What are the Family Types?

In the past few decades, the world has seen major changes in the
face of the family. Since 1975, the divorce rate has doubled
resulting in the increase of single-parent households, remarriages
and extended families. This is a discussion of the many definitions
of “family” and how they demonstrate the changes that are
occurring within the family.

There are many places to gather information on family and the

different forms that it exists in. One such source is the Canadian
Census. Based on information from the Canadian Census, single
parents maintained 27.3 percent of the family households with
own children under 18. There were 2.1 million father-child and 9.8
million mother-child family. In the mother-child family groups, 42.2
percent of mothers had never been married.

Most of the time when a person thinks of the definition of a family,

the image of a mother, father and children is what comes into the
mind. That is actually the definition of a nuclear family, which is
parents, and one or more children. However, there are more
definitions that can be used to define a family such as a single-
parent family which is one parent and a child or children.
Extended family is when a nuclear family or single-parent family
lives with any extended family members.

Family units take a variety of forms, all of which involve

individuals living under one roof. The family form or structure does
not indicate how healthy the family is or how they function. The
family form is merely the physical makeup of the family members
in relationship to each other without respect to roles and function.
The variety of forms a family may take includes:

Nuclear Family
Single Parent Family
Extended Family
Childless Family
Types of Family Structures
By Michelle Blessing

Mental Health Professional

Family structure has changed dramatically over the last 50 years. The "Leave it to
Beaver" family is no longer the standard, and several variations on family have been
created. There are six specific types of family structures identified by society today.

Family Structures

The following types of families exist today, with some families naturally falling into
multiple categories. For example, a single parent family who lives in a larger, extended
family. While these types of families are distinct in definition, in practice the lines are
less clear.

Nuclear Family

The nuclear family is the traditional type of family structure. This family type consists of
two parents and children. The nuclear family was long held in esteem by society as
being the ideal in which to raise children. Children in nuclear families receive strength
and stability from the two-parent structure and generally have more opportunities due to
the financial ease of two adults. According to U.S. Census data, almost 70 percent of
children live in a nuclear family unit.

Single Parent Family

The single parent family consists of one parent raising one or more children on his own.
Often, a single parent family is a mother with her children, although there are single
fathers as well. The single parent family is the biggest change society has seen in terms
of the changes in family structures. One in four children is born to a single mother.
Single parent families are generally close and find ways to work together to solve
problems, such as dividing up household chores. When only one parent is at home, it
may be a struggle to find childcare, as there is only one parent working. This limits
income and opportunities in many cases, although many single parent families have
help from relatives and friends.

Extended Family

The extended family structure consists of two or more adults who are related, either by
blood or marriage, living in the same home. This family includes many relatives living
together and working toward common goals, such as raising the children and keeping
up with the household duties. Many extended families include cousins, aunts or uncles
and grandparents living together. This type of family structure may form due to financial
difficulties or because older relatives are unable to care for themselves alone. Extended
families are becoming increasingly common all over the world.

Childless Family

While most people think of family as including children, there are couples who either
cannot or choose not to have children. The childless family is sometimes the "forgotten
family," as it does not meet the traditional standards set by society. Childless families
consist of a husband and wife living and working together. Many childless families take
on the responsibility of pet ownership or have extensive contact with their nieces and
nephews as a substitute for having their own children.

Stepfamily

Over half of all marriages end in divorce, and many of these individuals choose to get
remarried. This creates the stepfamily, which involves two separate families merging
into one new unit. It consists of a new husband and wife and their children from
previous marriages or relationships. Stepfamilies are about as common as the nuclear
family, although they tend to have more problems, such as adjustment periods and
discipline issues. Stepfamilies need to learn to work together and also work with their
exes to ensure these family units run smoothly.
Grandparent Family

Many grandparents today are raising their grandchildren for a variety of reasons. One in
fourteen children is raised by his grandparents, and the parents are not present in the
child's life. This could be due to parents' death, addiction, abondonment or being unfit
parents. Many grandparents need to go back to work or find additional sources of
income to help raise their grandchildren.

Variety of Structures

There is no right or wrong answer when it comes to what is the best type of family
structure. As long as a family is filled with love and support for one another, it tends to
be successful and thrive. Families need to do what is best for each other and
themselves, and that can be achieved in almost any unit.

Related Topics

Socialisation within the Family

Family Types

Children's growing competence and development is largely influenced by family life and
family relationships. Children's well-being continues to depend on the quality of family
interactions.

Children of today are growing up in a variety of households and different family

systems. A number of these different families will be examined:

 Only child families

 Large families
 Single parent families
 Blended families
 Gay & Lesbian parent families
 Adoptive parent families
  Grandparent families

Family type plays an integral role in children's development. Family theories outline the
interactions which occur between family members. For more information on the theories
of families, click on the link below.

Family Theories

Only child families

Many couples are now choosing to have children who will never have any siblings.
Literature suggests that these children are often viewed as being spoilt, selfish, lonely
and maladjusted, however, research does not agree with this negative view. Only
children appear to be bright and successful, self-confident, self-reliant, resourceful and
popular with other children. "A major reason for this may be that only children have
somewhat closer relationships with parents, who exert more pressure for mastery and
accomplishment" (Berk, 1996, Pg 505). Only children often have more pressure placed
upon them by parents to excel in tasks and have often high expectations for school and
sporting results placed upon them. Only children miss out on the growing and learning
and forms of socialisation which comes with having siblings. Only children have the
advantage of not having to fight for their parents attention and may have the opportunity
of more one-on-one interactions. The one-child family has both pros and cons, as does
every family lifestyle (Berk 2000, Papalia & Olds 1995).

