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 175

Chapter 11
Impact of Hazardous Waste
Material on Environment and
Their Management Strategies
Mukesh Samant
Kumaun University — Nainital, India

Satish Chandra Pandey

Kumaun University — Nainital, India

Anupam Pandey
Kumaun University — Nainital, India

ABSTRACT
Hazardous waste has emerged as an issue of major concern that has negative impact both on human
health as well as on the environment. Hazardous and infectious agents are handled in daily routine in
biomedical laboratories. Their effects are increasing continuously in the environment. Hazardous waste
includes solid, liquid, sharp and pathological waste. Workers in hospitals and health care, agricultural
and fishing occupations are at particular risk of exposure to hazardous biological agents. Recently,
more systematic and strict steps have taken by the Indian government regarding the public concern to
prevent the proliferation of hazardous waste and its improper disposal. However, management of waste
are still not well promoted. So, to intercept the build-up of biohazards into the environment, waste from
biohazardous operations must be disposed or treated appropriately in a special way and it also intends
to create awareness amongst the personnel involved in these sectors to develop and implement hazard-
ous waste management and mitigation strategies.

INTRODUCTION

Over the past two decades, hazardous waste has become a serious issue of concern in many countries
including India. Hazardous waste has negative impact on human kind and the surrounding due to mis-
management during storage, transportation and disposal. Itinholds biological agents (bacteria, viruses,

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-3126-5.ch011

Copyright © 2018, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
 
Impact of Hazardous Waste Material on Environment and Their Management Strategies

prions, fungi, protozoans, tissue cultures, toxins, recombinant DNA (rDNA), transgenic animals, body
fluid and tissue etc) as well as chemicals (potentially toxic) used in daily routine in research and edu-
cational institutes, industries (e.g., carcinogenic, mutagenic and teratogenic) and in household that may
confer danger to the living beings if discharged in the umbworld. Hazardous waste not only contaminates
the environment but also perilous for human beings, animals and plants by another means. Hazardous
waste can be classified on the basis of physical, chemical and infectious properties of the waste and their
risk of injury during its handling and disposal. People working in laboratories and medical centers are
at particular risk of exposure to hazardous agents. There is growing observations that many professions
including agriculture, textiles, woodwork, sewage and compost plants harbour the potential for various
forms of hazardous waste. Every day millions of tons of waste are being produced by indefinite numbers
of hospitals and other medical and research institutions of our country. Furthermore people involved in
storage, transport, treatment and disposal of these waste are also susceptible and at high risk. Besides
this, a huge amount of health care wastes such as saline bottles, disposable syringes, I.V. fluid bottles etc.
are picked up by rag pickers all over the country and recycled back into the market without any steriliza-
tion or disinfection. These wastes harm the surrounding even at low concentration and its management
all over the world is still in its infancy. So it becomes mandatory to take preventive steps for the proper
treatment and safe disposal of the waste, to raise awareness for constant watchfulness and to provide
some counseling or guidance towards the handling of hazardous waste existing in the environment.

• Sources of Hazardous Material: Although city solid waste has allured the concern of environ-
mentalists and social administrators, but still there is lack of attention for certain sources of waste
and its proper management. One such waste is biohazardous waste. According to the US Center
for Disease Control and Prevention (Gangadharan, Smith, & Weyant, 2009) “any microorganism,
cell culture, or human endoparasite, including genetically modified organisms, which may cause
infection, allergy toxicity or create a hazard to human health are biohazards.” A huge amount of
hazardous material is churn out from the hospitals, nurshing homes, veterinary hospitals, ani-
mal houses, blood banks, research institutes and related laboratories (Dutkiewicz, Jablonski, &
Olenchock, 1988). Other sources which are associated with biohazards are industries, household
and education institutes can badly hit human welfare. United Nation categorized hazardous waste
as unsafe goods for shipment that comprises medical waste and all the substances transferable to
humans and animals. So from the obtainable proofs it can be concluded that hazardous agents
may survive in almost any profession. Human may be affected by biohazards, either by contact
with animals through transmission of zoonotic agents (e.g. brucellosis) or by direct contact of
causative agent (e.g. a bite from a venomous snake). Some can transfer directly or indirectly (e.g.
toxoplasmosis). Some diseases like leishmaniasis (protozoan parasite is transmitted by the bite
of phlebotomine sandflies), dengu (virus is transmitted by Aedes spp. mosquitoes) and malaria
(protozoan parasite is transmitted by Anopheles spp. through mosquito bites) by intermediate
host vector or insects as they require human host to complete their life cycle and the diseases (e.g.
leishmaniasis, malaria and dengu) that may spread through organ donation and infected blood is
known as anthroponoses . Various other infective agents associated with disease transfer are sum-
marized in Table 1.
• Types of Hazardous Material: Many organizations are associated with hazardous waste pro-
duction but the most prominently involved organizations are health care establishments, indus-
tries, educational and research centers and their related laboratories. Based on their concentration,

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Impact of Hazardous Waste Material on Environment and Their Management Strategies

Table 1. Infective agents or vectors associated with disease transfer

Causative
Agent/ Example Disease Symptoms Source Who Is At Risk Prevention and Cure
Vector

Vaccines like DTaP
Bordetella Whooping cough Sneezing, Prolonged Children and adults who and Tdap can help in
Bacteria Infected humans
pertussis or Pertusis cough, diarrhea haven’t been vaccinated preventing children
and adults.

