CHAPTER- II

RURAL WOMEN IN INDIA

• Introduction
• Rural Women in India
• Economic Status
• Social Status
• Wave of Change

32
Introduction

Purpose of this chapter is to provide a detailed discussion about the socio­

economic conditions of rural women in India and in Karnataka state. Here,
analysis of male-female ratio, rural-urban women population, education, and
employment among women, health conditions, occupational background and
such other characteristics are attempted. Analy sis of the same for Karnataka is
also provided followed by for the district where the present research is
undertaken. Brief analysis of the various women development progammes
undertaken in Karnataka is also discussed.

Rural Women in India

Women constitute an integral part of socio-economic life of the nation.

Indian society and more than 50.0 per cent of the people living in rural India are
women. The numerical strength of women in India lives in rural areas. But this
numerical strength does not signify equal status of female with that of the male
members. Not only have the rural women suffered inferior socio-economic status
compared to males but also they stand distinct from their urban counterparts
living a distinct way of living. This difference between rural and urban women
becomes vivid in social, economic and political spheres.

Since independence India has made strong strides in the path of its
development and also achieved remarkable success in various fields. A rural
woman has had much greater influence in the factors governing sustainable
development as she plays a direct role in agriculture, sericulture, forestry, animal
husbandry, cattle breeding etc.

33
 India, predominantly an agricultural country cannot afford to ignore
women - the important segment of our rural population engaged in farming
operations and hence in the nation building. It is a recognized fact that unless the
woman's potential is fully utilized and properly developed no transformation and
economic development of the society is possible.

In fact, there is no woman in the rural areas who is just a house wife. Most
of the time and energy of rural women is spent in providing type of goods and
services which are usually bought for money in the advanced economies. Rural
women in India undertake expenditure substituting work that augment the
family's resources like fetching fuel, managing poultry' and cattle as well as food
processing.

Since independence. India has made strong strides in the path of its
development and also achieved remarkable success in various fields. A rural
woman has had much greater influence in the factors governing sustainable
development as she plays a direct role in agriculture, sericulture, forestry, animal
husbandry, cattle breeding etc.

Her work is valued lower than male work and the requirement of women
were presumed to be less than those of men. Women in house are made to work
under unhygienic and gloomy conditions. This is particularly so in the case of the
kitchen she has to cope up with the smoke emanating from the fuel wood used to
cook food. A rural woman is bound to spend most of her life, is ill equipped with
Kitchens are with no ventilation

The rural woman better called "Farm Woman" constitutes about 50.0 per
cent of farm workforce plays a significant role in Indian Agriculture. She carries
out multiple jobs from dawn to dusk in and outside the house which are mostly
different from rural men. The inside jobs include managing the household like

34
feeding the children and the family members and all the household chores which
are indirect income-generating tasks. During the peak of agricultural operations
specially harvesting time, women of farm families work on an average 7-8 hours
a day in the fields. This is beside the routine duties of cooking, cleaning, fetching
water etc.

In rural areas there is no woman who is just a house wife. Most of the time
and energy of rural women is spent in providing types of goods and services
which are usually bought for money in the advanced countries. Rural women in
India undertake expenditure substituting work that augments the family’s
resources.

Women perform variety of tasks such as weeding, hoeing, fertilizer

application, plant protection, processing flower harvesting, threshing, winnowing
and other miscellaneous works. They also participate in fruit and vegetable
processing, etc. Their involvement in drying, cleaning, storing, purchase of
household articles poultry, piggery' farms, dairy etc. is commendable.

Sometimes a question is asked that why women's role in the economy is not
recognized and has given such an inferior position? It may be because
1. There is broad div ision of labour by sex. Society has divided the work to
be done by the people according to their sex.
2. Official non-recognition of their contribution to the national as well as
household economy .

The failure to recognize much of the work which women do is therefore, a

failure to take women into account in all areas like policy making, planning, and
allocation of resources, provision of support services and information or in the
distribution of the benefits of development.