Large families

Children of large families obviously experience different conditions from those in smaller
or one child families. Children in larger families have the advantage of having
relationships with siblings. These relationships and interactions gives them the
opportunity to have companionship, emotional support and assistance while they are
growing up. Children in larger families often experience degrees of rivalry and may need
to fight for parents attention. The positive interactions that occur between siblings
contribute to perspective taking, moral maturity, and competence in relating to other
children (Berk 2000).
Single parent families

The number of one-parent families have become more common in recent years. There
are a number of varieties of one-parent families; those resulting from divorce, parents
who never-married, as well as a widowed parent. In single parent families the other
parent not living with the family may have little or no involvement in the child's life or
may be highly involved. We are going to look more closely at single divorced parents
and never-married single parents.

Single divorced parent families

The largest percentage of single-parent families are headed by divorced female

parents. "The assumption has been made that the trauma from divorce is likely to result
in poorly socialised, cognitively deficient children who experience poor parent-child
relationships" (Hammer & Turnover, 1990, Pg 194). In many situations this may be the
case but no relationship can be generalised. "Research has also been undertaken on
healthy single-parent families where it was found, in general, that the physical and
mental health of the children appeared to be good" (Hammer & Turnover, 1990, Pg
194). It has been suggested that children living with their mothers are more healthy than
those living with fathers. The majority of children show improved adjustments by 2
years after divorce. Yet for a few, persisting emotional distress and declines in school
achievement still exist (Berk 2000, Hammer & Turnover 1990).

Never-married single parent families

It is believed that a cultural shift towards later marriage has contributed to a rise in
never-married motherhood. "It has been thought that children in these kinds of families
are shielded from marital strife, children of never-married mothers show slightly better
academic performance and emotional adjustments than do children of divorced or
remarried mothers. But they do not do as well as children in first marriage families
compared with children of two parent reared families" (Berk, 2000, Pg 577). Although
compared with children of two parent families, these children may experience less
attention, difficulties in interactions with other children, a lack in school performance and
behaviours associated with the lack of a male parental influence (Berk 2000, Hammer &
Turnover 1990).

TOP

Blended families

The blended family is one in which either parent brings with them children from a
previous marriage. "For some children, this expanded family network is a positive turn of
events that brings with it greater adult attention. But for most, it presents difficult
adjustments" (Berk, 2000, Pg 581). It is clear that there are many difficulties in
accepting a step-parent into the family, especially one who may have different child
rearing practices, from which the child is used to. Research has found that children of
remarriage are likely to experience difficulty in accepting the marriage. This extends
from some children having to - deal with the loss of a primary parent to acceptance of a
new one. Other feelings experienced may include divided loyalties, confusion in terms
of belonging, confusion due to membership in two households and unreasonable
expectations due to the whole adjustment process. But how well children adapt is
related to the overall quality of family functioning (Berk 2000, Hammer & Turnover 1990,
Papalia & Olds 1995).

Gay and Lesbian parent families

A larger percentage of the homosexual population are rearing children. The actual
number of homosexual, or gay parents is not known. Families headed by a homosexual
parent or gay or lesbian couple are very similar to those of heterosexuals. "Gay and
lesbian parents are committed to and effective at the parental role. Some research
indicates that gay fathers are more consistent in setting limits and more responsive to
their children's needs than are heterosexual fathers" (Berk, 2000, Pg 576). In lesbian
families quality of mother-child interaction is as positive as in heterosexual families. It
has been found that children of lesbian mothers regard their mothers partner as very
much a parent. "Overall, children of homosexuals can be distinguished from other
children only by issues related to living in a non-supportive society. The great concern
of gay and lesbian parents is that their children will be stigmatised by their parents
sexual orientation" (Berk, 2000, Pg 577).

Adoptive parent families

There are a number of different reasons for the emergence of adoptive parent families.
Other than partners being infertile, there are situations where parents don't want to risk
passing on a genetic disorder, or who are older and single but want a family. Limited
numbers of healthy babies are available for adoption in Australia and because of this
more people are adopting from foreign countries. Adoptive families cannot be
categorised as they are all very highly diverse, and each family can face a multitude of
common challenges. "Different heredity means that adoptive parents and children are
less alike in intelligence and personality than are biological relatives - resemblances that
can contribute to family harmony" (Berk, 2000, Pg 575). All adopted children and
adolescents - whether born in a foreign country or the country of their adoptive parents
experience some degree of emotional stress. Feelings include those of abandonment
and not knowing exactly where their origins are. "Adoption is a satisfying family
alternative for most parents and children who experience it. The outcomes are usually
good because of careful pairing of children with parents and guidance provided to
adoptive families" (Berk, 2000, Pg 576).

Grandparent reared families

The number of grandparents rearing grandchildren has increased over the past decade.
"Usually, grandparents step in because of substance abuse, emotional problems, or
physical illness prevents the child's parents, most often the mother, from engaging in
competent child rearing" (Berk, 2000, Pg 584). This situation can cause a lot of
emotional distress for both the child, adjusting to a new situation and for the
grandparents who have been suddenly placed into a child-rearing situation. "Previous
family experiences have left their mark, in the form of high rates of learning difficulties,
depression, and anti-social behaviour" (Berk, 2000, Pg 584). Children in this
environment usually receive a lot of love and also experience the required parental
guidance (Berk 2000)
Ubuntu (philosophy)

Previous (U Thant)

Next (Uesugi Kenshin)

Ubuntu pronounced [ùbúntú], is a traditional African concept. The

word ubuntu comes from the Zulu and Xhola languages, and can be roughly
translated as "humanity towards others." Ubuntu embodies all those virtues that
maintain harmony and the spirit of sharing among the members of a society. It
implies an appreciation of traditional beliefs, and a constant awareness that an
individual’s actions today are a reflection on the past, and will have far-reaching
consequences for the future. A person with  ubuntu knows his or her place in the
universe and is consequently able to interact gracefully with other individuals.
One aspect of ubuntu is that, at all times, the individual effectively represents the
people from among whom he or she comes, and therefore tries to behave
according to the highest standards and exhibit the virtues upheld by his or her
society.