Prophylactic
Hemorrhage, respiratory antibiotics,Avoidance,
Anthrax or spleenic Vetnerians and agriculture
Bacillus anthracis distress, high rate of Domestic and wild animals after exposure
fever workers
mortality vaccination of
limited efficacy

Loss of appetite, weight

loss, lethargy, Variety of animals including Abattoir workers, pig farmers,
back pain, goats, cattle, and dogs, Pigs feral-pig hunters Personal protective
Brucella suis Brucellosis Chills, or by consuming raw meat equipments, hygiene
pain in the joints, and unpasteurized milk and precautions
fever that comes and milk product
goes

Flu-like symptoms, Avoiding contact

Cattle, sheep,
endocarditis,hepatitis, Abattoir and farm with animals and
Coxiella burnetii Q fever goats, dogs,
pneumonia. Non- workers slaughterhouse,
cats
productive cough. vaccination, PPE

Restaurant workers if
Undercooked poultry, hygiene poor; workers
Some time bloody
Campylobacter Untreated in nursing homes,
Campylobacteriosis diarrhoea, dysentery Hygiene precautions,
jejuni water, dogs sheltered
syndrome, dehydration;
and cats accommodation,
schools

Severe pneumonia, Pet owners, pet shop

Psittacosis or
swollen lymph glands, employees, poultry farm Isolation of
Chlamydia psittaci Parrot Fever or Birds
Some time fatal if workers, abattoir workers, infected birds.
ornithosis
untreated veterinarians

Cooling
Towers in air conditioning
Legionnaires Fever, Pneumonia, Office workers; Regular maintenance
Legionella spp. systems, Hot water system,
disease malaise, myalgia sewage plant workers of water systems.
spa bath and spa pools,
Decorative fountains

Avoid contact with

fresh water, soil and
vegetation that might
be contaminated with
Flu-like symptoms, Waste water, sewere workers,
Through the urine of rat, the urine of infected
Leptospira spp. Leptospirosis Kidney and liver veterinarians, abattoir
pig, cattle, dog rodents protective
failure workers, military personnel
clothing.
hygiene precautions,
prophylactic
Antibiotics.

Waste water
From infected Avoid raw meet
Vomiting, diarrhea, treatment plant,
Salmonella spp. Salmonellosis human, water and food and eggs, Hygiene
dehydration sewer workers, and food
contaminated with Faecal precautions
industry workers

Hygiene precautions;
High fever, marked by Food or water avoid consumption
Salmonella typhi Typhoid fever headache, dry cough, contaminated Overseas travellers of raw meat and
malaise by with sewage contaminated water
withfaecal.

Severe
Contaminated water or food, Hygiene
gastroenteritis,watery People in third world
Vibrio cholerae Cholera eating fish or shellfish from precautions,purified
diarrhoea, countries
contaminated waters water.
sometime fatal

Reduce mosquito
High fever, Muscle and People with weak immune habitat, protective
Virus Aedes spp Dengu Aedes Mosquito
joint pain systems. clothing, use of
mosquito repellent

continued on following page

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Impact of Hazardous Waste Material on Environment and Their Management Strategies

Table 1. Continued

Causative
Agent/ Example Disease Symptoms Source Who Is At Risk Prevention and Cure
Vector

Infected flying foxes (bat)

Encephalitis, sore throat, Avoidance; Protective
Henipavirus Hendra virus and Horse workers, veterinarians
high rate of Mortality clothing
horses

Overseas
travelers, sewer and sex
Fever, nausea, Good hygiene and
Faecal workers, workers in Waste
Hepatitis A Hepatitis A jaundice; liver sanitation;
contamination water
damage Immunization effective
treatment plants.
;

Hospital, healthcare, Contact avoidance,

Inflamed liver, Infected
laboratory, police, vaccination,
Hepatitis B Hepatitis B potential for liver blood or body
paramedic, sex administrative
failure, liver cancer fluids
industry workers controls, PPE

Contact avoidance,
Acquired Hospitals, biomedical
Human Blood or body Personal protective
immunodeficien laboratories, paramedics, Sex
immunodeficiency Failur of immune system Fluids of equipments,
cy syndrome workers, police, waste pickers,
virus (HIV) Infected person administrative
(AIDS) drug addicts
Controls,

Person to
Inflammation of Commonly in children and
Person through
Rubulavirus Mumps salivary glands, testicles adolescents but symptoms are vaccination
respiratory
and ovaries more severe in adults
route

Fatal to developing Person to

German fetus in 90% cases, person via
Rubella Pregnant women Immunization effective
measles conjunctivitis, joint pain talk, sneeze containing small
in adults droplets of infective agent

