Exergy ee t- The Aange oF nea possessea a an qt bane + eleziion th a solid Vis known as en > Elecfving in any ovblt passes definilé ene a > eledXea tn any! orbit. any atom Have a Aange 4 energies AatheA, than “d singit net. the is known Nas ener. ¢f band: Valence Bands. Range 4 ae poscecsedd “f Valence. elédy & kndbn as Valence Band + F ConducHen Band :. Range 4 energibe boscessd by conducHon band de Yree elertyons) 1% Known as-C: Band. scanned wit Camscannconducher Band Valence: Bare ey? Wighese erent level tn V:Band+ lerel im Conductor bane - ©, > Lowest enc 2 Bue te this ovealabpin / a grail petenFal aif ference across a Conduclas cauids the free efedvone To consHtuWle eledarz current ce ee clOX* +. Here Valence band te almost full L ° Remi cone conducton band is almast_emplhy. Enogy a bho -thece. Tho banels te very small 4 Me oddet. % hlev fer se And op for Ge. There fore egmall eledIit Herel fe Aequived “16 push The elechyone from Valene 2 band To the Conduction band ° sides cereals scanned With Camscann:Fovbiciden 7 &> t- Separahion bw Conduction band Ard Valence. band th the enera leve is knonn as forbretder Eney. Gap - No eleztvons can slay tr cthig band pildth oF forbidden ener ‘ap measure y. the. bondage. 4 Valence efectrans 16 the atom. Greal& the. enc dg 7G the Valence elechranc 4e bound to He Nucleus. i. oy iP A ° Classificahon oF soltde:_ Based on Comauchii. solide one. Classified as i— Dorsulalots ; Im Te¥ms 1 enevgy, band valence. band 1% : full Ahile the conduction band & empty. a Stamoend, q“ ete . Conduchon Band Bo 2 I qr Ea > Sev. 7 Valence Band Enea band | fe insulalots * Levee pegio!ty Conduclors , conductowe 7 allo the passage ip electue Cument through them. beox thete ce large 0° 4 free electene available ma Conducler: a Caa} . ov \ ‘ Gent Coneluc [Oke _ comduchuily lier BA conductors And Tnsulaldts . Restshutly 4. Semlconduclo% Vastes from 15 te 104 ohra-met Whereas 1679 15 1% chm male fur Con ductors And from lo? To 10% ohm- mele fy onminy on clucTo to? Te oh ohm mele : bsulalo% . ss g Ge are 7 used Semi - Conductor . Rropertes 4 Y_esemi- Comelucl® s_ Gy 3, z Hare Valence eléclyine uy a Have Gre) temp 4. Coefficient Of 9. Resistance f& “RL TS. any Pxopertee + agemi- Conductors Can he varted “t aaairy impusi-hee To -gemiconduclorc ° ° * liv) Cudrent Im semi- Condudlase concict 2 movement Sp elecléns And Holes. Qi- Why silicon 1 Ofetely asect than Geamanium. Ans? Valence elecivons th Ge — 4 shell oe valence electyons im si 2°7 shel Means Ge Valence _elechone ae at hig her =a) levels +than those fn st. Hence Ge Valence secteons il need Small. amount 4. additienal enevay to escabe [yom Valence band To ConducHon band, pence Ge produces (Alene more mo 4. elect¥on hole pairs than si, as a Aesull [ea feege Current (© move tm Ge bated semiconductoy than £4. This | proper makes Ge more Unstable at big tempera lives. ‘ See sss SCearmn er WITT CRITI CRTT= = my silicon. ts preferred a8 Cempared To Germann: . o Atomic No oF st (lud:- 2,8,4 ja bells? Atomic No oF Ge (32):- 2/8184 54 shells? that means in Ge elecvent in oulamase shell loosel; i = Bounkl Bees ie | than si ae | qtom. : fey * Gr al semitonduélés behaves as an insuldt& at 0%. + { e Mean Life time s- Time clusalton gem Ane a Yree elezhon Ard Hole exisk before Ae Combination. © . eS Elvinsi® sem! conduclo%e 3. Tm, oxder Te make. the pil¥incit Semiconducls useful +he® chayatiehshet Have 16 be altered by adding a Centar Amount oF decthed, cs Impusile atoms. The Aesulling Semicondudloxe are. called impute. On exlsinsi? semiconductor + . Ge # The process 4 adeling Impurities 16 the Intrine? cemfcondulla malesial ether. te tnerease. the mo- Sh Yree elections TS Or earch Ue tmevease the me SF 7eee. aleciiony . | mevease the mo. 4 Holes 1% KnoKn as DOPING. ‘nemracrerser SCanned With Carriscann:sh te oF Exlvinsre Semiconducloe ; Generally. Toi