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Antennas and Wave Propagation

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Antenna and Wave Propagation

MirMuhammad Lodro, M.Res., M.E.

Assistant Professor,
Department of Electrical Engineering, Sukkur IBA

Jan 01, 2016

List of Figures

2.1 Loss tangent (conduction current density and displacement current

density vectors are orthogonal to eachother) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2 Skin Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.3 Types of EM wave polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.4 Circularly polarized EM wave with right hand sense of rotation[1] . 38

3.1 Half-wave dipole antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

3.2 Radiation Pattern of Vertical Dipole (a)normalised E-plane or ver-
tical pattern (φ = 0) (b) normalised H-plane or horizontal pattern
(φ = π/2) (c) three-dimensional plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.3 The monopole antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.4 Two-element antenna array diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.5 Radiation patterns of broadside array, intermediate array and end
fire array [2] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

4.1 Rhombic antenna geometrical structure and its radiation pattern[2] 86

4.2 Helical antenna operating modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.3 Whip Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

1
Contents

1 Introduction and Mathematical Preliminaries 6

1.1 Fundamentals of Scalars and Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.1 Dot Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.2 Cross Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.1 Cartesian Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.2 Properties of Unit Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.3 Cylindrical Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.4 Spherical Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3 DEL ∇ Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3.1 Gradient of Scalar V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2 Propagation of EM Waves 13
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 Maxwell’s Field Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3 Maxwell’s Field Equations in Free Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4 Maxwell’s Equations for Harmonically Varying Fields . . . . . . . . 16
2.5 EM Wave in Homogeneous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.6 Wave Equations for Lossless Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.7 Uniform Plane Wave in Free Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.8 Solution of Maxwell’s Equation for Uniform Plane Wave . . . . . . 21
2.9 EM Wave Equation for Conducting Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.10 Propagation of EM Wave in Perfect Dielectrics . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.11 Propagation of Uniform Plane EM Wave in Conducting Medium . . 27

2
 2.12 Conductor and Dielectrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.13 Propagation of Plane EM Waves in Good Dielectrics . . . . . . . . 30
2.14 Propagation of Plane EM Waves in Good Conductors . . . . . . . . 31
2.14.1 Skin Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.15 Impedance of Homogenous Isotropic Perfect Dielectric Medium . . . 34
2.16 Electromagnetic Wave Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.16.1 Linear Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.16.2 Elliptical Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.16.3 Circular Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.17 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

3 EM Radiation and Antennas 49

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.2 Short Electric Dipole or Hertzian Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.3 Retarded Vector Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.4 Antenna Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.5 Antenna Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.6 Antenna Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.6.1 Antenna Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.6.2 Radiation Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.6.3 Directional Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.6.4 Effective Length of Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.6.5 Radiation Intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.6.6 Directive Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.6.7 Directivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.6.8 Power Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.6.9 Antenna Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.6.10 Effective Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.6.11 Antenna Equivalent Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.6.12 Antenna Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.6.13 Front-to-Back Ratio (FBR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.6.14 Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.7 Basic Antenna Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

3
 3.8 Directivity of Electric Current Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.9 Gain of Half-wavelength Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.10 Radiation Pattern of Alternating Current Element . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.11 Radiation Pattern Expression of Center-fed Vertical Dipole of Finite
Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.12 Radiation Pattern of Center-fed Vertical Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.13 Radiation Pattern of Center-fed Horizontal Dipole . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.14 Radiation Pattern of Vertical Monopole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.15 Two-element Uniform Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.16 Field Strength of Uniform Linear Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.16.1 First Side-lobe Ratio (FSR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.17 Broadside Array and End-fire Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.17.1 Broadside Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.17.2 End-fire Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.18 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

4 Antennas for HF, VHF and UHF 82

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.2 Yagi-Uda Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.3 Folded Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.4 V-antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.5 Inverted V-antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.6 Rhombic Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.7 Helical Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.8 Whip Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

5 Radio Wave Propagation 90

5.1 Factors Involved in Propagation of Radio Waves . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.2 Factors that Influence the Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.3 Ground Wave Field Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.4 Reflection of Radio Waves by the Surface of Earth . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.4.1 Roughness of Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.4.2 Reflection Factors of Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

4
5.5 Space Wave or Tropospheric Wave Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5.6 Field Strength Due to Space Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.7 Duct Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.8 Duct Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.9 Troposcatter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.10 Fading of EM Waves in Troposphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.11 Line of Sight (LOS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.12 Ionospheric Wave Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.13 Characteristics of Ionosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.13.1 Characteristics of D-Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.13.2 Characteristics of E-Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.13.3 Characteristics of Es -Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.13.4 Characteristics of F1 -Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.13.5 Characteristics of F2 Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.14 Refractive Index of Ionosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.14.1 Critical Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.15 Mechanism of Ionospheric Propagation—Reflection and Refraction . 102
5.16 Characteristics Parameters of Ionospheric Propagation . . . . . . . 103
5.17 Faraday Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.18 Ionospheric Abnormalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.18.1 Normal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.18.2 Abnormal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.19 Ionospheric Storms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.20 Sudden Ionospheric Disturbance (SID) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

5
Chapter 1

Introduction and Mathematical

Preliminaries

1.1 Fundamentals of Scalars and Vector

A scalar has magnitude and an algebraic sign. For example temperature, mass,
charge, work, and so on. Whereas a vector has both magnitude and direction.
For example velocity, force, electric field, magnetic field and so on. A vector A
is expressed in two forms A = Ax , Ay , Az and A = Ax ax + Ay ay + Az az , where
Ax , Ay , Az and ax , ay + az are known as components of vector A and unit vectors
along the coordinate axes. The magnitude of A is written as A = |A|. The unit
vector of A is a and is given by

A
a=
A

The sum and difference of two vectors are given by

A + B = (Ax + Bx )ax + (Ay + By )ay + (Az + Bz )az

A − B = (Ax − Bx )ax + (Ay − By )ay + (Az − Bz )az

6
1.1.1 Dot Product
The dot product of two vectors is given by

A · B orB · A
A · B = B · A = AB cos θ
A · B = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz

Where θ is the angle between vectors A and B. The dot product of two vectors is
scalar.