Bovine
Neurological
spongiform Creutzfeldt- European residents (1980-
disorder, unsteadiness
Prions encephalopathy Jakob disease Infected cattle 96) and travellers who eats Avoid infected cattle
rapidly progressive
(BSE) (mad cow in humans infected meat
dementia
disease)

Person to person
Acute
Giardia transmission Purification of water,
Gastroenteritis, Overseas travelers,
Protozoa lamblia/ Giardiasis throughContaminated water hygienic
dehydration, fatigue, childcare workers
intestinalis with the faeces of infected precautions
weight loss.
patient and animal

Outdoor workers, Poor

population associated
Large patches on the Avoidance of outdoor
Bite of phlebotomine with malnutrition, poor
Leishmania spp. Leishmaniasis skin and fatal if not activities, use of
sandflies housing, illiteracy gender
treated bed net.
discrimination, weak immune
system

High fever, anemia due

Control mosquito
to distruction of RBCs,
habitat, Minimize the
vomiting, diarrhea,
Bites from infected amount of exposed
Plasmodium spp. Malaria convulsion, pulmonary Outdoor workers
female Anopheles mosquitoes skin, sleep under bed
edema, organ failure
net, use of antimalaria
( liver and kidney),
drug
cerebral malaria

Soil or food
Ascaris Lung infection lead to
infected by Good sanitation and
Helminthes lumbricoides Ascariasis gagging and vomiting People living in warm climate
human hygienic condition
(round worm) roundworms
faeces

Prophylactic
Fever, Rash, swollen antibiotics, protective
Queensland tick
lymph gland, potential clothing,Use of
Rickettsia Rickettsia spp. typhus (spotted Bite from infected tick Outdoor workers
for repellent in tick-
fever)
relapse infected
area

Adapted from (Pryor & Capra, 2012)

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Impact of Hazardous Waste Material on Environment and Their Management Strategies

quantity, physical and chemical properties hazardous waste can be categorized as biohazardous
waste and chemical waste.
• Biohazardous Waste: Different types of biological agents (Pryor & Capra, 2012) which are expe-
rienced by the people working in research and clinical work are categorized as follow:
• Infectious Waste: Infectious waste are believed to contain waste from hospitals, industrial, edu-
cational, clinical and research laboratories including culture and stock of microorganisms, human
and animal cell cultures, waste from infected patients (dressings soiled with blood and other body
fluids, excreta), catheters, intravenous sets, cultural flasks, dishes, and other devices used to inocu-
late, mix and transfer cultures (Sewell, 1995).
• Pathological Waste: It includes human blood, blood products, tissues, organs, fetus, body parts
and body fluids (synovial, pleural, amniotic, peritoneal fluid), animal carcasses etc. This category
should be regarded as subcategory of infectious waste (Burnett, Lunn, & Coico, 2009).
• Sharps Contaminated with Biological Agents: Objects that have been in contact with biological
materials including needle, blades, scalpels, scissors, serological pipettes, Pasteur pipettes, broken
glass, slides and other discarded sharps are considered as biohazardous material.
• Chemical Waste: It includes the Chemicals used in hospitals, industry, educational and research
institutions and disposed of by households are categorized as follows:
• Household and Laboratory Chemical Waste: Chemical waste include discarded solid, liquid
and gaseous chemicals, various smaller-scale solvents, unused oils, paints, reagents and cleaners
(e.g., bleach, toilet cleaner, floor polish and wax), photographic chemicals, insecticides, pesti-
cides, fertilizers. Chemicals used in routine research and education experiments such as spent acid
and bases, acrylamide, bis-acrylamide, ethidium bromide, 2-mercaptoethanol, chloramphenicol,
chloroform, formaldehyde, trypan blue etc are also included under chemical waste (Monteith,
Connor, Benvenuto, Fairchild, & Theiss, 1987).
• Pharmaceutical Waste: Pharmaceutical waste contains unused, expired and contaminated phar-
maceutical products such as drugs, vaccines that are no longer required. Moreover it includes
discarded items used during handling and manipulation of pharmaceuticals, such as gloves, mask,
gowns, vials, bottles and bags with residues (Smith & McCauley, 2008).
• Genotoxic Waste: These are highly hazardous waste often used in cancer treatment with muta-
genic, carcinogenic and teratogenic properties. It includes cytotoxic or antineoplastic drugs used
during chemotherapy and radiotherapy treatment (Houk, 1992).
• Waste With Heavy Metals: It represents wastes such as cadmium waste from discarded bat-
teries, mercury from broken thermometers, blood pressure gauges, lead in radiation proofing of
X-ray(Bailey, Olin, Bricka, & Adrian, 1999).
• Radioactive Waste: Radioactive waste comprises of solid, liquid and gaseous substances im-
pured with radionuclides. These are produced by various activities like in-vivo tumor localization,
body organ imaging and by in-vitro analysis of body fluids and tissues. Various radioactive ele-
ments (32P, 14C, 3H, 85Kr, 133Xe and 35S) are routinely used in Molecular biology laboratory, unused
liquid from radiotherapy, absorbent paper, contaminated glassware, (large volumes of waste with
low radioactivity) used in research and medical laboratory, urine and excreta of patients treated
with sealed and unsealed radionuclides and unused liquids from radiotherapy and research works
(Schwarz & Ridder, 2013).