Contents

 [hide]

 1 Meaning of the word ubuntu

 2 Samkange’s explanation ofubuntu

 3 Ubuntu and Western Humanism

 4 Change in South Africa

 5 Other uses

 6 See also

 7 Notes

 8 References

 9 External Links

 10 Credits

During the 1990s, the concept of ubuntu was adapted as an ideology by post-

apartheid South Africa, as a vehicle to bring about harmony and cooperation
among its many racial and ethnic groups. The ethical values of  ubuntu include
respect for others, helpfulness, community, sharing, caring, trust and
unselfishness. Ubuntuunderscores the importance of agreement or consensus,
and gives priority to the well-being of the community as a whole.

Meaning of the word ubuntu

The word ubuntu comes from the Zulu and Xhola languages, and can be roughly

translated as "humanity towards others," and "the belief in a universal bond of
sharing that connects all humanity." Related Bantu languages have similar terms.
In the Shona language, the most common spoken language in  Zimbabwe after
English, ubuntu is unhu; the concept of ubuntu in Zimbabwe is similar to that of
other African cultures. In Kinyarwanda, the mother tongue in  Rwanda, and in
Kirundi, the mother tongue in Burundi, ubuntu means 'human generosity' as well
as 'humanity.' In Rwanda and Burundi societies, it is common for people to exhort
or appeal to others to gira ubuntu meaning to "have consideration and be
humane" towards others. In Runyakitara, the collection of dialects spoken by the
Banyankore, Banyoro, Batooro and Bakiga of Western  Uganda and also the
Bahaya, Banyambo and others of Northern Tanzania, obuntu refers to the human
characteristics of generosity, consideration and humaneness towards others in
the community. In Luganda, the dialect of Central Uganda  obuntu-bulamu refers
to the same characteristics.

Samkange’s explanation of ubuntu

In 1980, Stanlake J. W. T. Samkange (1922–1988), a Zimbabwean historiographer,

educator, journalist, author, and African nationalist, attempted to systematize an
African epistemology in Hunuism or Ubuntuism. He emphasized three maxims
which shape the philosophy of Hunhuism or Ubuntuism:

 “To be human is to affirm one's humanity by recognizing the humanity of

others and, on that basis, establish respectful human relations with them.”

 “If and when one is faced with a decisive choice between wealth and the
preservation of the life of another human being, then one should opt for the
preservation of life.”

 “The king owes his status, including all the powers associated with it, to
the will of the people under him.” This, Samkange said, was a “principle
deeply embedded in traditional African political philosophy.”

According to Samkange, sharing is only one of many virtues encompassed

within unhu. In the ethical domain of unhu, all visitors are provided for and
protected in every home they pass through, without the expectation of payment,
and do not need to carry provisions when they are on the read, as long as they
dress in a respectable manner. Every individual who is aware of the presence of a
visitor within a locality should try his or her best to make that visitor comfortable.

Another aspect of ubuntu is that, at all times, the individual effectively represents
the people from among whom he or she comes. It is taboo to call elderly people
by their given names; instead they are called by their surnames to banish
individualism and replace it with a representative role. The individual’s identity is
replaced by a larger societal identity. Every individual represents a family, village,
district, province and region. This requires the individual to behave according to
the highest standards and to exhibit, to the greatest possible degree, the virtues
upheld by his or her society. Unhu embodies all those virtues that maintain
harmony and the spirit of sharing among the members of a society.

A key concept associated with ubuntu, or unhu, is behavior and interaction in the

context of various social roles. For example, a daughter-in-law traditionally
kneels down when greeting her parents-in-law and serves them food, as a sign of
respect. She maintains the highest standards, because her behavior is a
reflection on her family and on all the women raised in that family. The daughter-
in-law does this as part of the ambassadorial function that she assumes at all
times. A woman’s deference to a husband or brother does not imp ly that the
woman is subordinate, only that she possesses  unhu and knows the proper
attitude and behavior for each social circumstance.

Under unhu, children are never orphans, since the roles of mother and father are,
by definition, not vested in a sixngle individual with respect to a single child.
Furthermore, a man or a woman with unhu will never allow any child around him
or her to be an orphan.

The concept of unhu is also essential to traditional African jurisprudence and

governance. Under unhu, a crime committed by one individual against another
extends far beyond the two individuals and has far-reaching implications for the
people from among whom the perpetrator of the crime
comes. Unhu jurisprudence supports remedies and punishments that tend to
bring people together. A crime of murder might be remedied by creating a bond
of marriage between the families of the victim and the accused, in addition to
punishing the perpetrator both I nside and outside his social circles. The family
and the society from which the criminal came are regarded as a sort of “tertiary
perpetrator,” and are punished with a fine and social stigma that can only be
absolved by many years of demonstrating  unhu or ubuntu. A leader who
has unhu is selfless, consults widely and listens to his subjects. He or she does
not adopt a lifestyle that is different from his subjects, but lives among them and
shares what he owns. A leader who has unhu does not lead but allows the people
to lead themselves. Forcefully imposing his or her will on his people is
incompatible with unhu.