1.1.2 Cross Product

The cross product of two vectors is denoted by A × B as follows:

A × B = AB sin θan

Where an is unit vector perpendicular to A and B. Moreover

 
 ax ay az 
 
A × B = Ax Ay Az 
 
 
Bx By Bz 

= ax [Ay Bz − Az By ] + ay [Az Bx − Ax Bz ] + az [Ax By − Ay Bx ]

Cross product of two vectors is a vector.

1.2 Coordinate System

Coordinate system is defined as a system used to represent a point in space. Ba-
sically coordinate systems are of three types namely cartesian coordinate system,
cylindrical coordinate system and spherical coordinate system.

7
1.2.1 Cartesian Coordinate System
In this system a point P is represented by P (x, y, z). The variables are x, y, z. A
point is obtained by intersection of three planes given by x = k1 , y = k2 , z = k3 .
The unit of x,y and z is meter. The three axes x,y, z are mutually perpendicular.
These are said to be orthogonal to each other.

1.2.2 Properties of Unit Vectors

Following are the possible combinations of the dot and cross multiplication of the
unit vectors.

ax · ax = 1 ay · az = 0
ay · ay = 1 az × ay = az
az · az = 1 ay × az = ax
ax × ax = 0 az × ax = ay
ay × ay = 0 ay × ax = −az
az × az = 0 az × ay = −ax
ax · ay = 0 ax × az = −ay
ax · az = 0

1.2.3 Cylindrical Coordinate System

In this system a point P is represented by P (ρ, φ, z) where ρ represents radius
of cylinder, φ is called azimuthal angle and z is same as in Cartesian coordinate
system. The unit of ρ is meter,φ is measured in degree or radian and z is given in
meters. In Cylindrical coordinate system, appoint is obtained by intersection of
three surface namely:

A cylindrical surface ρ = k1 meter

A plane φ = α radian
Another plane z = k2 meter

8
All the three surface are mutually perpendicular. These are said to be mutually
orthogonal. A point in Cylindrical coordinate system is shown as P (ρ, φ, z). The
coordinate ρ is radius of the cylinder, φ is measured from x−axis and z is measured
the same way as for cartesian system. Here aρ , aφ , az represents unit vectors along
the coordinates ρ,φ and z. Their magnitude is unity and they are in the increasing
directions of ρ,φ, z respectively. It is obvious that increase in ρ results in cylinders
of greater radius, φ increases in anti-clockwise direction, z is same as in cartesian
system. The relations between x, y, z and ρ,φ, z:

x = ρ cos φ
y = ρ sin φ
z=z

and
p
ρ= x2 + y 2 0 ≤ ρ < ∞
y
φ = tan−1 , 0 ≤ φ < 2π
x
z=z 0≤z<∞

Dot products of ax ,ay and az with aρ , aφ and az are given by

ax · aρ = cos φ
ax · aφ = − sin φ
ay · aρ = sin φ
ay · aφ = cos φ
az · aρ = 0
az · aφ = 0

The unit vectors of cylindrical coordinates in terms of cartesian coordinates

are given by

9
 aρ = cos φax + sin φay
aφ = − sin φax + cos φay
az = az

A vector A = (Ax ax + Ay ay + Az az ) is expressed in cylindrical coordinates as

A = (Aρ , Aφ , Az ) = [(Ax cos φ + Ay sin φ), (−Ax sin φ + Ay cos φ), Az ]

That’s is

Aρ = Ax cos φ + Ay sin φ
Aφ = −Ax sin φ + Ay cos φ
Az = Az

A is also written as:

A = (Ax cos φ + Ay sin φ)aρ + (−Ax sin φ + Ay cos φ)aφ + Az az

1.2.4 Spherical Coordinate System

In this system P (r, θ, φ) represents a point, r represents the radius of the sphere, θ
is the angle of deviation measured from z-axis and φ is azimuthal angle measured
from x-axis. A point is obtained by intersection of three surfaces as follows:

Aspherical surface r = k(constant) meter

a cone θ = α(constant) radian
a plane φ = β(constant)radian

Three surfaces are mutually perpendicular. Three vector ar ,aθ , aφ represents

10
unit vectors along the coordinate axes. Their magnitude is unity and they are
in the increasing directions of r, θ and φ axes. Increase of r results in sphere of
large radius, θ increases in clockwise direction and φ increases in in anti-clockwise
direction. The variables of cartesian and spherical coordinates system are related
by:

x = r sin θ cos φ, −∞ < x < ∞

y = r sin θ sin φ, −∞ < y < ∞
z = r cos θ, −∞ < z < ∞

and
p
r= x2 + y 2 + z 2 0≤r≤∞
z
θ = cos−1 p 0≤θ≤π
x2 + y 2 + z 2
y
φ = tan−1 0 ≤ φ ≤ 2π
x

The relations between the variables of cylindrical and spherical coordinates are
given by:

ρ = r sin θ
φ=φ
z = r cos θ
p
r = ρ2 + z 2
r
θ = tan−1
z
φ=φ

11
1.3 DEL ∇ Operator
The del or nabla is known as differential vector operator and is defined as

∂ ∂ ∂
∇ = ax + ay + az
∂x ∂y ∂z

Del has unit of 1/m.