bea 9 4 Coa impo atone ake added W the semi conducléy . Normally, the fmpurile Alam Contang 5 Valence, eleclténs C Callect penlavalent atoms) ynd the impuvi = alarm containing 3 Valence. elect¥éns called trivalent impurity aloine « Goals the. resulting Semiconduder my be 4. the forrateg Tides = N PE 3 When a small Amount oF perhavalent impurtl ~ Group) 15 added te a pure semiconduttet, te 12 known as ae SemiconduTe - ae Arsene, Ohi 7 bhocphovous ele . fentavalent- means $ eléctyone i outermost oABIE. ouk oF & elettns, 4 elecd¥ont Form Covalent bond with & 9 nelghbourin, Ge or sf atom. The sh & lopsely bonded i Nucleus Inde no place rh Covalent bene th Ali a Nucle And finds no _place rh ovalen: us hm 6uee as free 04 valence efeci¥ont. Hence a ver small i Sufficient Te excite thie election TE move. from Valence band we o_conduchor band - - There fore im each ot alem one free eleven Will be available th Ge oA. si alaww Thug fe each Avsenit Atome provides ome free efectsa>y e& an esl¥emel small amourk 4. Impurite provides crow atoms te Sup) millions 4. free elecl¥ane These pe 4. im purities are Callect Ben an. ip purities b’eox ie donates electrons bc to Ge oA si nytt: scanned witn Camscann% '\ Additforat free elec tyiru Hence. No. oF dopant Atoms = No: 6F Free elec[son< Elecl¥omt as rmeferig Casters jas repel er. asserts fe ee So When a somal Amount st valent: tempurt te added t6 pure Sem! Conduder, fe 1 called a& P-Thhe sewNconductar.. Frivalent mpusitis =. Galtitam _Drdium , Boson % small Ameunt of bivalent impurili¢ 18 added % a pure nee 7 eer semi Conducter. . Trt valent Ionpurl = means, tt Has 3 Valence elections th the oulesmose orbit . Three elechine form a covalent bond Hikth 4 surroundh electore oF Ge oh Sf dleme . one bond i& incomplete Which leads te formatfon oF hole. as chown beloX)- Thus the. aceiton oF trivalent a gully provictes a latae me of Holec In the. Semi- conduclon . SCANNED With CahISCarin. © one Artctitonal Hole. 04. Vacané sil aK Hence. ; No- 8F Holes = No. oF bokante a. of Nov oF Holes —pP > "4 -* No. OF Free electiane Ae Minovthy catesne a ‘epee Castine Effect oF +temberalite. 2 W Conductor. s_ eee ie AS. tT B 1 | +e temp. coefficient C3 Sere? CondutTeke pecan Comeuciotes= a. CInkinaiz) 1 ~ve Terps Coefficient Ui Bolvitsre Semi conduclase «_ : Seo Fant A igpey “reTemp coffien oo a TE becomes Intibsi? Semitonauttes (ky) Dnculale se. 7 TIED AN, oly fe electiine Ain Sump conduction Band, Hence R44 (re temp Coefficient), (* 4s 7 Taanm, Ensulalor si bacon. seennS Sonak Enema. Level 3~ po | conduc Hon i LB Bebe ames BRke-- ote ee ee Nayhe Actebtoy Enevgiy Levet *. os Fe Paty. [ cE Ey» DONAn Energy en? “Als arent chaige Cahiers ft levet, 7 Charge Camere —e ~ ~~ Accef To, aad lever ecansiess > foteh Miner fcbege Casient > scanned With CamscannEMICO ie ODE Ss INDUCTOR, BD. PoN Junchiont g- IFa piece oF pr ifre Semiconduélar. is Joined te a N-Tope “semiconducti’ I Such Q monner. that The CrysTal Sfruclite Aemaine conb’nous ak the bounclory, then a men Siruelite Calle PN functor Is fevmned. uel py function makes a versatile device called 08 semiconduales aliede, En Junction cede ov crystal Uede- Slit! Sp There are We basit recesses hich are. Aesponsible. for. the movernent 4 elezivns ard doles h @ Semi ConduclA are — ch DAILE , The aalfe Cussent hich fons inside @ ssemfcendudla oS under the intluence 4 extermalig appliéd eledtar? fietd- a 2 ‘ ui) pipfusierts- The ctoans pose 4. chorges takes place Im a osemi conducter, which can be explained 4 a mechanis™ called, ‘ DIFFUSION’. pipfusiow Cah be Lax entourtKeel at im Semf-Conduélove -3t 1S absent tm metals. moe The P-N Junchom caxbe made Sint bp Toletng two pleces Special fabsfcattor techriquer we ‘ . techniques Aequived te form P-N Junchom. A semicondutt Pn sfuncton ‘© formed When a Nafer 4 the semficonduclo® malefal such & te ae ae