35
 Following examples make it clear how the activities are segregated according
to the sex:
Chart 1.1 Sex-wise division of activities
Activities Women Men 1
Household activities cooking.(grinding,
cutting, preparing food)
sweeping,mopping,
washing clothes and
utensils, fetching water.
collecting fuel wood.
making cow dung cakes.
Child Care Feeding, Caring

Agricultural Digging, Watering the Ploughing, irrigating.

plants, sowing, weeding. watering. sowing.
Cutting grass, grain putting fertilisers to
picking. vegetable the plants etc.
plucking etc
Selling Vegetables grains Occasionally
Allied activities Feeding the cattle, Occasionally
milking the cattle,
bathing the animals.
cleaning the cattle shed

Women are defined as solely responsible for family care. These factors
are so deep rooted in their culture that it will take a long time to change. Though
they work more, they do not have right over the land till recently. This has
affected the decision making power of the women in the house. Though they

36
work outside the house, they are not recognised as primary earners but as
supplemental*) earners. Time, energy and resources contributed by these women
to the households are not even taken into account although they work for longer
hours than rural men.

For the sustaining agricultural growth, in the country', farm women have to
be given more prominence in Agriculture and allied activities through provisions
of critical resources, education and training that handicap them in modern
agriculture.

Economic Status

If by work we mean broadly “economic activity*, then women have

always worked. But much of women's work never appears in the national
statistics. It is seen as an extension of their caring and nurturing functions rather
than as materially rewarding activity. According to ILO there is a tendency to
underv alue women's work in rural areas. All of it is taken as unpaid family work:
but if it is quantified the world’s gross national product would increase by 20.0
per cent to 30.0 per cent. Considering the important role of rural women in
farming activities and live stock keeping, it is essential that efforts should be
made to develop appropriate technologies for them which they can adopt them at
home.

For women, perhaps the crudest reality of all is that they have less chance
than men to escape from poverty. A rural woman is likely to have little or no say
in the way the family spends its income. Struggling to combine a ’double day' of
low-paid work with care for the home, rural women often have to cope with
frequent pregnancies and child mortality..

37
 Nearly 80.0 per cent of the women in the rural areas earn their living on
their own. But this does not mean that she lives a contented life. Rather this has
resulted in making the men in the house irresponsible. Over that he becomes
ready to depend upon his wife’s earnings too. In case he is earning, he prefers to
spend it for gambling and such other vices. This makes the women difficult to
run the house. She may not be able to give proper education to her children:
leave alone the girl child; even the male child will be made to stay away from
school. It is under such situation that the family becomes the reason for fostering
child labour. She does not keep the right to spend her earnings the way she likes
but it is her family members specially husband and the in- laws determine it.

In fact, there is no such activity where a woman does not have her
participation in the rural areas. She supplements the variety of activities which
bring income to the family. In Dakshina Kannada District, besides agriculture,
the most important occupation followed is Beedi Rolling and we don't find a
single house in village which does not engage in this work. After the daily chores
of the house the w omen in the house, including aged ladies are seen busy rolling
the beedi leaves throughout the day. Thus they become the bread winners to the
family. She works as the maid servant in other houses, particularly of higher
caste people, where she helps them in cleaning the floor, dish, clothes etc for
very low income.

Social Status

No doubt in villages' women get a place of pride. She is highly regarded

and cared for. They are virtually respected and worshipped. But they suffer from
social taboos. The women of the households are under the triple authority of the
senior women -the mother of the male head of the household, their own husbands
and the head. The rural social system controls in such a way that she does not
have any choice except surrender herself to patriarchal values. She has to

38
sacrifice willingly or unwillingly even her legitimate rights. The superior -
subordinate between husband and wife still remains shrouded with a very low
status both in the family and in the society. She is prohibited to have free
exchange of ideas with the outside male members; she does not enjoy the
freedom to discuss her views even with the members of her own family.
Participating in the cultural or recreational activities of the village is out of
question. Excepting the women of higher castes who do not stir out of the four
walls of their houses, the tribal women are free to join their male counterparts in
all the activities and also enjoy decision making power process in the village.

Marriages are more binding on the rural women. The rural people put
more stress on the marriage of their female child than on their education.
Abolition of child marriage act does not seem to have much influence upon the
rural people in India. Legal measures do not have sufficient impact on the age of
marriage of boy or the girl in the rural areas. As much as 25% of the girls are
given in marriage before attaining the age of 16 years. Birth rate is high in the
rural areas than in the urban areas.