"Ubuntu is very difficult to render into a Western language. When we want to give
high praise to someone we say, "Yu u nobuntu"; "Hey, so-and-so has ubuntu."
Then you are generous, you are hospitable, you are friendly and caring and
compassionate. You share what you have. It is to say, "My humanity is caught up,
is inextricably bound up, in what is yours." …We say, "A person is a person
through other persons." …A person with ubuntu is open and available to others,
affirming of others, does not feel threatened that others are able and good, for he
or she has a proper self-assurance that comes from knowing that he or she
belongs in a greater whole and is diminished when others are humiliated or
diminished, when others are tortured or oppressed. ...To forgive is not just to be
altruistic. It is the best form of self-interest. What dehumanizes you inexorably
dehumanizes me. [Forgiveness] gives people resilience, enabling them to survive
and emerge still human despite all efforts to dehumanize them.
— Archbishop Desmond Tutu, from "No Future Without Forgiveness" (1999)[1]

Ubuntu and Western Humanism

The unifying worldview of Ubuntu is expressed in the Zulu maxim "umuntu

ngumuntu ngabantu," ("a person is a person through other persons"), [2] also
common in Shona as "munhu munhu nekuda kwevanhu." By a
Western humanist, this aphorism might be interpreted as an effective social ethic
or rule of conduct, or simply as a description of the human situation. In
traditional African thought this maxim has a profoundly religious significance.
“Persons” includes not only living human beings, but ancestors who have
already died and children who have not yet been born.
[3]
 Ubuntu or unhu embodies deep respect for ancestors, and includes all the
attitudes and behaviors necessary not only for a harmonious life with other
individuals on earth, but with ancestors in the world beyond death and with those
who will live on earth in the future. Every individual is the fruit of his or her
ancestors, and will become the ancestor of all future descendants.

Ubuntu implies an appreciation of traditional beliefs, and a constant awareness

that an individual’s actions today are a reflection on the past, and will have far-
reaching consequences for the future. A person with  ubuntu knows his or her
place in the universe and is consequently able to interact gracefully with other
individuals. Those who uphold ubuntu throughout their lives will, in death,
achieve a unity with those still living. In Western thought, an individual is a pre-
existent and self-sufficient being and exists prior to, separately and
independently from the rest of the community or society.  Ubuntu defines the
individual only in terms of his or her relationships with others in the community.
As these relationships change, the character of the individual changes. An
individual constitutes multiple personalities corresponding to his or her various
roles in society.[4]

Change in South Africa

During the 1990s, the concept of ubuntu was adapted into an ideology in post-
apartheid South Africa, as a vehicle to bring about harmony and cooperation
among its many racial and ethnic groups.  Ubuntu is regarded as one of the
founding principles of the new republic of South Africa, and has been associated
with the idea of an “African Renaissance.” In the political sphere, the concept
of ubuntu is used to emphasize the need for unity or consensus in decision-
making, as well as the need for a suitably humanitarian ethic to inform those
decisions.

The ethical values of ubuntu ideology include respect for others, helpfulness,

community, sharing, caring, trust and unselfishness. It is seen as a basis for a
morality of co-operation, compassion, and communalism.  Ubuntu underscores
the importance of agreement or consensus, and gives priority to the well-being of
the community as a whole.

A traveler through a country would stop at a village and he didn't have to ask for
food or for water. Once he stops, the people give him food, entertain him. That is
one aspect of Ubuntu but it will have various aspects. Ubuntu does not mean that
people should not address themselves. The question therefore is: Are you going
to do so in order to enable the community around you be able to
improve? Nelson Mandela, speaking in an interview incorporated in a promotional
video for the Ubuntu Linux distribution.[5]

The concept of ubuntu ideology is illustrated in the film In My Country, about the

Truth and Reconciliation Commission, starring Samuel L. Jackson and Juliette
Binoche.

Other uses

The "Ubuntu" distribution of the Linux computer operating system claims that it
"brings the spirit of Ubuntu to the software world." [6][7]

Former US president Bill Clinton used the term at the 2006 Labour

Party conference in the UK to explain why society is important. [8]
Ubuntu is also the founding philosophy of Ubuntu Education Fund,
an NGO working with orphans and vulnerable children in Port Elizabeth, South
Africa.[9]

The Boston Celtics, an NBA team, have chanted "ubuntu" when breaking a

huddle since the start of the 2007-2008 season. [10]

Ubuntu Cola is a soft drink made with Fairtrade sugar from Malawi and Zambia.

See also

 Vasedeva Kutumbakam

 Harambee

 Ujamaa

 Aropa [11]

 Ahimsa

 Ohana

 Humaneness in Confucianism

 Proletarian internationalism

 Communism, European equivalent

Notes

1. ↑ Desmond Tutu, "No Future Without Forgiveness" Retrieved May 16, 2008.

2. ↑ Augustine Shutte, Philosophy for Africa (Rondebosch, South Africa: UCT

Press, 1993), 46.

3. ↑ John S. Mbiti, African Religions and Philosophy (Heinemann, Oxford,

1990), 108.

4. ↑ Dirk J. Louw. Ubuntu: An African Assessment of the Religious Other .

Paper delivered at the Twentieth World Congress of Philosophy, Boston,
Massachusetts, August 10-15, 1998. Retrieved May 16, 2008.

5. ↑ Ubuntu experience, U-tube. Retrieved May 16, 2008.

6. ↑ About Ubuntu, Ubuntu: Linux for Human Beings, Canonical Ltd. Retrieved
May 16, 2008.
 7. ↑ Ubuntu: Code of Conduct, Canonical Ltd. Retrieved May 16, 2008.

8. ↑ Sean Coughlan, "All you need is ubuntu", BBC News Magazine, BBC,

2006-09-28. Retrieved May 16, 2008.

9. ↑ Ubuntu Education Fund Retrieved May 16, 2008.

10. ↑ Mark Kiszla, "New Big 3 dream in green", The Denver Post, Denver Post,

2007-11-07. Retrieved May 16, 2008.

11. ↑ The Anuta, BBC. Retrieved May 16, 2008.

References

 Bhengu, Mfuniselwa John. 2006. Ubuntu: the global philosophy for

humankind. Cape Town: Lotsha Publications.  ISBN 9781920133856 ISBN
1920133852

 Boele van Hensbroek, Pieter. 2001. African Renaissance and Ubuntu

philosophy. CDS research report, no. 12. Groningen: Centre for
Development Studies, University of Groningen.

