.3 below shows the summary of the calculation of condenser, N-101.
233
Table 10.30 Summary of detail design of condenser N-101

Parameter Value
Square pitch
Brass, 𝑘𝑤 (W/m°C) 110
Split ring floating head
Shell pass 1
Tube pass 4
Number of tubes, 𝑁𝑡 1139
Outer diameter, 𝑑𝑜 (𝑚) 0.0481
Inner diameter, 𝑑𝑖 (𝑚) 0.0201
Length of tubes, l (m) 5
Tube pitch, 𝑃𝑡 (𝑚) 0.0159
Heat transfer area, A (𝑚2 ) 596.96
Shell inside diameter, 𝐷𝑠 (𝑚) 1.825
Baffle spacing, 𝑙𝐵 (𝑚) 0.036
Baffle cut, (%) 45
Tube side coefficient, ℎ𝑖 (W/m∆°C) 13793.48
Shell side coefficient, ℎ𝑠 (W/m∆°C) 3420.721
Overall coefficient, 𝑈𝑜 (W/m°C) 982.88
Tube side pressure drop, ∆𝑃𝑡 (kPa) 68.83
Shell side pressure drop, ∆𝑃𝑠 (kPa) 1.07
10.8.3 Detailed design of condenser, n-102
8047.65 kg/h mixture of paraffin, petrol, decane and water from the top of distillation
column in aqueous vapour is being discharged and sent to condenser N-102 to be
recovered into liquid. The table below shows the summary of the calculation of
condenser N-102.
Table 10.31 Summary of detail design of condenser N-102

Parameter Value
Square pitch
Shell pass 1
Tube pass 4
234

Baffle cut, (%) 45
condenser N-103.
Table 10.32 Summary of Detail design of condenser N-103

Parameter Value
Square
pitch
Shell pass 1
Tube pass 5
Baffle cut, (%) 45
235
condenser N-104.
Table 10.33 Summary of Detail design of condenser N-104

Parameter Value
Square pitch
Shell pass 1
Tube pass 6
Baffle cut, (%) 45
hell side pressure drop, ∆𝑃𝑠 (kPa) 14.87
10.9 DETAILED DESIGN COOLER. C-101
Cooler C-101 is used to cool down stream 12 which contains propane and hydrogen gas
from 100°C to 25°C in stream 17. The type of heat exchanger used is shell and tube
heat exchanger and Kern’s method is applied. This form of heat exchanger has a wide
surface area for its size. It can be made of a variety of materials to withstand corrosion
and other issues. Furthermore, since shell and tube heat exchangers can be dismantled,
cleaning and repair are relatively simple.
236
We are using split-ring floating head. Here the floating head bonnet is bolted to a split
backing ring instead of the tube sheet. This eliminates bolt circle diameter and allows a
full complement of tubes to fill the shell. Carbon steel SA516 (grade 70) is used as the
material of construction. Carbon steel is most commonly used engineering material as
it is cheap, available in a wide range of standard forms and sizes, has good tensile
strength and ductility. Cooling water is used as the cooling agent and is assigned to the
tube side because it is more corrosive than the process fluid to lower the cost of an
expensive alloy or clay part. The process fluid, on the other hand, is assigned to the
shell-side. It is designed as counter-current pattern.
Figure 10.11 Cooler C-101
T1=100°C
t2=25° C
T2=25° C
t1=15° C
Figure 10.12 Temperature profile of Cooler (C-101)
The type of flow for the temperature profile is counter current flow, as shown
inFigure 10.12 Figure 10.12. Due to its increased effectiveness in establishing a more
consistent temperature difference between the fluids over the whole length of the fluid
route, counter current flow is more efficient than co-current flow.
To design the cooler C-101 in the process, few assumptions needs to be made:
5. The cooler used for this process is shell and tubes heat exchanger.
237
6. This cooler use one shell pass and one tube passes
7. Assume 𝑈=300 W/m2°C (Table 12.1 Chemical Engineering Design)
8. Choose tube size do=19.05 mm, di=16.942 mm, L=3.66m (with 0.05 tube-
sheet thickness), carbon steel.
The data needed for the evaporator design calculation:
Table 10.34 Data for cooler C-101

Physical Properties Cooling water Process Fluid
(Tube) (Shell)
Density (kg/m3) 997 487.5
Specific heat capacity (kJ/kg ◦C) 4186 1611.8
Viscosity (mNs/m2) 0.2822 0.0117
Thermal conductivity (W/m ◦C) 0.598 0.019
Inlet temperature (◦C) 15 100
Outlet temperature (◦C) 25 25
10.9.1 Dimension of Cooler
Heat load of mixture, Q
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝑄 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇
1ℎ
= (1363.21) (3600𝑠) (1611.8)(100 − 25)
= 45776.6𝑘𝑊
45776.6
𝑚𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = = 1.094𝑘𝑔/𝑠
(4186)(25 − 15)
Log mean temperature difference, ∆Tlm

238
(𝑇1 − 𝑡2) − (𝑇2 − 𝑡1)

ΔTlm =
𝑇1 − 𝑡2
ln (𝑇2 − 𝑡1)
(100 − 25) − (25 − 15)

= = 15.57°𝐶
100 − 25
ln ( )
25 − 15
Temperature ratio, R
𝑇1 − 𝑇2 100 − 25
𝑅= = = 7.5°𝐶
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 25 − 15
Temperature efficiency, S
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 25 − 15
𝑆= = = 0.118°𝐶
𝑇1 − 𝑡1 100 − 15
From Figure 12.19 Chemical engineering design,
Ft = 0.82
∆Tm = Ft∆Tlm = (0.82)(15.57) = 12.77°C
Assume value of heat transfer coefficient, Uo from Figure 12.1 Chemical engineering
design (use high pressure gas and cooling water), U=300 W/m2°C
Heat transfer area, A
𝑄 45776.6
𝐴 = 𝑈∆𝑇𝑚 = (300)(12.7) = 11.9 𝑚2
Surface area of 1 tube, At
At = µdoL = µ(19.05 x 10-3)(3.61) = 0.216 m2

239
Number of tubes required, Nt
Nt = A/At = 11.9/0.216 =55.3 ~ 56 tubes
As the shell side is relatively clean, use 1.25 triangular pitch. From Table 12.4 Chemical
engineering design,
Also, we use 1 shell and 1 tube; K1 = 0.319 and n1= 2.142
Bundle diameter, Db
1 1
𝑁𝑡 𝑛1 56 2.142
𝐷𝑏 = 𝑑𝑜 (𝑘1) = (19.05) (0.319) = 212.67 𝑚𝑚
Choose split ring floating head type.
From Figure 12.10 chemical engineering design, bundle diameter clearance, C = 52mm.
Shell diameter, Ds
Ds = Db + C = 212.67 + 52 = 264.7 mm
10.9.2 Tube-side coefficient
𝑡1 + 𝑡2 15 + 25
Mean steam temperature = = = 20°C
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
Tube cross sectional area, 𝐴𝑡 = (𝑑𝑖 )2 = (16.942)2
4 4
= 225.4 𝑚𝑚
Tube per pass = 56/1 = 56
Total flow area, Af = 56 x 225.4 ×10-3 mm = 0.012 m2
1.094
Fluid mass velocity, G = = 86.62 𝑘𝑔/𝑚2 𝑠
0.012
240
86.62
Linear velocity, 𝑈𝑡 = = 0.087 𝑚/𝑠
997
Heat transfer coefficient, hi
𝑈𝑡 0.8
ℎ𝑖 = (4200)(1.35 + 0.02𝑡) ( 0.2 )
𝑑𝑖
0.0870.8
= 4200((1.35 + 0.02(20)) ( 0.2
) = 591.08 W/m2 °C
16.942
10.9.3 Shell side coefficient (mixture)
Baffle spacing, lb = 0.2(264.67) =52.9 mm
Tube pitch, pt = 1.25 do =1.25 (19.05mm) = 23.8 mm
Cross area flow, As
(𝑝𝑡 − 𝑑𝑜 )𝐷𝑠𝑙𝑏
𝐴𝑠 =
𝑝𝑡
(23.8 − 19.05)(264.7)(52.9)
𝐴𝑠 =
23.8
= 2801.9 𝑚𝑚
Mass velocity, Gs
𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 1363.2

𝐺𝑠 = = = 1229.09 𝑘𝑔/𝑚2 𝑠
Cross area flow, As (3600)(2801.9 × 10−3 )
Equivalent diameter, de
1.10 2
𝑑𝑒 = (𝑝𝑡 − 0.917𝑑𝑜2 )
𝑑𝑜
1.10
= (23.8 mm − 0.917(19.052 )) = 780.38 𝑚𝑚
19.05
Reynold number, Re
241
𝐺𝑠 𝑑𝑒 (1229.09)(780.38)
𝑅𝑒 = = = 28177.74
𝜇 0.011
𝐶𝑝μ (1611.8)(0.011)
𝑃𝑟 = = = 1009.7
𝐾𝑓 0.018
Choose 25% baffle cut because the baffle cut 20% to 25% provide good heat transfer
with reasonable pressure drop. From Figure 12.29 shell side heat transfer coefficient,
segmental baffle;
jh= 0.03
Nu = jhRePr1/3 = (0.03)(28177.74)(1009.7)1/3
= 90268982.2
Without viscosity correction term,
Shell side heat transfer coefficient, hs
𝑁𝑢 90268982.2
ℎ𝑠 = = = 2178.33 𝑊/𝑚2 °𝐶
𝑑𝑒 780.38
10.9.4 Overall coefficient
Take;
1. Thermal conductivity of carbon steel, kw = 50 W/m2°C

2. Fouling factor coefficient from table 12.2; heating water condensate, hod = 10000
W/m2°C and mixture (high pressure gas), hid = 5000 W/m2°C.
𝑑
1 1 1 𝑑𝑜 𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑜 ) 𝑑𝑜 1 1
𝑑𝑖
= + + + ( )( + )
𝑈𝑜 ℎ𝑜 ℎ𝑜𝑑 2𝑘𝑤 𝑑𝑖 ℎ𝑖 ℎ𝑜𝑑
19.05
(19.05 × 10−3 ) ln (
1
=
1
+
1
+ 16.94) + (19.05) ( 1 + 1
)
𝑈𝑜 2178.33 10000 2(16.3) 16.94 5000 591.08
𝑈𝑜 = 391.35 W/m2°C
242
The different between overall coefficient and initial assumed value is 23.34% which is
in between 0 to 30%, thus all parameters acceptable.
10.9.5 Pressure drop tube side
𝜌𝑈𝑡 𝑑𝑖 (997)(0.277)(16.942)
𝑅𝑒 = = = 16594.56
𝜇 0.282
𝐶𝑝 𝜇 (4186)(0.282)
𝑃𝑟 = = = 1975.4
𝐾𝑓 0.598
From Figure 12.24, jh = 0.0043
Neglecting the viscosity term,
3.61 (997)(16.94 × 10−3 )2

Δ𝑃𝑡 = 26 ((8)(0.0043) ( ) + 2.5) ( )
16.94 × 10−3 2
∆Pt = 36.9 kPa = 5.35 psi
Because ΔPt lower than 10 psi, then acceptable.
10.9.6 Pressure drop shell side
From Figure 12.30, at Re = 16594.56 ~ 1.6×104
jh = 0.07
Neglect viscosity correction term,
265 × 10−3 3.61 𝑚 (997)(0.086)2

𝛥𝑃𝑠 = (26)(7 × 10−2 ) ( ) ( ) ( )
780.4 × 10−3 52.9 × 10−3 𝑚 2
∆Ps = 0.024 kPa = 0.003 psi
Because ∆Ps is lower than10 psi, then accept.

243
The data obtained from the cooler C-101 design shows in Table 10.35 below
Table 10.35 Design specification of cooler C-101
Detailed Design Specification
Parameter Value Unit
Type of heat exchanger Split-ring floating head
Tube Side
Material Carbon steel
Outer diameter, Do 19.05 mm
Inner Diameter, Di 16.94 mm
Tube length, L 3.61 m
Number of tube 56
Number of tube passes 1
Tube transfer heat coefficient, hi 591.08 W/m²°C
Pressure drop, ∆Pt 37.0 kPa
Shell Side
Number of shell passes 1
Pitch Triangle
Bundle diameter, Db 0.213 m
Bundle clearance, Dc 0.052 m
Shell diameter, Ds 0.265 m
Baffle Spacing, Ib 52.9 mm
Baffle cut 25 %
Shell heat transfer coefficient, hs 2178.33 W/m²°C
Pressure drop, ∆Ps 0.024 kPa
Overall coefficient, U 391.36 W/m²°C

244
10.10 DETAILED DESIGN OF COOLER, C-106
(By: Nor Ezzati Amira binti Mustapa Padzir, A169229)
Total flowrate that enter cooler, C-106 is 1540.23 kg/h which are decane, petrol, water
and paraffin.
Table 10.36 Physical properties if cooler, C-106

Physical properties Steam (Tube) Process fluid (Shell)
Density (kg/m3) 20.09 6.624
Specific heat capacity (kJ/kg ºC) 4.184 6.859
Viscosity (mNs/m2) 0.001 20.09
Thermal conductivity (W/m ºC) 0.589 7.39
Inlet flow rate (kg/hr) 1400.05 1540.23
Inlet temperature (ºC) 15 90
Outlet temperature (ºC) 70 25
10.10.1 Dimension of cooler
𝑇1 = 90°C
𝑇2 = 25°C
𝑡2 = 70°C
𝑡1 = 15°C
Figure 10.13 Temperature profile of cooler C-106
Heat load, 𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝 𝛥𝑇
1540.23
=( ) × 6.859 × (90 − 25) = 190.75 𝑘𝑤
3600
𝑄
Mass flowrate, 𝑚̇ = 𝐶
𝑝 ∆𝑇
190.75 𝑘𝑔
= = 0.428
6.859 × (90 − 25) 𝑠
245
(𝑇1 − 𝑡2 )(𝑇2 − 𝑡1 ) (90 − 70)(25 − 15)

𝑇𝑙𝑚 = = = 14.42 °𝐶
(𝑇 − 𝑡2 ) (90 − 70)
𝑙𝑛 1 𝑙𝑛
(𝑇2 − 𝑡1 ) (25 − 15)
(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) (90 − 25)

𝑅= = = 1.18
(𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) (70 − 15)
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 70 − 15
𝑆= = = 0.733
𝑇1 − 𝑡1 90 − 15
2 pass shell was chosen which means,
𝐹𝑡 = 0.96
𝑇𝑚 = 𝐹𝑡 𝑇𝑙𝑚 = (0.96)(14.42) =13.85 ºC
Assuming U = 5000 W/𝑚2 . °𝐶
𝑄 190.75
Provisional area, A = 𝑈𝑇 = = 2.75
𝑚 5000(13.85)
By choosing, internal diameter, 𝐷𝑖 = 16 𝑚𝑚, outer diameter, 𝐷𝑜 = 20𝑚𝑚 and length,

l = 1.78m
Area of one tube =𝜋𝑑𝐿 = 𝜋(0.002)(1.78) = 0.1118𝑚
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 2.75

Number of tube,𝑁𝑡 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 = 0.1118 = 26 tubes
10.10.2 Tube-side coefficient
70+15
Mean temperature = = 42.5 °C
2
Tube cross sectional area = 𝜋𝑟 2 = 201.06 𝑚𝑚2

246
26
Tube per pass = = 12
2
Total flow area, A = Number of tube per pass × tube cross sectional area
= (29)(201.06×10−6 ) = 0.00248 𝑚2
𝑚 0.428
Tube velocity, 𝑈𝑡 = = (20.09×0.00248) = 8.601 𝑚/𝑠
𝜌𝐴
𝜌𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝐶𝑝 𝜇
Re = = 2764.78 , Pr = =7.103, L/di =122.25
𝜇 𝑘𝑓
According to the figure the value of 𝑗ℎ = 0.14
Heat transfer coefficient, ℎ𝑠 = 286.17 W/𝑚2 . °𝐶
10.10.3 Shell-side coefficient
Using triangular pitch
Tube pitch, 𝑝𝑡 = 1.25𝑑𝑜 = 1.25(20) = 25𝑚𝑚
With 𝑘1 =0.249, 𝑛1 = 2.207 from table 12.4 of Towler & Sinnot 2013
1 1
𝑁 𝑛 25 2.207
Bundle diameter,𝐷𝑏 =𝑑𝑜 (𝐾𝑡 ) 1 =20 (0.249) = 160.3𝑚𝑚
1
Use a pull-through floated head type, so accordingto the figure 12.10 of Towler &
Sinnot 2013, bundle diametrical clearance = 88mm
Shell diameter, 𝐷𝑠 = 𝐷𝑏 + 𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 160.3 + 88 =

248.35𝑚𝑚
1.1
Equivalent diameter, 𝑑𝑒 = (𝑝𝑡 2 − 0.917𝑑0 2 ) = 14.201𝑚𝑚
𝑑𝑜
247
(𝑝𝑡−𝑑𝑜 )𝐷𝑠 𝑙𝑏
Area of cross flow, 𝐴𝑠 = ( ) = 3.08𝑚
𝑝𝑡
𝑀 0.209𝑘𝑔
Shell velocity, 𝑢𝑠 = 𝐴 =
𝑠 𝑠𝑚2
𝜌𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝐶𝑝 𝜇
Re = = 2084.25, Pr = =18.63
𝜇 𝑘𝑓
Choose 25% baffle cut from figure 12.29 of towler & Sinnot 2013, 𝑗𝑛 = 0.14
𝑊
Heat transfer coefficient, ℎ𝑠 = 286.17 𝑚2 .°𝐶
10.10.4 Overall Coefficient
Thermal conductivity of carbon steel = 45 W/m.°C
5000𝑊 5000𝑊
Taking fouling coefficient from table 12,2 where ℎ𝑜𝑑 = . °𝐶 and ℎ𝑖𝑑 = . °𝐶
𝑚2 𝑚2
𝑑
1 1 1 𝑑𝑜 𝐼𝑛 ( 𝑜 ) 𝑑 1 𝑑 1
𝑑𝑖 𝑜 𝑜
= + + + +
𝑈𝑜 ℎ𝑜 ℎ𝑜𝑑 2𝑘𝑤 𝑑𝑖 ℎ𝑖 𝑑𝑖 ℎ𝑖𝑑
𝑊
𝑈𝑜 = 100.415 . °𝐶
𝑚2
10.10.5 Pressure Drop of tube
According to figure 12.24, 𝑗𝑓 = 0.007
𝐿 𝜌𝑢𝑡 2
Pressure drop, ∆𝑃 = [8𝑗𝑓 (𝑑 ) + 2.5] = 1862.49 N/𝑚2 / 0.0056 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝑖 2
10.10.6 Pressure drop of shell
According to the 12.30, 𝑗𝑓 = 1.9

248
𝐷 𝐿 𝜌𝑢2
Pressure drop, ∆𝑃 = 8𝑗𝑓 (𝑑 𝑠 )(𝑙 ) =7.861× 103 N/𝑚2
𝑒 𝐵 2
10.10.7 Summary of detailed design of C-106
Table 10.37 Summary of detailed design, C-106

Parameter Values
Tube side
Outer diameter,do (mm) 20.00
Inner diameter, di (mm) 16.00
length of tube, L (m) 1.78
Area of one tube, A (m2) 0.11
Number of tubes 24.63
Number of tube passes 12.31
Linear fluid velocity, μ (m/s) 8.60
Heat transfer coefficient, hs (W/m3 ºC) 46650.40
Pressure drop, ΔP (N/m2) 1862.49
Shell side
Type of head pull - through floated head type
Bundle diameter, Do (mm) 160.35
Shell diameter, Ds (mm) 248.35
Baffle spacing, Ib (mm) 62.09
Tube pitch, Pt (mm) 25.00
Equivalent diameter, de (mm) 14.20
Shell side mass velocity, Gt (kg/s m2) 0.020943
Pressure drop (N/m2)) 0.007861
Overall heat transfer coefficient, Uo (W/m2 ºC) 46936.58
10.10.8 Summary of other cooler and heat exchangers.
The summarize detail design of other coolers and heat exchangers are shown in tables
below.
Detailed Design Specification
Type of heat exchanger Split-ring floating head

249
Tube Side
Material Cupro-nickel
Outer diameter, Do 19 mm
Inner Diameter, Di 16.4 mm
Number of tube 92
Number of tube passes 8
Tube transfer heat coefficient, hi 1083.56 W/m²°C
Pressure drop, ∆Pt 20.3 kPa
Shell Side
Number of shell passes 2
Pitch Triangle
Bundle diameter, Db 0.354 m
Bundle clearance, Dc 0.054 m
Baffle Spacing, Ib 204 mm
Baffle cut 25 %
Shell heat transfer coefficient, hs 1429.27 W/m²°C
Pressure drop, ∆Ps 1.86 kPa
Overall coefficient, U 516.134 W/m²°C
Parameter Values
Tube side
250

Shell side
Number of shell passes
Baffle cut (%) 25.00
Table 10.40 Detailed design of cooler C-104

Parameter Values
Total flowrate fluid (kg/hr) 2168.88
Temperature Shell Inside (°C) 375
Temperature Shell Outside (°C) 25
Temperature Tube Inside (°C) 15
Temperature Tube Outside (°C) 265
Tube side
Shell side
251


Parameter Values
Tube side
Shell side

Parameter Values
Tube side
252

Shell side
Table 10.43 Detailed design of heat exchanger, J-101

Parameter Values
Tube side
Shell side
253


Parameter Values
Tube side
Shell side

Parameter Values
Tube side
254

Shell side
10.11 DETAILED DESIGN OF REBOILER, B-101
(By: Muhammad Na’im Najmi Bin Mohamad Salji, A168963)
Reboiler (B-101) are used with distillation column (D-101) to vapourise a fraction of
the bottom product. In the reboiler, liquid flows from the column into the shell where
there is a tube bundle. Boiling taking place from the outside the tube bundle and the
vapour passes back to the column (Hewitt 1983). There is a retaining wall or overflow
weir separating the tube bundle from the reboiler section, where residual reboiled liquid
(bottom product) is withdrawn, so that the tube bundle is kept covered with liquid.
Kettle reboilers are the easiest and reliable type of reboiler to design. It can handle high
vapourization of up to 80% and are easy to maintain.
The liquid circulation through the reboiler is maintained by the difference in

density between the two-phase mixture of vapour and liquid in the reboiler and the
single phase liquid in the base of the column. The component enters the reboiler at a
pressure of 1.4 bar and at temperature of 190oC.
255
Figure 10.14 Reboiler (B-101)
Table 10.46 Physical properties of mixture in boiler B-101