1.3.1 Gradient of Scalar V

Gradient of scalar is a vector and is defined as:

∂V ∂Ay ∂Az
∇V = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z

12
Chapter 2

Propagation of EM Waves

2.1 Introduction
This chapter starts with Maxwell’s equations in point form and differential form
from which we derive the vector wave equation whose solution is a wave propa-
gating with the speed of light. We give detailed treatment of the behaviour of
uniform plane wave in lossless dielectric media or free space and the behaviour of
uniform plane wave inside the conductor. The behaviour of uniform plane wave
in dielectric and conductors has been substantiated with the help of some mathe-
matical formulas for attenuation constant, phase shift constant, phase velocity and
intrinsic impedance. In the end, depth of penetration or skin depth has been taken
into consideration when the EM wave encounters conductor which attenuates the
E and H fields of EM wave with 1/e of it maximum value.

13
2.2 Maxwell’s Field Equations
We have following Maxwell’s equations in differential form:

Gauss’s Law∇ · B = 0 (2.1a)

Gauss’s Law∇ · D = ρv (2.1b)
∂B
Faraday’s Law∇ × E = − (2.1c)
∂t
∂D
Ampere’s Law∇ × H = J + (2.1d)
∂t

Where B is magnetic flux density W eber/m2 , D is electric flux density in

C/m2 , E and H are electric field strength in V /m and magnetic field strength
in A/m. ρv stands for volume charge density in C/m3 , J is conduction current
density, ∂D
∂t
is displacement current density. The constituent parameters are the
following relations between E, and H:

D = εE (2.2a)
B = µH (2.2b)
J = σE (2.2c)

We can also write Maxwell’s equations in integral forms as follows:

I
B · ds = 0 Net flux is zero (2.3a)
Is Z
= D · ds = ρv dv (2.3b)
Is Iv
∂B
E · dl = − (2.3c)
∂t
I Z s
∂D
H · dl = (J + ) · ds (2.3d)
s ∂t

Maxwell’s first equation says that net flux passing through closed surface is

14
zero i.e. there is no magnetic monopole. Maxwell’s second equation can be in-
terpreted as total electric flux density through surface enclosing volume is equal
to total charge within that volume. From Maxwell’s third equation we see that
electromagnetic force around closed path is equal to the time derivative of mag-
netic flux density which is followed by corrected version of Ampere’s law which
is magnetic force around closed path is equal to conduction current density plus
time derivative of electric flux density or displacement current.

2.3 Maxwell’s Field Equations in Free Space

We can rewrite above set of Maxwell’s field equations for free space in both differ-
ential or point form and integral form. We know that in free space conductivity
is zero σ = 0. Therefore, above equations in differential form can adapted for free
space as follows:

Gauss’s Law∇ · B = 0 (2.4a)

Gauss’s Law∇ · D = 0 (2.4b)
∂B
Faraday’s Law∇ × E = − (2.4c)
∂t
∂D
Ampere’s Law∇ × H = (2.4d)
∂t

Similarly, integral form of Maxwell’s field equations can be written as:

I
B · ds = 0 Net flux is zero (2.5a)
Is
= D · ds = 0 (2.5b)
s
I I
∂B
E · dl = − (2.5c)
∂t
I Z s
∂D
H · dl = · ds (2.5d)
s ∂t

15
2.4 Maxwell’s Equations for Harmonically Vary-
ing Fields
We shall now rewrite Maxwell’s field equations in differential form and integral
forms as harmonically varying fields. We know that D = D0 ejωt and B = B0 ejωt
where D0 and H0 are the magnitudes of electric flux density and magnetic flux
density respectively.

D = D0 ejωt Diff. w.r.t. time

∂D
= D0 ω ejωt (2.6)
∂t
∂D
= jωD
∂t
∂
By comparing LHS and RHS we can see that ∂t = jω. Keeping this in view
we can rewrite Maxwell’s equations in differential form and integral form as har-
monically varying fields as follows:

∇·B=0 (2.7a)
∇·D=ρ (2.7b)
∇ × E = −jωµH (2.7c)
∇ × H = (σ + jωε)E (2.7d)

Similarly, the integral form of harmonically varying fields:

I
B · ds = 0 (2.8a)
Is Z
D · ds = ρv dv (2.8b)
Is v Z
E · dl = −jωµ H · ds (2.8c)
I s Z

H · dl = (σ + jωε) E · ds (2.8d)
s

16
2.5 EM Wave in Homogeneous Medium
Let us obtain electromagnetic wave equations from Maxwell’s field equations con-
sidering a homogenous and isotropic medium.
Homogeneous Medium: In homogenous medium the medium parameters i.e. per-
mittivity ε, permeability µ and conductivity σ are constant throughout medium.
Isotropic Medium: In isotropic medium ε is scalar constant so that D and E pos-
sess same direction such that D = εE

In any electromagnetic phenomenon, the following Maxwell’s field equations

must be satisfied:

∇·B=0 (2.9a)
∇·D=ρ (2.9b)
∇ × E = −jωµH (2.9c)
∇ × H = (σ + jωε)E (2.9d)

2.6 Wave Equations for Lossless Medium

For free space or lossless or non-conducting medium or more general perfect di-
electric medium there is no conduction current i.e. J = 0 and no charge density
ρ = 0. Thus, Maxwell’s equations can be reduced to:

∇·B=0 (2.10a)
∇·D=0 (2.10b)
∂B
∇×E=− (2.10c)
∂t
∂D
∇×H= (2.10d)
∂t

Now, let us differentiate eq. 2.10d with respect to time:

17
 ∂ ∂ ∂D
(∇ × H) = ( ) (2.11)
∂t ∂t ∂t
Curl is differentiable with respect to space hence order can be changed