 Broodryk, Johann. 2002. Ubuntu: life lessons from Africa. Pretoria: Ubuntu

School of Philosophy. ISBN 0620293314 ISBN 9780620293310

 Forster, Dion. Identity in relationship: The ethics of ubuntu as an answer to

the impasse of individual consciousness . South African Science and
Religion Forum seminar, and C. W. Du Toit. 2007. The impact of knowledge
systems on human development in Africa: proceedings of the thirteenth
conference of the South African Science and Religion Forum (SASRF) of
the Research Institute for Theology and Religion held at the University of
South Africa, Pretoria, 7 & 8 September 2006., pp. 249 – 286. Pretoria:
Research Institute for Theology and Religion, University of South
Africa. ISBN 9781868884544 ISBN 1868884546

 Louw, Dirk J. 1998. "Ubuntu: An African Assessment of the Religious

Other" Twentieth World Congress of Philosophy.

 Louw, Dirk Jacobus. 2002. Ubuntu and the challenges of multiculturalism in

post-apartheid South Africa. Utrecht: Expertisecentrum Zuidelijk Afrika.

 Matshe, Getrude. 2006. Born on the continent: Ubuntu. Wellington, N.Z.:

Gertrude Matshe. ISBN 0473110199 ISBN 9780473110192 ISBN
0473110202 ISBN 9780473110208
  Mbiti, John S. 1990. African religions & philosophy. Oxford:
Heinemann. ISBN 0435895915 ISBN 9780435895914

 Ramose, Mogobe B. 1999. African philosophy through ubuntu. Harare:

Mond Books. ISBN 1779060440 ISBN 9781779060440

 Samkange, Stanlake John Thompson, and Tommie Marie Samkange.

1980. Hunhuism or ubuntuism: a Zimbabwe indigenous political
philosophy. Salisbury: Graham Pub. ISBN 0869210157 ISBN 9780869210154

 Shutte, Augustine. 1993. Philosophy for Africa. Rondebosch, South Africa:

UCT Press. ISBN 0799214876 ISBN 9780799214871

 Tutu, Desmond. 1999. No Future Without Forgiveness. Image. ISBN 0-385-

49690-7

External Links

All links retrieved January 5, 2016.

 Ubuntu - African Philosophy

 Ubuntu and the law in South Africa by Y. Mokgoro

 Ubuntu A brief discussion including an expanded description by Desmond

Tutu

 All you need is ubuntu

 Web video of Nelson Mandela explaining the concept of Ubuntu

 Forster, Dion. (2006) Self validating consciousness in strong artificial

intelligence: An African theological contribution  Pretoria: Doctoral
Dissertation, University of South Africa / UNISA, an extensive and detailed
discussion of ubuntu in chapters 5-6. Dion Forster

Credits

Hunhu/Ubuntu as the cornerstone of African education

By The Patriot Reporter -

October 24, 2013

By Dr Augustine Tirivangana

THIS week I have decided to share with you what I consider to be the ideological
cornerstone of an education that deserves to be called African education.
Some call it the basis of nationalist consciousness, but it boils down to one thing:
Celebrating and upholding one’s Zimbabwean-ness.
In one of my earlier articles, I discussed at length Ronald Dore’s concept of ‘qualification
escalation’, which he satirises as ‘diploma disease’, the senseless paper chase that is
not directed by any meaningful life objective.
It is a serious colonial legacy that has created a situation where there is no match
between qualification and the quality of life.
For education to be meaningful, it must respond to the needs of a people. And to do so
it must be directed by a people’s philosophy.
A people’s philosophy then directs the people’s worldview.
The worldview in turn then dictates the people’s actions including the content of what
they learn.
That is why I have decided to share with you scholars unhu/ubuntu as the guiding
philosophy of Africans.
The point is that being educated means being and living as a better African, and being a
better African means in practical terms being an engineer, driver, pilot, teacher,
whatever, who serves Africa and Africans because he or she has Africa and Africans at
heart.
This is the essence of African sensibility, a missing link in today’s extrinsically driven
learning.
Let us now examine unhu/ubuntu.
The word ubuntu comes from Zulu and Xhola languages.
Loosely translated it means ‘humanity towards others’.
Its thrust is on ‘the belief in a universal bond of sharing that connects all humanity’.
In the Shona ubuntu is the same as unhu.
The concept of ubuntu in Zimbabwe is similar to that of other African cultures.
For instance in Kinyarwanda, the mother tongue in Rwanda, and in Kirundi, the mother
tongue in Burundi, ubuntu refers to ‘human generosity’ or ‘humanity’ in general.
Similarly, in Runyakitara, the collection of dialects spoken by the Banyankore, Banyoro,
Batooro and Bakiga of Western Uganda and also the Bahaya, Banyambo and others of
Northern Tanzania, ubuntu refers to the human characteristics of generosity,
consideration and humaneness towards others in the community.
In 1980, Stanlake Samkange (1922–1988), a Zimbabwean historiographer, educator
and African nationalist, attempted to systematise an African epistemology in Hunhuism
or Ubuntuism.
He emphasised three maxims which shape the theory (philosophy) of Hunhuism or
Ubuntuism:
l To be human is to affirm one’s humanity by recognising the humanity of others and, on
that basis, establish respectful human relations with them.
l If and when one is faced with a decisive choice between wealth and the preservation
of the life of another human being, then one should opt for the preservation of life.
l The king owes his status, including all the powers associated with it, to the will of the
people under him.
According to Samkange, sharing is only one of many virtues encompassed within unhu.
In the ethical domain of unhu, all visitors are provided for and protected in every home
they pass through, without the expectation of payment, and do not need to carry
provisions when they are on the road, as long as they dress in a respectable manner.
Every individual who is aware of the presence of a visitor within a locality should try his
or her best to make that visitor comfortable.
Another aspect of ubuntu is that, at all times, the individual effectively represents the
people from among whom he or she comes.
It is taboo to call elderly people by their given names; instead they are called by their
surnames to banish individualism and replace it with a representative role.
The individual’s identity is replaced by a larger societal identity.
Every individual represents a family, village, district, province and region.
This requires the individual to behave according to the highest standards and to exhibit,
to the greatest possible degree, the virtues upheld by his or her society.
Unhu embodies all those virtues that maintain harmony and the spirit of sharing among
the members of a society.
A key concept associated with ubuntu, or unhu, is behaviour and interaction in the
context of various social roles.
For example, a daughter-in-law traditionally kneels down when greeting her parents-in-
law and serves them food, as a sign of respect.
She maintains the highest standards, because her behaviour is a reflection on her
family and on all the women raised in that family.
The daughter-in-law does this as part of the ambassadorial function that she assumes
at all times.
A woman’s deference to a husband or brother does not imply that the woman is
subordinate, only that she possesses unhu and knows the proper attitude and
behaviour for each social circumstance.
Under unhu, children are never orphans, since the roles of mother and father are, by
definition, not vested in a single individual with respect to a single child.
Furthermore, a man or a woman with unhu will never allow any child around him or her
to be an orphan.
The concept of unhu is also essential to traditional African jurisprudence and
governance.
Under unhu, a crime committed by one individual against another extends far beyond
the two individuals and has far-reaching implications for the people from among whom
the perpetrator of the crime comes.
We shall discuss this in greater detail in the coming unit.
Unhu jurisprudence supports remedies and punishments that tend to bring people
together.
A crime of murder might be remedied by creating a bond of marriage between the
families of the victim and the accused, in addition to punishing the perpetrator both
inside and outside his social circles.
The family and the society from which the criminal came are regarded as a sort of
‘tertiary perpetrator’, and are punished with a fine and social stigma that can only be
absolved by many years of demonstrating unhu or ubuntu.
A leader who has unhu is selfless, consults widely and listens to his subjects.
He or she does not adopt a lifestyle that is different from his subjects, but lives among
them and shares what he owns.
A leader who has unhu does not lead but allows the people to lead themselves.
Forcefully imposing his or her will on his people is incompatible with unhu.
A person with ubuntu is open and available to others, affirming of others, does not feel
threatened that others are able and good, for he or she has a proper self-assurance that
comes from knowing that he or she belongs in a greater whole and is diminished when
others are humiliated or diminished, when others are tortured or oppressed.
To forgive is not just to be altruistic.
It is the best form of self-interest.
What dehumanises you inexorably dehumanises me.
(Forgiveness) gives people resilience, enabling them to survive and emerge still human
despite all efforts to dehumanise them.