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Impact of Hazardous Waste Material on Environment and Their Management Strategies

• Sharps Contaminated With Chemicals: They include glasswares (flasks, beakers, bottles, grad-
uate cylinders, test tubes etc) that have been contaminated with chemicals.
• Pressurized Containers: These waste include gases (anaesthetic gases, compressed air, oxygen,
ethylene oxide etc) used in research work and health care centers, which are stored in aerosol cans,
cartridges, pressurized containers (Campbell, 1992).
• Mode of Transmission: Preliminary step in hazardous waste management is to identify the pos-
sible ways for transmission of diseases. Potential routes between hazardous materials and popula-
tion are:
◦◦ Direct contact
◦◦ Indirect contact. Indirect contact is further categorized like:
▪▪ Contact through vector
▪▪ Air born contaminants
▪▪ Food and water born toxins

Every type of hazardous waste has the ability to cause different risks. In order to minimize the risks
it is very essential to interrupt the channels of transmission. Table 2 gives a general description about
risk, route and types of biohazards.

• Impact of Hazardous Elements on Environment: Mismanagement of hazardous waste can

cause severe threat to the environment and results in the pollution of land, air and water, which
ultimately affect human and other living organisms. Hazards related to this are more threatening
than those caused by the poor management of municipal waste. Mainly the people working in
these occupations are at a particular risk to this. So the pollutants responsible for this are catego-
rized into biological, chemical and radioactive. Impact of hazardous elements on air, water, land,
radio activities and health is debated by (Sadhu & Singh, 2003).

Table 2. Risk, route and hazards for monitoring the mode of disease transmission

Risk Route Hazards

Sharp waste containing needle, blade and glass which provide a passage for a
Injury Direct contact
pathogen to enter inside body
Direct or indirect (through Pathological and cultural waste (bacteria, viruses, fungi and protozoans etc) from
Infection
vector) contact medical and research labs may spread infection, allergy and disease
Direct or indirect (through
Skin problem Radioactive waste, toxic chemicals, plant products and microorganisms
vector) contact
Direct or indirect contact or
Cancer Radioactive waste
proximity to waste
Water and food Direct or indirect contact with
Toxic, chemical and biological (microorganisms) waste
born contaminants water and food
Direct or indirect contact with
Air pollution Waste with heavy metals and infectious waste
contaminated air or air droplets
By using expired drugs without any prescription of doctors or by prescription of
Drug side effects Direct contact
unqualified quaks
By direct contact in the area
Injury from blast Pressurized containers
where explosion occurs
Adapted from (Appleton & Ali, 2000).

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Impact of Hazardous Waste Material on Environment and Their Management Strategies

• Air Pollution: There are different pollutants chiefly named as biological, chemical and radioac-
tive responsible for the air pollution. Which have severe effects on both indoor and outdoor atmo-
sphere. The pollutants which are responsible for the air pollution are categorized as biological,
chemical and radioactive pollutants.
• In-Door Air Pollution: Different pathological and laboratory wastes are the primary source of
indoor pollution. Pathogens, present in the waste can enter in the environment and stay as a spore
for a prolonged duration. Fumigation or sterilization of rooms can reduce the load of pathogens.
Other indoor air pollutants like tobacco smoke which can be identified by their smell are the com-
plex mixture of pollutants and remain associated with air pollution and adversely affect human
health (Samet & Spengler, 2003). Other factors like Air velocity, temperature and humidity also
affect the indoor environment.
• Out-Door Air Pollution: Dumping of clinical or laboratory wastes in an open area without pre-
treatment also provides a passage for the pathogens to enter in the atmosphere and to cause in-
fections. Open burning of these waste products toxic gases like furans and dioxins (Burd, 2005).
When inhaled cause serious health issues related to respiratory system. Other sources responsible
for outdoor pollution are power generation, industrial activity, transportation, biomass burning
and domestic cooking and heating.
• Water Pollution: For proper management of waste, landfills are being constructed. To protect
nearby groundwater and soil from contamination landfills are layered by best materials. But some-
how improper waste disposal becomes the reason of water pollution. Any sharp material dumped
into landfill can easily tear into covering and during the rainy season, any contaminant in the land-
fill mayenter in to the soil due to which ground water gets polluted. Liquid waste generated during
various activities, when discharged into river or fresh water in untreated form can also lead to
water pollution (Rao, 1995). Due to which properties of water like pH, BOD, COD etc. get altered.
• Soil Pollution: Biomedical waste containing expired drugs, cultural waste, chemicals, insecti-
cides, metals, building materials, industrial waste and other wastes are the major cause of soil
pollution. Waste containing excess amount of trace elements and heavy metals such as mercury,
cadmium, lead etc enters to the soil which is dangerous for the health of plant, animal and human.
So pre-treatment before disposal and waste minimization is the only route of waste reduction (Da
Silva, Hoppe, Ravanello, & Mello, 2005).
• Radioactive Pollution: In hospitals different types of diagnostic tools is being used. They may
be disposable as well as radioactive. During radio-immunoassay activity radioactive gases are
generated in small amount. These gases must be evacuated straight to the outside and should be
monitored (Francis, 1994). Direct disposal of these agents in the environment is very much harm-
ful for the health of human as well as for environment.
• Occupational Hazards: It has been demonstrated that the individuals within the health care es-
tablishments like medical doctors, nurses, researchers, workers in waste handling (who generate,
handle and process hazardous waste), and those outside these sources such as waste pickers, drug
addicts (Scavangers of used needles and disposed medicines), children (playing nearby waste) etc
are at greatest risk to direct exposure of infections (e.g. HIV/AIDS, Hepatitis B and C). Infections
occur directly through accidental inhalation of aerosol or cut by contaminated sharps (mainly by
hypodermic needle). Illness acquired through the handling of infectious waste has been reported
(Grieble, Bird, Nidea, & Miller, 1974). Proper management of waste can solve the problem of oc-
cupational hazards to a large extent.