∂H ∂ 2D
∇× =
∂t ∂t2 (2.12)
∂H ∂ 2E
∇× = ε0 2 ∵ D = ε0 E
∂t ∂t

Now, let us take curl of eq. 2.10c

∂B
∇ × ∇ × E = −∇ ×
∂t (2.13)
∂H
= −µ0 (∇ × ) ∵ B = µ0 H in free space
∂t

From eq. 2.12 and using vector identity ∇ × ∇ × A = ∇(∇ · A) − ∇2 A above

equation can be rewritten as:

∂ 2E
∇ × ∇ × E = −µ0 ε0
∂t2
∂ 2E
∇(∇ · E) − ∇2 E = −µ0 ε0 2 (2.14)
∂t
2
2 ∂ E
−∇ E = −µ0 ε0 2 ∵∇·E=0
∂t

∂ 2E
∇2 E = µ0 ε0 (2.15)
∂t2
This is wave equation for E-field in free space. Similarly, the wave equation can
also be derived in terms of magnetic field as follows:

∂ 2H
∇2 H = µ0 ε0 (2.16)
∂t2

Equations 2.15 and 2.16 are homogenous vector wave equations for free space
(vacuum)
In problem of rectangular coordinate system, the wave equation assume the

18
form of scalar wave equations in terms of its components. Therefore, the scalar
wave equations:

∂ 2 Ex
∇ 2 E x = µ 0 ε0 (2.17a)
∂t2
∂ 2 Ey
∇ 2 E y = µ 0 ε0 2 (2.17b)
∂t
∂ 2 Ez
∇ 2 E z = µ 0 ε0 2 (2.17c)
∂t

∂ 2 Hx
∇2 Hx = µ0 ε0 (2.18a)
∂t2
2 ∂ 2 Hy
∇ Hy = µ0 ε0 (2.18b)
∂t2
∂ 2 Hz
∇2 Hz = µ0 ε0 2 (2.18c)
∂t
∂
In terms of complex time harmonic wave equations i.e. replace ∂t
with jω

∂ 2E
∇ 2 E = µ 0 ε0
∂t2 (2.19)
∇2 E = µ0 ε0 (jω)2 E

∇2 E = −ω 2 µ0 ε0 E (2.20)

Similarly, homogenous vector wave equation in complex time-harmonic form

for free space in H-field is as follows:

∇2 H = −ω 2 µ0 ε0 H (2.21)

Velocity of Wave

19
 We know that homogenous vector wave equations in free space are as follows:

∂ 2E
∇ 2 E = µ 0 ε0
∂t2 (2.22)
∂ 2H
∇2 H = µ0 ε0 2
∂t

Comparing eq. 2.22 with standard partial differential wave equation

1 ∂ 2X
∇2 X = (2.23)
ν 2 ∂t2

Where ν is velocity of wave.

1
= µ 0 ε0
ν2
1
=⇒ ν 2 = (2.24)
µ 0 ε0
1
ν=√
µ 0 ε0

Substituting the permittivity ε0 = 36π 1×109 F/m and permeability µ0 = 4π ×

10−7 A/m values for free space we get velocity of wave ν = 3 × 108 m/sec = c
which is equal to speed of light. EM waves propagate with speed of light!

2.7 Uniform Plane Wave in Free Space

An EM wave originates from a point and spread out uniformly in all directions
and forms spherical wave. An observer at a greater distance observes only small
part of wave in his immediate vicinity.
Properties of Plane Wave in Free Space

• At every point in space, the electric field vector E and magnetic field vector
H are perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation.
The direction of E and H is perpendicular to everywhere in plane. A uniform
plane wave is one in which E and H lie in a plane and have the same value
everywhere in that plane at any fixed instant.

20
 • Velocity of propagation of a wave in free space is given by 3 × 108 m/s.

• E and H oscillate in phase and ratio of their amplitudes is constant and is

equal to:
r r
E µ µ0
η= = =⇒ η0 = = 120 π or 377 Ω (2.25)
H ε ε0

• Whatever may be the frequency, the EM wave travels in space with velocity
of light.

2.8 Solution of Maxwell’s Equation for Uniform

Plane Wave
If the phase of the wave is same for all points on a plane surface then such wave
is called plane wave. Additionally, if amplitude of the wave is also constant over
the plane surface then such wave is known as uniform plane wave.
Let us consider the EM wave propagates in z-direction such that E-field lies in
x-plane or y-plane and amplitude of the field is constant i.e. Ex = k and Hy = k
such that ∂E∂x
x
= 0 and ∂E
∂y
y
= 0. We also know that there is no field component in
the direction of the propagation of EM wave i.e.Ez = 0. The vector wave equation
in free space is:

∂ 2E
∇2 E = µ0 ε0 (2.26)
∂t2
∂ 2 ∂2 ∂2
We know that ∇ · ∇ = ∇2 = ( ∂x2 + ∂y 2
+ ∂z 2
) and E = ax Ex + ay Ey + az Ez :

∂2 ∂2 ∂2 ∂2 ∂2 ∂2
ax ( + + )Ex + a y ( + + )Ey
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
(2.27)
∂2 ∂2 ∂2 ∂2
az ( 2 + 2 + 2 )Ez = µ0 ε0 2 (ax Ex + ay Ey + az Ez )
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t

By definition of uniform plane wave progressing in z-direction we know that

2 2
∂Ex
Ez = 0, ∂Ex
= 0, ∂Ey
∂Ey
= 0, ∂∂EE2x = 0, ∂∂EE2y = 0. Therefore, eq.2.27 can be modified
x y
as:

21
 ∂ 2 Ex ∂ 2 Ey ∂2
ax + a y = µ ε
0 0 (ax Ex + ay Ey ) (2.28)
∂Ez2 ∂z 2 ∂t2
Now by comparing LHS and RHS of eq. 2.28 we can rewrite E-field wave
equations as follows:

∂ 2 Ex ∂ 2 Ex
= µ 0 ε 0 (2.29a)
∂z 2 ∂t2
2
∂ Ey ∂ 2 Ey
= µ ε
0 0 (2.29b)
∂z 2 ∂t2

Equation 2.29 relates space and time variation of scalar magnitude Ex of the
electric field intensity and is known as a wave equation. Ex and Ey represent
scalar magnitudes of electric field intensity of a plane EM wave travelling in z-
direction. Equation 2.29 is most general view of describing the motion of this field
as function of time and space. Similarly, the magnetic field is identical:

∂ 2 Hx ∂ 2 Hx
= µ ε
0 0 (2.30a)
∂z 2 ∂t2
∂ 2 Hy ∂ 2 Hy
= µ 0 ε 0 (2.30b)
∂z 2 ∂t2

Equation 2.29 and eq. 2.30 are second-order partial differential equation and
the general solution of such differential can be written as:

E = f1 (z − ct) + f2 (z + ct) (2.31)

| {z } | {z }
Term-I Term-II

In eq. 2.31 f1 (z − ct) and f2 (z + ct) are any two functions and may assume any
form like a sin(βz − ct) and ae(βz−ct) . Term-I represents wave travelling in +ve z
direction and Term-II represents wave traveling -ve z direction. General solution
of wave equation in this case has two waves one travelling in positive direction of
z away from source and the other travelling in negative z direction . If there’s no
reflection surface then term-II is zero. Therefore

E = f1 (z − ct) (2.32)

22
Now putting general solution in trigonometric form and trying with particular
function
Ey = sin β(z − mt) + sin β(z + mt) (2.33)
2π
We can rewrite eq. 2.33 by using βc = λ
· f λ = 2πf = ω:

Ey = sin(βz − ωt) + sin(βz + ωt) (2.34)

If only positive direction wave is taken, then there may be number of choice of
solution in trigonometric form:

Ey = sin(βz − ωt) (2.35a)

Ey = sin(ωt − βz) (2.35b)
Ey = cos(βz − ωt) (2.35c)
Ey = cos(ωt − βz) (2.35d)

The difference between 2.35b and 2.35c is difference of π radians.

Ey = sin(βz − ωt) = − sin(ωt − βz)

(2.36)
Ey = sin(ωt − βz + π)

If we disregard the phase

Ey = sin(ωt − βz) (2.37)

In above equation maximum amplitude is unity. We can rewrite with amplitude

E0 :
Ey = E0 sin(ωt − βz) (2.38)

This is preferable solution and has got advantage because t is positive when the
wave is travelling in +ve and -ve direction

23
 The solution could be more attractive in which time of propagation is visible

βz
Ey = E0 sin ω(t − )
ω (2.39)
2π z
= E0 sin ω(t − · )
λ 2πf

z
Ey = E0 sin ω(t − ) (2.40)
c
Ey = E0 sin ω(t − tp ) (2.41)

Where tp = zc is time of propagation of wave from origin of the wave to a point P

of observation. Similarly, magnetic field at point P is:

Hy = H0 sin ω(t − tp ) (2.42)

2.9 EM Wave Equation for Conducting Media

We know the maxwell’s field equations in point form:

∇·B=0 (2.43a)
∇ · D = ρv (2.43b)
∂B
∇×E=− (2.43c)
∂t
∂D
∇×H=J+ (2.43d)
∂t

From eq. 2.43d

∂E
∇ × H = σE + ε (2.44)
∂t

From eq. 2.43c

∂H
∇ × E = −µ (2.45)
∂t

24
Now by taking curl of eq. 2.45 and using vector identity ∇×∇×E = ∇(∇·E)−∇2 E

∂H
∇ × ∇ × E = −µ(∇ × )
∂t
∂
∇(∇ · E) − ∇2 E = −µ (∇ × H)
∂t
(2.46)
∂E ∂ 2E
− ∇2 E = −∇(∇ · E) − µσ − µε 2
∂t ∂t
2
∂E ∂ E
∇2 E = ∇(∇ · E) + µσ + µε 2
∂t ∂t

Now using eq. 2.43b we can rewrite eq. 2.46 as follows:

2 ρ ∂E ∂ 2E
∇ E = ∇( ) + µσ + µε 2 (2.47)
E ∂t ∂t

There is no net charge within conductor although it may exists on surface.

Therefore, first term becomes zero i.e. ρ = 0

∂E ∂ 2E
∇2 E = µσ + µε 2 (2.48)
∂t ∂t

This is wave equation in conducting medium in E. Similarly, wave equation in

terms of H is obtained by taking curl of eq. 2.43d

∂E
∇ × ∇ × H = σ(∇ × E) + ε(∇ × )
∂t (2.49)
∂H ∂
∇(∇ · H) − ∇2 H = σ(− ) + ε( (∇ × E))
∂t ∂t

Using ∇×E = − ∂B
∂t
and ∇·B = 0 and vector identity ∇×∇×H = ∇(∇·H)−∇2 H
we can write

∂H ∂ ∂B
− ∇2 H = −σµ( ) + ε( (− ))
∂t ∂t ∂t (2.50)
∂H ∂ 2H
− ∇2 H = σµ − µε 2
∂t ∂t

Hence
∂H ∂ 2H
∇2 H = σµ + µε 2 (2.51)
∂t ∂t

25
 This is wave equation for conducting medium in H.

2.10 Propagation of EM Wave in Perfect Dielectrics

For sinusoidal time-variation wave equation for perfect dielectric or lossless medium
may be obtained by replacing time-derivative with a factor jω. The wave equation
phasor form:
∂ 2E
∇2 E = µ0 ε0 2 (2.52)
∂t
∇2 E = µ0 ε0 (jω)(jω)E
∇2 E = −µ0 ε0 ω 2 E (2.53)
∇ 2 E + ω 2 µ 0 ε0 E = 0
Since β 2 = ω 2 µ0 ε0 . Therefore,
∇2 E + β 2 E (2.54)