The National Pledge- A symbol of Identity long forgotten

Updated on July 9, 2010

Beautiful Landscape Nigeria

Using the Pledge as a Guide

The Pledge of a nation is a binding promise or agreement we make between ourselves

and our Nation. It is meant to act as an overall direction of which the country chooses to
take and how it plans to get there. Now i'll like to ask 2 quick questions we most likely
never thought about; How many of us can actually recite our national pledge (without
peeping)? and Have we ever during our time of saying the pledge thought about the
message it holds and plans to send across?

It's a shame that most of Nigerians (even those in the seat of power) can't recite the
national pledge and have little or no regard for what it has to say. and its evident on
what our society has gradually become, we all know that if one fails to keep promises it
could have dire consequences.

I decided to have a look at this short piece called the national pledge and believe you
for the first time in my life i tried to make meaning of it and found something i hope to
share. But firstly lets look at the National pledge together again and see if we can draw
out any further meaning together;

I pledge to Nigeria my Country

To be faithful, loyal and honest

To serve Nigeria with all my strength

To defend her Unity 

And uphold her Honour and Glory

So help me God

LINE 1- Very briefly is a reminder of our promise and agreement to our nation. 
LINE 2- I wish our leaders could be made to focus on this part, but lets look through the
nation and see if we keep these 3 strong words in our promise. in my view i don't think
so

LINE 3- this part makes me laugh abit when i think of the attitude of Nigerians towards
serving the Nation. Everybody wants to just satisfy themselves. John F kennedy once
said "ask not what your country can do for you - ask what you can do for your
country." In our case unfortunately its the other way round.

LINE 4- Everyday in the news we hear we hear about ethic clashes of all sorts all
around the country, we might be united by borders but are we truly united by bonds of
friendship and cordial relationships? and what are we doing about it as a nation is the
biggest question

Line 5- Honour is something people go the extra mile for, wars have broken out all in
the name of these 2 words because its the absolute pride of the nation and very difficult
to build but most people have lost the true relevance of the words, what a pity

Line 6- A little word of prayer as they say goes a long way, this line has just symbolized
that we know as a nation we can't do this alone so we need divine help as well but do
we still ask for that divine help in making decisions today?

Very brief yet very powerful in my view, Nigeria as a nation could start a turning point for
the better if we take this pledge more seriously. At this point you might be saying what's
he driving at but lets look at it from this view, if we are made to say these words
regularly and believe in them, we will start to work with them and they will guide us as a
nation (take the 10 commandments for christains as an example). 

The National Pledge was carefully written in 1976 by Prof (Mrs) Felicia Adebola
Adedoyin. Dunno the kind of inspiration she had to put this down but it is simply brilliant
and i'm sure if she knew we wont have really cared about it she probably wont have
wasted her time but in her view its part of her service to the Nation (that bearly even
recognises her effort). 

Its amazing to see that we have the tools in our hands to develop our commitment in
our nation and work to bring out the best out of it just by playing our part and the thing is
we don't have to wait for our leaders to do what's. By using the Pledge as a guide and
as principles we can make a new era for ourselves as a nation. Will we use these tools
or still continue to discard them as meaningless.The Choice is ours to make. 