Marriage as a compulsory institution, that too at an early age, has resulted

in the school drop outs of girls in higher education. Rate of school drop outs is
high in the village areas and it is higher among the girls when compared to boys.
Only a handful of girls enrolled in primary school complete their college studies.
It is because every parent in the rural area thinks that marriage is compulsory' for
the girls and earlier the better. To make the things worse, the premature
assumption of domestic and child rearing burden has created an inferior attitude
among the girls for their own life and for the society as a whole. Marriage
practice affects parents* decision about their children’s* education.

39
 In the Health related aspect it is pertinent to note that women in rural
areas avail health in lesser degree than the women in the urban areas. Health of a
woman does not mean mere absence of disease but holistic health especially
reproductive. Reproductive health means a condition in which the reproductive
process is accomplished in a state of complete physical, mental and social well­
being. In the rural India, the women's poor health conditions starts basically due
to lack of education and health consciousness as well as due to malnutrition, poor
economic conditions and lack of availability of medical services. These factors
have led to greater number of female deaths than the males in the villages.
Maternal deaths, deaths due to depression, physical illness, unsafe abortion,
pregnancy related are more in rural areas when compared to urban areas.

There is deep entrenched gender injustice in the Indian society in

general, and rural society in particular. They suffer from the neglect from the
beginning of their life. Many parents do not want the girl child because they
consider them to be the liability rather than an asset. Right from the fetus the
female child in subject to inhuman cruelty. If not feticide, infanticide is resorted
to. According to them, female child is a burden upon the family. A girl is
someone who must be protected but sent to another house in marriage with a
dowry. As a result most of the parents feel that investment done on the female
child does not get back dividends. They are considered as futile investment with
no returns. Even if she is allowed to survive, research from all over India reveals
that there is a total neglect of girl child as far as health and nutrition is concerned.
There is high mortality rate among the rural women. It is due to gender
discrimination. In fact women are biologically stronger than men. They tend to
live longer than men. In spite of this, almost 30,000 girls die every year in India
and it has been surveyed that every 6th female deaths taking place is India is due
to gender discrimination.

40
 Gender discrimination is also evident when we fail to see girls
continuing their studies in the college. Girls are pulled out from the schools to do
the household chores and look after younger siblings. It is because parents see
less value in daughter's education.

Exploitation of women has become a routine in Indian society and the

rural women are more prone to such misfortunes. Victims of such cruelty are
generally the dalits or the so called down trodden people and they are never
reported. It is mainly because the culprits most of the times are from some
influential category with so much of wealth or power. There is a lot of child
abuse in the v illages and unfortunately majority of them are the girls. As a result
of this, giv ing birth to a female child has become a risky affair.
Rural India is also not lagging behind in bride burning and usually married girls
are killed for the want of Dowry or the Kanyadhan. So many deaths are because
of insecure living conditions like insecure kitchens, living rooms etc.

Domestic Violence is one of the important noticeable factors among the

rural women. They suffer domestic violence and exploitation from the male
members in the house or the society'. Ill treatment of unmarried girls and the
widows, wife battering, rapes, molestation of girls, sexual harassment etc is
common in the villages. They suffer the attitude of their men even when their
men have two to three keeps' outside the house. Rather men of higher caste take
it as prestige to have more than one woman for self. Though the government has
passed legislations in this respect from time to time they are not helpful in
preventing the exploitation of women.

Discrimination in education is the start of the vicious spiral of poverty .

A girl may be deprived of schooling and literacy for no other reason than that she
is female. As she is known for the caretaker of the Family , she is denied of

41
education. Seventy per cent of poor women in India cannot read or write.

Illiteracy often excludes people from written knowledge and decision-making.

An extremely important reason for low levels of enrolment of girls to

schools is financial constraints. Some families are not able to bear the expenses

of the schooling of their children- even in the government schools.

The second reason is that poorer households are more dependent upon the
labour of their children to supplement the family income.

The possibility that a girl will drop out of school is also determined by the

social and economic characteristics of the households. Rural girls are less likely
to attend schools if the head of the household is a non-literate or if the dominant
activity of working people in the household is self-employment. School

enrolment increase when the household income increases.