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Impact of Hazardous Waste Material on Environment and Their Management Strategies

• Impact on General Public Health: General public is indirectly associated with transmission of
disease, because they are not exactly exposed to the infectious waste or the reservoir body. To
facilitate indirect transmission, infectious agents must have the potential to survive outside to
its source for prolong duration with an opportunity to affect a susceptible host. According to a
study conducted by WHO in 1996 states that everyday >50,000 people die because of infectious
diseases. Population residing in the vicinity of hazardous waste was found to be observed with
reproductive disorders (spontaneous abortion, fetal and infant mortalitiy and low birth weight)
and birth defects .Dumping of bio-medical waste in open spaces, water objects and municipal
dustbins etc. causes spread of diseases. Emission of toxic gases from open burning of waste can
cause respiratory diseases and cancer (Manohar, Rame shreddy, & Kotaiah, 1998). Scavenging on
openly dumped plastic waste can choke animals. Some diseases that transmited through infectious
waste or vectors are tetanus, pneumonia, diarrhea, tuberculosis, whooping cough, leishmaniasis
and malaria etc (Marinković, Vitale, Afrić, & Janev Holcer, 2005).
• Risk Minimization: The primary step for minimizing the risk is eradication of vectors (e.g. such
as birds and protozoans and who act as vector for psittacosis, leishmaniasis, malaria and dengu)
elimination of hazardous agents (e.g. radioactive substances responsible for tumor and cancer,
pesticides that kill pests). Personal Protective Equipments and management controlling system
can be used which are summarized in Table 3.
• Seperation, Storage and Transportation of Hazardous Waste: Before the final disposal, all the
waste must be properly segregated, stored, disinfected and transported to the related disposal sites.
This practice should be done in order to prevent contamination of normal waste by infectious and
pathological waste so that the waste can be easily transported.
• Separation: It is the primary and mandatory process and mainly depends on the composition and
quantity of waste generated at the source that helps in minimizing the risks and cost of handling
and disposal. It is the responsibility of the waste producer to segregate the waste at its source. .
Segregation alone can help in effective waste management. Effective segregation prevents mix-
ing of laboratory and medical waste (e.g. sharps and infectious waste) with the general municipal
waste, reuse of certain components of medical waste like needles, syringes etc. It helps in recy-

Table 3. Controlling system and tools for risk minimization

     Preventive anti-viral medications

     Vaccines
Engineering/Bioengineering controls      Ventilation systems
     Automated equipment
      Engineered safe needle devices
     Heavy duty gloves
      Protective clothing
Personal Protective Equipments (PPE)      Safety glasses
     Face protection
     Respiratory protection (masks)
     labeling hazardous waste
     Policies and procedures
Management controls      Immunization programs
     Quarantine and isolation processes
     Training and awareness
Adapted from (Pryor & Capra, 2012).

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Impact of Hazardous Waste Material on Environment and Their Management Strategies

cling components of medical wastes like plastic materials after complete disinfection. That can be
used for nonfood grade applications. The best mode for segregation of hazardous waste is sorting
the waste into color-coded bins and plastic bags (Chitnis, Vaidya, & Chitnis, 2005). The recom-
mended scheme for colour coding and type of container is given in Table 4.
• Storage: The hazardous waste must be collected in different types of containers or bags (Table 4)
from various sources of biomedical wastes like operation theatre, wards, research and educational
laboratory, animal houses, corridor, etc. The container or bin should have the international symbol
with the word BIOHAZARD underneath (Figure 1). The containers for collection of the wastes
should be leak proof and must have lids with them. Cardboard boxes should not be used for collec-
tion because they disintegrate very soon. It is recommended that sharp waste must always be col-
lected in puncture proof containers to protect the workers handling them from injuries and infec-
tions. After Storage the waste should not be stored for more than 24 hours. In addition, red or red/
orange biohazard bags should be used for the disposal and/or autoclaving of biohazardous waste.
• Transport: The waste must be transported for further treatment by means of trolleys, carts or con-
tainers so as to prevent access to, transportation operators, public and scavengers. Manual loading
of waste should not be used in practice. Bags and containers having hazardous waste should be
tied properly before transportation. The transporting vehicles should be cleane daily and dried on
regular basis.