O
Boiling point 63 C
Latent heat, λ 133.08 kJ/kg
Critical pressure, Pc 14.67 bar
256
10.11.1 Heat Loads
Sensible heat (maximum) = (63-0)2.26 = 142.38 kJ/kg
6479.07
Total heat load = (142.38 + 133.08) × ( ) = 495.76 𝑘𝑊
3600
Add 5% for heat loss,
Maximum heat load (duty) = 1.05 × 495.76 = 520.54 𝑘𝑊
From Figure 12.1 (Coulson & Richardson 2005), assume value U=300 W/m2 oC
Mean temperature difference; both sides isothermal, steam saturation temperature at 1.4
bar = 126.3 oC
Mean temperature difference: ∆𝑇𝑚 = 126.3 − 63 = 63.3 °𝐶
Area (outside) required can be calculated using 𝑄 = 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇𝑚 ,
520.54 × 103 = (300)(63.25)𝐴
𝐴 = 27.43 𝑚2
Select 16 mm inner diameter, i.d and 20 mm outer diameter, o.d for plain tubes.
Nominal length of one tube = 3.66 m
27.43
Number of tubes = = 60 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠
0.02×𝜋×3.66
Use square ptch arrangement, pitch = 1.25 × 𝑜. 𝑑 = 1.25 × 20 = 25 𝑚𝑚
Minimum bend radius = 1.5 × 𝑜. 𝑑 = 1.5 × 20 = 30 𝑚𝑚

257
10.11.2 Boiling coefficient and overall coefficient
By using the Monstinski’s equation, the heat flux based on estimated area can be
calculated:
Heat flux, q:
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑞=
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒)
= 18.97 𝑘𝑊/𝑚2
Nucleate boiling coefficient, hnb:
𝑃 0.17 𝑃 𝑃
ℎ𝑛𝑏 = 0.104𝑃𝑐 0.69 𝑞 0.7 [1.8( ) + 4( )1.2 + 10( )10 ]
𝑃𝑐 𝑃𝑐 𝑃𝑐
ℎ𝑛𝑏 = 947.9 𝑊 ⁄𝑚2 °𝐶
Take steam condensing coefficient as 8000 W/m2℃, fouling coefficient 5000

W/m2℃ mixture fouling coefficient, essentially clean, 5000 W/m2℃. The tube
material will be plain stainless steel, kw = 16 W/m℃.
Overall coefficient, Uo
0.02
1 1 1 0.02 ln (0.016) 20 1 1
= + + + ( + )
𝑈𝑜 947.9 5000 2 × 16 16 5000 8000
𝑈𝑜 = 555.35 𝑊 ⁄𝑚2 °𝐶
10.11.3 Maximum allowable heat flux
Check the maximum allowable heat flux by using the modified Zuber equation.
258
𝑃𝑡 𝜆
𝑍𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑟 ′ 𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑞𝑐 = 𝐾𝑏 ( ) ( ) [𝜎𝑔(𝜌𝐿 − 𝜌𝑣 )𝜌𝑣 2 ]0.25
𝑑𝑜 √𝑁
𝑞𝑐 = 214.7 𝑊 ⁄𝑚2
10.11.4 Reboiler layout design
From tube sheet layout Db = 256 mm
Take shell diameter as twice bundle diameter
Shell diameter: Ds = 2 × 256 = 512 mm
Assume liquid level 51% = 261 mm from base, freeboard = 512-261 = 251mm > 250
mm.
Figure 10.15 Cross-sectional of top view othe cylinder reboiler
From the figure, the width at liquid level = 0.554 m
Surface area of liquid 0.554 × 2.4 = 1.33 𝑚2
6479.07 1 1
Vapour velocity at surface = × 1.33 × 10.6 = 0.13 𝑚⁄𝑠
3600
𝜌𝐿 −𝜌𝑣 1⁄2
Maximum allowable velocity: 𝑢̂𝑣 < 0.2[ ]
𝜌𝑣
𝑢̂𝑣 = 1.65 𝑚⁄𝑠

259
Table 10.47 Summary detail design reboiler (B-101)

Inner diameter, di 16 mm
Outer diameter, do 20 mm
Length of tube 3.66 m
Number of tubes 60 tubes
Pitch 25 mm
Minimum bend radius 30 mm
Outer limit diameter, Db 256 mm
Heat flux, q 18.98 kW/m2oC
Nucleate boiling coefficient, hnb 947.9 W/m2oC
Overall coefficient, Uo 555.35 W/m2oC
Shell diameter, Ds 512 mm
Maximum allowable velocity, uv 1.65 m/s
260
CHAPTER XI
MECHANICAL DESIGN
11.1 PACKED BED REACTOR, R-101
(By: Nur Zafirah Aliah Binti Baharuddin, A169320)
11.1.1 Material selection
The operating temperature and pressure are 375ºC and 40 bar respectively. In this
reactor consists of triglycerides, hydrogen gas, propane and paraffin. This chemical
needs special construction material to construct the pressure vessel. Stainless steel SA-240
grade 304 is selected as the construction material since its excellent resistance to corrosion
and is available in a wide range of standard forms and sizes. This grade is an austenitic
chromium alloy which contains 18% chromium and 8% nickel has high the tensile strength
and high yield strength.
11.1.2 Design Specification
The mechanical design of Packed Bed Reactor R-101 is subjected to ASME internal
pressure procedure. This is because the absolute pressure of the vessel is higher than
the atmospheric pressure, which is higher than 15 psi. Figure below shows the shape of
the vessel and its dimension. Cylindrical body is chosen because this is the common
shape of reactor shell. And ellipsoidal heads are chosen for both bottom and top. This
is because it is more economical, and suitable for high pressure and domed to reduce
mechanical stresses.
261
The table below shows the operating conditions of reactor, R-101 and design
specification of the reactor.
Table 11.1 Operating condition and specification of reactor, R-101

Condition Values
Temperature, T 375ºC
Joint efficiency, E 0.8 (Single welded)
Corrosion allowance, CA 2mm
Length 1.773 m
Diameter 0.591 m
Material of reactor Stainless steel SA-240 grade 304
11.1.3 Detailed design of reactor
𝐷𝑖
ℎ𝑒 =
4
0.591
=
4
= 0.1478 𝑚
For cylindrical shell height,
ℎ𝐶 = 𝐻 − 2ℎ𝑒
= 1.773 − 2(0.1478)
= 1.478 𝑚
Table 11.2 Dimension of reactor, R-101

Dimension Value (m) Value (in) Value (ft)
Vessel Height, H 1.773 69.803 5.817
Vessel Inside Diameter, Di 0.591 23.268 1.939
Shell Height, Hs 1.478 58.189 4.849
262
Top head height, ho 0.148 5.827 0.486

Bottom head height, ho 0.148 5.827 0.486
11.1.4 Minimum wall thickness
The wall thickness formulas for each part of the column are from ASME Code UG-
32(d) and UG-27 (c). The maximum allowable stress value, S is from ASME Code
givenin Subpart 1 of Section II, Part D.
Top ellipsoidal head,
𝑃𝐷 (638.40)(23.271)
𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝑡 = =
2𝑆𝐸 − 0.2𝑃 2(17694.6)(0.8) − 0.2(638.40)
= 0.5271 in
Cylinder shell,
𝑃𝑅 (640.71)(23.271/2)
𝑆𝐸 − 0.6𝑃 (17694.6)(0.8) − 0.6(640.71)
= 0.5413 in
Bottom ellipsoidal head,
𝑃𝐷 (640.94)(23.271)
2𝑆𝐸 − 0.2𝑃 2(17694.6)(0.8) − 0.2(638.40)
= 0.5292 in
Thus, the overall thickness, toverall is determined, which is the highest value of minimum
thickness calculated for each part
toverall = 0.5413 in = 13.5 mm

263
After considering the corrosion allowance of 2mm
t= 13.5 + 2 = 15.5mm
The closest tnominal of type SA-240 Grade 304 is 16.0mm
tmin = tnominal – CA
= 16.0 mm – 2 mm
= 14 mm (0.551 in)
1.1.1 Summary maximum allowable working pressure
The table below shows summary calculation of internal and MAWP of reactor and
primary stress. All calculation stated at Appendix J.1.
Table 11.3 Internal pressure and MAWPvessel for each part of the reactor R-101
Part of the column MAWPpart (psi) Static head, PH(psi) MAWPvessel
(psi)
Top ellipsoidal head 571.91 0.21 571.70
Cylindrical Shell 560.59 2.31 558.28

Bottom ellipsoidal head 571.91 2.52 569.39
Table 11.4 Primary stress for R-101

Primary stresses Value (N/mm2)
Longitudinal stress, σL 54.184
Circumferential stress, σh 108.368
Direct stress, σw 0.0001642
Bending stress, σb ± 0.292
Torsional shear stresses, τ 0
Total longitudinal stress, σz (upwind) 54.476
Total longitudinal stress, σz (downwind) 53.892
264
1.1.2 Design of Cooling Jacket
A cooling jacket is designed into R-101 for cooling purposes which are to prevent any
heat loss and also maintaining the temperature of the system. The Type 1 jacket, which
confined entirely to the cylindrical shell is chosen as listed in ASME code. The closure
of the jacket chosen to be typed (b-1) as shown in FIG 9-5, ASME code, Section VIII-
Division I. Type of jacket used for this reactor is dimple jacket since it can withstand
high temperature and high pressure. For the material construction for the jacket packed
bed reactor which is stainless steel grade 340. Figure 1.3 and 1.4 show Type 1 jacketed
vessels and type (b-1) closure for a jacket, respectively.
Figure 11.1 Type 1 jacket vessel
Figure 11.2 Closure of the type (b-1) for jacket vessel
To find the minimum thickness of closure member, trc. It should be at least equal
or not less than minimum thickness of jacket, trj nominal thickness of outer jacket wall,
tj can be calculated based on the formula below.
265
𝑡𝑟𝑐 = 0.707𝑗√𝑃/𝑆
𝑡𝑗 = 2𝑡𝑟𝑐
Where, tc = nominal thickness of closure member (in)
tj = nominal thickness of outer jacket wall
trc = requires minimum thickness of closure member as determined herein (in)
S = maximum allowable stress value (psi)
j = jacket space (in)
P = internal design pressure (psi)
The dimension of thw jacket calculated shows as below
Jacket space,j= 1 in = 25.4 mm
𝑡𝑟𝑐 = 0.707𝑗√𝑃/𝑆
= 0.707(1)√(15)/(7901.08)
= 1.7146 𝑖𝑛
= 43.55 𝑚𝑚
𝑡𝑐 = 43.55 𝑚𝑚 + 2 𝑚𝑚 (𝐶𝐴)
𝑡𝑟𝑐 = 45.55 𝑚𝑚
266
Corner radius of torus closures (in), r = 3tc = 3(45.55) = 136.65 mm
Design length of the jacket section. L= 0.789 m
Nominal thickness of outer jaclet wall, tj = 2trc = 2(43.55) = 87.1 mm
The vessels support must be designed to withstand the weight of the vessel including
weight of material are packed inside and contents and any superimposed loads such as
wind loads. Support will impose localized loads on the vessel wall, and the design must
be checked to ensure resulting stress concentrations are below the maximum allowable
design stress. It is also important to allow the ease of access to the vessel and the fittings
for inspection and maintenance (Sinnott 2005).
11.1.6 Flanged Joint
cover, and for removable vessel heads when ease of access is required for maintenance
or inspection. It also used on the vessel body when it is required to divide the vessel
into sections for transport and maintenance. It reduce high-stress concentration at the
base of the flange by transferring stress to the adjoining pipe. Welding-neck flangeis
the best-designed butt weld available because of its inherent structural value and easeof
assembly. Welding-neck flange have high strength and high resistance to dishing, itis
manufactured with a long-tapered hub. The tapered hub is created by the gradual
increase in metal thickness from the weld join to the flange facing. The welding-neck
flange diagram is shown in Figure 11.3 below.
267
Figure 11.3 Diagram of Weld Neck Flange ASME B16.5
Table 11.5 Size of flanges used for fitting on each pipe on R-101
Stream NPS D(mm) B(mm) H(mm) OD(mm) f (mm) L(mm) K(mm) N(mm)
8 14 77 12 26 36 4 11 52 28
11 14 92 16 26 36 2 14 62 29.6
14 14 77 12 26 36 4 11 52 28
15 14 92 16 26 36 2 14 62 29.6
11.1.7 Summary of design
By considering the internal pressure of the vessel, reactor R-101, the conditions that are
needed for the design have been calculated through series of formula stated. The
conditions for the design have been summarized as followed in Table 11.6. All the
calculation stated at Appendix J.1
268
Table 11.6 Summary for design condition of reactor R-101

Design condition Unit Value
Operating temperature ˚C 370
Operating pressure/Design pressure bar 40
Material of construction - Stainless steel SA240 Grade 304
Vessel internal diameter, Di m 0.591
Vessel external diameter, Do m 0.615
Vessel height, H m 2.069
Shell height 1.773
2:1 ellipsoidal head (top), he m 0.1478
Cylindrical, hc m 1.478
2:1 ellipsoidal head (bottom), he m 0.1478
Bed diameter m 0.591
Bed Height m 1.064
Overall minimum thickness of vessel, toverall m 0.014
Corrosion allowance, CA m 0.002
Longitudinal stress, σL N/mm2 54.184
Circumferential stress, σh N/mm2 108.368
Direct stress, σw N/mm2 0.000177
Bending stress, σb N/mm2 ±0.292
Torsional shear stresses, τ N/mm2 0
Stress analysis N/mm2 (σmax) < S
(54.476< 122)
Elastic stability N/mm2 (∑σ)compressive < σc
(0.29 < 15.346)
Jacket type Dimple Jacket
Material of jacket Stainless steel grade 340
Jacket height m 0.789
Jacket space m 0.0254
Corrosion allowance m 0.002
Thickness of jacket wall m 0.0872
Type of vessel support - Straight skirt support
Skirt thickness, ts m 0.016
Resultant stresses, σs (tensile) N/mm2 2.099
Area of one bolt, Ab mm2 58
Actual width required, Lb m 0.648
Base ring thickness, tb m 0.163
Type of flanged joint - Welded-neck flanged
11.2 DISTILLATION COLUMN, D-104
(By: Kashvinwarma Baskaran, A169128)

269
11.2.1 Introduction
Distillation column (D-104) in the production of aviation fuel from waste cooking oil
is used to separate mainly decane and paraffin. There are also other components in small
quantity such as water and petrol. Table 12.1 and table 12.2 shows the components and
operating conditions respectively.
Table 11.7 Component properties and flowrates in D-104

Components Feed Flow rate Distillate flow rate Bottom flow rate
Decane 10335.63 10232.28 103.36
Petrol 63.23 47.42 15.81
Paraffin 4433.34 44.33 4389.01
Water 132.34 92.64 39.7
Total 10335.63 10232.28 103.36
Table 11.8 Operating condition in D-104

Parameter Values
Operating pressure 1.7
Operating temperature 155
11.2.2 Selection of construction material
Hydrocarbons are generally non-corrosive because they possess allow electrical

conductivity and do not support the electrochemical reactions inherent in the corrosion
mechanism. The reactivity of metals in organic solvents is influenced by the type and
the structure of organic compounds. Even though the corrosion occurrence chances may
be low, but some precautionary measures must be taken. Therefore, carbon steel is used
mainly for its construction. The material is readily available, cheap and has good
mechanical properties.
11.2.3 Tray selection
Sieve plate tray column is chosen in our production plant as it is cheaper in terms of
cost. This type of regeneration column can handle with wide variation of flow rates and
easy installation since it has a lighter wight. Vapor comes out from the holes to give a
270
multi orifice effect. The vapor velocity keeps the liquid from flowing down through the
holes.
11.2.4 Key components selections and classifications
Firstly, the volatility and boiling point of each key components were identified.
Components with high volatility and low boiling point make up light key components
while components with low volatility and high boiling point make up the heavy key
components. Light key components will be top products and heavy key components
will be bottom products. In this distillation column Decane petrol and water are top
products while paraffin is a bottom product.
11.2.5 Minimum number of stages
To calculate the minimum number of statges, Antoine equation is used
𝐵
Log10 𝑃 = 𝐴 −
𝐶+𝑇
𝑃 𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝐾=
𝑃
Relative volatility of top product and bottom products are both calculated by using the
following equation. Table 12.3 shows the relative volatilities of end products.
𝐾𝑗.𝑚
𝑎𝑖,𝑗 =
𝐾𝑗,𝑝
Table 11.9 Relative volatilities of products

Component 𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡 K-value 𝑎𝑖,𝑗
Decane 155.38 0.91 689.58
Petrol 133.41 0.70 687.9
Paraffin 0.12 0.0012 1
Water 143.38 0.80 678.58
Mean relative volatility is approximated by geomatri mean of relative volatility of key

components in top and bottom products
271
𝑎𝑖,𝑗 = (𝑎𝑖,𝑗 × 𝑎𝑖,𝑗 )0.5
(1 × 689.58)0.5
= 26.25
Thus, the minimum number of stages is determined using Mc Cabe Thiele Method.
Table 12.4 shows the plotting point for equilibrium curve
𝑎1,2 𝑥1
𝑦1 =
1 + 𝑥1 (𝑎1,2−1 )
Table 11.10 Plot for equilibrium curve

x y
0 0
0.1 0.261907
0.2 0.443949
0.3 0.577823
0.4 0.680414
0.5 0.76154
0.6 0.827299
0.7 0.88168
0.8 0.927401
0.9 0.966378
1.0 1.0
The wquilibrium curve 45 degree line and composition of feed, top product and bottom
product (𝑥𝑓 = 0.69, 𝑥𝑑 = 0.98, 𝑥𝑏 = 0.02) are plotted on graph. Based on the curve and
composition plotted in figur 11.5, the minimum number of stages are stages.
272
Figure 11.5 Equilibrium curve
11.2.6 Minimum and actual reflux ratio
To determine the minimum reflux ratio, q-line has been drawn from 𝑥𝑓 and 𝑥𝑑 using
equation to find q.
𝐿𝑓
𝑞=
𝐹
= 0.9
Then the q line is plotted using equation
𝑞 𝑥𝑓
𝑞=( )𝑥 +( ) = −9𝑥 + 0.58
𝑞−1 𝑞−1
Rmin is determined from the intersection of rectifying section operating line and the
equilibrium curve. This happens at a slope of 0.91
Rmin = 10.1
Takingactual reflux ratio is R = 3Rmin, thus R = 30.3

273
Theoretical and actual number of stages
The theoretical number of stages can be estimated by drawing rectifying and stripping
operating line and actual number of stages is determined. Figure 11.6 shows the plot of
actual number of stages.
Figure 11.6 Plot of actual number of stages
N= 10 stages
Feed stage: 5 stage
11.2.7 Type and sizing of vessel
Pressure vessel is made of cylindrical shell. The ends are closed by ellipsoidal heads.
Thuis is chosen based on operating pressure less than 10 bar where it is cheaper and
easier to fabricate compared to ellipsoidal (source). Ellipsoidal head parameter is taken
from nominal head available in market by referring inside diameter calculated.
11.2.8 Diameter distillation column D-104
The liquid flow factor FLV is calculated by using equation

274
𝐿 √𝑝𝑣
𝐹=
𝑉 𝑝𝑙
Where L= Liquid molar flow rate
V= Vapor molar flow rate
p = Liquid density
0.3171 0.485
𝐹𝐿𝑉 = √ = 0.00124
5.081 1223.9
By assuming tray spacing is 18 inch, along with the calculated flv. Cf value is
determined at 0.25 from source. The flooding velocity Uf is calculated by using
equation
𝑝𝐿 − 𝑝𝑉
𝑈𝑓 = 𝐹𝑆𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐻𝐴 𝐶𝑓 √
𝑝𝑉
Where Fst = Surface tension factor = 50 dyne/cm = 0.005 N/m
Ff = Foaming factor = 0.6
FHA= 1.0 for Ab/Aa > 0.1 and 5 (Ab/Aa) + 0.5 for 0.06 < Ab/Aa <0.1
1223.91 − 0.485
𝑈𝑓 = (0.05)(0.6)(1)(0.25)√
0.485
√(4𝑣𝑀𝑉 )
Dimeter of column, 𝐷𝑇 = 𝐴 = 1.45 m
𝑓𝑈𝑓 (𝑎− 𝑑 )𝑝𝑣
𝐴
275
11.2.9 Height of regeneration column
The column height for a distillation column is determined using the equation tray
spacing times with number of stage. Table 12.5 shows the number of stages and tray
spacing.
Table 11.11 Number of stages and tray spacing

Criteria Value Unit
Number of stages 10 -
Tray spacing 18 inch
𝐻𝑜 = 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑦 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 × 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠
= 0.4572 × 12
= 5.5864 𝑚
11.2.10 Sizing of head
Height of ellipsoidal head is determined by using following equation. Table 12.6 shows
the height of ellipsoidal head for top and bottom part
𝐻𝑡 = 𝐼𝐷𝐷 + 𝑆𝐹, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐼𝐷𝐷 = 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠ℎ
𝑆𝐹 = 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒, 1.5 𝑖𝑛 = 0.0481 𝑚
𝐻𝑡 = 0.4 + 0.0481 = 0.448 𝑚
Table 11.12 Height of ellipsoidal height