Silfeom 1s dopec| so that ome. agin 1% NE re * the obhaw ts b-Trhe, funch & " fe Pp. of . py suncHon is an lonpor tant device , brow all other. semicondudl@™ olevices Confar at least onc P-N 1 Se RAS SRR vuncHon . scanned witn vamséfhin7 Wlovky oF, oF, ban Junction diode. ~ ~ =. Fastca) unblasec Disde : i © No edilelmal voltage 1S appre beeen the Tsrninals 4 the. pen fumekon, Heme pr janch? ide Oin. aliypuse rite ‘ife_p--sia aside. ou IE ogard t be unblased . Ch The free eleci¥ont yrom 7 sid oat secerbine hit the bales Pastent thete p side wide vill leave dehind a “Uiy Each eleclxon daseg Polo (eve iramosile fom fon on te? n-side » tenant © -aside- Uy hen art elector Combines Nib @ hole or the Prasle&. ns eee an dlim Abich accept this eleclvon, fases Pir electyical meilkal statis Apd decomet a C-ve) Smmosile fon: (% Due fe Thit Aecombination procest, a large 0° ove) fons accumulate oeak the. function on the 1-Sidle. 2. & Jorge mo: 4 negahve fmmobile Pont +8 accumulate an the p-oside meat the Junction as sshasor belond — JUNCTION . . ° eee sve. immobile (076 fons FAce diel eledivons ninoriby y elec Rout * Ptybe 6 Sopra N- NeTybe, be, > Semicondudl&d gfe Remion du CT Fig -A scanned witn CamscannThe Cegetied charged fons om the p-oside AO osTant Acelling. the eletiions rinich attempe dippuse eto The 'Beslete Ya aylebopeme time, “the afttusiin: Ue SEER Completely At thit potat, the function (toga Wa have attained an equilibrium. Depletion Se 1 The whaded Aegion on SoH Shae Y the funchon iH Fig (A) Contam only Pmmoblle fons And no free ae Casaress Such OS eleclvones o& holes. £7 othes Novos, PA AE, too, 18 Clepletea.” of dhe Free charge Carnitas . Therefore Pit Acglom t& Called. ' 2 t Bae f as the clepletien Sg os cpace Large SR Te ThE slate equilibsram , the clepletion Aegina EK rdtelorect TW wguch an extent that eletiiont Cant cross the functor "f more> DidH. oF depletore Eye Dues presence oF qepleHion region the eledivns o& holes cannot aliffuse 1S the : ’ other sfele, Hence fe & sald that the depleHern “ct acti as a BARRIER: cone a Nidlly oF beplehon Re, fom ts “+ the OAdeA. wos w| mickon™ Ohare | michor = 1X107§ melee. mscannRORRIER, POTENTIAL oh funerion PETENTIAL $- ae Due the. presence y. Fmebile (ue 2. (-ve) fang on opposile ste 4 the Junckon, am eledthit $fetd if creciTed acwees the function. Tht elatid $fed & knonn os “ Barsles Potential” Oh function potential os cut fx walege Te i called a8 danrer Poem Hal peor fe acte ar baie T oppose the Yo 3 elezt¥ons &£ holes acess the funchon . Boule polental rcbresett™ the ae $ the baw, chat & to be cuecome 0% Commencement 4 lon ¥. elezliGn 2 holes. It i measmed th volt. MA Silicon Bane potentials “6V Fes Germanium =0-2V eA Junction botenttal ia t—> Barri povepHal I+ Ne Nant W cvosc the electeone vind Holec acyose the Janckon, Then an exileinal Voltage abpopAidte polatity Hac % he applied 2 IN O%dATS oVeACOmME the opposifion oF hanfe potential * scanned witn vamscann1 perilkdle mere on the side Kilch te le DepleHon As i ism a i Ightly. a Ie the other,» } Wey ‘od as Co AA: Fackke dectatirrg. the basse. potenttal value 2- sembcondudler amalttial used §-2l 04 Ged iy Intrinsit conceni¥alion oF Holes <= 1006 [PS G4 > o> cleclone Sa 1 << |2 OO OI ee => fo fr Aeverse biated diSde,.@) We kno that p- Aegitn Consialf oF a small 70 OF eledl¥anc 2. n Aagion Conlatns a omall oo oF holes. These ase sree Comics Ahich ate ey scanned witn vamscannead a 2 The nee elet¥one th the Pegi wre allracted by the H = ‘ Qe) end of Dec Subp, Hence these elecions tll cross de. Hale the Yeverse Curent L, oF the lode , Nr ac eg © eleclyimc © Holes L wml norily eledein os s— 2 RARE fing fe severe bidsed ctiod Sipser ° Reverse Cuent & aleo Called a * Reverse salutaten! Curent As this cumente 2 due & the minorily Castfesc te & mail fn Omplice pple SH the oddet. 