Table 4. Colour coding and types of container for collection of different types of wastes.

Waste Type Colour Coding Type of Container

Animal waste, human anatomical waste and soiled waste Yellow Plastic bags
Microbiology & Biotechnology Waste Yellow/Red Plastic bags/ disinfection containers
Sharp and solid waste Blue/ white translucent Plastic bags/ puncture proof containers
Discarded medicine and cytotoxic drugs, incineration ash
Black Plastic bags
and chemical waste

Figure 1. Different types of bags for collection of different types of wastes

183
 
Impact of Hazardous Waste Material on Environment and Their Management Strategies

• Disposal Technique: To protect the environment from the risk of hazardous waste they must be
treated and/or disposed of in a special way. Some techniques available for the treatment are as
follows:
• Incineration: Incineration is a dry oxidation process, performed at very high temperature to re-
duce waste that can’t be reused, recycled and disposed of in landfill site. Incineration converts
combustible and organic waste into incombustible and inorganic matter which significantly re-
duces waste volume and weight (Oppelt, 1987). Waste to be incinerated doesn’t require any pre-
treatment and but must have moisture content <30%, combustible matter >60%, non-combustible
fines < 20%, non-combustible solids < 5%, and low heating value >2000 kcal/kg (8370 kJ/kg)
for single-chamber incinerators and >3500 Kcal/kg (14640 kJ/kg) for pyrolytic double-chamber
incinerators., Pressurized gas containers, Silver salts and photographic or radiographic wastes
should not be incinerated. Halogenated plastics such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC), sealed am-
poules or ampoules containing heavy metals, large amount of reactive chemical waste, waste with
high mercury or cadmium content, such as used batteries, broken thermometers etc., should not be
incinerated. Combustion of organic compounds results mainly with the production of gases (e.g.
CO2, NO2), particulate matter, plus solid residues in the form of ashes and various toxic elements
(e.g. halogenic acids, metals). The waste water and ashes produced during the process also con-

Figure 2. Rotatory kiln

184

Impact of Hazardous Waste Material on Environment and Their Management Strategies

tain toxic compounds, which should be treated to avoid unfavorable outcomes on health and the
surrounding. Most large, modern incinerators include energy-recovery facilities. During warmer
climate steam produced from the incinerators is used to generate electricity and steam and/ or hot
water produced during cold climate can be used to feed urban district-heating systems.
• Types of Incinerators: For the treatment of hazardous waste three basic incineration techniques
are used:
• Rotary Kilns: operated at high temperature, for decomposition of heat-resistant chemicals and
genotoxic substances.
• Single-Chamber Incinerator: Used if pyrolytic incinerators are not affordable. Example-A drum
incinerator is the simplest form of single-chamber incinerator
• Double-Chamber Pyrolytic Incinerators: Especially designed to burn infectious waste.
• Chemical Disinfection: Chemical disinfection of hazardous waste is a less lethal process than
sterilization (Pohanish, 2008). It mainly lowers the burden of microorganisms but does’nt com-
pletely removes all microbial forms (e.g., endospores). It is most effective for treating liquid waste
including urine, sewage, blood etc. Even highly hazardous waste such as microbial cultures, sharps
and solid waste can also be disinfected chemically. Shredding of solid waste should be done be-
fore disinfection. This reduces the waste volume by 60-90% and increases the extent of contact
between disinfectant and waste. After disinfection, the waste may be discharged into sewers but
the disinfectant may cause serious illness to the environment. Microbial resistivity against chemi-
cal disinfectants has been reported and the major groups are bacterial spores> mycobacteria>
hydrophilic viruses> lipophilic viruses> vegetative fungi and their spores> vegetative bacteria.
Most parasites, such as Cryptosporidium and Giardia spp. also show resistance for disinfectants
and are considered between mycobacteria and the viruses.
• Types of Chemical Disinfectants: Selection of disinfectants not only rely on their efficiency,
but also on their corrosiveness and other hazards related to their handling. Mostly the chemicals
used as disinfectant are chlorine, ammonium salts, aldehydes, alcohol and phenolic compounds.
Currently the use of ozone (O3) as a disinfectant is also being investigated, which is very strong
and relatively safe. Disinfectants are often toxic and injurious to mucous membrane and skin.
Various types of chemical disinfectants are as follow:
• Formaldehyde (HCHO): Effective against all microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses and
bacterial spores and causes disinfection of solid and dry waste along with steam at 80°C, contact
time is 45 minutes. Formaldehyde should be applied only to maintain high level of chemical
safety. It is classified as a human carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer.
• Glutaraldehyde (CHO-(CH2)3-CHO): Effective against bacterial and parasite eggs. It is avail-
able in aqueous solution at a concentration of 25-50%. It is used (2%) with acetate buffer for 5
minutes to disinfect medical equipments and 10 hours to kill endospores. Gluteraldehyde waste
should never be disposed off in sewers. It can be neutralized by the addition of sodium bisulfate
and ammonia. Gluteraldehyde is also suitable only for maintaining high level of chemical safety.
• Sodium Hypochlorite (NaOCl): Effective against most bacteria, viruses, and spores and gener-
ally used for wastewater treatment. Liquid with high organic content such as stool or blood can’t
be disinfected using NaOCl. Sodium hypochlorite may be used more extensively because of mild
health hazards.
• Chlorine Dioxide (ClO2): Active against most of bacteria, viruses, and spores and commonly
used for wastewater treatment, sanitation and in drinking-water preparation.