National Pledge (India)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

The National Pledge is an oath of allegiance to the Republic of India. It is commonly

recited by Indians in unison at public events, especially in schools, and during
the Independence Day and Republic Daycelebrations. It is commonly found printed in
the opening pages of school textbooks.

The pledge was originally composed in Telugu language by writer Pydimarri Venkata

Subba Rao in 1962. It was first read out in a school in Visakhapatnam in 1963 and was
subsequently translated into various regional languages. [1]

Contents

 [hide] 

 1 Origin

 2 The Pledge

o 2.1 Hindi Version

o 2.2 English Version

 3 Guidelines for Usage

 4 References

 5 External links

Origin[edit]

The Indian national pledge was composed by Pydimarri Venkata Subba Rao. Subbarao,
a noted author in Telugu and a bureaucrat, composed the pledge while serving as the
District Treasury Officer ofVisakhapatnam District in 1962. He presented it to the senior
Congress leader Tenneti Viswanadam who forwarded it to the then Education Minister
P.V.G. Raju. He was born in Anneparti, Nalgonda District,Telangana.He was an expert
in Telugu, Sanskrit, Hindi, English, Arabic languages. He worked as Treasury officer in
the state of Hyderabad. After the formation of AP, He worked
in Khammam, Nizamabad, Nellore, Visakhapatnam, Nalgonda Districts.[2] The Pledge
was introduced in many schools in 1963. [1]

The Indian National Pledge is commonly recited by Indians at public events, during daily
assemblies in many Indian schools, and during the Independence Day and Republic
Day commemoration ceremonies. Unlike the National Anthem or the National Song,
whose authors are well known in India, P.V. Subbarao, the author of the pledge remains
largely a little-known figure, his name being mentioned neither in the books nor in any
documents. Records with the Human Resources Development Ministry of
the Government of India however record Subbarao as the author of the pledge.
Subbarao himself is thought to have been unaware of its status as the National Pledge
with a position on par with the National Anthem and the National Song. Apparently, he
came to know about this when his granddaughter was reading the pledge from her text
book.[2]

The Pledge[edit]

rite of passage

 Word Origin

See more synonyms on Thesaurus.com

noun

1.

Anthropology. a ceremony performed to facilitate or mark a person'schange of status up
on any of several highly important occasions, as atthe onset of puberty or upon entry int
o marriage or into a clan.

2.

any important act or event that serves to mark a passage from onestage of life to anoth
er.

Origin of rite of passageExpand

1955-1960

1955-60

Dictionary.com Unabridged
Based on the Random House Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2016.
Cite This Source

British Dictionary definitions for rite of passageExpand

What is a rite of passage? Why is it Important?

A rite of passage is a ceremony and marks the transition from one phase of life to
another. Although it is often used to describe the tumultuous transition from
adolescence to adulthood, it does refer to any of life’s transitions (Births and
Beginnings, Initiations, Partnerings, and Endings or Death). There are many passages
in our lives if we choose to mark and celebrate them. Journeys is most concerned with...

A rite of passage is a ceremony and marks the transition from one phase of life to
another. Although it is often used to describe the tumultuous transition from
adolescence to adulthood, it does refer to any of life’s transitions (Births and
Beginnings, Initiations, Partnerings, and Endings or Death). There are many passages
in our lives if we choose to mark and celebrate them.

Journeys is most concerned with initiatory rites of passage. Initiation is defined in the
dictionary as, “the rites, ceremonies, ordeals or instructions with which a youth is
formally invested with adult status in a community, society or sect.” We extend that
definition to include rituals and ceremonies that help adults transition to new life roles
along the path of adulthood – all the way into meaningful elderhood.

When we design rite of passage experiences, we work to assure that initiates come out
of the experience with a new and empowering story that helps them take responsibility
for the decisions that set the course of their future. We help initiates create the story of
who they are and the kind of life they want to build based within the exploration of their
own personal values. We also help them find the story that connects them to their
community. Through this self-exploration initiates emerge with a stronger sense of
personal responsibility to all aspects of their lives – stretching all the way out to the
larger world of which they are a part.

In this way both the community and the initiate benefit from a rite of passage. An
intentional rite of passage experience provides the space for the community to transmit
its core values and confer the role responsibilities appropriate to the initiate’s stage of
life, thus insuring cultural continuity, a sort of knitting together of the generations.

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rite of passage

/French rit də pɑsaʒ/

noun
1.

a ceremony performed in some cultures at times when an individual changes his status,
as at puberty and marriage

2.

a significant event in a transitional period of someone's life

Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition

© William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins
Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012
Cite This Source

rite of passage in MedicineExpand

rite of passage n. 
A ritual or ceremony signifying an event in a person's life indicative of a transition from
one stage to another, as from adolescence to adulthood.

The American Heritage® Stedman's Medical Dictionary

Copyright © 2002, 2001, 1995 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton
Mifflin Company.
Cite This Source

Rite of passage

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

For other uses, see Rite of passage (disambiguation).

Part of a series on

Anthropology of religion
Initiation ritual of boys in Malawi. The ritual marks
the passage from child to adult male, each
subgroup having its customs and expectations.

Basic concepts[hide]

 Afterlife

 Animism

 Bora

 Communitas

 Comparative religion

 Divination

 Divine language

 Evolutionary origin of religions

 Fetishism

 Great Spirit

 Henotheism

 Initiation

 Liminality

 Magic

 Mana
  Monotheism

 Polytheism

 Transtheism

 Revitalization movement

 Rite of passage

 Ritual

 Sacred language

 Sacred–profane dichotomy

 Shamanism

 Theories about religions

 Totem

 Totemism

 Veneration of the dead

Case studies[show]

Related articles[show]

Major theorists[show]

Journals[show]

Religions[show]

Social and cultural anthropology

 v

 t

 e

Rite of passage is a celebration of the passage which occurs when an individual leaves
one group to enter another. It involves a significant change of status in society.
In cultural anthropology the term is the Anglicisation of rite de passage, a French term
innovated by the ethnographer Arnold van Gennep in his work Les rites de passage,
"The Rites of Passage."[1] The term is now fully adopted into anthropology as well as
into the literature and popular cultures of many modern languages.