9. YeA LUA fer Ge dfocles 2 few Namaamberes for sf dtede. Reverse saltitatto - e x Cument floss due te onine xi ¥ Caslere Which exist due te elevates dene evated temp., Hence. Aeuense ssalaiaHon Cument & cfependert on {2 temp . Ata Constant Ttemb. the Aguerse saturation | CUMENE Aemaihe Constante Independent 4 Yeverse ed Me scanned win CamiscannV-D chayaclésistes of pom function diade S— I, (ma) an Forward Currert) Fiesta =| —s Forward Chara cleus Hes ( vet tage ) V,. (valts) -v. Vv, Rg Le T Fornatd [everse ) ot (Cubih rotege) C voltage) ee ae =I (4A) Reverse Reverse Salthatin, Characteu's hes ne © WhenlVz0 , process of cliftusion tukes place £ the uel-cuiffusion Current 50 f case oF Unbiased? i a . @ whew |v =+ve |means clade ts Forward biased - yge Carriers haveu’t- _ Invreases slowly because cha gained Sudficient- momerilim “to punclure dleplebiu layer, 3 luhew (~2%], the Curpenl— increases exponentially blogz charge Caypiers hac co much Kinetic energy Wagar | easily cyoss the p-u functions scanned witn vamscanneo, cead ¢ ® When | i: vse biased + ‘ 2 Reve 2} Meane elinde '¢ Rel aie P orf 4 Yeverse. te Les Chay o * Ue Satayatiar Current lows ‘ae Carvieys . 5 Ps & 9 TEI alco observed that When veverse Voltage | ’ Meveased ts a Very high Value, Reverse Current Mereases expoueutially £. the olfade mo break alot TE yeverse Maliage & kuown as Breakdacon Voltege. EHect of temp ou V-I chayaélévistics !- Te. (um Vw >yw ov 2 ° s TSC Soe aoe Varz v v. Bra BRs -V, R y CVorts) Vv, <\ena~ “Bra | =x, (ua) Scanned with CamScanni> .. leny i yy As Temp Increases the Cubin votterg® 4. drode. 1s Aeducecd. 3 As TH theveased, the reverse satavatoy, Current- 1 also “ucreasecl and the breakelow voltage ake Mncveases, x x —stanneo with CaniSéarinare Stode Eaniaton + Nae Ae Where Dy Diode Cussent Ema) Dy Reverse. opatina tion, Custent (44) V— Applied voltage "| constant Y > Cut hh volta 5 Boltzman’s Cougtaut Vi Voltage Equlvalent oF temp: » i : i _ ViekT .13axde75 r= rk | 5 vv exe8 i W600! chargeore poliage| Thereghald voltage Baur voltage :-re 1 the ? eae “ee ee 4 min: voltege at Which dfede Diede Current Eqpation Approrcinna tiny :. Case: When eligde i: unbiased - Bras tt tT, =T, [e*-1] [Fe =| scanned witn vamscann“ Cose .. pthen etfole & Povnard Brose te (Veave] -t [eve i} Due T fornatel blag edt y e’hir >>! | i | | | 82 op are ty, eee T>> IL) Neglecting I, vim a z- When eliode ( Reverse Blased ye lv -ve. l 7% [evhr -] | oP. ae} } que Te -ve 7 i qa ela, x, cies on the basit oF above 3 Cases o°eal Diode yg. a cliode ack as 4 switch, As a Site, SS ON ore AS a switch diode Nill be oN when ft is forniatd biased -that Means max: Cument Yiows tor diode - stitch closed + prerec) a 4 cibde as a Closed Svdi techy a Diode Ih Pea Concihen @ # Doce Nil be OFF, hen te 1& Reverse biased . fe No Cunent 0M Flow ou mn ¥ ea fesetes —TF Diode fn RB. Conditian a) a Dioele asa open crate ee scanned With Caniscaiin:valent: cra» Ze 1 deFrnedt “y When the eliode 1% fomard Biased . | J ae ccenice. Line as eSiinplified Teal L yy -- 12 \ Here ha. Ie Hoe aE ome fe suffictedd Hy small ees to be Neclécled. aede | q U e a : thi ache as Q Swikch | . ny u » AS vo! : is Revedse “vy ve y Hete ellede f OFF Glased dit y whee eg bet Ne const WY ig thak minimum : us y 1 Aeached Claes: Ae threshold vettege whith cliede ON £ Curent SOF be wequived toon thectiode ee esaenee ee ieee shodte Ub, ble te We chan: SO Upto Ye alice if OFF ie ie 0 aoe foedle , \echetnoce Aave ths. No Cument- fens. Bulm al- we lected °F “ 0€ dhe batleny|: \. & reached Custent ctatk (aes Curgent a ineveates exponentiaty beozdiocte. SROCERP |, 12 ON scanaa os 8@ eet | a, Rech: converl? 