The third reason for early drop out of a female child is the problem of

finding the boy who has completed the higher grade education than the girl.

Another factor leading to discrimination of girls against boys is that there

is no correlation between education and the occupation. Girls are to be married

and hence no need to be economically independent. Hence the parents choose

marriage of their daughter than a job. Cultural norms too play their role in
making women excluded from participating in decisions affecting both their

households and communities.

Women literacy in India

Literacy is an important parameter determining the social status. Women

literacy in some states is still low and it may be noticed that in the last 50 years it is
improving remarkably. State wise literacy rate since 1951 till 2001 is given in table 2.1.

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Table- 2.1: State wise Literacy Rates (1951-2001)

Sl.No States/ Union 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001

Territories
1 Jammu & 12.95 21.71 30.64 NA 55.52
Kashmir

2 Himachal 63.86 76.48

Pradesh

3 Punjab - NA 34.12 43.37 58.51 69.65

4 Chandigarh - NA 70.43 74.80 77.81 81.94

5 Uttaranchal 18.93 18.05 33.26 46.06 57.75 71.62

6 Haryana - - 25.71 31.13 55.85 67.91

7 Delhi NA 61.95 65.00 71.94 75.29 81.67

8 Rajasthan 8.5 18.12 22.57 30.11 38.55 60.41

9 Uttar Pradesh 12.02 20.87 23.99 32.65 40.71 56.27

10 Bihar 13.49 21.95 23.17 32.32 37.49 47.00

11 Sikkim - - 17.74 34.05 56.94 68.81

12 Arunachal NA 7.13 11.29 25.55 41.59 54.34

Pradesh
13 Nagaland 10.52 21.95 33.78 50.28 61.65 66.59

14 Manipur 12.57 36.04 38.47 49.66 59.89 70.53

15 Mizoram 31.14 44.01 53.80 59.88 82.26 83.80

17 Meghalaya NA 26.92 29.49 42.05 49.10 62.56

18 Assam 18.53 32.95 33.94 - 52.89 63.25

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 Contd...
19 West Bengal 26.61 34.48 38.86 48.65 57.70 68.64

20 Jharkand 12.93 21.14 23.84 35.03 41.39 53.56

21 Orissa 15.80 21.66 26.18 33.62 49.09 63.08

22 Chattisgarh 9.41 18.14 24.08 32.63 42.91 64.66

23 Madhya 13.16 21.41 27.27 38.63 44.67 63.74

Pardesh
24 Gujarat 21.82 31.47 36.95 44.92 61.29 69.14

25 Daman & Diu - " - " 71.20 73.18

26 Dadra & Nagar - - 18.13 32.90 40.71 57.63

Haveli
27 Maharashtra 27.91 35.08 45.77 57.21 64.87 76.88

28 Andhra - 21.19 24.07 35.66 44.08 60.47

Pradesh
29 Karnataka - 29.80 36.83 46.21 56.04 66.64

30 Goa 23.48 35.41 51.96 65.71 75.51 82.01

31 Lakshadweep 15.23 27.15 51.76 68.42 81.78 86.66

32 Kerala 47.18 55.08 69.75 78.85 89.81 90.86

33 Tamilnadu -
36.39 45.40 54.59 62.66 73.45

34 Pondichery - 43.65 53.38 65.14 74.74 81.24

35 Andaman & 30.30 40.07 51.15 63.19 73.02 81.30

Nicobar Islands
All India 18.33 28.30 34.45 43.57 52.21 64.84

Source: Office of the Registrar General, India

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Literacy rate of Karnataka is compared with that of India in table- 2.2

Table- 2.2: Literacy Rate of Karnataka State and AH India

Karnataka All India

Persons Male Female Persons Male Female

IGD IGD
1961 29.80 42.29 16.70 0.47 28.30 40.40 15.35 0.48

1971 36.83 48.51 24.55 0.36 34.45 45.96 21.97 0.38

1981 46.21 58.73 33.17 0.32 43.56 56.37 29.75 0.35

1991 56.04 67.26 44.34 0.25 52.20 64.13 39.29 0.29

2001 66.64 76.10 56.90 0.19 64.80 75.80 54.20 0.22

Note: IGD= Index of Gender Disparity

Source: Registrar General of India, Census of India. Various Volumes

Karnataka is showing better literacy ratio compared with that of nation.