Part m ft inch
height
height
276
11.2.11 Design pressure
Since the operating pressure of the reactor 3 atm is greater than atmospheric pressure (
Pa> Patm) the reactor is designed under internal pressure. Firstly, the design opressure
for each part of f the vveesel is calculated by using equation:
𝑃𝐷 = 𝑃𝑜 + 0.433ℎ
Where, 𝑃𝐷 = 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙
𝑃𝑜 = 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
ℎ = 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙
10% is added to design pressure as safety factor. Table 12.7 shows the design opressure
for each part of regeneration column.
Table 11.13 Design pressure
Part h (ft) 𝑷𝑫 𝑷𝑫
Top head 1.109 22.520 24.772
Shell 19.109 30.314 33.345
Bottom head 20.218 30.794 33.873
11.2.12 Design temperature
The maximum operating temperature of regeneration column is 155C. Thus, the design
temperature have to be 205c after adding 50C for safety purposes
11.2.13 Maximum allowable stress,S
From ASME code VIII, the maximum allowable stress for carbon steel is 13758 psi
11.2.14 Joint efficiency
The calculations involving circumferential stress in seamless vessel section and

seamless head, E = 1.0 when the spot radiography requirement are met. The requirement
277
is when circumferential welded joint involving main shell, nozzles, transisiton diameter
and flanges are interecting with longitudinal welded joints.
11.2.15 Corrosion allowance
The fluid inside the column is moderately corrosive so 4mm is chose as the minimum
corrosion allowance
11.2.16 Minimum thickness of vessel
The vessel diameter is 88888 so the minimum thickness is 6mm including 2 mm for
corrosion allowance. However, since the paraffin is partially corrosive the corrosion
allowance is
Mm and the minimum thickness would be 10mm.
11.2.17 Maximum allowable working pressure for vessel (MAWP vessel)
The maximum allowable working pressure ( MAWP) is defined as the maximum

pressure based on the design on the design codes that the weakest component of
pressure vessel can handle. Table shows the MAWP for each parts of column
Table 11.14 Maximum allowable working pressure
Part Formula MAWPpart MAWPpart Pressure at MAWPvessel

top
Top head 2SEt/(D+0.2t) 42.175 42.332 41.852
ellipsoidal
Cylinder shell SEt/(R+0.6t) 42.156 42.314 33.187 32.725
circumferential
Cylinder shell 2SEt/(R-0.4t) 42.175 42.332 32.725
longitudinal
Bottom head 2SEt/(D+0.2t) 42.175 42.332 32.725
ellipsoidal
The method used to support vessel will depend on the size, shape and wight of vessel,
the design temperature and pressure, the vessel location and arrangement and internal
278
fittings and attachments. Skirt support is used as they are particularly suitable for tall
column subject to wind loading.
Let thickness of skirt equal to thickness of vessel, t=12 mm with 2 mm corrosion

allowance.
a. Skirt thickness
The minimum heioght of the skirt is normally set by the process based on the NPSH
requirements of the pumps or the reboiler hydraulixc requirements, Tus, skirt support
height for reactor, hsk = 1 m.
Assume skirt thickness tsk = 10 mm
X = H+ hsk= 6.162 +1 =7.162 m
Ds=Di = 1.45m
W = 1733.84 N
𝑊𝑥 2
Bending moment at the base of skirt Ms = = 66568.048Nm
2
For the bending stress in the skirt 𝜎𝑏𝑠
4𝑀𝑠
𝜎𝑏𝑠 =
Π(𝐷𝑠 + 𝑡𝑠𝑘 )𝑡𝑠𝑘 𝐷𝑠
𝑁
= 2861766.307 𝑚𝑚2
For the dead weight stress in the skirt, 𝜎𝑤𝑠
𝑊𝑠
𝜎𝑤𝑠 =
Π(𝐷𝑠 + 𝑡𝑠𝑘 )𝑡𝑠𝑘
279
= 0.025 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝜎𝑆 (𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒) = 𝜎𝑏𝑠 − 𝜎𝑤𝑠 = 4.247 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝜎𝑆 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒) = 𝜎𝑏𝑠 + 𝜎𝑤𝑠 = 4.247 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Assumptions:
Welded- joint efficiency, J =1.0
Base angle, 𝜃𝑠 = 90
Maximum allowable design stress, 𝑓𝑠 = 135 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Young’s modulus, E = 200000 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝑓𝑠 𝐽𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠 = 90 × 1.0 × sin 90 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝑡 16
0.125𝐸 ( 𝐷𝑠𝑘 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠 = 0.125 × 200000 × (1352.56) sin 90 = 264.386 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝑠
𝜎𝑠 (𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒) < 𝑓𝑠 𝐽𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 → 4.247𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 < 120.690 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝑡
𝜎𝑆 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒) < 0.125𝐸 ( 𝐷𝑠𝑘 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠 → 2.837𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 < 264.386 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝑠
Since both criteria are satisfied, the assumed value of skirt thickness 𝑡𝑠 = 0.010 m is
acceptable. With corrosion allowance of 2mm, the design skirt thickness, 𝑡𝑠 =0.012 m
=18 m. Table 12.8 shows the summary of skirt design.
Table 11.15 Skirt Design

Details Unit Value
Bending stress, 𝜎𝑏𝑠 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 2.862
Dead weight stress, 𝜎𝑤𝑠 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 0.025

280
𝜎𝑠 (tensile) 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 4.247
𝜎𝑠 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒) 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 2.837
Skirt thickness mm 12
b. Base anchor and anchor bolt design
ring. The moment produced by wind other lateral loads will tend to overturn the pressure
vessel. This will be opposed by the couple set up by the weight of vessel and tensile
load of anchor bolts, For our column, single plate with gusset as the base ring design of
the skirt support is used. The anchor bolts assumed to share the overturning load
equally, and the bolt area required is given by:
1 4𝑀𝑏
𝐴𝑏 = [ − 𝑊]
𝐴𝑏 𝐴𝑏 𝐷𝑏
Assumption:
Pitch circle diameter, 𝐷𝑏 =1.4 m is approximated
Circumference bolt circle = 1400𝜋
For ASTM A325 high stress bolt,
maximum allowable bolt stress, 𝑓𝑏 = 140 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Number of bolts would be 8
1 66568.048
𝐴𝑏 = [4 × − 1733.840]
8 × 125 1.4
= 188.461 mm
281
The bese ring must be sufficiently wide to distribute the load to the foundation. The
total compressive load on the base ring is determined.
4𝑀 𝑊
𝐹𝑏 = [𝜋𝐷2𝑠 − 𝜋𝐷 ]= 46.73 kN/m
𝑠 𝑠
𝐹𝑏 1
The minimum width of the base ring, 𝐿𝑏 = × 103
𝑓𝑐
With maximum allowable bearing pressure, 𝑓𝑐
𝐹𝑏 1
𝐿𝑏 = × 103 = 13.35 mm
𝑓𝑐
This is the minimum widthrequired, actual width depends on the chair design.
As the bolt diameter calculated is 45.80 mm. Norminal bolt size M48 (BS 4190 1967)
is used.
Actual width required = 𝐿𝑟 + 𝑡𝑠 + 50 𝑚𝑚 = 76 + 20 + 50 = 146 𝑚𝑚
Actual bearing pressure on concrete foundation, 𝑓𝑐′
𝐹 46.731
= 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ𝑏 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = = 0.320 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
146
Base Ring minimum thickness, 𝑡𝑏
√3(𝑓𝑐′ ) √3(0.568)
𝐿𝑟 = 𝐿𝑟 =6.294mm (round off to 10 mm)
𝐹𝑟 140
11.2.19 Design of flanged Joints
cover, and for removable vessel heads when ease of access is required. Welding neck
flange can reduce high-stress concentration at the base of the flange by transferring
282
stress to the adjoining pipe. It has high strength and high resistance to dishing,
manufacturing with a long-tapered hub.
Table 11.16 Dimension of welding neck flanges

Connection D1(mm) D2(mm) D3(mm) D4(mm) H1(mm) H2(mm) T(mm)
A 406.40 25 254.51 323.85 101.60 71.37 30.23
B 342.90 18 202.69 269.75 101.60 73.15 28.45
C 342.90 18 202.69 269.75 101.60 73.15 28.45
D 406.40 25 254.51 323.85 101.60 71.37 30.23
E 342.90 18 202.69 269.75 101.60 71.15 28.45
Manhole 1 698.50 25 488.95 584.20 144.53 101.60 42.93
Manhole 2 698.50 25 488.95 548.20 144.53 101.60 42.93
11.2.20 Design Summary
The summary nof mechanical design of Distillation Column D-104 is shown in table
12.10
Table 11.17 Summary of distillation column design

Design specification Design parameter Values/Description
Operating condition Operating temperature 155 °C
Operating pressure 1.7 bar
Type of Vessel and heads Shell Cylinder
Top heads Ellipsoidal
Bottom heads Ellipsoidal
Vessel Dimension Inner diameter 1.550m
Height of vessel 6.262
Height of heads 0.448
Height of shell 5.586
Thickness of vessel Without corrosion allowance 6 mm
With corrosion allowance 10mm
Design Factor Type of material Carbon steel
Maximum allowable stress
Joint efficiency
Types of trays
Corrosion allowance 1.0
Sieve tray
4 mm
Maximum Allowable 𝑴𝑨𝑾𝑷𝒗𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒍 32.725 psi
Working
Pressure
Vessel Support Type of skirt Cylinder (𝜽 = 𝟗𝟎 °)
Flanges Skirt thickness 12 mm
Flanges Type of flanges Welding neck flanges
283
11.3 GAS ABSORPTION, G-101
(By: Nor Ezzati Amira binti Mustapa Padzir, A169229)
11.3.1 Material selection
In the production of decane by hydrocracking process of waste cooking oil, gas

absorption is used to recover propane gas from by-product in gas form from reactor, (R-
102) by using benzene as liquid absorbent. The operating pressure at 1.6 bar with
absorption occur at room temperature, 25°C. For the top and bottom head. Ellipsoidal
2:1 was chosen because it is more economical (Towler and Sinnot, 2013). The body of
gas absorption was using the vertical orientation as thin and higher vessel is standard
for absorption column (Green and Perry, 2007). Metal, Carbon steel was chosen as the
material for packing in the absorption columm as it has a great efficiency, hydraulic
resistance and more cheaper than stainless steel. The corrosion allowance (CA) of 4 mm
is chosen as the strean contain high consentration of propane gas. The operating
condition and the shape of each part of the gas absorption had shown in Table 11.18 and
Table 11.19
Table 11.18 Operating conditions in G-101
Condition Values
Operating Pressure, 𝑷𝟎 (bar) 1.6
Temperature (°C) 25
Type of material Carbon Steel
Corrosion allowance, CA (mm) 4
H/D 4
Table 11.19 Shape of each part of G-101
Assumption Type
Top head Ellipsoidal 2:1
Shell Cylindrical
Bottom head Ellipsoidal 2:1
284
11.3.2 Dimension of gas absorption column
The dimension if each part of the vessel is determined as formula below:
𝐷𝑖 2.94
ℎ𝑒 = = = 0.735𝑚
4 4
For cylindrical shell height
ℎ𝑐 = H – 2ℎ𝑒 = 11.76 – 2(0.735) = 10.29m
The dimensions of G-101 were tabulated in table below.
Table 11.20 Dimension of G-101
Dimension Value (m) Value (mm) Value (in) Value (ft)

Vessel Height, H 11.76 11762.28 463.08 38.59
Vessel inside diameter, Di 2.94 2940.57 115.77 9.65
Shell Height, hc 10.29 10291.99 405.20 33.77
Top Head height, he 0.74 735.14 28.94 2.41
Bottom head height, he 0.73 735.14 28.94 2.41
11.3.3 Vessel support and flanged joint
The skirt support had been chosen as the support for gas absorption. Since the height of
gas absorption is 11.76 m with the internal diameter, 𝐷𝑖 is 2.94 m, the skirt support is
suitable for the use of tall columns which subject to wind loading. One of the most
important factor is they do not imposed concentrated load on the vessel shell.
Welded – neck flange is chosen in this design because it is suitable for extreme
conditions where the flange is likely to be subjected to temperature, shear and vibration
loads for the absorption column, G-101. The welded connection will not interfere with
the flow of the fluid.
285
a. Skirt support design
The skirt thickness must be sufficient to withstand the dead-weight loads and bending
moments imposed on it by the vessel and it will not be under the vessel pressure.
Table 11.21 Specification of skirt support

Elements Specification
Type of support Straight cylindrical skirt with base angel, 𝜃𝑠 = 90°
Material of construction Carbon steel
Type of weld Welded flush with the shell
Weld joint factor, J 1.0
Young’s Modulus 200,000
Design stress, S (N/mm2) 135
Bending stress, 𝜎bs (N/mm2) 14.44
Dead weight stress, 𝜎ws (Test)(N/mm2) 0.056
Dead weight stress, 𝜎ws (Operating)(N/mm2) 0.112
𝜎s (Compressive)(N/mm2) 14.5
𝜎s (Tensile)(N/mm2) 19
Skirt diameter, Ds (m) 3
Height of the support, hs (m) 2
Skirt thickness, ts (m) 0.2
b. Base ring and anchor bolt design
The skirt base ring transmits the loads carried by the skirt to the foundation slab. Wind
and other lateral loads will tend to overturn the vessel, but this will be countered by the
couple formed by the vessel's weight and the tensile load. For G-101, random packing
design as the base ring design of the skirt support is used to make the vessel more stable
and stronger.
Table 11.22 shows the base ring and anchor bolt specification for DC-101.
Table 11.22 Value of bolt size and root area
Bolt Size Root A B C D E F G

Area
M24 353 45 76 64 13 19 30 36
286
c. Bolted Flanged Joints Design
Flanged joints are utilized to connect pipes and instruments to vessels, as well as
manhole covers and removable vessel heads. When it is required to divide the vessel
into sections for maintenance or transport, flanges might be utilized on the vessel body.
Pipes are also joined together with flanged joints. Flanged joints are also used to connect
pipes to other. Different types of flanges are used for various purposes.
In the G-101, welding-neck flanges are used. It has a long-tapered hub between
the flange ring and the welded joint. This gradual transition of the section reduces the
discontinuity stresses between the flange and branch and increase the strength of the
flange assembly. Welding-neck flanges are suitable for extreme service conditions,
where the flange is likely to be subjected to temperature, shear and vibration loads.
Welding-neck flanges were found to be the best option for this design. Details of the
flanges design are summarized in
11.3.4 Design summary of G-101
By considering the internal pressure of the vessel, absorption column G-101, the
conditions that are needed for the design have been calculated through series of formula
stated. The design of gas absorption is summarized and tabulated as followed in table
below. The detailed calculation for the mechanical design in Appendix J.3.
Table 11.23 Summary mechanical design of Gas absorption, G-101
Design Conditions Value

Operating temperature (°C) 25.00
Operating pressure (bar) 1.60
Design pressure (psig) 40.28
Material of Construction Carbon steel
Vessel internal diameter,Di (mm) 2940.57
vessel external diameter,Do(m) 2956.57
Vessel height, H 11762.28
Ellipsoidal head (top),he 735.14
Cylindrical,hc 10291.99
Ellipsoidal head (bottom),he 735.14
Packing height, 𝐻𝑂𝐺 6176.98
Overall minimum thickness of vessel, toverall (mm) 8.00
Corrosion allowance, CA (mm) 2.00
Longitudinal stress, (N/𝑚𝑚2 ) 8871.30
287
Circumferential stress (N/𝑚𝑚2 ) 17742.61

Direct stress (N/𝑚𝑚2 ) 1505.84
Bending stress (N/𝑚𝑚2 ) 0.00000117
Torsional shear stress (N/𝑚𝑚2 ) 0.00
Elastic stability (N/𝑚𝑚2 ) 𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 < 𝜎𝐶 , (1505.84 < 40284)
type of support straight skirt support
Skirt thickness, ts (mm) 200.00
distance from the edge of the skirt to the outer edge of 64.00
the ring, Lr (mm)
Actual width required, Lb (mm) 888.37
Base ring thickness, tb (mm) 9.33
Type of flanged joint welded neck joint
11.4 REBOILER, B-101
(By: Muhammad Na’im Najmi Bin Mohamad Salji, A168963)
11.4.1 Design specification
Reboiler (B-101) is used to vapourize mixture and return the vapour back to the
distillation column (D-101). Boiling takes place from outside the tube bundle and at
maximum temperature of 180℃ at 1.3 bar. Steam is used as the service fluid of the
kettle reboiler at 1.8 bar at tube side. The specification of the vessel is shown in Table
11.24.
Figure 11.7 Reboiler, B-101
Table 11.24 Specification of reboiler (B-101)

Parameters Value
Operating pressure, Po 1.3 bar
Operating temperature, To 180oC
Maximum allowable working stress (Carbon 14400 psi
288
steel), S
Corrosion allowance, CA 2 mm
Safety factor 10%
11.4.2 Maximum Allowable Working Pressure
The thickness of the vessel's wall is determined by the amount of pressure it can handle,
and as the pressure rises, so does the thickness. According to ASME code UG-32(d)
and UG-27, the minimum wall thickness, tmin, is computed (c). The nominal thickness,
tnominal, that is accessible on the market will be compared to the highest value of tmin.
Before that, the original thickness, tcal will be calculated to know the required thickness
for each part as shown in
Table 11.25 Maximum Allowable Pressure Specification
Design parameter Value Formula

Design pressure, PD 240.42 psi 𝑃𝐷 = 𝑃𝑜 + 𝑃𝐻
Hydrostatic pressure, PH 221.57 psi 𝑃𝐻 = 0.433 × ℎ
Design pressure with safety 264.47 psi 𝑃𝑗 = 1.1𝑃𝐷
factor, Pj
Table 11.26 tcalc calculation

Vessel Parts Formula Value
Ellipsoidal Head 𝑃𝐷 18.85 × 10.07
𝑡= 𝑡= = 0.087 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ
2𝑆𝐸 − 0.2𝑃 2(14400 × 0.85) − 0.2(18.85)
Cylindrical Shell 𝑃𝑅 18.855 × 10.073
𝑡= 𝑡= = 0.008 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ
(Longitudinal Joint) 𝑆𝐸 − 0.6𝑃 (14400 × 0.85) − 0.6(18.855)
Cylindrical Shell 𝑃𝑅 18.855 × 10.073
𝑡= 𝑡= = 0.002 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ
(Circumferential 2𝑆𝐸 + 0.4𝑃 2(14400 × 0.85) + 0.4(18.855)
Joint)
Hemispherical Head 𝑃𝑅 18.855 × 10.073
𝑡= 𝑡= = 0.087 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ
𝑆𝐸 − 0.6𝑃 (14400 × 0.85) − 0.6(18.855)
Highest value of tcal will be taken as uniformity and only longitudinal joints will
be considered as circumferential joint results low thickness value. Table 4 shows the
tmin calculations by considering corrosion allowance and nominal thickness.
289
Table 11.27 tmin calculations

Vessel parts Tcalc tuniformity Tcalc (new) tnominal tmin
(in) (in) (in) (in) (in)
Ellipsoidal head 0.087
Cylindrical shell 0.008
(Logitudinal joints)
Cylindrical shell 0.002 0.087 0.1652 0.1969 0.118
(Circumferential joints)
Hemispherical head 0.087
The MAWP part is the maximum pressure each part can withstand. The calculation is
shown in Table 11.28
Table 11.28 MAWP part
Vessel parts Formula Values

Ellipsoidal head 2𝑆𝐸𝑡 2 × 14400 × 0.118
𝑃= 𝑃= = 476.54 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝐷 + 0.2𝑡 10.07 + 0.2(0.118)
Cylindrical Shell 2𝑆𝐸𝑡 2 × 14400 × 0.118
𝑃= 𝑃= = 484.074 𝑝𝑠𝑖
(longitudinal) 𝑅 − 0.6𝑡 10.07 − 0.6(0.118)
Cylindrical Shell 2𝑆𝐸𝑡 2 × 14400 × 0.118
𝑃= 𝑃= = 482.167 𝑝𝑠𝑖
(circumferential) 𝑅 − 0.4𝑡 10.07 − 0.4(0.118)
Hemispherical head 2𝑆𝐸𝑡 2 × 14400 × 0.85 × 0.118
𝑃= 𝑃= = 482.167 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝑅 − 0.4𝑡 10.07 − 0.4(0.118)
The lowest calculated pressure, 476.54 psi is minus by hydrostatic pressure.