4-e Mls, Dee Ay Maeetle chases Nofe:- ov be, the meee CondiHens— SA RR 0) Le should be uri- polar. ci) De eghould Constant Wit time - RECTIFIER, HalF wave fuse oy one fade? [Full Wave. fuses WYO 0% more code 3 We ve CentTe topped Bale ave Hall Wave Rectiflh; uses “a one halt oF Fxbute At Wave a lox: 3 = (4ve Hale pe (oT T/) Db — FB = closed sWitde scanned neRe, Forward Resishinve oF diode RL Load Reslstanre Rs —> Resictanve oF suena il G oo = Vn | L Rr tRLtRe| Bur Rio ka LRegR ake im Ohms = RL>d> Re LRe So Duaing (ove HolFopele :. D> RB 25 open aniich-y No Curréat _ Phreugh Ry 3 |\ =0| Lo Note t- Gwe) Halt lave Reckifie , Do te t ou, « scanned witn Val neQ | 7 what do Ne reed full Nave Rechifiéh. 04. Nhat ate the Iimitahions 04 ai'sad oe oF half hove Rechifi. Cuwe) els. Ab the outpue gf Aechifiel, We - unfpolar signal, but fe 12 not Constant that means this 18 Vak! ing With time; 4 the Aectifies, these ac components ate psesent 15 the ofp a-c cemponerile ate. called a ‘gipples’ 04 ‘pulsating oe wibich ate not destsed at the olp £6 1B oddet te Aernove these Albples, He use Pilters : ’ Caseouer 12 HR only one dale qs (ether +ve 0% -ve) 1S used [@ We ae lp th (ve) Half ¢ cle 50 ib ohder. te Ovecome ahd elthe, (+ve) Halt a" of hat means one half. cycle 1s Wasted , bacblem (eure WAVE pecriFle€ 3 used . Rechpication, Fue ae Ee etleien FMR Is land. Full rove Rech ria s— 5 Celta tpfed tf scanned witn Lamscannho 4 ~Duningine Cave) Hal eee | == 6 b jalf qe Ducane Grete <——t, ant Ru dutine Cove) Haipcvele Ac r Fnbat ne iF t. D> RB 2 al a %aTR ay scannea witn Gamscannvol tee e Across Sah Output Nove fot sf Full Nave Cente tabbed Rectifidl a _ Rechifie. 2- 2200 At Txput o——_ scanned witn vamscanntug Crve) Halfcycles “O d ra 3 DD FB ee By - byes 3 | oukput a Y= TRU t Dy tue Half cycle Rear ree S tp Scanned with CamScanni6 jos Bucire (ve) Hf an ie D mi Cvestalfoele SY7 Re FB ? oc ~ Vy = TRL ey a — RB ae Aryoss rai outbub = Re hifiDesivalfan Rect ek. Eledtronuzs Bugle ate Frepovect a Uudit forena £, Aupita Taba? Scanned with CamScanniPARAMETERS HALE WAVE RECTIFIER FULL WAVE RECTIFIER Ti Clnod cuthent) pve (olb vali ‘a oe Figs toed ‘cuikenk nove fefm Fos Half wave Aceh siie 7 Yolematiaty fh vlogs may be an oc a aq" Area = ["y sinwedewe 1S dea 3 Yo Coutput voltage) Avetoge ck ce value oF olb volbage Mathematically o|b voltage may be eed ea Y= Vysinde , FOS OS WERT 9 ‘iene | Fon. Eee = i >) Fek we WES aT id, sina, | Fo, 7 < WES PA ekoue pate comenera] 2 COBY Indeter that uttng send ‘au Yea Mea ince he le | 4G aif Yele, the sine nave fe invetea Bose UE agen = ia i tae ee i: 2 Ne knoto;— ade = ese ‘fs wy on * Mea. Und-ek. He Curve. —® | sue Bose Fiona egy @, put the Value a Vy 1h eq} (2%. ae J a x an [rvjdewes +f yews + f,dcwt) 3 x Scanned with CamScanni= an Vekin cited cwe) +f —y smatecene) a 7 an [mcrae] 4 [ Vp Cr? ‘| ° 7 Yip [-ces + cao] + Ym [Cs 27-cesz] = Um [istered laea a nv.) Akea = WY | es 5 | a Vc bood Resfetame Pe 7 Foynatel Reststome x. cliode Scanned with CamScanni1 2° Fos, Half nave Reck*fid | me knoe 9 put the value ih gh (ay = (Fey ee 2 (Zn) « Ret Re? ws Be Cet Re) = 6 (ae 78 242, iF (ae Sfiaing F [imag = 0406 = 40-67, ‘ will be, mox, when Rg 778 Ewe For Full Wave Rech'fiee Heknoe 2, 28h yy x Fyms = Im a F put the values th egh (Ad. ie (2) 2% ae Imp \*, ae ate, ( me) x CRtkD Re 9 Efficacy HOI be onare, Wher RL 77? | "max. = 0-2 8-2 Ll whiel i te @ that y HwRs Hence a FWR tb twite as effective aca HWR, Scanned with CamScanni© Piv 2 the maximum Amount % Peak Veltige that a disde hos te Ionves © VASE | Vitnbtond When it if opeatea Voltage | seuerse Bios - crv PIV = Un} > Fos Half wave ® | TUF = be lower Peli ered to the Load Trronsfovmet. AC power hating 4. dransformes utlizatten ait) Factes, (Toe) Hout nave Rech He 2 TOF = Weta Ys Tims meee @ | Fos Full wove — Cerive tatbed Baitge Rechifict Fok. Conve tabbed + — Piv= av, | | Fon Boge: Plus | |» | | Y, laa 3 Fos Fun Nave Rectifiet, TOF = TOF (Fetmaty)-¢ TOF csecandy) TUF = ogtq + 0-812. 2 TUF = 0-643 = 6-57] Scanned with CamScanni“Bal wave Rechirig | Fa wove Rech fie ® ral 7 | Ye = Eye = Fel zr Pos Half Wave Rechte, Vymg = Veal 2 | Lyms = Tm] | 3 put thete valuel, We gt Tor = [Ymjr] [Bela] . 