Karnataka is also showing a varied rate of literacy in its different district.
District-wise Literacy Rates: 2001 is given in table 2.3. It may be noticed that
Dakshina Kannada district is showing better literacy rate ( 83.7 %) than other
districts..

Sex wise literacy rate of districts in Karnataka is shown in table 2.4.

Female literacy rate is highest in Dakshina Kannada district.In Karnataka female
literacy rate was 57.45 per cent in 2001. Dakshina Kannada district showed
female literacy rate which is second highest after Bangalore Urban.

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Table-2.3: District-wise Literacy Rates: 2001

No. District Total Rural Urban

1 Bagalkote 57.81 52.00 71.62

2 Bangaluru (U) 83.91 70.77 85.66

3 Bangaluru (R) 65.00 61.93 76.21

4 Belgaum 64.42 59.05 80.87

5 Bellary 58.04 50.86 70.97

6 Bidar 61.48 57.72 76.18

7 Bijapur 57.46 52.38 75.28

8 Chamarajanagar 51.26 47.58 71.41

9 Chickamagaluru 72.63 70.05 83.19

0 Chitradurga 64.88 61.11 81.66

11 Dakshina 83.47 79.93 89.06

Kannada
12 Davanagere 67.67 63.12 78.02

13 Dharwad 71.87 60.96 80.60

14 Gadag 66.27 61.71 74.55

15 Gulburga 60.65 42.73 71.28

16 Hassan 68.75 65.30 84.74

17 Haveri 68.04 66.19 75.30

18 Kodagu 78.17 76.28 89.85

19 Kolar 63.14 57.75 69.79

 20 Koppala 55.02 51.98 78.72

21 Mandya 61.21 57.89 82.48

22 Mysore 63.69 52.48 67.63

23 Raichur 49.54 43.15 67.63

24 Shimoga 74.86 70.03 83.78

25 Tumkur 67.19 63.62 81.74

26 Udupi 79.87 77.73 89.13

27 Uttara Kannada 76.59 72.68 86.14

KARNATAKA 67.04 59.68 81.05

Source: Registrar General of India, Census of India, Various Volumes

Among the districts in Karnataka, the highest literacy rate is

found in Dakshina Kannada with 83.47 per cent in total. Urban areas

show 89.06And Rural area 79.93.

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Table 2.4: Literacy Rates by Sex by district to State

No. District Male Female Total

2001 2001 Persons
2001
1 Bangaluru (U) 88.36 78.98 83.91

2 Bangaluru (R) 74.43 55.12 65.00

3 Bagalkote 71.31 44.10 57.81

4 Bijapur 68.10 46.19 57.46

5 Bidar 73.29 50.10 61.98

6 Bellary 69.59 46.16 58.04

7 Belgaum 75.89 52.53 64.42

8 C hamaraj anagar 59.25 43.02 51.26

9 Chickamagaluru 80.69 64.47 76.23

10 Chitradurga 74.69 54.62 64.88

11 Davanagere 76.44 58.45 67.67

12 Dakshina 89.74 77.39 83.47

Kannada
13 Dharawad 81.04 62.20 71.87

14 Gadag 79.55 52.58 66.27

15 Gulburga 65.52 38.40 56.65

16 Hassan 78.29 59.32 68.75

17 Haveri 77.94 57.60 68.04
 18 Kodagu 83.80 72.53 78.18

19 Kolar 73.14 52.81 63.14

20 Koppala 69.15 40.76 55.02

21 Mandya 70.71 51.62 61.21

22 Mysore 71.30 55.81 63.69

23 Raichur 62.02 36.84 49.54

24 Shimoga 82.32 67.24 74.86
25 Tumkur 76.88 57.18 67.19
26 Udupi 86.59 74.02 79.87
27 Uttara Kannada 84.48 68.48 76.59
76.29 57.45 67.04
KARNATAKA
Source: Registrar Genera of India, Census of India, Various Volumes

The table 2.4 indicates that the literacy rate is the highest among the
female

population in three districts. Bangaluru (U ) occupies the first

place,followed by

Dakshina Kannada and Udupi Districts.