For uniform plane wave propagating in +ve z-direction there are no x and y com-
ponents and also Ez component. Thus wave equation in E and H reduces to

∂ 2 Ex
2
= −β 2 Ex (2.55a)
∂z
∂ 2 Ey
= −β 2 Ey (2.55b)
∂z 2

Similarly for H

∂ 2 Hx
= −β 2 Hx (2.56a)
∂z 2
∂ 2 Hy
2
= −β 2 Hy (2.56b)
∂z

Taking y component of E field only , the solution of wave equation 2.55 can be
written as:
Ey = A1 e−jβz + A2 ejβz (2.57)

Where A1 and A2 are arbitrary complex constants. This is solution in phasor

26
form. The solution in terms of time-varying fields may be written as:
n o n o
jωt −jβz jβz jωt
Ẽy (z, t) = < Ey (z)e = < (A1 e + A2 e )e
n o (2.58)
= < A1 ej(ωt−βz) + A2 ej(ωt+βz)

"
n o
Ẽy (z, t) = < A1 cos(ωt − βz) + j sin(ωt − βz) +
# (2.59)
n o
A2 cos(ωt + βz) + j sin(ωt + βz)

Ẽy (z, t) = A1 cos(ωt − βz) + A2 cos(ωt + βz) (2.60)

We can see that a time-varying solution consists of forward moving sinusoid

and backward moving sinusoid in z direction.

2.11 Propagation of Uniform Plane EM Wave in

Conducting Medium
For conducting medium the solution of wave equation is easily obtained by em-
ploying phasor:

∂E ∂ 2E
∇2 E = µσ + µε 2 (2.61)
∂t ∂t
Converting above equation in phasor form by replacing ∂/∂t with jω and ∂ 2 /∂t2
with (jω)2

∇2 E = µσ(jω)E + µε(jω)(jω)E
(2.62)
∇2 E = jωµ(σ + jωε)E

∇2 E = γ 2 E
(2.63)
∇2 H = γ 2 H

27
Where γ 2 = jωµ(σ + jωε) and γ = α + jβ is propagation constant. According
to phasor notation, sinusoidally time-varying electric and magnetic fields Ẽy (z, t)
and H̃x (z, t) are
n o
Ẽy (z, t) = < Ey (z)ejωt (2.64a)
n o
H̃x (z, t) = < Hx (z)ejωt (2.64b)

Ey (z) and Hx (z) are complex space vectors called phasors of time-dependent
real fields E(z, t) and H(z, t) respectively.
Phase Shift Factor: We can write phase shift factor for plane EM wave in con-
ducting medium as following:

2π
β= (2.65)
λ

Phase Velocity: We can write phase velocity of uniform plane EM wave in con-
ducting medium as:
ω
νp = f λ = λ
2π
λ ω (2.66)
= ω ∵ ω = 2πf =⇒ f =
2π 2π

Refractive Index: Refractive index of the medium is ratio of the speed of light c to
phase velocity of the wave νp . Mathematically

c 3 × 108 m/s
η= = (2.67)
νp νp

For the solution of plane wave progressing in +ve z-direction, the wave equation
becomes as usual

∂ 2 Ex
= γ 2 Ex (2.68a)
∂z 2
∂ 2 Ey
2
= γ 2 Ey (2.68b)
∂z

28
 We have in phasor notation Ey (z) = E0 e−γz such that
   
Ẽ(z, t) = < E0 e−γz ejωt = < E0 ejωt e−γz
    (2.69)
= < E0 e(α+jβ)z ejωt = < E0 e−αz ej(ωt−βz)

h n oi
−αz
Ẽ(z, t) = e < E0 cos(ωt − βz) + j sin(ωt − βz) (2.70)

2.12 Conductor and Dielectrics

In electromagnetics, materials are roughly classified into two categories, the con-
ductors and dielectrics or insulators. However, dividing line is not sharp between
conductors and insulators. While some media (for example earth) are considered
as conductors in one part of the radio frequency range and as a dielectric in another
part of radio frequency range. Maxwell’s first equation for time-varying fields in
phasor form can be expressed as:

∂D
∇×H=J+ = Jc + JD
∂t (2.71)
= σE + jωεE

Ratio of conduction current density to displacement current density is given by:

J 
 c |σE|
 =
JD |jωεE| (2.72)
σ
= = Loss Tangent
ωε

Moreover, the dividing line between conductors and dielectrics is when

J  σ
 c
 = =1 (2.73)
JD ωε

If conductivity σ 6= 0 then we may arbitrarily define three conditions as follows:

• σ
ωε
 1 which leads to ωε  σ i.e. good dielectrics

29
 J~D = jωεE
~

σ
θ = tan−1 ωε

J~c = σ E
~

Figure 2.1: Loss tangent (conduction current density and displacement current
density vectors are orthogonal to eachother)

• σ
ωε
 1 which leads to ωε  σ i.e. good conductors

• σ
ωε
= 1 which leads to ωε ∼
= σ i.e. quasi-conductors

When σ = 0 the medium is perfect or lossless dielectric and when σ 6= 0 the

medium is lossy or imperfect dielectric. The two vectors in our loss tangent un-
derstanding are 90 deg or π2 out of phase as shown in fig. 2.1.
If loss tangent is very small then some useful expressions can be obtained for
α,β and η.