2G | (vmlG) [Znl2J cies TOF = 0-287 = 20-4/, 3 TUF should be as high as possille « STUF Fot Half wove Rrectifik -20:74, | Fe Tal p eavenRecey. | Indicate thot the tvancformes. 15 beta | | uttlized 16 ont 20-77, tts full capactty i Scanned with CamScanni@ | ‘Brendon Mechanisi :_ oe Avalanche Breakelocort Shae the clisde IS Reverse. biasech, 7 one Cayy exe | [ momettan, and Collide With bonds dae te hit elashe collfsidu, Elecliau. hole pac 1 eleasedt - These 4eleased chaige cassiess Will aga Collide Witty | Other bouds thus due te 4hi% Cumulative iaultiplication, 4. Chasge Cassiete, the severse Current hucrveaset exponential aud Jeads tr breakdoww 4 diode = ae Os 7€ + Ox e —rp4 @ —Vv gral @ Kener. Breakdowu:—- Te & usually observed th an doped cliode U Where the depletion, lag fg veo Nahsgu« P.To scanned with Cariscarin2 eaV : A — width aes Which 1 14 wm. 3 e= Vole ~ volts AM 1 Sm | | | | | | | snot 5 alto" ve 5 due 1 masrow depletiow layer, a elecate Afeld the osdes * loo Vim excise aud the houds ate. p cyvenged brioxer of ouce . Hence 4euerse Current Incr ey ui severse digection - xr 2) i -Vv atouce- Rewer. Qiodes— Xeucrdisde if a especial purpose diode because tt Couductd as Convexttouat diode 1% Forward died biased and also Conducts when iG 13 Severse. biased. x, (ma) Syreoot: a —“e Us VET chorodteuis tes of Zeues. 1 va —_ Senet, =F, (UA) scanned with CamscannXenes. diode As Vltege. ojiaeee of. 6 Shunt ae el ce Xenet aliode 16 used as Volfage. Regulate where olp Voltage is Custaut- 4sespective — chauges a Itabut- dal : Tt, ° WM rR fe ye f Vs 1 v7 day | : pee Stept- First check whether. Xeuck eli'ode 18 ON of ‘ocr’ b nenqoe le frou the ckt aud Caleula bit open kt a vo . Ve ke : : Re” _— Et —_—W R i) Ve L ar TT ‘ ue? : otlepas vy. Val , Rene % ON Otherwise, OFF , scanned witn vamscaniite @® | hepa Once ener Diode & ‘an’ , Acplace Xener. diode. | Y a aa oF ve v eine Asses f Rs Ta Gn Vo =, SRL 0 ' vu yp Ie | Calculators: Cased: when B, VY, both Ficed go Me | » |r=% . & | L cen sccm —, | ? Ru Ri, | | | or ~U_v | %) I aR 04 ye oo ® 4) ae Ye ~ |tF ve Rg Rs Here We Can cee from formula that We get Constant olp equal to Vy intespective = chavges ty XP Voltage TS scanned with Camscann- Poa Numenicals o — eet Vp BR, Fixed p_ wwe ———> Te check the stale oF allode whetha te 12 ON R 64 OFF, bircuit: te . ae t Modified as etl t Ive ag Ri Mo f Ve WR | ‘ 4 V>u%— diode & on V4Vz— dDlode & OF When Zener diode tf ON ,_ “se Non wen ST Yr scanned witn CamscannWhen Dlocle i 8FF;. rece = OF! scanned witn vamscann5 Ket R fin) be the Minima Value of Ry that L Cu wilt Wake the Xener clinde ‘on’. te 2D The minimum Condit te make Zener diode ‘on’ Mee bot Viz Ru tml) Vb R+R cutn) 1g — 4 Hence Vz = Ricmiu) Ve RR luin) | scanned witn Camscann® Weknno TF, eee bub Th = Vy nVa max Ayea Y Cross fection: |e As the appeied Severe Vollage. lucreases, the wordt 4 oleple ont Aegion i C_~ decreases. Cepacttonce Ce ope fucreasez, there fose trausttion Cabacttutce. Reverse. a Vo tHe ad, 12 <8 4 ° Dieletiri2 pidte a ++ Se/Oo ++ paée@ at l6g/é <— hy scanned witn Gamscann} @ —> Th short, Capacilaue CG. Can be Coulyolled 4 vari the 4ever'se appued Voltage . Fa ivalert Circuit <— or —PlfF_ 2 — MM wwn_Lervoo—s : K a R Reina. ee Ly (symbol) SH Siive Vasatlos 12 Severse biased the severse Aeststauce. R, ttt the equivalent ckt 1S vee lasge. of the: 04d, + LMA - 7% While RB 18 the pee Acsislauce. 