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• Ethylene Oxide (CH2OCH2): Effective against all microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses,
and bacterial spores. It is applied to solid waste at 37–55 °C with 60–80% humidity, for 4–12
hours. Because of health hazards the use of ethylene oxide is no longer recommended. Ethylene
oxide has been classified as a human carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on
Cancer.
• Ethanol: Active against most of the bacteria and enveloped viruses. Effective at the concentration
of 70% which is commonly used in laboratories to clean instruments, bench tops and interiors of
the biosafety cabinet. It can be used as an antiseptic on intact skin.

Wet and Dry Thermal Treatment

• Wet Thermal Treatment (Autoclaving): Autoclaving is an efficient low heat thermal process
and based on the principle of pressure cooker. Where infectious, contaminated solids and sharp
wastes are exposed to high temperature (121°C) and high steam pressure (15psi) for sufficient
duration (60-90 minutes), so that steam can penetrate waste components and inactivates most of
the microorganisms. To increase the disinfection efficiency it is recommended that solid and sharp
waste must be shredded and crushed before autoclaving so that the waste can be disposed off as
municipal waste. Expected inactivation of microorganisms is around 99.9999%. Wet thermal pro-
cesses are generally batch systems, but they may also be continuous. This process is not suitable
for treating animal carcasses, anatomical, chemical and pharmaceutical wastes.
• Dry Thermal Treatment (Screw-Feed Technology): This technology is based on dry thermal,
non-burn disinfection process. Waste is shredded in rotating augers and then heated. Commercially
available continuous feed augers are being used in several hospitals and research institutions. The
prime steps of the process are following:
◦◦ Shredding of the waste into particle size about 25mm in diameter.
◦◦ Entering of waste into the auger, where it is heated at 110-140°C temperature by oil circulat-
ing through its central shaft.
◦◦ Rotation of the waste through auger for around 20 minutes and compaction of the residue.

This technology helps in reducing the waste volume by 80% and weight by 20-35% and also facilitates
the treatment of sharps and infectious waste. Wastes like pathological, cytotoxic and radioactive waste
can’t be treated using this technique. Filtration of exhaust air and treatment of condensed water should
be done before disposal. Schematic plan of self contained screw-feed unit is shown in figure 3.

• Microwave Irradiation: The hazardous waste is treated by microwave irradiation. Microwaves of

frequency of around 2450 MHz and wavelength of 12.24 cm are used to kill most of the microor-
ganisms (Brent, 1992). In this process microwaves rapidly heat up the water content of the waste
which causes destruction of infectious agents through heat conduction. The important steps of the
process are following:
◦◦ Shredding of waste into small pieces.
◦◦ Humidification of shredded waste and transfer into irradiation chamber, where irradiation
takes place for about 20 minutes
◦◦ After irradiation, waste compaction and its disposal into municipal waste stream.

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Figure 3. Single chamber incinerator; Adapted from (Prüss, Giroult, & Rushbrook, 1999)

Figure 4. Double-chamber pyrolytic incinerator

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Impact of Hazardous Waste Material on Environment and Their Management Strategies

Figure 5. Schematic diagram of self-contained screw-feed unit; Adapted from (Prüss et al., 1999)

The microwave irradiation process is a very popular process and widely used in various countries. D
to its high cost and maintenance problems it is not yet recommended for using in developing countries.
So to overcome this problem more compact and cheaper equipments with lower capacity have recently
been developed to treat biohazardous waste at the point of contact.

Land Disposal

• Municipal Disposal Sites: Waste disposal in land can be performed by two ways-open dumps and
sanitary landfills (Moghadam, Mokhtarani, & Mokhtarani, 2009).
• Open Dumps: Scattered and uncontrolled deposit of waste in the public area, hospitals or else-
where are the characteristics of open dumps, which increases the risk of fire, transmission of
diseases (directly through wounds, inhalation or through food chain), pollution problems and are
easily accessible to animals and scavengers.
• Sanitary Landfills: Sanitary landfills have four advantages over open dumps:
◦◦ Deposit of waste in an organized way and daily coverage of waste.
◦◦ Geological isolation of waste from the environment.
◦◦ Appropriate engineering preparations before the site is ready to accept wastes.
◦◦ Staff management on site to control operations.