In other other districts female population show poor performance.

49
Table-2.5: General Statistics about Women in Karnataka

1 Population 2001 Male Female Total

(in Lakhs)
268.56 258.77 527.33

2 Sex Ratio 964

Mean Age at Marriage 20.14

4 Maternal Mortality Rate 195/One lakh live births

5 Female Literacy Rate 57.45 %

6 Fertility Rate 2.13

7 Life Expectancy at birth 63.61 years

Male -61.6 years
Female - 65.5 years
8 NO. of seats reserved for women Grama panchayats 35922

Taluk Panchayats 1375

Zilla Panchayats 339

9 Total number of members elected Legislative Assembly-223

in Karnataka
Legislative Council- 72

10 Number of Women elected in Legislative Assembly- 6

Karnataka
Legislative Council- 8

11 Total Number of members Lokh Sabha 28

elected in Karnataka
Rajya Sabha 12

12 Number of women elected in Lokh Sabha 01

Karnataka
Rajya Sabha 01

Source: Women and Children Development Report, Bangalore, 2008

50
 It is interesting to review the general statistics about women in Karnataka

as seen in the table-2.5. Sex ratio in Karnataka was 964, which is better when

compared with national level sex ratio. Mean age at marriage of women is 20.14

years.Life expectancy of female (65.5 years) is slightly better than that of male

(61.6 years)

Government of Karnataka has taken several measures for the welfare of

women in the state. Details of institution established for the women development

is given in the table no.2.6and 2.7

Table -2.6: Women development in Karnataka

1. No. of working Women Hostels 76

2 No. of short stay Homes 28

3 No. of Santwana Centres 54

4 No. of De-addiction Centres 28

5 No. of Girls Hostels 24

6 No. of Swadhara 18

Source: Women and Children Development Report, Bangalore. 2008

Table-2.7: Stree shakti programme in Karnataka

1. No. of Self-Help Groups 1,20.000

2 Total no. of Women members 17.80 Lakhs28

3 Savings accumulated Rs. 444.91 crores

4 No. of groups availed loans fromBanks 90182

5 Total amount of loans availed from Banks 24

Source: Women and Children Development Report, Bangalore. 2008

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Education in Karnataka

The beginning of modern education could be traced to the establishment

of Free English School at Mysore in 1833 by the palace of Mysore (for the
erstwhile Mysore area); of the two Marathi Vernacular schools at Dharwad and
Hubli in 1826 by the Bombay Native School and School Book Society
respectively (for the Belgaum area); of schools in Mangalore. Udupi and Bellary
in 1838 (for Madras Karnataka Area); of the Darul Uloom at Gulbarga in 1853
by Sir Salaarjung (for the Gulbarga area); of the two Anglo-Vernacular Schools
at Madikeri and Virajpet and a Kannada School at Ponnampet by the
Government in 1834 (for the Kodagu area). Christian Missionaries played a
major role in starting schools and imparting English education during the 19th
century.

Pre-primary Education; The Education Integration Advisory Committee

constituted bv the State Government in 1956 evolved a uniform system of
education the entire state.

The Kindergarten system of education or the pre-primary education that

served as a stepping stone for primary education had become popular as early as
1900. Children who had learnt to speak were admitted to these schools
without much consideration of their age. Pre-primary education was generally
imparted in nursery schools attached to a few primary schools. In erstwhile
Mysore State it was done mostly by private agencies. In 1957 government
constituted a committee to study the question of pre-primary education. As per
the recommendations of the Committee, this education came to be imparted
systematically in pre-primary schools. During 1979-80 there ware 3.118 pre­
primary schools in the state with 1,90.737 children in them.

52
In the present system of pre-primary education, children who have attained
3 years and ten months of age are eligible for admission to Lower Kindergarten
(L.K.G.). so that by the time they complete their Upper Kindergarten (U.K.G.)
having attained 5 years 10 months of age, they become eligible for admission to
the first standard.