2.13 Propagation of Plane EM Waves in Good

Dielectrics
We know the condition for good dielectric is when ωε  σ then we can write
expressions for attenuation constant α, phase constant β and phase velocity νp as
follows:

• attenuation constant: α = σ
pµ
2 ε
N p/m

30
 • phase constant: β = σ
pµ
2 ε
rad/m
 
σ2
• phase velocity: νp = ν0 1 − 8ω 2 ε2
+ ··· m/s

2.14 Propagation of Plane EM Waves in Good

Conductors
σ
We know that the condition for good conductors ωε  1i.e. σ  ωε then we can
develop expressions for attenuation constant, phase shift constant, phase velocity
and skin depth. We can write propagation constant is complex number γ = α + jβ
and for the case of conductors it can mathematically expressed as:
r
ωµσ
γ = (1 + j) (2.74)
2

We can deduce expressions for α and β

r
ωµσ
α=β= (2.75)
2

The E-field wave equation in y-plane for an EM wave propagating in z-direction

can be given as follow:

Ey = E0 e−γz
√ ωµσ (2.76)
= E0 e{(1+j) 2 }z

√ ωµσ √ ωµσ
Ey = E0 e 2 z · e−j( 2 )z (2.77)

We define the notion of skin depth δ in order to foster the understanding of EM

wave experiencing attenuation when it propagates through conductor. Mathemat-
ically,

31
 r r
1 2 1
δ= = =
α ωµσ πf µσ
(2.78)
1
=√
πf µσ

Similarly, velocity of propagation can also be expressed in terms of media

parameters i.e. µ,σ and angular frequency ω as
s
ω ω ω2 · 2
ν = = p ωµσ =
β ωµσ
r 2 (2.79)
2ω
=
µσ

We can also represent velocity of propagation in terms of skin depth δ and

angular frequency ω as follows:
s r r
2 · ω2 2 2
ν= = ·ω = ·ω
ωµσ ωµσ 2πf µσ
1 (2.80)
=√ ·ω
πf µσ
=⇒ ν = δω

Wavelength in conducting medium can be given in terms of skin depth as

2π 2π 2π
λ= = p ωµσ = q
β 2
2πf µσ
2
1 (2.81)
= 2π · √
πf µσ
=⇒ λ = 2πδ

2.14.1 Skin Depth

Depth of penetration may be defined as that depth in which the wave has been
attenuated by amount 1/e or 37% of its initial value. Amplitude decreases ex-

32
ponentially as eαz at distance z which makes αz = 1, the amplitude is only 1/e
times its original value at z = 0. According to definition this distance is depth of
penetration or skin depth i.e. z = δ.

e−αz = eαδ e−1 = 1/e (2.82)

Which implies that αδ = 1 and α = 1/δ. E-field wave in y-plane when EM wave
is propagating in z-direction can be given as follows:

Ey = E0 e−γz = E0 e−(α+jβ)z
(2.83)
= E0 e−αz · e−jβz

From our previous discussions we know that α = β in conductors. Therefore,

Ey = E0 e−z/δ · e−z/δ (2.84)

Now, applying boundary condition i.e. z = 0. The above equation reduces to

Ey = E0 (2.85)

Which is maximum amplitude of the wave at the surface of conducting medium.

Now, at certain distance inside the conductor the magnitude of E-field wave equa-
tion is:

Ey = E0 e−z/δ = E0 e−z/z ∵z=δ

(2.86)
= E0 e−1 = (1/e)E0 = 37%E0

When wave penetrates distance δ, the field Ey decreases to 37% of its initial value.

33
 6

4
E/e field

0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5

Distance along propagation vector (Skin Depths)

Figure 2.2: Skin Depth

2.15 Impedance of Homogenous Isotropic Per-

fect Dielectric Medium
Ratio of E-field and H-field is constant and is mathematically defined as:
r r
µ µ0
η= =⇒ η0 = for perfect dielectrics (2.87)
ε ε0

This result can be obtained using solution to Maxwell’s equation

Hy = H0 sin(ωt − βz) (2.88)

34
This is the solution of plane wave progressing in +ve z-direction and the solution
for Ex representing the a wave in +ve z-direction is given by:

Ex = E0 sin(ωt − βy) (2.89)

∂Ex ∂Hy
=µ
∂z ∂t
∂ ∂Hy
(E0 sin(ω − βz)) = µ (2.90)
∂z ∂t
∂Hy ∂Hy E0 β
E0 cos(ωt − βz)(−β) = µ =⇒ =− cos(ωt − βz)
∂t ∂t µ
Integrating both sides of eq. 2.90

Z
βE0
Hy = − cos(ωt − βz) dt
µ
(2.91)
βE0 sin(ωt − βz)
Hy = − considering k = 0
µ ω

Now the ratio of Ex to Hy can be given by

Ex E0 sin(ωt − βz)
= βE0
Hy − µ0 sin(ωt − βz)
(2.92)
Ex µω 2πf 1
=− = −µ = −µc = −µ √
Hy β 2π/λ µε

Hence r
Ex µ
=− (2.93)
Hy ε

Similarly, it can be shown that

r
Ey µ
= (2.94)
Ex ε

Now the wave equation can be written as

Ex = E0 sin(ωt − βz) (2.95)

35
From eq. 2.93
r
µ
− Hy = E0 sin(ωt − βz)
ε
r (2.96)
ε
Hy = − E0 sin(ωt − βz)
µ

Ex q
and Hy are identical functions of x and t but their magnitudes differ by a
factor µε and its reciprocal µε . The dimension of η is Ω in SI units. Thus free
p

space impedance is
r
µ0
η0 = = 120π = 377Ω (2.97)
ε0

2.16 Electromagnetic Wave Polarization

The polarisation of uniform wave refers to time-varying behaviour of the electric
field intensity vector.