Thus, MAWPvessel is 254.97 psi.
11.4.3 Combined Loading
The contribution of one or more loads at a location of stress is referred to as combined

loading. It occurs when a variety of loads are applied to the vessel, necessitating a
thorough examination and assurance of the vessel's safety. The vessel must be built to
bear the worst possible load combinations without failing. Design pressure, including
any considerable static head of liquid, dead weight of the vessel and its contents, wind
loads, seismic loads, and external stresses imposed by piping and connection on the
vessel are the five main sources of major load. Local stress induced by supports, shock
loads, and stresses owing to temperature changes and differences can all contribute to
the loading.
290
There are a few types of weight that need to take into account when calculating
the total weight of the vessel. The combined loading and weight analysis are shown in
Table 11.29 below.
Table 11.29 Combined loading and weight analysis
Stress Value Formula

Longitudinal Stress 482.41 N/mm2 𝑃𝐷𝑖
𝜎𝑤 =
4𝑡
The circumferential 964.82 N/mm2 𝑃𝐷𝑖
𝜎𝑤 =
stress 2𝑡
Direct stress 6.45 N/mm2 𝑊𝑣
𝜎𝑤 =
𝜋(𝐷 + 𝑡)𝑡
Weight of the shell, Wv 602.23 𝑊𝑣 = 240𝐶𝑣 𝐷𝑚 (𝐻𝑣 + 0.8𝐷𝑚 )𝑡
Vessel Diameter 0.512 -
Factor to account for 1.08 -
veseel weight with few
internal fittings
Weight of tube, Wt 375.41 kg 𝜋 × 𝜌(𝑑𝑜 2 − 𝑑𝑖 2 ) × 𝐿 × 𝑁𝑡 × 9.81
𝑊𝑡 =
4
Weight of shell side, WSF 1078.56 kg 𝑊𝑠𝑓 = ℎ𝑠 × 𝐴 × 𝜌
Weight of the tube side 20.14 kg 𝜋 × 𝜌(𝑑𝑜 2 − 𝑑𝑖 2 ) × 𝐿 × 𝑁𝑡 × 9.81
fluid, WTF 𝑊𝑡𝑓 =
4
Total weight , W 1474.11 kg 𝑊 = 𝑊𝑡 + 𝑊𝑖 + 𝑊𝑠𝑓 + 𝑊𝑡𝑓
Torsional shear stress τ=0 𝜏=
𝑇 𝐷
( 𝑖 + 𝑡)
𝐼𝑝 2
Torsional shear stresses can be neglected in the preliminary vessel design

because these loads will normally be small. Therefore, τ = 0.
11.4.4 Support Design
The saddle support is the most frequent type of support for shell and tube heat
exchangers. The total relative stress on the saddle is computed to ensure that it does not
exceed the saddle's maximum capacity.
Figure 11.8 Saddle support dimension

291
Table 11.30 Saddle Support dimensions

Vessel maximum Dimension (m) mm
diameter weight V Y C E J G t1 t2 Bolt Bolt
(m) (kN) diameter holes
0.6 35 0.48 0.15 0.55 0.24 0.19 0.095 6 5 20 25
11.4.5 Flanged Joint
A flange is a piece of equipment that connects pipes, valves, and other pieces of
equipment to construct a plumbing system. Flanges can also be utilised to join vessel
components, allowing for easy cleaning, inspection, and modification. Flanged joints
are produced by bolting two flanges together and sealing them with a gasket. Welding
neck flanges were chosen because they are suited for rigorous service situations in
which the flange would be exposed to temperature, shear, and vibration loads.
Figure 11.9 Steel welding neck flanges
Table 11.31 shows the dimension of the flanges:
Table 11.31 Dimension of the flanges

Nominal Pipe Flange Raised face Drilling Neck
size o.d d1 D b h1 d4 f d2 k d3 h2 r
65 73 180 20.7 90 73 68 104.8 2 139.7 1.6 90
11.5 COOLER, C-101
For the cooler design, carbon steel SA516 (grade 70) is used as the material of
construction. Carbon steel is most commonly used engineering material as it is cheap,
available in a wide range of standard forms and sizes, has good tensile strength and
292
ductility. The calculations of design of the cooler are to ensure the equipment is safe to
be used. The data for mechanical design of the heat exchanger is shown in Error!
Reference source not found..
Table 11.32 Design data for cooler C-101
Parameter Value
SI Unit English Unit
Operating pressure, Po 6.89 kPa 145.04 psi
Temperature, T 100°C 212°F
Joint efficiency, E 1
Design Stress, S 20000 psi
Corrosion allowance, CA 0.1574 in 4 mm
Length, L 142.13 in 3.61 m
Shell Diameter, Ds 10.51 in 0.267 m
Inner radius of cylindrical 5.21 in 0.132 m

shell, R
11.5.1 Design pressure and thickness
Design pressure, Pd = 1.1(145.42) = 159.96 psi
Since Po>Patm, the design will follow the internal pressure procedure. As the heat
exchanger will be fitted horizontally, the cylinder height equal to the shell diameter,
where h=Ds. The wall thickness, t for each part of the pressure vessel has to be known
in order to get the minimum wall thickness, tmin which is needed in maximum allowable
working pressure (MAWP) part calculation.
APPENDIX A Cylindrical shell
Circumferential stress:
293
𝑃𝑅
𝑡1 =
𝑆𝐸 − 0.6𝑃
(159.96)(5.21)
=
(20000)(1) − 0.6(159.96)
= 0.0419 𝑖𝑛
Longitudinal stress:
𝑃𝑅
𝑡2 =
𝑆𝐸 + 0.4𝑃
(159.96)(5.21)
=
(20000)(1) − 0.4(159.96)
= 0.0209 𝑖𝑛
APPENDIX B Hemispherical head
Hemispherical head is chosen because it can support higher pressure.
𝑃𝐿
𝑡3 =
2𝑆𝐸 − 0.2𝑃
(159.96)(1.63)
=
2(20000)(1) − 0.2(159.96)
= 0.0065 𝑖𝑛
To account for corrosion that might happen in the vessel, corrosion allowance is added
for every thickness obtained. Since the process fluid is corrosive, we choose the
minimum value for corrosion allowance, CA = 4 mm (0.157 in) as safety precaution to
allow material loss due to hydrogen embrittlement and erosion.
t1 = 0.0419 in + 0.157 in = 0.199 in (5.06 mm)
t2 = 0.0209 in + 0.157 in = 0.178 in (4.53 mm)

294
t3 = 0.0065 in + 0.157 in = 0.164 in (4.17 mm)
t1 is chosen to be compared with tnominal which is available decimal thickness in market

that we get from Brown Mcfairlane Limited as they supplied the boiler and pressure
vessel plate. We choose the nearest value, 0.236 in (6 mm). Thus, tmin = 6 mm – 4 mm
= 2 mm.
11.5.2 Maximum Allowable Working Pressure (MAWP)
The minimum wall thickness used in equations below is 0.079 in (2 mm).
i. Cylindrical shell with circumferential stress
𝑆𝐸𝑡
𝑃=
𝑅 + 0.6𝑡
ii. Cylindrical shell with longitudinal stress
2𝑆𝐸𝑡
𝑃=
𝑅 − 0.4𝑡
iii. Hemispherical head
𝑆𝐸𝑡
𝑃=
𝐿 + 0.2𝑡
Hence, subtract the hydrostatic pressure for each part to obtain MAWPvessel.
The result of MAWPpart and MAWPvessel are tabulated in Table 11.33 below.
Table 11.33 Maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP)
Part MAWPpart (psi) MAWPvessel (psi)
Cylindrical Shell
• Circumferential 941.4 941.0

stress
295
• Longitudinal stress 1975.8 1975.4
Hemispherical head 1918.9 1918.5
We take the smallest value from cylindrical shell circumferential stress to be the
MAWPvessel which is 941 psi.
11.5.3 Analysis of combined loading
Pressure vessels are subjected to other loads in addition to pressure and must be
designed to withstand the worst combination of loading without failure.
a. Primary Stresses
For a cylindrical vessel, primary stresses (required to achieve static equilibrium) are due
to following sources:
a) Direct stress due to weight of vessel, contents and attachment.
b) Longitudinal and circumferential stresses due to pressure.
c) Bending stresses due to wind loads, seismic loads and external loads.
b. Direct stress
Shell Weight, Ws
Mean diameter of vessel, Dm = (Di + t x 10-3) = (0.409 + 28 x10-3) = 0.266 m
Height between tangent lines (cylindrical section), Hv = Di + 2/3h = 2.784 m
Cv = 1.08
Ws = 240CvDmHv +0.8Dmt
= 240(1.08)(0.266)(2.784) + 0.8(0.22)(2)
296
= 414.29 N
Tube Weight, Wt
Number of tubes, Nt = 56
Inside diameter of tube, di = 0.017 m
Outside diameter of tube, do = 0.019 m
Density of tube, ρt = 7850 kg/m3
Gravity acceleration, g = 9.81 m/s2
Length of tube = 3.62 m
𝜋𝜌𝑡 𝑑𝑜2 − 𝑑𝑖2 𝐿𝑁𝑡 𝑔

𝑊𝑡 =
4
= 128.06 𝑁
Internal fitting, Wf
Number of baffles = 26
Baffle thickness = 0.01 m
Shell density, ρs = 7850 kg/m3
Area, As = 0.0028 m2
Baffle cut = 25%
100 − 𝑏𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑢𝑡

𝑊𝑓 = (𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑠)𝑡𝐴𝑠 ( ) 𝜌𝑠 𝑔
4
= 8.415 𝑁
Tube Side Fluid

297
Number of tubes, Nt = 56
Density of tube side fluid, ρt = 7850 kg/m3
Inside diameter of tube, di = 0.017 m
Length of tube = 3.61 m
′
𝜋𝜌𝑡 𝑑𝑖2 𝑁𝑡 𝑔
𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑠 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 =
4
= 3509.5 𝑁
Shell Side Fluid
Density of shell side fluid, ρs = 1023.78 kg/m3
Shell area, As = 0.0028 m2
Height between tangent lines, Hv = 2.784 m
𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 ′ 𝑠 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝜌𝑠 𝐴𝑠 𝐻𝑠 𝑔
= 600.6 𝑁
Total weight, Wt = 414.29 + 128.06 + 8.415 + 3509.5 + 600.6
= 4660.9 N =4.66 kN
𝑊𝑡
𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝜎𝑤 =
𝜋(𝐷𝑖 + 𝑡)𝑡
= 2.782 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
The direct stress, σw will be tensile (positive) for points below the plane of the vessel
supports and compressive (negative) for points above the supports.
298
c. Longitudinal and circumferential stresses due to internal pressure
Circumferential stress
𝑃𝐷𝑖 (159.95)(0.265)
𝜎ℎ = = = 10.58 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
4𝑡 4(2)
Longitudinal stress
𝑃𝐷𝑖 (159.95)(0.265)
𝜎ℎ = = = 5.29 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
4𝑡 4(2)
d. Principal Stresses
The principal stress will be given by:
1
𝜎1 = [𝜎 + 𝜎𝑧 + √(𝜎ℎ − 𝜎𝑧 )2 + 4𝜏 2 ]
2 ℎ
1
𝜎1 = [𝜎 + 𝜎𝑧 + √(𝜎ℎ − 𝜎𝑧 )2 + 4𝜏 2 ]
2 ℎ
𝜎1 = 0.5𝑃
Where,
σz = total longitudinal stress = σL + σw + σb
σw = should be counted as positive if tension and negative if compressive (in our case
is negative due to compressive stress)
στ = is usually not significant
Therefore,
σz = 8.073
σ1 =10.58
299
σ2 = 8.073
σ3 is negligible for thin wall vessel.
The maximum shear-stress theory is normally used for pressure vessel design. The
maximum stress intensity, (∆σ)max at any point is taken for design purposes as the
greatest value of the formula below.
σ1 – σ2 = 2.51 N/mm2
σ1 – σ2 = 10.58 N/mm2
σ1 – σ2 = 8.073 N/mm2
(∆σ)max = 10.58 N/mm2 = 1534.66 psi
Hence, (∆σ)max<Sdesign (1534.66 psi < 20000 psi)
The design is safe because the (∆σ)max does not exceed the design stress, S for the
material of construction at any point for the vessel wall thickness. Thus, the analysis of
stress obeyed the condition.
e. Bending stress
Since the heat exchanger is in horizontal position and not considered tall, there is
assumed to be no wind loads and hence the bending stress, σb = 0.
f. Elastic stability
When a material structure is not elastically stable, the buckling failure will occur and
results in a sudden change in shape of the structure. This could happen when the material
lacks sufficient stiffness or rigidity to withstand the load.
For a curve plate subjected to an axial compressive load, the critical buckling stress,
300
𝐸 𝑡
𝜎𝑐 =
3(1 − 𝑣 2 ) 𝑅𝑝
For carbon steel at ambient T, E = 200000 N/mm2 and with a safety factor of 12 and
Poisson’s ratio, v = 0.3 gives
𝑡 2
𝜎𝑐 = (2 × 104 ) = (2 × 104 ) = 1511.33 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝐷𝑖 264.6
∆σc > (∆σ)max, thus the design is safe.
11.5.4 Design of Vessel Support
The vessels support must be designed to withstand the weight of the vessel and contents
and any superimposed loads such as wind loads. Horizontal vessels are installed on two
saddle supports as shown in figure 1.1. A vessel supported on two saddles can be known
as simple beam. The location in which the limit at the supports and at the mid is equal
in magnitude would be at an equally uniform charge and the distribution of the
longitudinal axial bending moment.
Figure 11.10 Horizontal Cylindrical Vessel on Saddle Supports
Source: Sinnot (2009)
The total weight loads that have to be withstand by the saddle support is 4660.9
N with a vessel diameter of 0.265 m. From Chemical Engineering Design Sinnot (2009),
the dimension of the standard saddle support should be designed according to the
following conditions in table 1.4 where figure 1.2 illustrates the dimensions of the
conditions.
301
Figure 11.11 Standard Steel Saddles
Source: Sinnot (2009)
Table 11.34 Standard Dimensions for Saddle Supports with Vessel Diameter
0.3m
V (m) Y C E (m) J (m) G (m) t1 t2(mm) Bolt Bolt

(m) (m) (mm) diameter holes
(mm) (mm)
0.265 0.1 0.37 0.16 0.127 0.063 5 4 13.33 16.67
11.5.5 Flanged joints
Flanged joints are used for connecting pipes and instruments to vessels, for
manhole cover, and for removable vessel heads when ease of access is required. It also
used on the vessel body when it is required to divide the vessel into sections for transport
and maintenance. It can reduce high-stress concentration at the base of the flange by
transferring stress to the adjoining pipe. Welding-neck flange is the best-designed butt
weld available because of its inherent structural value and ease of assembly. Welding-
neck flange has high strength and high resistance to dishing, it is manufactured with a
long-tapered hub. The tapered hub is created by the gradual increase in metal thickness
from the weld join to the flange facing. The welding-neck flange diagram is shown in
Figure 11.12.
302
Table 11.35 Size of flanges used for fitting on each pipe on C-101
Welding Neck Flange
Connection Nominal Size A B I Holes C D F E G Weight
Tube inlet 0.75 99 20.8 15.7 4 12.7 52.3 38.1 26.7 42.9 0.73
Tube outlet 0.75 99 20.8 15.7 4 12.7 52.3 38.1 26.7 42.9 0.73
Stream 12 25.4 108 26.7 15.7 4 14.2 55.6 49.3 33.5 50.8 1.05
Stream 17 25.4 108 26.7 15.7 4 14.2 55.6 49.3 33.5 50.8 1.05
11.5.6 Summary for Design
By considering the internal pressure of the vessel, Cooler C-101, the conditions
that are needed for the design have been calculated through series of formulae stated.
The conditions for the design our cooler have been summarized and tabulated as
followed in Table 6.8.
Table 11.36 Summary for design condition of Cooler C-101
Operating temperature, T 100 °C

303
Mass flowrate 1363.21 kg/h
Design stress, S 20000 psi
Corrosion allowance, CA 4 mm
Design pressure, Pd 10.03 bar
Design pressure with safety factor, Pd 11.03 bar
Longitudinal stress, σL 5.291932 N/mm²
Circumferential stress, σh 10.58386 N/mm²
Bending stress, σb 0 N/mm²
Torsional shear stress, στ 0 N/mm²
Stress intensity, ∆σmax 1534.66 psi
Critical buckling stress, σc 219143.5 psi
Stress analysis ∆σmax < S
Elastic stability ∆σmax < σc
Type of flange Weld Neck Flange
Number of bolts 4
Type of vessel support Saddle support

304
CONCLUSION
For the conclusion, our plant production is focus on production of decane as sustainable
aviation fuel. Decane is a component of kerosene and gasoline (petrol) which is a non-
polar solvent. The process involved in our production is process hydrocracking and
hydrotreating process. Our raw material is triglycerides and hydrogen gas to produce
decane. This source can be obtained from waste cooking oil especially palm cooking
oil. Since malaysia known as second largest producer of palm oil in world thus source
of our production is easier to obtained. Our main product is decane and for by product
is as paraffin, propane, petrol, carbon monoxide and water. The conversion of decane
by process hydrocracking and hydrotreating process from waste cooking oil is 80% and
the plant capacity for our production is 10416.67 kg/hr which is continuous process.
Furthermore, the total heat energy recovery from heat integration is 50.86 % obtained
by using the pinch analysis steps. For piping and instrumentation diagram (p&id) the
type of configuration used are temperature control, pressure control, flow control, level
control and composition control. It can be done by finding mathematical model for each
of the unit processes and from the degree of freedom configuration type can be predict.
Meanwhile relief system used in our plant is spring loaded valve that can be found at
reactor and distillation column. For every waste produced during the process, it must
undergo treatment process before it can discharge through the drainage. The value of
cod and bod of inlet stream wastewater containing is 11814.69 and 3544.41 mg/l
respectively. After the treatment process, the value of cod and bod is reduced to 100
and 30 mg/l respectively which below standard b discharge limit. Other that for
economic analysis our plant npv value is positive, rm 629.15 million value with 31%
DCFRR, considered as profitable and favorable. Also, our production is is expected to
have a profit after three years which is the estimated payback period is 3.2 years. All
the chemical hazards, toxic and flammable materials in this production are identified
where most of our materials is flammable. Lastly for our site location is Tanjung
Langsat Industrial Compkex, 81700 Pasir Gudang, Johor with the highest marks
compared from other site location.
305
REFERENCE
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308
APPENDIX A
MASS AND ENERGY BALANCE
i. MASS BALANCE
a. Filter (F-101)
Figure A.1 Filter (F-101)
Table A.1 Mass balance at Filter (F-101)

Components 4 8 9
Mass Flowrate Mass Flowrate Mass Flowrate
(kg/hr) (kg/hr) (kg/hr)
Triglycerides 32395.36 0 32395.36
Hydrogen gas 0 0 0
Decane 0 0 0
Petrol 0 0 0
Propane 0 0 0
Paraffin 0 0 0
Carbon Monoxide 0 0 0
Water 0 0 0
Benzene 0 0 0
Impurities 25.05 25.05 0
Total stream 32420.41 25.05 32395.36
TOTAL 32420.41 32420.41
𝐹4 += 𝐹8 + 𝐹9
309
32420.41 = 25.05 + 32395.36
25181.07 = 25181.07 Balanced!
b. Gas Absorption (G-101)
Figure A.2 Gas Absorption (G-101)
Table A.2 Mass balance at Gas Absorption (G-101)

Components 17 15 29 28
Mass Flowrate Mass Flowrate Mass Flowrate Mass Flowrate
Triglycerides 0 0 0 0
Hydrogen gas 15.32 0 0 15.32
Decane 0 0 0 0
Petrol 0 0 0 0
Propane 1347.89 0 1347.89 0
Paraffin 0 0 0 0
Water 0 0 0 0
Benzene 0 92.83 92.83 0
Total stream 1363.21 92.83 1440.72 15.32
TOTAL 1456.04 1456.04
𝐹17 + 𝐹15 = 𝐹29 + 𝐹28
1363.21 + 92.83 = 1440.72 + 15.32
1456.04 = 1456.04 Balanced!

310
c. Stripper (G-102)
Figure A.3 Stripper (G-102)
Table A.3 Mass balance at Stripper (G-102)

Components 27 30 31 32
Mass Flowrate Mass Flowrate Mass Flowrate Mass Flowrate
Triglycerides 0 0 0 0
Hydrogen gas 0 0 0 0
Decane 0 0 0 0
Petrol 0 0 0 0
Propane 0 1347.892 1347.89 0
Paraffin 0 0 0 0
Water 943.52 0 47.18 896.35
Benzene 0 92.83 0 92.83
Total stream 943.52 1440.72 1395.07 989.18
TOTAL 2384.25 2384.25
𝐹27 + 𝐹30 = 𝐹31 + 𝐹32
943.52 + 1440.72 = 1395.07 + 989.18
2384.25 = 2384.25 Balanced!

311
d. Distillation Column (D-101)
Figure A.4 Distillation Column (D-101)
Table A.4 Mass balance at Distillation Column (D-102)

Components 14 19 23
Triglycerides 6479.07 0 6479.07
Hydrogen gas 0 0 0
Decane 0 0 0
Petrol 0 0 0
Propane 0 0 0
Paraffin 24629.66 24629.66 0
Water 0 0 0
Benzene 0 0 0
Total stream 31108.73 24629.66 6479.07
TOTAL 31108.73 31108.73
𝐹14 = 𝐹19 + 𝐹23
31108.73 = 24629.66 + 6479.07
31108.73 = 31108.73 Balanced!

312
e. Distillation Column (D-102)

Components 37 38 42
Triglycerides 0 0 0
Hydrogen gas 0 0 0
Decane 10440.04 104.40 10335.63
Petrol 6322.84 6259.61 63.23
Propane 0 0 0
Paraffin 4925.93 492.59 4433.34
Water 1323.38 1191.05 132.34
Benzene 0 0 0
Total stream 23012.19 8047.65 14964.54
TOTAL 23012.19 23012.19
𝐹37 = 𝐹38 + 𝐹42
23012.19 = 8047.65 + 14964.54
23012.19 = 23012.19 Balanced!

313
f. Distillation Column (D-103)

Components 41 46 50
Triglycerides 0 0 0
Hydrogen gas 0 0 0
Decane 104.40 52.20 52.20
Petrol 6259.61 6197.01 62.60
Propane 0 0 0
Paraffin 492.59 246.30 246.30
Water 1191.05 11.91 1179.14
Benzene 0 0 0
Total stream 8047.65 6507.42 1540.23
TOTAL 8047.65 8047.65
𝐹41 = 𝐹46 + 𝐹50
8047.65 = 6507.42 + 1540.23
8047.65 = 8047.65 Balanced!

314
g. Distillation Column (D-104)

Components 45 54 58
Triglycerides 0 0 0
Hydrogen gas 0 0 0
Decane 10335.63 10232.28 103.36
Petrol 63.23 47.42 15.81
Propane 0 0 0
Paraffin 4433.34 44.33 4389.01
Water 132.34 92.64 39.70
Benzene 0 0 0
Total stream 14964.54 10416.67 4547.87
TOTAL 14964.54 14964.54
𝐹45 = 𝐹54 + 𝐹58
14964.54 = 10416.67 + 4547.87
14964.54 = 14964.54 Balanced!