Types of waste to be disposed in sanitary landfills are pharmaceutical and infectious waste which pro-
tect surface water, ground water and soil from contamination and avoids air pollution, smell and direct
contact with the public.

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Table 5. Techniques of waste management-key advantages and disadvantages

Techniques of Disposal Advantages Disadvantages

Sufficient for most chemical, pharmaceutical
Rotary kiln Equipment and operation costs are high.
and all infectious waste
Significant emission of atmospheric pollutants.
Good disinfection efficiency.
Single-chamber Inadequate to destroy thermally resistant chemicals and
No need of trained operators.
incineration drugs such as cytotoxics.
Extreme reduction of waste volume and weight.
Continuous removal of soot and slag is essential.
Very high disinfection efficiency. Enough to
Pyrolytic incineration treat most of the chemicals, pharmaceuticals Expensive to purchase, operate and maintain.
and all infectious wastes.
Thorough disinfection under efficient operating
Chemical disinfection condition. Required technicians to operate.
Mostly chemical disinfectants are economical.
The efficiency of disinfection is very sensitive to the
Wet thermal process Extreme reduction in waste volume. operational conditions.
(Autoclaving) Low investment and operating costs. Qualified technician are required to operate the
instruments.
Dry thermal process Pathological, cytotoxic and radioactive waste can’t be
Drastic reduction in waste volume.
(Screw-feed technology) treated.
Efficient disinfection under suitable operating
Microwave irradiation High cost of operation and maintenance.
conditions.
Air pollution from organic matter decomposition. It
produces carbon dioxide, sulphur, nitrogen, methane.
Cheap disposal method.
Soil and water pollution from leachate.
Landfill disposal Gases produced during landfill provide
Animal vectors like flies, rats etc for some disease, dust,
renewable energy supply.
odour.
Difficult to prevent scavenging all times.
Simplest, safe and relatively cheap method.
Encapsulation Not applicable to non-sharp infectious waste
May be applied to pharmaceutical waste.
Inertization Relatively inexpensive method Not recommended for infectious waste

• Encapsulation: It is a process in which hazardous waste is pretreated before disposal. This in-
volves the use of cubic boxes made of high density polyethylene and metallic drums. Which are
filled with chemical or pharmaceutical and sharps residues. After that the boxes are filled up with
immobilizing materials such as cement, clay material, bituminous sand and plastic foam. When
the medium becomes dry, the boxes are sealed and disposed of in landfill sites. This process is
safe and relatively cheap and used for disposal of sharps and chemical or pharmaceutical waste.
• Inertization: In this technique waste is mixed with water, lime and cement before disposal so
that the toxic matter of the waste should not percolate into surface or ground water. Mixing re-
sults in the formation of homogenous mass that can be transported in liquid state to a landfill and
discharged into municipal waste. The wastes suitable for inertization are incineration ashes with
high metal content and pharmaceutical waste. Typical composition of the mixture is 5% water,
15% cement, 15% lime and 65% pharmaceutical waste. The process is cheaper and can be operated
using simple equipments.

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The key advantages and disadvantages of different treatment methods and disposal options are ad-
dressed in Table 5.

• Training and Awareness Program: Promotion of proper handling and disposal of various types
of hazardous waste is necessary for public health and every member of the public must be aware
of the potential health risks. Training and awareness programs should be developed by the govern-
ment agency for all category of personnel including medical, paramedical, researchers and admin-
istrative and it should be suitable for every organization including government, private hospitals,
health care centers, polyclinics, research institutions and laboratories (LaGrega, Buckingham, &
Evans, 2010). The main objectives of the training programs should be:
◦◦ To grow awareness regarding hygiene and waste management in hospitals and research
institutes.
◦◦ To inform the general public about the health risks (mainly HIV/AIDS and Hepatitis B and
others) linked to health care and hazardous waste.
◦◦ To prevent exposure from health-care and hazardous waste and related health risks.

Future Prospect

There is only one Earth, our fuel and energy resources will eventually be exhausted in coming years.
Wastes are in fact mispositioned resources, so there is a need to construct new waste recycling plants
and landfills, Modernization of existing waste recycling plants and increasing waste processing depth
at existing stations, construction of a pilot plant for hazardous waste treatment, equipping waste trucks
with navigation systems for better control on waste disposal. Further incineration plants play major
role in the management of highly hazardous substances, so it is important to increase the number of
incineration plants near the industrial areas. More importantly energy released from these plants can be
recycled using the advanced technology to promote the economic development so that recyclable and
reprocessed wastes that did not provide economic benefits will become useful resource in the future. A
sustainable source of resources and a sustainably protected environment are the ultimate targets of our
efforts in resource recycling.

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