2 dibde Whith 18 ver smatt “oe the otdes of nto la. * Lb ig the effective induclauce Which 1S of the otdes. ot LonH. *C i variable because te depends om the appuect Aevetse is Coetpicrent fe c, Value lucreases M4 Small amount as ‘berps tuereaces . | Effect of Temp s- Vayadlas. diéde have posttive temp. i 1 scanned witn vamscann@ Abplic abouts s. @ Man applications ef- Varatlos liode is Le tuned CKts. @® In TV seceivers @ em Modulates . @ Autowrobile Aadtos . ™"Seatined With Carniseahn“Teed Diode 2~ The opesabion, of- tunnel diode is based ou a spectat chagactetiste , Known as the ‘Negative Restslance’, | ~The seul couduclés, malesials usect fos. oa the +unuel diodes ate Germantaus oa Gallia przeutde. * Coul¥uchouw. ef a Hiuuel clibde 1% egiutlas te that 2 ee ea eliade but both Pp aud 1 gifdet ase veep heavlt doped that the Couverchsuat Beck fies dfodec. ° a. x The heau: opis 4 bdth the sides of juucton i ic he. Aesults 1 extzemel asso deptelon 429107 whew. the tunnel dfode & Zeverse biased - the tunnel dreds Se ° eel [cea ta The width $f depletion : y dopiug. ten 12 inversol propostionat to the leved 4 Mo . leh —+ So as the opis increases, the Width + depletion agien decheases . —» due te the -thin aleplelton ae au eledFou pevrefaatec threat the basses, % Thit 12 called Teanelig' scanned with Camscann® dud guch htgh a dele pom function devices abe called, Tuned diedes. Aleo kuswn as Esai diode: “Tanned adtade, chatactercPshes 3 O Revesse. chagacla ts Hes ¢~ pode aed dipeg 1 baud n sfdet the cleplehon agin te ohne masse Where the tunnel atbde te severse biased - “gq as Thesefose the severse Cusheut lac te song csmath Zeverse vollage & appuid - poou as A Ver lows the Conductor te _p» Thus the Tauuet aliacle a 4 Qt seues Qe voltages . these If 270 Jake place 4o preaxalowu effeck a observed ni Convenctfouat alfade . Negative Rests tance reece Cie Forward Tounelt — chanattesteWet Cusatnt YW) ee HH, Crag ratege) ZL, poPeakcument- | reverse characte tet scanned witn vamscannywatd Chavacléctishes $— Pyywatd chatacleutcter 6 te diufded wits 3 aegiiut : C ye 8 a gate but heauy | couductiar WY i In the sein, the. forwatd Vo Hage, Wi Fake place ut dhi& 4e918r because. electeouc © turnuer’ throug the p pom juuchion . Tunneltug occurs pat ih 10° Vatouns - due ts heay dd 4 Hapuclie Comeulyahen (doping? is @ Region Y ta Z s— Th thé segiin, ae fee Y, the U torwatd Ve 4 e it 6 ol a basses aud fosward vvsneutl ctor decreasiig inspite 4 Continued Pncyease. th Vee Thié sein 2 Called as ‘Negalive Recistauce Regia: —» the désde sesistauce tu a Yuze as expressed aes 2, oye ° s 2 Oy is posttre. but AT 1s ne ative Hence Re & Called as “Negative Rectstauce ~? | poe feccecors oeemee | scanned vwr-camscarin—b The meqahve secletauce chasacleiskes i& utti'sed ur the apptica hou ap tunnel diode such a Occfilatay | | a aud mnfeyawave aaplrfees « @ | | | | | ( Syubel Arel i el A OEE ang function diffusion Gpeciionce apbol rth Ls R (negative Recistauce) Appuications :— © 4s a high speed switel Advantages s_ © As Qa hig? Frequene osctllates- a o les. ® In pulse aud digitat cfyeut © Low Ost @ Low norte. @® Qust¥uctiou Ss optmple. @ Tt consumes (00 power: Beads © No tsolatiow between rupul 2 ou ub: ® Low output volta i ‘0 aupitFicatt & 4equlsed > a scanned witn GamscahnLEDI~ (Lint Ent 4 cltode) 2 Au MD enu'ts Wane aE ape Ea is | Whe eleclsfcat curd is apptied to tt: i | x LED Ba two tembrat device, the “fesituals ate Yrode (A) aud Cathode CK). XA PN _fumetioe té -founsed betwee auode aud Cathede, 0 LED IS basteaity a pw function diode. k Fox probes. opesatforr, LED 1s alnage forwara bhased . R—+» Cusseut ei Restatas, Amode i > LED “I ¥" | a | ~° ' LED BIASING | CaHode symbol) | ¢ ¢-—— Cougtvuchou s— In Led, 3 Ser! Couductose layers | ane debactted| ou the substrate . The Active ri exicl? between, p aud n se youl. The light emer. from the active side ik all the diyectiouc Whew electyou hole. parts secombiue ./© The dfsadvauta a 4. the studtse 1% that © “the LED ewits ‘ia 14 all disechour . The broblen, Cau be coli b plach dhe structiy e, side a amatt seflective Cup so as t focus the. iit 1 the destsed digection- @ i b-Aegion Active Regn <— n-he qe «| baste layered Small Acflective — Structise | Cathode