315
i. ENERGY BALANCE
a. Reactor (R-101)
𝐶54 𝐻102 𝑂6 + 𝐻2 →3𝐶17 𝐻32 𝑂2 + 𝐶3 𝐻8 r = 34.1 kmol/h
Based on table C.1, standard heat of reaction was calculated by formula below:
̂ 𝑟 = ∑ 𝐻°
∆𝐻𝑟𝑥𝑛 = 3∆𝐻𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑛 + ∆𝐻𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑒 − ∆𝐻𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑠 − ∆𝐻𝑓 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑙𝑦𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠
= 3(−14000) + (−46200)— 120000 − (−1953.8)
= -268633.8 kJ/mol
The molar enthalpy change of each component is given by formula below:
̂𝑖/𝑗 = ∫𝑇2 𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑡
∆𝐻 𝑇1
𝑇2
=∫𝑇1 (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑇 + 𝑐𝑇 2 + 𝑑𝑇 3 𝑑𝑡
𝑏𝑇 2 𝑐𝑇 3 𝑐𝑇 4
=[𝑎𝑇 + + + ]
2 3 4
Table A.8 Heat capacity of R-101

Triglycerides C54H102O6 - 6333291.975 5215652.215 0
Hydrogen H2 192719.11 - 0 161589.8252
gas
Decane C10H22 - - 0 0
Petrol C6H14 - - 0 0
316
Propane C3H8 - - 0 50560670.96

Paraffin C17H32O2 - - 18361411.72 0
Carbon CO - - 0 0
monoxide
Water H2O - - 0 0
Heat calculation of every stream was using formula below:

̂𝑥 = ∑ 𝑛𝑥 ∆𝐻𝑥
Total enthalpy, 𝐻
Inlet stream R-101
̂7
𝐻 = ∑ 𝑛7 ∆𝐻7
= (38.29 × 2516.42)
= 192 719.11 kJ/h
̂11
𝐻 = ∑ 𝑛11 ∆𝐻11
= (38.29 × 195.5)
= 6333291.98 kJ/h
Outlet stream of R-101
̂12
𝐻 = ∑ 𝑛12 ∆𝐻12
= (7.66 × 805) + (24629.66 × 745.5)
= 23577063.93 kJ/h
̂16
𝐻 = ∑ 𝑛16 ∆𝐻16
317
= (7.66 × 10549.73) + (30.63 × 37510.92)
= 50722260.78 kJ/h
= (23577063.93+50722260.78) - (192 719.11 + 6333291.98) + (30.63× -

24726.2)
h. Reactor (R-102)
The molar heat capacity of component in the reactor (R-102) were calculated and
simplify as table below:
2
Table A.9 Heat capacity of R-102
Hydrogen gas H2 0 1387577.60 0 1163446.741
Decane C10H22 0 0 7344564.688 0
Petrol C6H14 0 0 4713675.844 0
Propane C3H8 0 0 0 0
Paraffin C17H32O2 4459199.99 0 3672282.344 0
Carbon CO 0 0 0 21573754.18
monoxide
Water H2O 0 0 4289618.533 0
Heat calculation of every stream was using formula below:
̂𝑥 = ∑ 𝑛𝑥 ∆𝐻𝑥
Total enthalpy, 𝐻
Inlet stream R-101

318
̂22
𝐻 = ∑ 𝑛22 ∆𝐻22
= (91.90 × 181.05)
= 4459199.99 kJ/h
̂18
𝐻 = ∑ 𝑛18 ∆𝐻18
= (275.71 × 2516.41)
= 1387577.60 kJ/h
Outlet stream of R-101
̂35
𝐻 = ∑ 𝑛35 ∆𝐻35
= (55.14 × 10549.74) + (73.52 × 10479.83)
= 22737200.92 kJ/h
̂33
𝐻 = ∑ 𝑛33 ∆𝐻33
= (73.52 × 703.5) + (73.52 × 745.5) + (18.38 × 37510.93)

+ (73.52 × 3241.40)
= 20020141.41 kJ/h
= (22737200.92+20020141.4) - (1387577.60 +4459199.99) + (34.1× -

860555)
319
i. Stripper (G-102)
The molar heat capacity of component in the distillation column (G-102) were
calculated and simplify as table below:
Table A.10 Heat capacity of G-102

Components Molecular ∆𝑯𝟐𝟕 ∆𝑯𝟑𝟎 ∆𝑯𝟑𝟏 ∆𝑯𝟑𝟐
Hydrogen gas H2 0 0 0 0
Decane C10H22 0 0 0 0
Petrol C6H14 0 0 0 0
Propane C3H8 0 - -5004131.37 0
5813199.922
Paraffin C17H32O2 0 0 0 0
Carbon CO 0 0 0 0
monoxide
Water H2O 731151.1574 0 -23447.99 0
Benzene C6H6 0 -818.75 0 0
= (-5004131.37 + -23447.99)- (-5813199.922 - -818.75 +731151.1574)
= - 6545169.826 kJ/h (Exothermic process)
j. Distillation Column (D-101)
The molar heat capacity of component in the distillation column (D-101) were
Table A.11 Heat capacity of D-101

Components Molecular ∆𝑯𝟏𝟒 ∆𝑯𝟏𝟗 ∆𝑯𝟐𝟑
formular (kJ/kmol.K) (kJ/kmol.K) (kJ/kmol.K)
320
Triglycerides C54H102O6 2309788.838 0 2458807.473

Hydrogen gas H2 0 0 0
Decane C10H22 0 0 0
Petrol C6H14 0 0 0
Propane C3H8 0 0 0
Paraffin C17H32O2 8131482.333 4459199.989 0
Carbon monoxide CO 0 0 0
Water H2O 0 0 0
Heat load, Q = 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝐻𝑖𝑛
= (2458807.473 +4459199.989) – (2309788.838 + 8131482.333)
Distillation Column (D-102)

Components Molecular ∆𝑯𝟑𝟕 ∆𝑯𝟑𝟖 ∆𝑯𝟒𝟐
Triglycerides C54H102O6 0 0 0
Decane C10H22 1573835.29 9443.01 4051052.03
Petrol C6H14 1010073.40 599983.60 26261.91
Propane C3H8 0 0 0
Paraffin C17H32O2 786917.65 47215.06 1841387.29
Water H2O 904304.83 487417.49 236838.43
= (4051052.03+26261.91+1841387.29+236838.43) - (1573835.29 +
1010073.40 + 786917.65 + 904304.83 + 9443.01 + 599983.60 + 47215.06 +
487417.49)
321
= 3024467.662 kJ/h (Endothermic process)
k. Distillation Column (D-103)

Components Molecular ∆𝑯𝟒𝟏 ∆𝑯𝟒𝟔 ∆𝑯𝟓𝟎
Decane C10H22 9443.011741 4721.505871 1142604.42
Petrol C6H14 2659930586 2633331280 32838649.21
Propane C3H8 0 0 0
Paraffin C17H32O2 47215.05871 23607.52935 519365.6458
Water H2O 487417.4864 4874.174864 66233.64854
= (1142604.42 + 32838649.21 + 519365.6458 + 66233.64854 + 9443.011741

+2659930586 + 47215.05871 + 487417.4864) – ( 4721.505871 + 2633331280 +
23607.52935 + 4874. 17)
l. Distillation Column (D-104)

322
Components Molecular ∆𝑯𝟑𝟕 ∆𝑯𝟑𝟖 ∆𝑯𝟒𝟐

Decane C10H22 4051052.03 4010541.52 42587.98
Petrol C6H14 0 0 0
Propane C3H8 0 0 0
Paraffin C17H32O2 1841387.29 18413.8729 1916459.23
Water H2O 236838.43 165786.9011 74739.75
= (42587.98 + 1916459.23 + 74739.75 + 4010541.52+ 18413.873 + 165786.91) –

(42587.98 + 1916459.23 + 74739.75)

323
APPENDIX B
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

P-103 Pump G-102 Stripper P-106 Pump D-104 Distillation Column
K-101 Blower C-102 Cooler G-101 Gas Absorption
R-101 Jacketed Reactor C-104 Cooler D-103 Distillation Column N-104 Condenser
P-101 Pump N-101 Condenser R-102 Jacketed Reactor
C-101 Cooler C-105 Cooler N-103 Condenser E-104 Reflux Drum
P-102 Pump B-101 Reboiler C-103 Cooler
P-104 Pump N-102 Condenser E-103 Reflux Drum B-104 Reboiler
H-101 Heater E-101 Reflux Drum P-105 Pump
D-101 Distillation Column E-102 Reflux Drum B-103 Boiler C-107 Cooler
F-101 Filter H-103 Heater D-102 Distillation Column
H-102 Heater B-102 Boiler C-106 Cooler C-108 Cooler
1 Steam 27
out
WATER
Steam
15 in H-103 28 FAKULTI KEJURUTERAAN
2
HYDROGEN DAN ALAM BINA
BENZENE 16 17 GAS
CW in
P-101 31
JABATAN KEJURUTERAAN
CW
4 out C-102 PROPANE KIMIA DAN PROSES
3 G-101 29 30 32
CW in
WCO BENZENE
CW GROUP KK8
P-102 out C-104
G-102
PRODUCTION OF DECANE
F-101 33 CW 34 FROM WASTE COOKING OIL
in
9
WASTE GAS
CW
10
CW in
out C-105 46 47
Steam SUPERVISORS:
P-103 out
N-103
8
Steam H-102
in
CW out 1. ASSOC. PROF. DR MASLI
R-102 48 49 IRWAN BIN ROSLI
11
E-103
PETROL 2. DR. EBRAHIM MAHMOUDI
41 3. YEOW EU LUN (FAETH ASIA
CW in 39
PACIFIC)
N-102 51
22
38
CW out
5 6 Steam 7 40 E-102 Hot

out water
R-101 52 53
D-103 in CW in GROUP MEMBERS:
HYDROGEN Steam
50
H-101 WASTEWATER
12
in 18
K-101 37 CW
35 CW 36 Hot C-107 1. KASHVINWARMA A/L
water B-103 out
in
out
BASKARAN (A169128)
2. MUHAMMAD NA’IM NAJMI
CW
C-103 43
out P-105 BIN MOHAMAD SALJI (A168963)
54 CW in 55
3.NOR EZZATI AMIRA BINTI
CW in
CW 20 Steam MUSTAPA PADZIR (A169229)
in 44
D-102 in N-104 4. NUR ZAFIRAH ALIAH BINTI
42 CW out
N-101 BAHARUDDIN (A169320)
19
CW
C-101 CW out 56 E-104 57
out B-102 5. HUSNA BINTI AHMAD
E-101 Steam
21 out
DECANE
RADZUAN (A167664)
13
45
14
59
P-106 SUBMISSION DATE:
24 Steam
P-104 D-104 60 61
in CW in
17TH MAY 2022
58
PARAFFIN
Hot oil
D-101 in
25 26 Steam
CW C-108
CW in B-104 out
23 out
UNREACTED
CW out OIL SYMBOLS:
B-101 C-106
Hot oil
out
ORGANIC
WASTE Reactant
Product
Stream 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Temperature (°C) 25 25 25 25 25 25 110 25 25 25 110 375 140 140 25 375 25 110 180 125 110 110 190 200 200 25 110 25 30 25
Pressure (atm) 1 1 1 1.5 1 1.5 1.5 1.3 1.3 2 2 40 1.3 1.5 1.5 40 1.3 1.5 1.1 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.5 1.5 1 1.2 1 1.6 1.2
Phase L L S&L S&L G G G S L L L L L L L G L G G V L L L V L L V G V V
Mass flowrate of component (kg/h)
Triglycerides 0 0 32395.36 32395.36 0 0 0 0 32395.36 32395.36 32395.36 6479.07 6479.07 6479.07 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6479.07 6479.07 6479.07 6479.07 0 0 0 0
Hydrogen gas 0 0 0 0 628 628 76.58 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 15.32 15.32 551.41 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 15.32 0 0
Decane 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Petrol 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Propane 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1347.89 1347.89 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1347.89 1347.89
Paraffin 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 24629.66 24629.66 24629.66 0 0 0 0 24629.66 24629.66 24629.66 24629.66 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Carbon monoxide 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Water 943.52 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 943.52 0 0 0
Benzene 0 92.83 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 92.83 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 92.83 92.83
Organic waste 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 25.05 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
TOTAL 943.52 92.83 32395.36 32395.36 628.00 628.00 76.58 25.05 32395.36 32395.36 32395.36 31108.73 31108.73 31108.73 92.83 1363.21 1363.21 551.41 24629.66 24629.66 24629.66 24629.66 6479.07 6479.07 6479.07 6479.07 943.52 15.32 1440.72 1440.72
Stream 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61
Temperature (°C) 25 25 375 25 375 85 85 100 80 55 55 130 155 155 155 70 45 25 25 80 90 90 25 175 100 25 25 185 190 190 25
Pressure (atm) 1 1 40 1.8 40 1.3 1.5 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.4 1.6 1.6 1.7 1.2 1.4 1.4 1 1.3 1.6 1.6 1 1.2 1.4 1.4 1 1.3 1.6 1.6 1
Phase G L G G L L L G V L L L V L L G V L L L V L L G V L L L V L L
Triglycerides 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Hydrogen gas 0 0 110 110 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Decane 0 0 0 0 10440.04 10440.04 10440.04 104.40 104.40 104.40 104.40 10335.63 10335.63 10335.63 10335.63 52.20 52.20 52.20 52.20 52.20 52.20 52.20 52.20 10232.28 10232.28 10232.28 10232.28 103.36 103.36 103.36 103.36
Petrol 0 0 0 0 6322.84 6322.84 6322.84 6259.61 6259.61 6259.61 6259.61 63.23 63.23 63.23 63.23 6197.01 6197.01 6197.01 6197.01 62.60 62.60 62.60 62.60 47.42 47.42 47.42 47.42 15.81 15.81 15.81 15.81
Propane 1347.89 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Paraffin 0 0 0.00 0.00 4925.93 4925.93 4925.93 492.59 492.59 492.59 492.59 4433.34 4433.34 4433.34 4433.34 246.30 246.30 246.30 246.30 246.30 246.30 246.30 246.30 44.33 44.33 44.33 44.33 4389.01 4389.01 4389.01 4389.01
Carbon monoxide 0 0 2058.60 2058.60 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Water 47.18 896.35 0 0 1323.38 1323.38 1323.38 1191.05 1191.05 1191.05 1191.05 132.34 132.34 132.34 132.34 11.91 11.91 11.91 11.91 1179.14 1179.14 1179.14 1179.14 92.64 92.64 92.64 92.64 39.70 39.70 39.70 39.70
Benzene 0 896.35 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Organic waste 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
TOTAL 1395.07 1792.70 2168.88 2168.88 23012.19 23012.19 23012.19 8047.65 8047.65 8047.65 8047.65 14964.54 14964.54 14964.54 14964.54 6507.42 6507.42 6507.42 6507.42 1540.23 1540.23 1540.23 1540.23 10416.67 10416.67 10416.67 10416.67 4547.87 4547.87 4547.87 4547.87
326
APPENDIX C
SIMULATION
Reactor (R-101)
Gas Absorption (G-101)

327
Stripper

328
Reactor (R-102)

329

330
APPENDIX D
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM AFTER HEAT INTEGRATION

P-103 Pump E-101 Reflux Drum C-102 Cooler D-104 Distillation Column
K-101 Blower G-102 Stripper P-106 Pump
R-101 Jacketed Reactor N-101 Condenser C-103 Cooler C-106 Cooler
P-101 Pump E-102 Reflux Drum D-103 Distillaion Column
C-101 Cooler B-101 Reboiler C-104 Cooler E-104 Reflux drum
P-102 Pump N-102 Condenser E-103 Reflux Drum
P-104 Pump G-101 Gas Absorption P-105 Pump N-104 Condenser
H-101 Heater B-102 Boiler N-103 Condenser
D-101 Distillation Column R-102 Jacketed Reactor D-102 Distillation Column B-104 Reboiler
F-101 Filter C-105 Cooler B-103 Boiler
J-101 Heat Exchanger J-102 Heat Exchanger J-103 Heat Exchanger C-107 Cooler
WATER
16 29 FAKULTI KEJURUTERAAN
2 HYDROGEN DAN ALAM BINA
BENZENE GAS
12 CW 17
P-101 in JABATAN KEJURUTERAAN
38
CW
6 out C-101 PROPANE KIMIA DAN PROSES
3 G-101 30 CW 31 39
in
WCO BENZENE
CW
P-102 out C-103
GROUP KK8
G-102
F-101 13
9
40 PRODUCTION OF DECANE
CW in
FROM WASTE COOKING OIL
10
WASTE GAS
CW
P-103 out C-104 49 CW in 50
14 18 28
11 N-103
CW out SUPERVISORS:
J-102 J-103 51 52
32 E-103
J-101 PETROL 1. ASSOC. PROF. DR MASLI
44 IRWAN BIN ROSLI
CW in 42
2. DR. EBRAHIM MAHMOUDI
15 3. YEOW EU LUN (FAETH ASIA
N-102 54
41
5
CW out
E-103 PACIFIC)
R-102 43 Hot
7
R-101 water
D-103 in 55 CW 56
19 53 in
4 WASTEWATER
35 CW
8
GROUP MEMBERS:
HYDROGEN Steam
33 CW in
34 Hot B-103
out
C-106
out water
K-101 out 1. KASHVINWARMA A/L
27 CW out C-102 46 BASKARAN (A16)
Steam H-101 P-105
in 57 CW in 58 2. MUHAMMAD NA’IM NAJMI
CW in
22 Steam BIN MOHAMAD SALJI (A16)
47
D-102 45 in N-104 3.NOR EZZATI AMIRA BINTI
CW out MUSTAPA PADZIR (A16)
N-101 60
21
59 E-104
24
CW out B-102 4. NUR ZAFIRAH ALIAH BINTI

E-101 Steam
23 out DECANE BAHARUDDIN (A16)
5. HUSNA BINTI AHMAD
48
20 RADZUAN (A167663)
62
P-106
26 CW
SUBMISSION DATE:
P-104 Steam 63 in 64
D-101 in
PARAFFIN 16TH MAY 2022
61
Hot oil
36 37 CW
D-101 in P-133 Steam C-107
25 CW in
out B-104 out
UNREACTED
B-101
CW
OIL SYMBOLS:
Hot oil out C-105
out
ORGANIC
WASTE Reactant
Product
Stream 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
Temperature (°C) 25 25 25 25 25 25 90 110 25 25 375 100 25 110 375 25 25 150 140 140 180 125 110 110 190 200 110 110 25 30 25 375
Pressure (bar) 1 1 1 1 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.3 1.3 40 40 2 2 40 1.5 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.5 1.1 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.5 1.5 1.2 1 1.6 1.2 40
Phase L L S&L G G S&L 1.5 G L S 40 G L L L L L L L L G V L L L V G V G V V G
Triglycerides 0 0 32395.36 0 0 32395.36 0 0 32395.36 0 0 0 32395.36 32395.36 6479.07 0 0 6479.07 6479.07 6479.07 0 0 0 0 6479.07 6479.07 0 0 0 0 0 0
Hydrogen gas 0 0 0 628.00 628.00 0 76.58 76.58 0 0 15.32 15.32 0 0 0 0 15.32 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 551.41 0 0 0 0 110.28
Decane 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Petrol 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Propane 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1347.89 1347.89 0 0 0 0 1347.89 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1348 1348 0
Paraffin 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 24629.66 0 0 24629.66 24629.66 24629.66 24629.66 24629.66 24629.66 24629.66 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Carbon monoxide 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2058.60
Water 943.52 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 943.52 943.52 0 0 0
Benzene 0 92.83 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 93 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 92.83 92.83 0
Impurities 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 25.05 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
TOTAL 943.52 92.83 32395.36 628.00 628.00 32395.36 76.58 76.58 32395.36 25.05 1363.21 1363.21 32395.36 32395.36 31108.73 92.83 1363.21 31108.73 31108.73 31108.73 24629.66 24629.66 24629.66 24629.66 6479.07 6479.07 551.41 943.52 943.52 1440.72 1440.72 2168.88
Stream 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64
Temperature (°C) 375 85 85 200 25 25 25 25 100 80 55 55 130 155 155 155 70 45 185 25 80 90 90 25 175 100 25 25 185 190 190 25
Pressure (bar) 40 1.3 1.5 1.5 1 1 1 1.8 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.4 1.6 1.6 1.7 1.2 1.4 1.3 1 1.3 1.6 1.6 1 1.2 1.4 1.4 1 1.3 1.6 1.6 1
Phase L L L L L G L G G V L L L V L L G V L L L V L L G V L L L V L L
Triglycerides 0 0 0 6479.07 6479.07 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Hydrogen gas 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 110.28 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Decane 10440.04 10440.04 10440.04 0 0 0 0 0 104.40 104.40 104.40 104.40 10335.63 10335.63 10335.63 10335.63 52.20 52.20 52.20 52.20 52.20 52.20 52.20 52.20 10232.28 10232.28 10232.28 10232.28 103.36 103.36 103.36 103.36
Petrol 6322.84 6322.84 6322.84 0 0 0 0 0 6259.61 6259.61 6259.61 6259.61 63.23 63.23 63.23 63.23 6197.01 6197.01 6197.01 6197.01 62.60 62.60 62.60 62.60 47.42 47.42 47.42 47.42 15.81 15.81 15.81 15.81
Propane 0 0 0 0 0 1347.89 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Paraffin 4925.93 4925.93 4925.93 0 0 0 0 0 492.59 492.59 492.59 492.59 4433.34 4433.34 4433.34 4433.34 246.30 246.30 246.30 246.30 246.30 246.30 246.30 246.30 44.33 44.33 44.33 44.33 4389.01 4389.01 4389.01 4389.01
Carbon monoxide 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2058.60 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Water 1323.38 1323.38 1323.38 0 0 47.18 896.35 0 1191.05 1191.05 1191.05 1191.05 132.34 132.34 132.34 132.34 11.91 11.91 11.91 11.91 1179.14 1179.14 1179.14 1179.14 92.64 92.64 92.64 92.64 39.70 39.70 39.70 39.70
Benzene 0 0 0 0 0 0 896.35 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Impurities 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
TOTAL 23012.19 23012.19 23012.19 6479.07 6479.07 1395.07 1792.70 2168.88 8047.65 8047.65 8047.65 8047.65 14964.54 14964.54 14964.54 14964.54 6507.42 6507.42 6507.42 6507.42 1540.23 1540.23 1540.23 1540.23 10416.67 10416.67 10416.67 10416.67 4547.87 4547.87 4547.87 4547.87
333
APPENDIX E
PIPING AND INTRUMENTATION DIAGRAM BEFORE AND AFTER HAZOP