In English, Van Gennep's first sentence of his first chapter begins: [2]

Each larger society contains within it several distinctly separate groupings. ... In
addition, all these groups break down into still smaller societies in subgroups.

The population of a society belongs to multiple groups, some more important to the
individual than others. Van Gennep uses the metaphor, "as a kind of house divided into
rooms and corridors."[3] A passage occurs when an individual leaves one group to enter
another; in the metaphor, he changes rooms.

Van Gennep further distinguishes between "the secular" and "the sacred sphere."
Theorizing that civilizations are arranged on a scale, implying that the lower levels
represent "the simplest level of development," he hypothesizes that "social groups in
such a society likewise have magico-religious foundations." Many groups in modern
industrial society practice customs that can be traced to an earlier sacred phase.
Passage between these groups requires a ceremony, or ritual hence rite of passage.

The rest of Van Gennep's book presents a description of rites of passage and an
organization into types, although in the end he despairs of ever capturing them all: [4] "It
is but a rough sketch of an immense picture ...." He is able to find some universals,
mainly two: "the sexual separation between men and women, and the magico-religious
separation between the profane and the sacred." (Earlier the translators used secular
for profane.) He refuses credit for being the first to recognize type of rites. In the work
he concentrates on groups and rites individuals might normally encounter progressively:
pregnancy, childbirth, initiation, betrothal, marriage, funerals and the like. He mentions
some others, such as the territorial passage, a crossing of borders into a culturally
different region, such as one where a different religion prevails.

Contents

 [hide] 

 1 Stages

 2 Psychological effects

 3 Cultural

 4 Types and examples

 o 4.1 Coming of age

o 4.2 Religious

o 4.3 Military

o 4.4 Academic

o 4.5 Vocational/Professional

o 4.6 Sports

o 4.7 Other

 5 See also

 6 References

 7 Bibliography

 8 Further reading

 9 External links

Stages[edit]

Rites of passage have three phases: separation, liminality, and incorporation, as van
Gennep described. "I propose to call the rites of separation from a previous
world, preliminal rites, those executed during the transitional stage liminal (or threshold)
rites, and the ceremonies of incorporation into the new world postliminal rites."[5]

In the first phase, people withdraw from their current status and prepare to move from
one place or status to another. "The first phase (of separation) comprises symbolic
behavior signifying the detachment of the individual or group ... from an earlier fixed
point in the social structure."[6] There is often a detachment or "cutting away" from the
former self in this phase, which is signified in symbolic actions and rituals. For example,
the cutting of the hair for a person who has just joined the army. He or she is "cutting
away" the former self: the civilian.

The transition (liminal) phase is the period between states, during which one has left
one place or state but has not yet entered or joined the next. "The attributes
of liminality or of liminal personae ("threshold people") are necessarily ambiguous." [7]

In the third phase (reaggregation or incorporation) the passage is consummated [by] the
ritual subject."[8] Having completed the rite and assumed their "new" identity, one re-
enters society with one's new status. Re-incorporation is characterized by elaborate
rituals and ceremonies, like debutant balls and college graduation, and by outward
symbols of new ties: thus "in rites of incorporation there is widespread use of the
'sacred bond', the 'sacred cord', the knot, and of analogous forms such as the belt, the
ring, the bracelet and the crown."[9]

Psychological effects[edit]

Laboratory experiments have shown that severe initiations produce cognitive

dissonance.[10] It is theorized that such dissonance heightens group attraction among
initiates after the experience, arising from internal justification of the effort used.
[11]
 Rewards during initiations have important consequences in that initiates who feel
more rewarded express stronger group identity. [12] As well as group attraction, initiations
can also produce conformity among new members.[13] Psychology experiments have
also shown that initiations increase feelings of affiliation.[14]

Cultural[edit]

Initiation rites are seen as fundamental to human growth and development as well as
socialization in many African communities. These rites function by ritually marking the
transition of someone to full group membership.[15] It also links individuals to the
community and the community to the broader and more potent spiritual world. Initiation
rites are "a natural and necessary part of a community, just as arms and legs are
natural and necessary extension of the human body". These rites are linked to individual
and community development. Dr. Manu Ampim identifies five stages; rite to birth, rite to
adulthood, rite to marriage, rite to eldership and rite to ancestorship. [16] In Zulu culture
entering womanhood is celebrated by the Umhlanga (ceremony).

Types and examples[edit]

Rites of passage are diverse, and are found throughout many cultures around the world.
Many western societal rituals may look like rites of passage but miss some of the
important structural and functional components. However, in many Native and African-
American communities, traditional Rites of Passage programs are conducted by
community-based organizations such as Man Up Global. Typically the missing piece is
the societal recognition and reincorporation phase. Adventure Education programs,
such as Outward Bound, have often been described as potential rites of passage.
Pamela Cushing researched the rites of passage impact upon adolescent youth at the
Canadian Outward Bound School and found the rite of passage impact was lessened by
the missing reincorporation phase.[17] Bell (2003) presented more evidence of this
lacking third stage and described the "Contemporary Adventure Model of a Rites of
Passage" as a modern and weaker version of the rites of passage typically used by
outdoor adventure programs. For non-religious people, Rites of Passage are important
as well. They mark important changes in their lives and they help to guide them.
Coming of age[edit]

In various tribal societies, entry into an age grade—generally gender-separated—(unlike

an age set) is marked by an initiation rite, which may be the crowning of a long and
complex preparation, sometimes in retreat.