Primary Education: Primary education was recommended to be an

integrated course of seven years by the Education Integration Advisory'
Committee. The four years of Primary and four years of Middle School
education was combined to form an integrated course of 8 years. A common
syllabus was framed and introduced in a phased manner beginning with 1959-60.
so that by 1962-63, all primary schools in the state had a uniform curriculum and
syllabus. As per this revised syllabus, in addition to the inclusion of three
languages as per the three-language formula, Kannada was introduced as a
compulsory subject from standard 3rd to 6th for the non-kannada pupils. While
Health education formed a part of science syllabus, moral education was made
compulsory' and physical education syllabus was strengthened. This revised
syllabus was implemented from 1974-75.

During 1955-56 there ware 22,803 primary' schools (including Senior

Primary' and Basic Schools) with a total student strength of 19.17,258. By 1981-
82, the total number of Primary' Schools was 35,549 with a total enrolment of
51,73,621 children in them. They were taught by 1,17,686 teachers of whom
1,05.751 were trained and the rest, under trained. In the next decade the number
of schools was 40,345 with a total of 71,90,963 children who were taught by
1,35,609 teachers of the whom 1,30,987 were trained. During 1993-94 there was
a total of 41,684 schools, where a total of 77.56,598 children studied. The total
number of teachers for the said years was 1.45,068 whom 1,39,331 were trained.

53
 Literacy attainments for Karnataka as a whole at present are just above
national average. Karnataka’s overall literacy rate is 67.04 (2001 Census). The
male -female differential is still high, with 76.0 per cent male literacy and 57.0
per cent female literacy. Female literacy is highest in Dakshina Kannada
(77.39 per cent) and Bangalore Urban (78.98.0 per cent), which is far lower than
the highest in the states of Kerala. Tamilnadu and Maharashtra, The disparity
between male and female literacy rates is highest in rural areas. Rural female
literacy in the state is low. with some districts such as Gulburga and Raichur
having a female literacy rate of 38.40 per cent and 36.84 per cent only which is
well below the national average of 54.1 per cent.. Totally 12 districts have female
literacy below the national average of 54.16 per cent.

The present scenario in Karnataka is that about 98.0 per cent of the
population has been provided with lower primary schools within 1 km distance
and higher primary schools within 2 km distance. Primary schools have been
started in all habitations with a population of 200 or more (whereas the national
norm is 300 populations) and in other habitations with less than 200 populations
a primary school is available within walking distance. Access is therefore no
longer an impediment to the goal of universalization. The number of schools,
now over 50,000, has increased by nearly 25per cent in the last 10-12 years.

Secondary Education: In the princely State of Mysore, the first

Government High School was started in 1858 in Bangalore, affiliated to the
University of Madras. Later, the Mission schools at Tumkur. shimoga and
Hassan and Maharaja's Schools in Mysore were taken over by the Government.
The Secondary Education consisted of two stages - Middle Schools stage and
High School state. The District Boards started a number of High Schools in
Madras Karnataka area. The A V School in Gulbarga was upgraded into High

54
school in 1875. and the Central High School at Madikeri was raised to the status
of a High School in 1879. 331*^
3AC>[fRE
After Re-organisation, the term Secondary Education gained a different
connotation. While in Old Mysore it applied to schools with a three-year course
after the eighth standard; in Bombay - Karnataka area, schools had a four-year
Course after Seventh Standard or Mulki schools. In Dakshina Kannada there
were Elementary (till 5th standard). Middle (till 8th standard) and High School
till 11th standard. Similar was the case in the Hyderabad -Karnataka area. By the
time of Re-organisation, there were 537 Secondary' Schools in the State
(including two military schools) with a total strength of 1,25,645 students. A new
curriculum was introduced for secondary education all over the State in 1960 and
uniformity in pattern, syllabi and examination was achieved by 1963. SSLC was
uniformly made a course of ten-year duration with the eight, ninth and tenth
being treated as high school classes.

The scheme of conversion of High Schools into Higher Secondary

Schools with the introduction of standard-11 was implemented from 1964-65,
upgrading 50 schools all over the State. This scheme of 11 th Standard was drawn
to a close when the 1st year Pre-university Course was introduced. This became a
two year course in 1972.