K-101 Blower P-103 Pump E-101 Reflux Drum
C-102 Cooler G-102 Stripper P-106 Pump D-104 Distillation Column
P-101 Pump R-101 Jacketed Reactor N-101 Condenser
C-103 Cooler E-102 Reflux Drum D-103 Distillation Column C-106 Cooler
P-102 Pump C-101 Cooler B-101 Reboiler
C-104 Cooler N-102 Condenser E-103 Reflux Drum E-104 Reflux drum
H-101 Heater P-104 Pump G-101 Gas Absorption
P-105 Pump B-102 Boiler N-103 Condenser N-104 Condenser
F-101 Filter D-101 Distillation Column R-102 Jacketed Reactor
D-102 Distillation Column C-105 Cooler B-103 Boiler B-104 Reboiler
V-101 Relief Valve V-102 Relief Valve V-103 Relief Valve
V-104 Relief Valve V-105 Relief Valve V-106 Relief valve C-107 Cooler
J-101 Heat Exchanger J-102 Heat Exchanger J-103 Heat Exchanger
1
WATER FT FC PT PC
2 2 3 3
TC TT
BENZENE 4 4 CW 30
Hot water GAS
12 in
17 in TC
14
P-101 38 JABATAN KEJURUTERAAN
TT
CW 14
6 FC FT C-101 out CW TC TT LT LC
PROPANE KIMIA DAN PROSES
3 1 1 G-101 in 10 10 31 9 9 39
WCO BENZENE
LT
P-102 1 C-103 CW
Hot water G-102
GROUP KK8
out
out
F-101 LC
13 TC TT PRODUCTION OF DECANE
1 CW 11 11
40
9
in
10
PT PC
WASTE GAS
CW in
6 6
P-103 TC TC C-104 CW 49 50
5 7 out
14 TT 18 TT 28
TT 5 7 SUPERVISORS:
TC
11 N-103
1 1 V-105
CW out LT
PT PC 6 52
J-102 J-103 4 4 E-103 1. ASSOC. PROF. DR MASLI
V-101 V-102 32
J-101 PETROL IRWAN BIN ROSLI
CW in LC
41 42 51 6 2. DR. EBRAHIM MAHMOUDI
15
TT
TC TT PT
3
PC
3
8 LT 3. YEOW EU LUN (FAETH ASIA
44
3 3 7
TC N-102
PC
8 CW out 54
5 CW out PACIFIC)
5
CW in CW out TT
15 TC TT
PT LC 17 17
R-102 43 E-102
7
5 V-104 Hot 7
R-101 water
D-103 out
55 CW 56
CW in 53 in
19 33
LC LT TC
4
8
4 4 15 DECANE GROUP MEMBERS:

CW 35 CW
HYDROGEN Steam
in 34 B-103 C-106 out
Hot water 1. KASHVINWARMA A/L
out in
K-101
BASKARAN (A169128)
27 C-102 CW 46
TC
H-101 out P-105 CW in 2. MUHAMMAD NA’IM NAJMI
2 TC TT LT 57 58
Steam 9 9
TT 5 BIN MOHAMAD SALJI (A168963)
12
in
TT
CW in Steam LC PC 3.NOR EZZATI AMIRA BINTI
TC D-102 47 5 7 N-104
2 out MUSTAPA PADZIR (A169229)
22
21
12 45 CW out LT
8
24
N-101
E-101
PT
E-104 60 4. NUR ZAFIRAH ALIAH BINTI
PC CW out
7 V-106 59
2
V-103 B-102 BAHARUDDIN (A169320)
PT
WASTEWATER 5. HUSNA BINTI AHMAD
LT
2 23 2
Steam
LC
in
48 9
RADZUAN (A167664)
LT
LC 8
2
20 62
TC
P-106 LC 17
TT 8 SUBMISSION DATE:
16
26 LT TT
P-104 3 Steam 63 CW 17
TT
TC D-104 61 out in 64 17TH MAY 2022
16
6 TT
D-101 Hot oil LC CW TC PARAFFIN
3 36 in
13 13
37 Steam
CW
TC 25 out
B-104 C-107 out
6
in UNREACTED SYMBOLS:
CW
OIL
B-101 C-105 out
Hot oil
in ORGANIC Reactant
WASTE
Product
K-101 Blower P-103 Pump E-101 Reflux Drum
C-102 Cooler G-102 Stripper P-106 Pump D-104 Distillation Column
P-101 Pump R-101 Jacketed Reactor N-101 Condenser
C-103 Cooler E-102 Reflux Drum D-103 Distillation Column C-106 Cooler
P-102 Pump C-101 Cooler B-101 Reboiler
C-104 Cooler N-102 Condenser E-103 Reflux Drum E-104 Reflux drum
H-101 Heater P-104 Pump G-101 Gas Absorption
P-105 Pump B-102 Boiler N-103 Condenser N-104 Condenser
F-101 Filter D-101 Distillation Column R-102 Jacketed Reactor
D-102 Distillation Column C-105 Cooler B-103 Boiler B-104 Reboiler
V-101 Relief Valve V-102 Relief Valve V-103 Relief Valve
V-104 Relief Valve V-105 Relief Valve V-106 Relief valve C-107 Cooler
J-101 Heat Exchanger J-102 Heat Exchanger J-103 Heat Exchanger
To FAL/
FAH
1 To PAL/
PAH
WATER FT FC PT PC
2 2 3 3
TC TT
BENZENE 4 4 CW 30
Hot water GAS
12 in
17 in TC
14
P-101 38 JABATAN KEJURUTERAAN
TT
CW 14
6 FC FT To FAL/ C-101 out CW TC TT LT LC
PROPANE KIMIA DAN PROSES
3 1 1 FAH G-101 in 10 10 31 9 9 39
WCO BENZENE
LT To LAL/
P-102 1 LAH C-103 CW
Hot water G-102
GROUP KK8
out
out
F-101 LC
13 TC TT PRODUCTION OF DECANE
1 CW 11 11
40
9
in
10
PT PC
WASTE GAS
To PAL/ CW in
PAH 6 6
P-103 TC TC C-104 CW 49 50 To LAL/
5 7 out
To FAL/ LAH
FC
FAH 14 TT 18 TT 28 To PAL/
TT 5 7 SUPERVISORS:
TC
11 PAH N-103
1 1 V-105
CW out LT
FT PT PC 6 52
J-102 J-103 4 4 E-103 1. ASSOC. PROF. DR MASLI
To TAL/
V-101 V-102 32
J-101 TAH To PAL/ PETROL IRWAN BIN ROSLI
PAH CW in LC
41 42 51 6 2. DR. EBRAHIM MAHMOUDI
15
To TAL/ TT
TC TT PT
3
PC
3
TAH 8
To TAL/
LT To LAL/ 3. YEOW EU LUN (FAETH ASIA
44
3 3 To LAL/ 7 LAH
TC N-102 TAH
LT LC LAH PC
8 CW out 54
5 CW out PACIFIC)
5
CW in CW out TT
15 TC TT
To PAL/ PT LC 17 17
R-102 43 E-102
7
PAH 5 V-104 Hot 7

R-101 water
D-103 out
55 CW 56
CW in 53 in
19 33
LC LT TC
4
8
4 4 15 DECANE GROUP MEMBERS:

CW 35 CW
To LAL/
HYDROGEN Steam
in 34 LAH B-103 C-106 out
Hot water 1. KASHVINWARMA A/L
out in
K-101
BASKARAN (A169128)
27 C-102 CW 46
TC
H-101 out P-105 To LAL/ CW in 2. MUHAMMAD NA’IM NAJMI
2 TC TT LT 57 58 To LAL/
Steam 9 9
To TAL/ TT 5 LAH LAH BIN MOHAMAD SALJI (A168963)
TAH 12
in
TT
CW in Steam LC PC 3.NOR EZZATI AMIRA BINTI
To TAL/ D-102
2 TAH
TC out 47 5 7 N-104 MUSTAPA PADZIR (A169229)
22
21
12 45 CW out LT
8
24
N-101
E-101
To PAL/ PT
E-104 60 4. NUR ZAFIRAH ALIAH BINTI
PC CW out PAH 7 V-106 59
2
V-103 B-102 BAHARUDDIN (A169320)
To PAL/ PT To LAL/
WASTEWATER 5. HUSNA BINTI AHMAD
LT
PAH 2 23 2 LAH
Steam
LC
in
48 9
RADZUAN (A167664)
LT To LAL/
LC 8 LAH
2
20 62
TC
P-106 LC 17
To TAL/ TT 8 SUBMISSION DATE:
TAH 16
26 LT To LAL/ TT
P-104 3 LAH Steam 63 CW 17
To TAL/ TT
TC D-104 61 out in 64 17TH MAY 2022
16
TAH 6 TT
D-101 Hot oil LC CW TC PARAFFIN
3 36 in
13 13
37 Steam
CW
TC 25 out
B-104 C-107 out
6
in UNREACTED SYMBOLS:
CW
OIL
B-101 C-105 out
Hot oil
in ORGANIC Reactant
WASTE
Product
336
APPENDIX F
WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT

E-101 Equalizer Tank S-101 Skim Tank A-101 Aeration Tank P-104 Pump P-105 Pump L-105 Sludge Tank
P-101 Pump P-102 Pump P-103 Pump C-101 Clarifier Tank P-106 Pump F-101 Filter
P-107 Pump
WASTEWATER
FAKULTI KEJURUTERAAN DAN
ALAM BINA
JABATAN KEJURUTERAAN
E-101 KIMIA DAN PROSES
5
2
3 4
OIL
GROUP KK8
WASTEWATER TREATMENT
P-104
S-101 PLANT AFTER PRODUCTION OF
P-101
DECANE
6
KKKR 4774
COURSE LECTURERS:
P-102 7
8
1. PROF. IR. DR. SITI KARTOM
BINTI KAMARUDIN
2. Assoc. PROF. IR. DR.
AIR
SHUHAIDA HARUN
12
A-101
10 11 TREATED SUPERVISORS:
9
WATER 1. Assoc. PROF. DR MASLI IRWAN
BIN ROSLI
P-105 2. DR. EBRAHIM MAHMOUDI
15
P-103 3. YEOW EU LUN (FAETH ASIA

C-101
PACIFIC)
13
14
GROUP MEMBERS:
1. KASHVINWARMA A/L BASKARAN

2. MUHAMMAD NA’IM NAJMI BIN
L-101 MOHAMAD SALJI
P-106
3.NOR EZZATI AMIRA BINTI
MUSTAPA PADZIR
16
Filter 4. NUR ZAFIRAH ALIAH BINTI
18
BAHARUDDIN
17
5. HUSNA BINTI AHMAD RADZUAN
19
SLUDGE SUBMISSION DATE:

F-101
CAKE
30TH JANUARY 2022
SYMBOLS:
Reactant
Stream 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Standard B Product

BOD 3544.2 1594.89 717.7005 717.7005 717.7005 717.7005 717.7005 322.9652 145.3344 145.3344 65.40046 65.40046 65.40046 65.40046 65.40046 65.40046 29.43021 29.43021 29.43021 50
COD 11814 5316.3 2392.335 2392.335 2392.335 2392.335 2392.335 1076.551 484.4478 484.4478 218.0015 218.0015 218.0015 218.0015 218.0015 218.0015 98.10069 98.10069 98.10069 200
338
APPENDIX G
HIRARC
a. HIRARC Study at Filter (F-101)
Filter (F-101) was used to filter the triglyceride from impurities as a pretreatment before the main process started in the reactor. Triglyceride
in the room temperature and not hazardous according to the MSDS.
Table 11.37 HIRARC Study at filter (F-101)

Identification

Scenario
Valve Has a good chance 4 -No or fewer triglyceride 2 8 Perform schedule Installation of the level
malfunction (Fail of occurring and is flow to the filter. inspection and alarm
to open/close) not unusual Low maintenance
-Overflow the
triglyceride flow to the
filter.
Overpressure Might be occur in 3 Numerous fatalities, 4 12 -Perform schedule -Installation of the

inside reactor may the future. irrecoverable property inspection and pressure alarm.
cause rupture. damage and productivity Medium maintenance
(Corrective, preventive,
risk-based and
339
condition – based -Monitor the pressure

maintenance) on alarm frequently.
-Perform a safety
training for workers to
overcome the hazard.
HIRARC Study at Stripper (G-102)
Stripper is the unit operation to separate propane from solvent, Benzene.
Table 11.38 HIRARC Study at stripper (G-102)

Identification
Hazardous Likelihood Severity Risk Rating Preventive Mitigating

Scenario Measures Measures
340
High temperature Might be occur 3 Propane gas is not a 5 15 -Perform -Installation of

inside stripper sometimes in toxic gas but inhaled schedule the
may cause the future. a significant amount inspection and temperature
overheating and of propane or high maintenance alarm.
explosion. concentration can High (Corrective,
led to the preventive, risk- -Monitor the
difficult/impossible based and temperature
breath. condition – alarm
based frequently.
maintenance) on
temperature
controller.
-Perform a
safety training
for workers to
overcome the
hazard.
Pipeline leaking Has not been 2 Air pollution. 5 10 -Scheduled -Follow

known to occur inspection and Emergency
after many Medium maintenance of plan
years pipline.
Difficult to breath -Follow SOP
when hazard
occurs.
341
HIRARC Study at Distillation Column (D-101)
At Distillation Column (D-101), Paraffin was separated from unreacted triglyceride at 180°𝐶
Table 11.39 HIRARC study at Distillation Column (D-101)

Indentification
Hazardous Likelihood Severity Risk Preventive Mitigating

Scenario Rating Measures Measures
High pressure inside 3 Triglyceride and 4 12 -Perform -Installation of

distillation column paraffin not a schedule the pressure
led to the rupture Might be occur hazardous Medium inspection and alarm.
and explosion of the in the future. substance but in maintenance
D-101 the high (Corrective, -Monitor the
temperature it preventive, risk- pressure alarm
can cause skin based and frequently.
burn. condition – based
maintenance) on
pressure
controller.
-Perform a safety
training for
workers to
342
overcome the
hazard.
High temperature Might be occur 3 Triglyceride and 4 12 -Perform -Installation of

inside distillation in the future. paraffin not a schedule the temperature
may cause hazardous Medium inspection and alarm.
overheating and substance but in maintenance
explosion of the D- the high (Corrective, -Monitor the
102. temperature it preventive, risk- temperature
can cause skin based and alarm
burn condition – based frequently.
maintenance) on
temperature
controller.
-Perform a safety
training for
workers to
overcome the
hazard.
Valve malfunction Might be occur 3 -Overflow 4 12 Implement -Install

in the future. mixture. scheduled low/high level
Medium inspection and alarm.
-No or fewer maintenance.
flow mixture -Monitor the
valve by using
343
valve
monitoring app
as an example
Siemens.
HIRARC Study at Heat Exchanger
According to the process flow diagram (PFD) after heat exchanger, we use 3 heat exchangers to transfer heat from one medium to another.
Table 11.40 HIRARC Study at heat exchanger

Indentification
Hazardous Likelihood Severity Risk Preventive Mitigating

Scenario Rating Measures Measures
344
High temperature Might be occur 3 Lead to the 5 15 -Perform -Installation of

inside heat in the future. explosion schedule the temperature
exchanger may because of the High inspection and alarm.
cause overheating overheating maintenance
and explosion of the (Corrective, -Monitor the
heat exchanger. preventive, risk- temperature
based and alarm
condition – based frequently.
maintenance) on
temperature
controller.
-Perform a safety
training for
workers to
overcome the
hazard.
Valve malfunction Might be occur 3 -Overflow 4 12 Implement -Install

in the future. mixture. scheduled low/high level
Medium inspection and alarm.
-No or fewer maintenance.
flow mixture - Monitor the
valve by using
valve
monitoring app
as an example
Siemens.
345
APPENDIX H
HAZOP
a. Gas absorption, G-101

346
i. Node 1 of G-101
Project Title: HAZOP study on Gas Absorption, G-101
Project Number: 1 Date: 6 January 2022
P & ID Number: G-101 Chairman: Kashvinwarma A/L Baskaran
Item: Inlet stream Parameter: Flow
No No flow rate Inlet pipe ruptured or -Separation does None Schedule inspection and
distillate blocked not occur. maintenance
347
Low Less flow rate Partially blockage of -Efficiency of Flow controller Schedule inspection
distillate pipeline separation
decreases and maintenance
Leakage of pipe
-Distillation
column may run
dry
-Release
hazardous
chemical into
working
environment
High Intense flow rate Large flow from previous -Overflow and Flow Schedule inspection and
distillate unit operation spillage of
containment controller maintenance
-Overpressure
and causing
rupture of the
column
348
ii. Node 2 of G-101
Project Title: HAZOP study on Gas Absorption, G-101
Item: Output stream Parameter: Pressure
Low Low pressure Low flowrate of reactant -Low Pressure Scheduled inspection
inside the column controller
into the column production rate and maintenance
-Energy wastage
349
High High pressure Outlet flow too low Vessel or Pressure Scheduled inspection
inside the column
pipeline rupture controller and maintenance
350
b. Stripper, G-102
351
i. Node 1 of G-102
Project Title: HAZOP study on Stripper, G-102
Item: Inlet stream Parameter: Temperature
Low Low temperature Efficiency of Temperature Schedule inspection

in the column separation
Valve failed to open decreases controller and maintenance
352
High High temperature Valve failed to closed -Ineffective Temperature Schedule inspection and
in the column separation
process controller maintenance
-The desired
separation
cannot be
achieved
ii. Node 2 of G-102

Project Title: HAZOP study on Stripper, G-102
353
Item: Output stream Parameter: Level

Low Low level inside the Low flowrate Low Level controller Scheduled inspection
column into the column production rate and maintenance
Energy wastage
High High level inside the High flowrate into Overflow inside Level Scheduled inspection
column column vessel controller and maintenance
354
c. Distillation column, D-101
i. Node 1 of D-101
Project Title: HAZOP study on Distillation Collumn, D-101
P & ID Number: D-101 Chairman: Kashvinwarma A/L Baskaran
Item: Outlet Distillation Collumn, D-101 Parameter: Pressure

355
Low Low pressure in the -Not enough vapor builds up -Product may not Pressure -Schedule inspection and
column in column meet requirement controller maintenance
-Leakage at the wall of the -Leakage of -Installation of low

column hazardous pressure alarm
chemical to
-Outlet flow rate is too high environment
High High pressure in the Outlet flow rate is too low Cause distillation Pressure Schedule inspection and
column column fracture maintenance
as pressure rises controller
up Installation of high
pressure alarm
Workers exposed
to hazardous
chemicals
ii. Node 2 of D-102

356
Item: Output vapor stream Parameter: Level
Less Low level of liquid -Outlet bottom pipe leakage -Distillation Level controller -Schedule inspection and
in distillation maintenance at the inlet
column -Leakage of column column may pipe
-Outlet flow rate is run dry -Installation of low
too high -Efficiency of level alarm
separation
process
decreased
High High level liquid of -Outlet bottom pipe -Overflow -Schedule inspection
liquid in the blockage
357
distillation column -Outlet flow rate too low of column Level controller and maintenance
-Overpressure -Install high level
inside the alarm
column
iii. Node of D-103

358
Item: Outlet stream Parameter: Temperature
Low Low temperature in the Break down of reboiler Efficiency of Temperature -Schedule inspection and
column controller maintenance frequency
separation -Installation of low
process temperature alarm
decreased
High High temperature in the Temperature controller fail -Can lead to Temperature -Schedule inspection and
distillation column overheated and controller maintenance
damaged of the -Installation of high
column
-Product may temperature alarm
not meet
specification
359
iv. Node of D-104
Item: Inlet stream Parameter: Level
Low Low level of liquid -Outlet bottom pipe leakage -Distillation Level controller -Schedule inspection and
in distillation column may run maintenance at the inlet
column -Leakage of column dry pipe
-Outlet flow rate is too -Efficiency -Installation of low level
360
high of separation alarm
process
decreased
High High level liquid of -Outlet bottom pipe -Overflow of Level -Schedule inspection and
liquid in the blockage column maintenance at the outlet
distillation column controller pipe
-Outlet flow rate too low -Overpressure
-Installion of high level
inside the
alarm
column
361
APPENDIX I
PLANT LAYOUT
362
APPENDIX J
MECHANICAL DESIGN
Inlet 11
CROSS SECTIONAL TOP VIEW OF THE

VIEW OF THE REACTOR REACTOR
Outlet 16
14 FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND BUILT
ENVIRONMENT
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
AND PROCESS
PRODUCTION OF AVIATION FUEL FROM WASTE

COOKING OIL
MECHANICAL DESIGN OF PACKED BED
REACTOR (PBR)
2069
724
789
GROUP
K8
GROUP MEMBERS
KASHVINWARMA A/L BASKARAN A169128
2759
TOP AND SIDE OF TOP AND SIDE VIEW OF HUSNA BINTI AHMAD RADZUAN A167664
WELDING NECK FLANGE SKIRT SUPPORT NUR ZAFIRAH ALIAH BINTI BAHARUDDIN A169320
NOR EZZATI AMIRA BINTI MUSTAPA PADZIR A169229
MUHAMMAD NA'IM NAJMI BIN MOHAMAD SALJI A168963
591
DRAWN BY
NUR ZAFIRAH ALIAH BINTI BAHARUDDIN
87
DATE
Outlet 12
20th MAY 2022

10
DRAWING NOT TO SCALE

UNIT DIMENSION IN MILLIMETER (mm)
Inlet 7 D3
16
Inlet 7 DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS
690
16
D2 Design Temperature : 375°C
690
Operating Pressure : 4000 kPa
H Design Pressure : 4419 kPa
Design Thickness : 14 mm
b
Corrosion Allowance : 2 mm
f
113
D4 Inside Diameter : 591.1 mm
648 K Vessel Height : 2069 mm
113
D
648 Height of cylindrical shell : 1478 mm
Height of ellipsoidal head : 295.6 mm
ANCHOR BOLT DESIGN WELDING NECK FLANGED
Material Used : Stainless Steel (SA240) Grade 304
Longitudinal Stress : 54.18 N/mm2