Anode scanned witn vamscann3 3 ® “ Senicouducloy Maletlal used t- Lee ake made a » Saliitume Arsenite (Gans Gallium Yreeutde. Phocbhide C4aAs P) aud Gallium Phos phicle (gar). is : ~ when Leo & forwasd biased, the electyouc tu -the n-hegiou Will choses the functfou aud secombiue. With the elec th the p-igbe matéstat. % These tree eleclyauc reside 1h the Conduckou baud aud holet it the valeuce baud » + When Selombina tot takes place , thete electra Aelivu back to the Valeuce baud whith & ata lowes, energy level thau the Couduchiow baud - * while setaviug back | the Yeconabiutog eleclyauc lve away (4eleate) the excese euerg in the form a light Thig procece & called as ' Elect Lumhuesceuce Th thi: “a LED emt: qt ‘ Colours 2 Evi Hed Liaht the Colous of emt Hed light 18 clectcled ait aveleug'h which depeuds on the scanned witn Camscann: Value ef toybfod et Enews ?. Forbidden 6 fy depeud.c on matesiall used+ Heuce the colou emi He a t" ie clepeudent on madltsral used - SRNo Mates fal Colous 4 evtitted light | 4) Gallium Arceuide —+» rntyased a GarsP 4 Red oy Yellew Gap = > Red ay, Green- Electyou O Couductavs baud - Forbfddeu a. pe Ener. “2+ Emit 4 Valeuce Baud QOHédle Process oF Electyolumiuscerice * The bestwa 4 Covf¥ollfug the LED bofaptuece if W drive LED with a Couttaut Current source. Ligne olb Curreut (mA) scanned witn vamscann: © Advoritas ef oF LEbs- © LEDS ase light i weight @ Les ate available ia Vasieut Colour , @ Lens have low Lifes @ Lev: ase ond aud Aad avatlable. cadvaidages ¢ Disaaue a @ chayaclerstias ase fee'”d b fm @ Need ee power for the oe ® Lumina efficiency oF LEDs & low. . . r ° Applications :. @ As an ON-oFF fudlicater 1 Vastout ~elecT¥oure’ devices » @ In Infrared remote Coulzote - @ in Sees asplete @® m optocoupler. scanned with Camscann:: Ligpita Cagetad tiple 7 (LOD) © x Leos ase Vee spectae ype ef citsplars because the dew't Convert the electsical evergir tato lie like. LED displays: * Leps use special ‘Type sf. malesi‘at catted gud crystale, These maledials ase Gnigue as they have -the propestiés 4 liquids as well as ~olrd opens: Types oF Lig uct cxystats Pisplots ' © byremit geatteriop DISPIOY I ip. shau the Constguction. 4 LCD atpee The Laut crystat lula 13 Coutatued between two glass plates . The back qlass plate hos a Coaling 4 Spano Conductive wdleaiat aud Prout plate has a Guductive coakvy.. —b whew the ais IS uot ackvaled With the exteruat Source , the ligpie vin Yemains transparent aud alloc the ligne to pass thy. a” 7t without “4d reflection - Glass plate | 4<-Condaalt He Contact Glass Plate scanned witn vamscannwhen electrical “ 8 appuea to the ang 7 ® : led as the, motectile opientation wilt Collapse, ThiS Is Call Te SCatteriu _- Transuittive be | i aint eri two | yard pcotleriog ihe cee er a oS Replectve tye bppainl “peallving Disbley @ Filet Effect Display 2 It consists sf f te gies pidles aud a lipets cp crystat Uftuta & Saudwiched between them - mo whew the et exct tation, 1 abptieel , he cstat molecules wait get aliqued: aud 4he ee ed throw thenr will WWE bee | tusisled “at att. | | — Field yee Loo. ave eS © atte copes place. @ Ait the sedtnentS have uniform brightwets . @ Low cost disadvonTaget :- @ sack hting 18 uecessar' @ Poor ke Ch ¢ ® Low swittehi aApplicatfous Led y_ © T-Segment Leys are © a used it Welst watches aud \ Caleulaters « | ® ie ieaemaeas Leo displ is ake used 1 i i Wat agit diane - Pears mobile phones | etc. Comparisidit oF LED Aud Leo t- | | | Posametis LED LeD j ede =s —— | Conlyast Rabo» loi 20%] | Speed = Sloe | | . * Life shan __l, lout life shove Ufe | Colours L> Red, Grew, etloud clefende ou the fllumiuation | aucl rouge louver Reqptsedl| > Mave Les¢ per agi YI (Not to 0} ya A 220 w) Cassie 12 cchuultoweous modulated by two audio Waves with modulation 7, A pase aud 60 secbective What & He shleband paw hadtdled - 7 Scanner wr Garscann