During 1981-82, the total No. of High Schools was 2,416 and the number
of children rose to 7.22 lakh. The total number of teachers working in High
Schools during 1981-82 for the whole state was 22,407. for the year 1993-94 a
total of 5,732 High Schools existed in the State of which 1,488 were Government
Institutions, 2,111 were aided by the government, 2,106 were unaided and 27
came under Local Bodies. There were in all 46,527 teachers in them whose
number respectively for the above category of institutions was 12,972 (with

55
1.314 SCs and 361 STs). 21.392 (1.254 SCs and 441 STs). 11.941 (with 700 SCs
and 218 STs) and 222 (with 220 SCs and 2 STs).

Causes for backwardness

The persistence of hunger and abject poverty in India and other parts of
the world is due in large measure to the subjugation, marginalization and
disempowerment of women. Women suffer from hunger and poverty in greater
numbers and to a great degree then men. At the same time, it is women who bear
the primary responsibility for actions needed to end hunger: education, nutrition,
health and family income.

Looking through the lens of hunger and poverty, there are seven major
areas of discrimination against women in India:

Malnutrition: India has exceptionally high rates of child malnutrition, because

tradition in India requires that women eat last and least throughout their lives,
even when pregnant and lactating. Malnourished women give birth to
malnourished children, perpetuating the cycle.

Poor Health: Females receive less health care than males. Many women die in
childbirth of easily prevented complications. Working conditions and
environmental pollution further impairs women's health.

Lack of education: Families are far less likely to educate girls than boys, and far
more likely to pull them out of school, either to help out at home or from fear of
violence.

Overwork: Women work longer hours and their work is more arduous than
men's, yet their work is unrecognized. Men report that "women, like children, eat
and do nothing." Technological progress in agriculture has had a negative impact
on women.

56
Unskilled: In women's primary' employment sector - agriculture - extension
services overlook women.

Mistreatment: In recent years, there has been an alarming rise in atrocities

against women in India, in terms of rapes, assaults and dowry-related murders.
Fear of violence suppresses the aspirations of all women. Female infanticide and
sex-selective abortions are additional forms of violence that reflect the devaluing
of females in Indian society.

Powerlessness: While women are guaranteed equality under the constitution,

legal protection has little effect in the face of prevailing patriarchal traditions.
Women lack power to decide who they will marry, and are often married off as
children. Legal loopholes are used to deny women inheritance rights.

India has a long history of activism for women's welfare and rights, which
has increasingly focused on women's economic rights. A range of government
programs have been launched to increase economic opportunity for women,
although there appear to be no existing programs to address the cultural and
traditional discrimination against women that leads to her abject conditions.

Wave of change

For various socio-cultural-historical contributing factors gender

discrepancy has got entrenched in the society. The main victims of this
discrepancy happen to be women. They are subject to all sorts of discrimination,
bias, marginalisation, atrocities and so on. Women, by and large, have been
accepting their low status, so far, as they had no choice. Fortunately there is an
increasing awareness about the status of women all over the world. Thanks to the
Government and the NGO’s that a realisation has come of the importance of
women in the economic map of the country.

57
References:
Bina Srinivasan 2007 ^Negotiating Complexities" a collection of Feminist

essay, Pomilla & Co in association with Bibliophille South Asia,New Delhi &

Chicago

Ela R.Bhat (second impression): ‘"We are Poor but so many" the Story of self-

employed Women in India by published by Oxford University Press

Gayathri N : “Mahila Chaluvaliya Majalugalu" By, Nava Karnataka Prakashana

(Kannada) pp 69

Dr. Kishori Nayak K (2007) : “Gender Equity” edited by Centre for Women

Studies, Mangalore University, Mangalagangothri

Mary E. John, (2008): “Women’s Studies in India” edited by Penguin Book

Verma B, ,S.K Jiloka and K.J Kushawah (Edtion 2006) “‘Rural Women

Empowerment” .Deep and Deep publications Pvt Limited

Journals
1. Lai B. Suresh, (December 15, 2007): “Women Labour Migration : an
empirical study ” -Southern Economist (fortnightly), Vol.46
Number 16
2. Jaya Indiresan (March 22,2007) : “Main streaming Gender into
Curriculum”- Key note address delivered at the National Seminar at the
University of Mangalore,

58