Circumferential Stress : 108.37 N/mm2
Direct Stress : 0.0002 N/mm2
Bending Stress : 0.292 N/mm2
Total Longitudinal Stress
(Upwind) : 108.37 N/mm2
Total Longitudinal Stress
(Downwind) : 54.48 N/mm2
Maximum allowable Stress: 54.48 N/mm2
BOTTOM VIEW OF LIQUID DISTRIBUTOR
TOP VIEW OF RANDOM PACKING COLUMN
R1
48
0.
3
STREAM 29
2940.5
735.4
TOP VIEW OF VESSELS
FAKULTI KEJURUTERAAN DAN ALAM BINA

STREAM 16
(FKAB)
10 JABATAN KEJURUTERAAN KIMIA DAN

PROSES (JKKP)
TOP VIEW OF FLANGE TOP VIEW OF MAN HOLE PRODUCTION OF AVIATION FUEL FROM
COOKING OIL
MECHANICAL DESIGN OF GAS ABSORPTION

( G-101)
SUPERVISORS
PROF. MADYA DR. MASLI IRWAN ROSLI
DR EBRAHIM MAHMOUDI
INDUSTRIAL MENTOR
SIDE VIEW OF SKIRT
11750.3
YEOW EU LUN (FAETH ASIA PACIFIC)

6177
GROUP K8:
KASHVINWARMA A/L BASKARAN

NUR ZAFIRAH ALIAH BINTI BAHARUDDIN
NOR EZZATI AMIRA BINTI MUSTAPA PADZIR
SIDE VIEW OF FLANGE SIDE VIEW OF MAN HOLE
MUHAMMAD NA'IM NAJMI BIN MOHAMAD SALJI
DRAWN BY:
Ø16.4 NOR EZZATI AMIRA BINTI MUSTAPA PADZIR
2000
A169229
SUBMISSION DATE:
17 MEI 2022
STREAM 30
SI UNIT : MILIMETER
76.2
305
DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS
F DESIGN PRESSURE: 1.6 BAR
E
DESIGN TEMPERATURE: 25 °C
G
H
D
C
B
A CORROSION ALLOWANCE, CA: 4 MM
TOP HEAD : 2:1 ELLIPSOIDAL HEAD

DIMENSION OF FLANGES (mm) VESSEL BODY : CYLINDRICAL SHELL
BOTTOM HEAD: 2:1 ELLIPSOIDAL HEAD
STREAM 17 NO OF STREAM A B C D E F G H
CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL
16 190 150 128 76 42 18 16 3 COLUMN : CARBON STEEL
30 190 150 128 76 42 18 16 3 SKIRT AND FLANGE: CARBON STEEL
17 540 495 465 378 65 22 20 3
29 320 280 258 99 55 18 22 4
Cross-sectional view of Top View Distillation Column Top View of sieve plate
Distillation column
1550
1550 FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Manhole 2 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PROGRAMME
A Manhole 1
KKKR 4852
448 FINAL YEAR DESIGN PROJECT
1550 10 PROJECT TITLE

PRODUCTION OF AVIATION FUEL
B FROM WASTE COOKING OIL
Manhole 1
Top and side view of skirt support
457 Skirt support of distillation column DRAWING TITLE
MECHANICAL DESIGN OF DISTILLATION
870 COLUMN D-104
GROUP MEMBERS
B1
C 1. KASHVINWARMA A/L BASKARAN
2. MUHAMMAD NA’IM NAJMI BIN
MOHAMAD SALJI
5586 3.NOR EZZATI AMIRA BINTI
Top and Side view of 1500 MUSTAPA PADZIR
welding neck flange 4. NUR ZAFIRAH ALIAH BINTI
10 BAHARUDDIN
d1 5. HUSNA BINTI AHMAD RADZUAN
d4
B2
Manhole 2 DRAWN BY : KASHVINWARMA

d3 Detail drawing of B1 Detail drawing of B2
D DATE : 25 May 2022
448 DRAWING NOT TO SCALE

h1 UNITS DIMENSION IN MILLIMETER(MM)
1500
E t1 MAWP VESSEL: 2.21 bar
d2 DESIGN PRESSURE: 1.7 bar

DESIGN TEMPERATURE: 155 °C
DIMENSION OF FLANGES (mm)
CONNECTION d1(mm) d2(mm) d3(mm) d4(mm) h1(mm) h2(mm) T(mm)
A 406.4 25.0 254.5 323.9 101.6 71.4 30.2
SPECIFICATIONS
B 342.9 18.0 202.7 269.8 101.6 73.2 28.5
Ellipsoidal Heads and Cylindrical Shell
C 342.9 18.0 202.7 269.8 101.6 73.2 28.5 ASME SA-135 Gr. A Carbon Steel
D 406.4 25.0 254.5 323.9 101.6 73.2 28.5 Skirt Support
E 342.9 18.0 202.7 269.8 101.6 73.2 28.5 ASME SA-516 Gr. 55 Carbon Steel
Manhole 1 698.5 25.0 489.0 584.2 144.5 101.6 42.9 Flange
Manhole 2 698.5 489.0 489.0 584.2 144.5 101.6 42.9 Welded Neck Flange Class 150
3970
3705
265
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND
BUILT ENVIRONMENT
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL
ENGINEERING AND PROCESS
TOP VIEW OF HEAT EXCHANGER PRODUCTION OF AVIATION FUEL
132.5
STREAM 17 FROM WASTE COOKING OIL
TUBE SIDE INLET 25% baffle cut 52.9
MECHANICAL DESIGN OF
COOLER (C-101)
GROUP
KK 8
19.05
SUPERVISORS
PROF. MADYA DR. MASLI IRWAN ROSLI

DR EBRAHIM MAHMOUDI
TUBE SIDE OUTLET
YEOW EU LUN
STREAM 12
SIDE VIEW OF HEAT EXCHANGER GROUP MEMBERS
KASHVINWARMA A/L BASKARAN

(A169128)
MUHAMMAD NA'IM NAJMI BIN MUHAMMAD
SALJI
(A168963)
NOR EZZATI AMIRA BINTI MUSTAPA PADZIR
F (A169229)
F E NUR ZAFIRAH ALIAH BINTI BAHARUDDIN
E I B
(A169320)
19.05 t1 I B (A167664)
265 D DRAWN BY
D C HUSNA BINTI AHMAD RADZUAN
DATE
G 20th MAY 2022
C
G J
t2 DRAWING NOT TO SCALE
J A UNIT DIMENSION IN MILLIMETER
G A (mm)
CROSS SECTIONAL VIEW OF Y TUBE SIDE FLANGE
TUBE BUNDLE SHELL SIDE FLANGE
SADDLE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS
WELDING NECK FLANGE Design Temperature : 100°C

Operating Pressure : 10 bar
Connection Nominal Size A B I Holes C D F E G Weight Design Pressure : 10 bar
SADDLE SUPPORT Design Thickness : 6 mm
Tube inlet 0.75 99 20.8 15.70 4 12.7 52.3 38.1 26.7 42.9 0.73 Corrosion Allowance : 4 mm
Vessel Maximum Bolt Bolt Shell Diameter : 265 mm
Diameter Weight Y G t1 t2 Diameter Holes Tube outlet 0.75 99 20.8 15.70 4 12.7 52.3 38.1 26.7 42.9 0.73 Shell Length : 3970 mm
Stream 12 25.40 108 26.7 15.70 4 14.2 55.6 49.3 33.5 50.8 1.05
Material Used : Carbon Steel
2.60 1000 0.23 0.15 12 16 27 33 (SA516)
Stream 17 25.40 108 26.7 15.70 4 14.2 55.6 49.3 33.5 50.8 1.05
SIDE VIEW OF THE KETTLE REBOILER
FACULTY ENGINEERING AND BUILD ENVIRONMENT
3660 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PROCESS DEPARTMENT

WELDING NECK
FLANGE TOP VIEW
TITLE:
PRODUCTION OF AVAIATION FUEL FROM WASTE
COOKING OIL
MECHANICAL DESIGN:
KETTLE REBOILER
256
WELDING NECK FLANGE

SUPERVISORS:
SIDE VIEW
1. Assoc. PROF. DR MASLI IRWAN BIN ROSLI
2. DR. EBRAHIM MAHMOUDI
A 3. YEOW EU LUN (FAETH ASIA PACIFIC)
d3
GROUP : KK8
d4
k
D
CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA OF SIDE
VIEW
LIST OF MEMBER:
1. KASHVINWARMA A/L BASKARAN
CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA 2. MUHAMMAD NA'IM NAJMI BIN MOHAMAD
OF SADDLE SUPPORT SALJI
3. NOR EZZATI AMRIA BINTI MUSTAPA PADZIR
4. NUR ZAFIRAH ALIAH BINTI BAHARUDDIN
DETAILED VIEW OF SADDLE SUPPORT 5. HUSNA BINTI AHMAD RADZUAN
512
SUBMISSION DATE : 22ND APRIL 2022
V
DRAWING NOT TO SCALE
t1 UNIT DIMENSION IN MILIMETER (MM)
J J
E E
16
C DESIGN SPECIFICATION
20
CORROSION ALLOWANCE : 2 MM
Dimension of flange (mm) INSIDE DIAMETER : 256 MM

Pipe Saddle Support Dimension
HEIGHT : 512 MM
Label Connection Opening D b h1 Maxim
Vessel Dimensions (m)
Diameter um
diamet TOP HEAD : HEMISPHERICAL
A Tube Inlet 90 180 20.7000 68 Weigh V Y C E J G t1 t2
er (m)
t (kN)
B Shell Outlet 90 180 20.7000 68 0.6000 35 0.4800 0.1500 0.5500 0.2400 0.1900 0.0950 6 5
SHELL : CYLINDRICAL
C Shell Outlet 90.0000 180 20.7000 68 BOTTOM HEAD : ELLIPSOIDAL
DESIGN TEMPERATURE : 190oC
DESIGN PRESSURE : 1.3 Bar
CARBON STEEL : SA-515 GRADE 60
FLANGED JOINT :WELDING-NECK FLANNGE CLASS 150

363
APPENDIX J.1
MECHANICAL DESIGN OF REACTOR, R-101
(by Nur Zafirah Aliah binti Baaruddin)
11.5.7 Design Pressure
Since the operating pressure of the reactor (40 bar) is greater than atmospheric pressure
(Pa > Patm), the reactor is designed under internal pressure. Firstly, the design pressure
for each part of the vessel is calculated by using equation:
𝑃𝐷 = 𝑃𝑂 + 0.433ℎ
Where h= height of each part from top shellPo= operating pressure

PD= Design pressure
h= Height (ft)
Hence,
Ellipsoidal 2:1 top head, PD
= 580.151 + 0.433 (0.485) = 580.361 psi
Cylinder shell, PD
= 580.151 + 0.433 (0.485+ 4.848) = 582.460 psi
Ellipsoidal 2:1 bottom head, PD

= 580.151 + 0.433 (0.485+ 0.485+ 4.848) = 582.670 psi
A safety factor about 10% is added to design pressure for safety purpose. The new
design pressure is Pj = 1.10PD and the data is tabulated in the Table 1,4 below
Table J.1 New Design Pressure for R-101

Part PD (psi) Pj (psi)
Ellipsoidal 2:1 top head 580.361 638.40
Cylindrical shell 582.460 640.71
364
Ellipsoidal 2:1 bottom head 582.670 640.94
11.5.8 Minimum wall thickness
The wall thickness formulas for each part of the column are from ASME Code UG-
32(d) and UG-27 (c). The maximum allowable stress value, S is from ASME Code
givenin Subpart 1 of Section II, Part D.
Top ellipsoidal head,
𝑃𝐷 (638.40)(23.271)
2𝑆𝐸 − 0.2𝑃 2(17694.6)(0.8) − 0.2(638.40)
= 0.5271 in
Cylinder shell,
𝑃𝑅 (640.71)(23.271/2)
𝑆𝐸 − 0.6𝑃 (17694.6)(0.8) − 0.6(640.71)
= 0.5413 in
Bottom ellipsoidal head,
𝑃𝐷 (640.94)(23.271)
2𝑆𝐸 − 0.2𝑃 2(17694.6)(0.8) − 0.2(638.40)
= 0.5292 in
Thus, the overall thickness, toverall is determined, which is the highest value of minimum
thickness calculated for each part
toverall = 0.5413 in = 13.5 mm

365
After considering the corrosion allowance of 2mm
t= 13.5 + 2 = 15.5mm
The closest tnominal of type SA-240 Grade 304 is 16.0 mm

tmin = tnominal – CA
= 16.0 mm – 2 mm
= 14 mm (0.551 in)
11.5.9 Mechanical design of reactor, R-101
a. Maximum allowable working pressure
The maximum allowable working pressure for any type pressure vessel, MAWP is
determined by calculating every part under internal pressure. The formula of internal
design pressure for each part of the reactor can be found in ASME Code UG-32 part (D)
and UG-27 part (c). By using tmin from the calculation above, the MAWPvessel is
calculated.
For top ellipsoidal head,
2𝑆𝐸𝑡 2(17694.6)(0.8)(0.551)
Internal pressure = = (23.271)+0.2 (0.551)
= 571.91 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝐷+0.2𝑡
Static head, PH = 0.433 (0.4849) = 0.21 𝑝𝑠𝑖
MAWPvessel = Internal pressure- Static head = 571.7 psi
For the cylinder shell,
𝑆𝐸𝑡 (17694.6)(0.8)(0.551)
Internal pressure = = (23.271/2)+0.6 (0.551)
= 560.59 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝑅+0.6𝑡
Static head, PH = 0.433 (0.4849 + 4.848) = 2.31 𝑝𝑠𝑖

366
For the bottom ellipsoidal head,
2𝑆𝐸𝑡 2(17694.6)(0.8)(0.551)
Internal pressure = = (23.271)+0.2 (0.551)
= 571.91 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝐷+0.2𝑡
Static head, PH = 0.433 (0.4849 + 4.8484 + 0.4849) = 2.52 𝑝𝑠𝑖
The value of internal pressure and MAWPvessel is obtained and the result is shown.
Table J.2 Internal pressure and MAWPvessel for each part of the reactor R-101
Part of the column MAWPpart (psi) Static head, PH(psi) MAWPvessel (psi)
Cylindrical Shell 560.59 2.31 558.28
By choosing the smallest value, the MAWPvessel is 558.28 psi (38.49 bar)
11.5.10 Combined loading
Pressure vessel subjected to other loads (major and subsidiary load) in addition to
pressure. Hence, it must be designed to withstand the worst combination of loading
without failure. There are the sources of combined loading which are internal and
external pressure, weight loads, wind loads, earthquake (seismic load), and eccentric
loads (Sinnott 2005). All of these are related to primary stresses and summarized into
principal stresses in the end of calculation.
a. Primary stresses
Primary stresses are due to following sources:
i. Longitudinal (L ) and circumferential stresses (H ) due to pressure
ii. Direct stress ( W )

367
iii. Bending stresses (b )
iv. Torsional shear stresses ()
Design pressure take as 10% above operating P as safety

factors
PD = (1.10) (580.15)
= 638.17 psi = 4.4 N/mm2
Longitudinal (  L ) and circumferential (  h ) stresses
𝑃𝐷𝑖
𝜎𝐿 =
4𝑡
4.4 (591.1)
= = 54.184 N/mm2
4 (14)
𝑃𝐷𝑖
𝜎𝐶 =
2𝑡
4.4 (591.1)
= = 108.37 N/mm2
2(14)
Direct stress, W
𝑊
𝜎𝑤 = 𝜋(𝐷 +𝜏)𝑡 where, W= WV+WI
𝑖
𝑊𝑉 = 240𝐶𝑉 𝐷𝑚 (𝐻𝑉 + 0.8𝐷𝑚 )𝑡

CV = 1.08
Dm= Di+t = 0.5911+(0.0.14) = 0.6031 m
Hv= hc+2/3 he = 1.478+ 2/3 (0.1478) = 1.5765 m
t= 14mm
Thus,
𝑊𝑉 = 240(1.08)(0.6031)(1.5765 + 0.8(0.6031))(0.014) = 3.755𝑁
Hence direct stress,

368
𝑊
𝜎𝑤 =
𝜋(𝐷𝑖 + 𝜏)𝑡
(3.755)
𝜎𝑤 = = 0.0001652𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝜋(591.1 + 12)(14)
Bending stress, b
𝑀 𝐷𝐼
𝜎𝑏 = ± ( + 𝑡)
𝐼𝑉 2
𝑀 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
Iv = Second moment of area the vessel about plane of bending
𝑊𝑥 2
𝑀=
2
x = 𝐻𝑣 = 1.5765 m
𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑓(including insulation) = 𝐷𝑜 = 𝐷𝑖 + 2t = 0.6151 m
Pw = 1280 N/m2
W = 𝑃𝑤𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑓 = (1280)(0.6151) = 787.33 N/m
787.33(1.57652 )
M= = 978.39 Nm = 9.784 x 105 Nmm
2
𝜋 𝜋
Iv = 64 (𝐷𝑂 4 − 𝐷𝑖 4 ) = (0.61514 − 0.59114 ) = 0.00103m
64
Thus, Bending stress,
(9.784 × 105 ) 591.1

𝜎𝑏 = ± ( + 14)
(1.03 × 109 ) 2
= ±0.292 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Torsional shear stresses ,
The torsional shear stresses can be neglected in preliminary vessel designbecause

these loads will normally be small, where, τ = 0.
369
b. Principal Stresses,
1
𝜎1 = [𝜎 + 𝜎𝑧 √(𝜎ℎ − 𝜎𝑧 )2 + 4𝜏 2 ]
2 ℎ
1
𝜎2 = [𝜎ℎ + 𝜎𝑧 √(𝜎ℎ − 𝜎𝑧 )2 + 4𝜏 2 ]
2
Total longitudinal stresses for upwind,σz
σz(upwind) = σL + σW + σb
σz(upwind) = 54.184 + (0.0001652) + 0.292
= 54.476 N/mm2
Total longitudinal stresses for downwind,σz
σz(downwind) = σL + σW − σb
σz(downwind) = 54.184+ (0.0001652) − 0.292
= 53.892 N/mm2
Table J.3 Primary stress for R-101

Primary stresses Value (N/mm2)
Longitudinal stress, σL 54.184
Circumferential stress, σh 108.368
Direct stress, σw 0.0001642
Bending stress, σb ± 0.292
Torsional shear stresses, τ 0
Total longitudinal stress, σz (upwind) 54.476
Total longitudinal stress, σz (downwind) 53.892
Principal stress for upwind
1
𝜎1 = [𝜎 + 𝜎𝑧 + √(𝜎ℎ − 𝜎𝑧 )2 + 4𝜏 2 ]
2 ℎ
1
= [(108.368) + (54.476) + √(108.368 − 54.476)2 + 4(0)2 ]
2
370
𝑁
= 108.368 𝑚𝑚2 = 𝜎ℎ
1
𝜎2 = [𝜎ℎ + 𝜎𝑧 − √(𝜎ℎ − 𝜎𝑧 )2 + 4𝜏 2 ]
2
1
= [(108.368) + (54.476) − √(108.368 − 54.476)2 + 4(0)2 ]
2
𝑁
= 54.476 𝑚𝑚2 = 𝜎𝑧 (upwind)
Principal stresses for downwind
1
𝜎1 = [𝜎 + 𝜎𝑧 + √(𝜎ℎ − 𝜎𝑧 )2 + 4𝜏 2 ]
2 ℎ
1
= [(108.368) + (54.476) + √(108.368 − 54.476)2 + 4(0)2 ]
2
𝑁
= 108.368 𝑚𝑚2 = 𝜎ℎ
1
𝜎2 = [𝜎ℎ + 𝜎𝑧 − √(𝜎ℎ − 𝜎𝑧 )2 + 4𝜏 2 ]
2
1
= [(108.368) + (54.476) − √(108.368 − 54.476)2 + 4(0)2 ]
2
𝑁
= 54.476 𝑚𝑚2 = 𝜎𝑧 (upwind)
c. Maximum allowable stress intensity (∆σmax)
Assume τ = 0, σ3 = 0.5 (5.514) = 2.757
For upwind condition,
σ1 – σ3 = 108.36-2.757
= 105.603 N/mm2
For downward condition,

371
σ1 – σ3 = 54.476-2.757
= 51.719 N/mm2
Hence, the maximum allowable stress intensity, (∆σmax) = 105.603 N/mm2 According
to ASME Code, maximum allowable stress at temperature 375 oC,S = 122 N/mm2
Since, (∆σmax) = 105.603 N/mm2 ˂ S = 122 N/mm2, therefore, the design is safe to use.
d. Elastic Stability
𝐸 𝑡
Critical buckling stress, 𝜎𝑐 = ( )
√3(1−𝑉 2 ) 𝑅𝑝
0.472
= (2 × 104 )( )
615.1
= 15.347 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Compressive stress,
𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑚 = 𝜎𝑏 + 𝜎𝑤
= 0.29+ 0.0001652
=0.2902 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Since the value of (∑ 𝜎)𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 ˂ σc, therefore, the design is safe to use.
From the analysis of combined loading, the material we chose has fulfilled
bothrequirements of maximum stress intensity and elastic stability:
(Δσ)max < S and (∑ 𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 ) < 𝜎𝑐. Therefore, the design is safe.
The vessels support must be designed to withstand the weight of the vessel including
weight of material are packed inside and contents and any superimposed loads such as
372
wind loads. Support will impose localized loads on the vessel wall, and the design must
be checked to ensure resulting stress concentrations are below the maximum allowable
design stress. It is also important to allow the ease of access to the vessel and the fittings
for inspection and maintenance (Sinnott 2005).
a. Thickness of support
The skirt support had been chosen as the support for distillation column. Since the
height of distillation column, H = 1.7734 m with the internal diameter, Di = 0.591 m, the
skirt support is suitable for the use of tall vessel which subject to wind loading.
The resultant stresses in the skirt,
Bending stress in the skirt, bs = 𝜋(𝐷 +𝑡 𝑠)𝑡

4𝑀
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝐷𝑠
4(7051.59 × 1000)
= = 2.099𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝜋(591.1 + 12)(12)(591.1)
Dead weight stress in skirt (hydraulic test), ws = 𝜋(𝐷 +𝑡

𝑊
𝑠 𝑠 )𝑡𝑠
(3.775)
= = 2.8 × 10−7 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝜋(591.1 + 12)(12)
𝑊
Dead weight stress in skirt (operating),ws = 𝜋(𝐷 +𝑡
𝑠 𝑠 )𝑡𝑠
(5674.52)
= = 4.22 × 10−4 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝜋(591.1 + 12)(12)
Maximum σs (tensile) = σbs – σws
=2.099 –[(4.22x10-4) + (2.8x10-7)]= 2.099 N/mm2
Thus, the assumed value of skirt thickness, ts = 0.014m acceptable.

373
With corrosion allowance of 2 mm, the design skirt thickness, ts =0.016m
b. Base ring and anchor bolt design
ring. This will be opposed by the couple set up by the weight of the vessel and the tensile
load of the anchor bolts (Sinnott 2005). The anchor bolts are assumed to share the
overturning load equally and the bolt arearequired:
1 4𝑀𝑠
𝐴𝑏 = [ − 𝑊]
𝑁𝑏 𝑓𝑏 𝐷𝑏
Where, Ab = area of one bolt at the root of the thread,

mm2
Nb = number of bolts
fb = maximum allowable bolt stress, N/mm2
Ms = bending moment at the base, Nm
W = weight of the
vessel, N
Db = bolt circle
diameter, m
Assumptions:
• bolt circle diameter, Db = 1.750 m = 1750 mm
• circumference of bolt circle = 1750 π mm = 5497.79 mm
• maximum allowable bolt stress, fb = 100 N/mm2
• number of bolts as 8
𝜋×1.750×1000
Bolt spacing = 8
374
= 687.22mm >
600mm
Therefore the bolt spacing is satisfactory.
The area of one bolt at the root of the thread, Ab,
The bending moment at the base, Ms = 7051.59 Nm
The weight of the vessel, W = 3.755 N
1 4(7051.59)
𝐴𝑏 = [ − 3.755]
(8 × 100) 1.75
= 20.14 𝑚𝑚2
By using M10 bolts with nominal stress area = 58.0 mm2
Total compressive load on the base ring per unit length, Fb
4𝑀𝑠 𝑊
𝐹𝑏 = [ 2 + ]
𝜋 × 𝐷𝑆 𝜋𝐷𝑆
4(7051.59) 3.755
𝐹𝑏 = [ 2
+ ]
𝜋 × (0.5911) 𝜋(0.5911)
𝐹𝑏 = 5698.60 𝑁𝑚−1
By taking the bearing pressure as 3.5 N/mm2, the minimum width of the base ring, Lb
𝐹𝑏 1
𝐿𝑏 = [ + 3 ]
𝑓𝑐 10
5698.60
𝐿𝑏 = [ ]
3.5 × 103
𝐿𝑏 = 1.628𝑚𝑚
376
APPENDIX J.2
MECHANICAL DESIGN OF GAS ABSORPTION COLUMN
(By Nor Ezzati Amira binti Mustapa Padzir A169229)
a. Determination of wall thickness
To determine the wall thickness, calculation of design pressure needed to calculate and
determine by considering 10% for safety purpose and following the calculation of
cirsumferential stress and longitudinal stress to determine minimum wall thickness.
i. Design pressure
The operating pressure of the absorber (1.6 bar), therefore the absorption column is
designed under internal pressure. Firstly, the design for each part of the vessel is
calculated by using equation.
𝑃𝐷 = 𝑃𝑜 + 0.433ℎ
Where 𝑃𝑜 = 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝑃𝐷 = 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ 𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡.
Hence,
Ellipsoidal 2:1 top head, 𝑃𝐷 = 24.25 𝑝𝑠𝑖
Cylindrical shell 𝑃𝐷 = 40.96 𝑝𝑠𝑖
Ellipsoidal 2:1 bottom head, 𝑃𝐷 = 42.004 𝑝𝑠𝑖
As safety factor about 10% is added to design pressure for safety purpose. So, the
innovative design pressure is 𝑃𝐽 = 1.10𝑃𝐷 .
Hence,
Ellipsoidal 2:1 top head, 𝑃𝐷 = 26.68 𝑝𝑠𝑖
Cylindrical shell 𝑃𝐷 = 45.05 𝑝𝑠𝑖
Ellipsoidal 2:1 bottom head, 𝑃𝐷 = 46.20 𝑝𝑠𝑖

377
Table J.4 Design pressure and innovative design pressure

Part Design pressure, 𝑷𝑫 (psi) Innovative design pressure, 𝑷𝒋 (psi)
Top ellipsoidal head 24.25 26.68
Bottom ellipsoidal head 42.00 46.20
ii. Minimum wall thickness
The table show the parameter needed to determine first before calculation of minimum
wall thickness.
Table J.5 Parameter for wall thickness determination

Parameter Value
Internal diameter, Di (m) 2.94
Length (Cylindrical part) (m) 10.29
Operating temperature ( C ) 25
Design Stress, S (psi) 16700
Join Efficiency, E 0.85
From ASME Code UG-32 part (D), for top ellipsoidal head:
𝑃𝐷
Thickness, 𝑡 = 2𝑆𝐸−0,2𝑃
26.67×115.17
=2(16700×0.85)−0.2(26.67) = 0.109 𝑖𝑛
From ASME Code UG-27 part (C) for cylindrical shell:
𝑃𝑅
Thickness, 𝑡 = 𝑆𝐸−0.6𝑃
115.17
45.06×( )
2
= (16700×0.85)−(0.6×45.06) = 0.184 𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝑅
Thickness, 𝑡 = 2𝑆𝐸−0.4𝑃
115.17
45.06×
2
=2(16700×0.85)−(0.4×45.06) = 0.181 𝑖𝑛
378
From ASME Code UG-32 part (D), for top ellipsoidal head:
𝑃𝐷
Thickness, 𝑡 = 2𝑆𝐸−0,2𝑃
46.2×115.17
=2(16700×0.85)−0.2(46.2) = 0.188 𝑖𝑛
Thus, the overall thickness, 𝑡𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 is determined which is the highest value of
minimum thickness calculated. After considering the corrosion allowance of 4 mm.
𝑡𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 0.188 𝑖𝑛/4.78 𝑚𝑚
t = 4.78mm + 4 mm
= 8.78 mm / 0.266 in
Based on standard thickness in the market, the closes to the thickness calculated
is 0.315 in
b. Maximum allowable working pressure
MAWP, or maximum allowable working pressure, is the maximum internal pressure

and the static head pressure for each vessel part. Any metal thickness designated as
corrosion allowance, on the other hand, must be excluded from the calculations.
𝑡 = 0.315 − 0.07874 = 0.236 𝑖𝑛
i. Top ellipsoidal head
From ASME code UG-32 part (D)
2𝑆𝐸𝑡
𝑃=
𝐿 + 0.2𝑡
2(16700×0.85×0.236)
= (10.29+0.2(0.236)
= 648.14 psi
ii. Cylindrical shell
From ASME Code UG-27 PART (C)

379
𝑆𝐸𝑡
𝑃=
𝑅 + 0.6𝑡
(16700×0.85×0.236)
= 115.17
( )+0.6(0.236)
2
= 58.03 psi
2𝑆𝐸𝑡
𝑃=
𝑅 − 0.4𝑡
2(16700×0.85×0.236)
= 115.17
( )−0.4(0.236)
2
= 116.54 psi
Circumferential stress, 58.03 psi < longitudinal stress, 116.54 psi which means
the circumferential stress has a weaker link and suitable condition for shell.
iii. Bottom ellipsoidal head
From ASME code UG-32 part (D)
𝑆𝐸𝑡
𝑃=
𝑅 + 0.6𝑡
(16700×0.85×0.236)
= (2.4+0.6(0.236)
= 115.35 psi
iv. Summary of MAWP for each part.
Table J.6 MAWP for each part
Part MAWP (Psi) MAWP without static

head pressure (psi)
Top ellipsoidal head 648.14 647.10
Bottom ellipsoidal head 115.35 96.55
MAWPV, or maximum allowable working pressure for a vessel, is the maximum

working allowable working pressure at the top of the vessel in its usual operating
380
position at the stated corresponding temperature. It is the smallest of the values

discovered for maximum permitted working pressure for any essential aspects,
excluding static head pressure. As a result, the vessel's MAWPV is 40.30 psi.
c. Combined loading
i. Primary stresses
For a cylindrical vessel, primary stresses which are required to achieve static
equilibrium are due to the folowing sources:
Longitudinal and circumferential stresses due to pressure
Direct stress.
Bending stress.
Torsional shear stress.
Some assumptions are made for calculation of primary stress, the assumptions stated as
below:
a. Liquid level is three quarter of the height of the column.
3
Liquid level = 4 × 10.29 = 7.72 𝑚
Hydrostatic pressure is considered at the bottom of the column.
𝑃𝐷 = 96.55 𝑝𝑠𝑖 so Nominal thickness, 𝑡𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 8.002 𝑚𝑚
Primary stresses (in cylindrical vessel):
ii. Longitudinal (𝝈𝑳 ) and circumferential (𝝈𝒉 ) stresses due to pressure
𝑃 × 𝐷𝑖 1294.51 × 2940.57 𝑁 2
𝜎𝐿 = = = 8871.30
4𝑡 4 × 8.002 𝑚𝑚
381
𝑃 × 𝐷𝑖 1294.51 × 2940.57 𝑁 2
𝜎ℎ = = = 17742.61
4𝑡 2 × 8.002 𝑚𝑚
iii. Direct stress (𝝈𝒘 )
𝑤
𝜎𝑤 =
𝜋 × 𝐷𝑖 + 𝑡
For steel vessel, 𝑊𝑣 = 240𝐶𝑣 𝐷𝑚 (𝐻𝑣 + 0.8𝐷𝑚 𝑡)
With 𝐶𝑣 = 1.5,
Mean diameter of vessel, 𝐷𝑚 = 𝐷𝑖 + 𝑡 = 2.94 + 0.008 = 2.95 𝑚

2
Height between tangent lines of the cylindrical section ,𝐻𝑣 = 𝐻𝑠 + (𝐻𝑡 + 𝐻𝑏 ) =
3
10.78 𝑚
𝑊𝑣 = 111605.32
𝑊𝑣
Direct stress, 𝜎𝑤 = = 1505.84 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝜋(𝐷𝑖 +𝑡)𝑡
iv. Bending stress
Distance, x = 𝐻𝑣
Weight acted by wind toward vessel, 𝑤 = 𝑅𝑤 𝐷𝑚 =3784.411 N/m

𝑤𝑥 2
Total bending moment, 𝑀𝑥 = = 20401.93 𝑁𝑚
2
Second moment of area of the vessel about the plane of bending,

𝜋
𝑙𝑣 = (𝐷𝑜 4 − 𝐷𝑖 4 )
64
= 1.656 × 1011 𝑚𝑚4
𝑀𝑥 𝐷𝑖
Bending stress, 𝜎𝑏 = ± ( + 𝑡)
𝑙𝑣 2
= 1.167−6 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
v. Torsional shear stresses
The torsional shear stress can be neglected in preliminary vessel design because these
loads will normaly be small. 𝜏 = 0.
382
Principal Stresses:
The total longitudinal stress, 𝜎𝑧 = 𝜎𝐿 + 𝜎𝑤 ± 𝜎𝑏
𝜎𝑧 is compressive and therefore is negative.
𝜎𝑧 (𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑) = 7365.46 N/𝑚𝑚2
𝜎𝑧 (𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑) = 7365.46 N/𝑚𝑚2
As there is no torsional shear stress, the principal stresses will be 𝜎𝑧 and 𝜎ℎ . The
radial stress is negligible.
Analysis primer stresses:
1
𝜎1 = [𝜎 + 𝜎𝑧 + √(𝜎ℎ − 𝜎𝑧 )2 + 4𝜏 2 ]
2 ℎ
𝜎1 = 𝜎ℎ
1
𝜎2 = [𝜎ℎ + 𝜎𝑧 + √(𝜎ℎ − 𝜎𝑧 )2 + 4𝜏 2 ]
2
𝜎2 = 𝜎𝑧
𝑁
𝜎1 = 177.42
𝑚𝑚2
𝑁
𝜎2 = 73.65
𝑚𝑚2
Maximum allowable stress intensoty, 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜎1 − 𝜎2
= 177.42 – 73.65
=103.77 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
383
𝑁
Since 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 , 103.77 𝑚𝑚2 < 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒, 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, 𝑆𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 , 206.84 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 , then
the design considered as same.
Analysis of elastic stability:
∑ 𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 = 𝜎𝑏 + 𝜎𝑤
= 1.167× 10−6 + 1505.84
=1505.84 N/𝑚𝑚2
𝑡
Critical buckling stress, 𝜎𝐶 = 2× 104 (𝐷 ) = 40284.03 N/𝑚𝑚2
𝑜
The design is safe because 𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 < 𝜎𝑐 .
d. Vessel support and flanged joint
The skirt support had been chosen as the support for gas absorption. Since the height of
gas absorption is 11.76 m with the internal diameter, 𝐷𝑖 is 2.94 m, the skirt support is
suitable for the use of tall columns which subject to wind loading. One of the most
important factor is they do not imposed concentrated load on the vessel shell.
Welded – neck flange is chosen in this design because it is suitable for extreme
conditions where the flange is likely to be subjected to temperature, shear and vibration
loads for the absorption column, G-101. The welded connection will not interfere with
the flow of the fluid.
i. Skirt thickness
The skirt thickness must be sufficient to withstand the dead-weight loads and bending
moments imposed on it by the vessel and it will not be under the vessel pressure.
384
Elements Specification
Type of support Straight cylindrical skirt with base angel, 𝜃𝑠 = 90°
Material of construction Carbon steel
Type of weld Welded flush with the shell
Weld joint factor, J 1.0
Young’s Modulus 200,000
Design stress, S (N/mm2) 135
Bending stress, 𝜎bs (N/mm2) 14.44
Dead weight stress, 𝜎ws (Test)(N/mm2) 0.056
Dead weight stress, 𝜎ws (Operating)(N/mm2) 0.112
𝜎s (Compressive)(N/mm2) 14.5
𝜎s (Tensile)(N/mm2) 19
Skirt diameter, Ds (m) 3
Height of the support, hs (m) 2
Skirt thickness, ts (m) 0.2
ii. Base ring and anchor bolt design
The skirt base ring transmits the loads carried by the skirt to the foundation slab. Wind
and other lateral loads will tend to overturn the vessel, but this will be countered by the
couple formed by the vessel's weight and the tensile load. For G-101, random packing
design as the base ring design of the skirt support is used to make the vessel more stable
and stronger.
Table 11.22 shows the base ring and anchor bolt specification for DC-101.
Table J.7 Value of bolt size and root area
Bolt Size Root Area A B C D E F G

M24 353 45 76 64 13 19 30 36
e. Summary of design
By considering the internal pressure of the vessel, absorption column G-101, the
conditions that are needed for the design have been calculated through series of formula
stated. The design of gas absorption is summarized and tabulated as followed in table
below. The detailed calculation for the mechanical design in appendix A.
Table J.8 Summary mechanical design of Gas absorption, G-101

385
Design Conditions Value

Operating temperature (°C) 25.00
Operating pressure (bar) 1.60
Design pressure (psig) 40.28
Material of Construction Carbon steel
Vessel internal diameter,Di (mm) 2940.57
vessel external diameter,Do(m) 2956.57
Vessel height, H 11762.28
Ellipsoidal head (top),he 735.14
Cylindrical,hc 10291.99
Ellipsoidal head (bottom),he 735.14
Packing height, 𝑯𝑶𝑮 6176.98
overall minimum thickness of vessel, toverall (mm) 8.00
Corrosion allowance, CA (mm) 4.00
Longitudinal stress, (N/𝒎𝒎𝟐 ) 8871.30
Circumferential stress (N/𝒎𝒎𝟐 ) 17742.61
Direct stress (N/𝒎𝒎𝟐 ) 1505.84
Bending stress (N/𝒎𝒎𝟐 ) 0.00000117
Torsional shear stress (N/𝒎𝒎𝟐 ) 0.00
Elastic stability (N/𝒎𝒎𝟐 ) 𝝈𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑 < 𝝈𝑪 , (1505.84 < 40284)
type of support straight skirt support
skirt thickness, ts (mm) 200.00
distance from the edge of the skirt to the outer edge of 64.00
the ring, Lr (mm)
Actual width required, Lb (mm) 888.37
Base ring thickness, tb (mm) 9.33
Type of flanged joint welded neck joint
386
APPENDIX J.3
MECHANICAL DESIGN OF REFLUX DRUM
f. Mechanical Design of Reflux Drum, E-104
i. Parameter of Reflux Drum
Figure 11.13 Reflux Drum E-104
Table J.9 Composition of Reflux Drum (E-104)

Component Inlet flowrate (kg/h) Outlet flowrate (kg/h)
Decane 10232.28 10232.28
Petrol 4742 4742
Paraffin 44.33 44.33
Water 9264 9264
Total 15111.25 15111.25
ii. Design specification of reflux dru, E-104
The assumptions for the design shown as below,
• Hold up time for reflux drum is 5 minutes
• Length to diameter ratio is 3
• Reflux drum is half full
• The reflux drum is horizontal
The reflux ratio calculated using McCabe-Thiele method is 1.12
Product flowrate = 15111.25 𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑟

387
Reflux flowrate = 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 × 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
= 15111.25 × 1.12
= 16924.60 𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑟
Hold-up liquid in drum = 𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑢𝑝 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 × 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
5
= × 16924.60
60
= 1410.38 𝑚3
Volume of drum = 1410.38 × 2
= 2820.77 𝑚3
3 4𝑉
Diameter of drum = √3 𝜋
3 4 2820.77
=√
3 𝜋
= 10.33 𝑚
Length of drum = 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 × 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ: 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
= 10.33 × 3
= 30.98 𝑚
388
iii. Summary of design specification reflux drum
The design of reflux drum E-104 is summarized in the table below:
Table J.10 Reflux Drum E-101 design summary

Parameter Value/Type
Feed temperature, oC 100
Feed pressure, bar 1.4
Reflux ratio 1.12
Diameter,m 10.33
Length, m 30.98
Table J.11 Table 4 1Reflux Drum E-103 design summary

Parameter Value/Type
Feed temperature, oC 45
Feed pressure, bar 1.4
Reflux ratio 1.52
Diameter,m 9.01
Length, m 25.45

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i

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT

FINAL YEAR DESIGN PROJECT II

PRODUCTION OF AVIATION FUEL FROM WASTE COOKING OIL

PROF. MADYA DR. MASLI IRWAN ROSLI UKM

KASHVINWARMA A/L BASKARAN A169128

In this design project, In the plant design, we focus on production of decane as a

LIST OF TABLES xiv

LIST OF FIGURES xxii

CHAPTER II MARKET ANALYSIS 10

CHAPTER III CONCEPTUAL DESIGN 16

3.3.1 Input-Output Structure 22

CHAPTER IV HEAT INTEGRATION 50

CHAPTER V PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTURMENT 56

5.3.3 Process Control System of Gas Absorption (G-

CHAPTER VI WASTE MANAGEMENT 89

CHAPTER VII ECONOMIC ANALYSIS 106

7.3 Estimation of total product cost 112

CHAPTER VIII HAZARD IDENTIFICSTION AND ANALYSIS 136

CHAPTER IX PLANT LOCATION 175

CHAPTER X DETAILED DESIGN UNIT OPERATION 186

10.1.1 Design Spesification 187

10.6.4 Number of stage 210

CHAPTER XI MECHANICAL DESIGN 260

11.5.2 Elastic Stability 299

Appendix A Mass And Energy Balance 308

Appendix B Process Flow Diagram 323

Appendix C Simulation 326

Appendix D Process Flow Diagram After Heat Integration 330

Appendix F Wastewater Treatment Plant 336

Appendix G Hirarc 338

Appendix H Hazop 345

Appendix I Plant Layout 361

Appendix J Mechanical Design 362

Appendix J.1 Mechanical Design Of Reactor, R-101 363

Appendix J.2 Mechanical Design Of Gas Absorption Column 376

Appendix J.3 Mechanical Design Of Reflux Drum 386

Table No. Page

Table 1.1 Properties of waste cooking oil 2

Table 1.2 Properties of hydrogen gas 3

Table 1.3 Properties of decane 4

Table 1.4 Properties of Carbon monoxide 5

Table 1.5 Properties of hydrogen gas 6

Table 1.6 Properties of water 6

Table 1.7 Properties of propane 7

Table 1.8 Properties of petrol 8

Table 1.9 Properties of paraffin 9

Table 2.1 List of companies producing Aviation Fuel by using WCO 13

Table 2.2 Analysis Supply and Demand of Aviation Fuel 14

Table 3.1 Comparison of various of aviation fuel production 18

Table 3.2 External constraint 21

Table 3.3 Internal constraint 21

Table 3.4 The overall mass balance 23

Table 3.5 The price of raw materials and products 23

Table 3.6 Conversion and FPE2 24

Table 3.7 Adiabatic temperature on reactors 26

Table 3.8 Height, Dimension and Volume of Reactor R-101 27

Table 3.9 Height, Dimension and Volume of Reactor R-102 27

Table 3.10 Design Material Factor Data 28

Table 3.11 Cost of Packed Bed Reactor R-101 28

Table 3.12 Cost for Packed Bed Reactor R-102 28

Table 3.13 Gross profit for future economic potential level 3 29

Table 3.14 Sizing and cost of distillation column (D-101) 30

Table 3.15 Costing of Gas absorption column (G-101) 31