2.16.1 Linear Polarization

In linear polarisation, the electrical vector is under all times remain only in one
direction. In terrestrial communication linear polarization can further be divided
into horizontal polarization where E-field vector is parallel to surface of earth and
vertical polarization where E-field vector is perpendicular to surface of earth. E-
field of linearly polarised wave progressing in z-direction:

Ey = E2 sin(ωt − βz) (2.98)

E-field varies between +ve and -ve value of E and the direction confined to y-
direction only. Figure 2.3 shows E-field vector which trace line, circle and elliptical
polarization

36
2.16.2 Elliptical Polarization
E-field rotates as a function of time. The tip of E-field vector describes an ellipse
which is known as ”polarisation ellipse”. Ellipse is defined by axial ratio which is
the ratio of major axis to the minor axis of polarisation.

E2
AR = (2.99)
E1

Where where E2 is magnitude of E-field along major axis and E1 is magnitude of

E-field along minor axis.

Figure 2.3: Types of EM wave polarization

2.16.3 Circular Polarization

Circular polarization and linear polarization are special case of elliptical polariza-
tion. In circular polarization E2 = E1 hence we get E 2
E1
= 1. In case of linear
polarization
E2 E2
AR = = =∞ (2.100)
E1 0
Figure 2.4 shows circularly polarized wave with right-hand sense of rotation.

37
 Figure 2.4: Circularly polarized EM wave with right hand sense of rotation[1]

2.17 Examples
Example#01
If the electric field strength of a radio broadcast signal of a TV is given by
E = 5 cos(ωt − βy)ay V /m. Determine displacement current density, If the same
field exists in a medium whose conductivity is given by 2 × 103 mho/cm find the
conduction current density.

Solution:
We know that

E = 5 cos(ωt − βy) az V /m

38
Electric flux density

D = ε0 E = 5ε0 cos(ωt − βy) az C/m2

Displacement current density

 
∂D ∂
JD = = 5ε0 cos(ωt − βy) az
∂t ∂
= −5ε0 sin(ωt − βy) A/m2

The conduction current density

Jc = σE
= 2 × 105 × 5 cos(ωt − βy) az

Example#02
If H = cos(108 t − βz) ay A/m and E = 377 cos(108 t − βz) ax V /m in free space.
Find the frequency, wavelength, phase shift constant and intrinsic impedance of
the medium.

Solution:
We know the angular frequency

108
ω = 2πf = 108 =⇒ f = = 15.9 M Hz
2π

Now, the wavelength λ

c 3 × 108 300
λ= = = = 18.86 m
f 15.9 × 106 15.9

Phase shift constant β

2π
β= = 0.3329 rad/m
λ

39
Impedance η
  r
E  µ0
η0 =   = = 377Ω
H 0

Example#03
Find the propagation constant for a wave with 100 M Hz of frequency that prop-
agates in free space.

Solution:
We know that propagation constant

γ = α + jβ
=β ∵ For Free Space α = 0

We know that phase shift constant β can be given as follows:

√ √
β = ω µε for free space β = ω µ0 ε0
OR
2π
β=
λ

γ = jβ
√ ω
= jω µ0 ε0 = j
ν0
2πf 2π × 100 × 106
= =
ν0 3 × 108
j2π × 108
= = j2.094
3 × 108
γ = j2.094(1/m)

40
Example#04
If H field is given by H(z, t) = 48 cos(108 t + 40z) ay A/m. Identify the amplitude,
frequency and phase constant. Find the wavelength.

Solution:
Amplitude of the magnetic field is 48 A/m
Angular frequency ω is

108
ω = 108 =⇒ 2πf = 108 =⇒ f = = 15.9 M Hz
2π

Phase shift constant β

−40 rad/m

Wavelength λ

2π 2π
λ= = = 0.157 m
β 40

Example#05
When the amplitude of the magnetic field in a plane wave is 2A/m (a) determine
the magnitude of the electric field for plane wave in free space (b) determine magni-
tude of electric field when the wave propagates in a medium which is characterised
by σ = 0, µ = µ0 and ε = 4ε0 .

Solution:
We have

41
 (a) σ = 0, µr = 1, εr = 1
r
E µ0
= η0 = = 120π Ω for free space
H ε0
E = ηH
E = 120π × 2 = 240π V /m
E = 240π V /m

(b) σ = 0, ε = 4ε0 , µr = 1

r
r r
µ µ0 µ0
η= = =
ε ε0 4ε0
r
1 µ0 1
η= = × 120π = 60π Ω
2 ε0 2

E = ηH = 60π × 2 = 120π V /m

Example#06
If εr = 9, µ = µ0 for the medium in which a wave with a frequency f = 0.3 GHz
is propagating. Determine Propagation constant γ, intrinsic impedance η of the
medium when σ = 0.

Solution:
For free space propagation constant is given by:

γ = jβ
√ p
γ = jω µε = jω 9ε0 µ0
2π × 0.3 × 109
γ=j
3 × 108
γ = j2π(1/m)

42
 Intrinsic impedance η

r r
jωµ jωµ p
η= = = µ0 9ε0
σ + ωε ωε
1
η= × 120π
3
η = 40π Ω

Example#07
The wavelength of x-directed plane wave in a lossless medium is 0.25 m and the
velocity of propagation is 1.5 × 1010 cm/s. The wave has z-directed electric field
with an amplitude equal to 10 V /m. Find the frequency and permittivity of the
medium. The medium has µ = µ0 .

Solution: Frequency of wave

c c
λ= =⇒ f =
f λ
f = 600 M Hz

and we have

1 1
ν=√ =√
µε µ r µ 0 εr ε0
1 ν0 3 × 108
ν=√ =√ = √
µ 0 εr ε0 εr εr
√ 3 × 10 8
=⇒ ε =
1.5 × 108
εr = 1.141

43
Example#08
Earth has conductivity of σ = 10−2 V /m, εr = 10, µr = 2. What are the conduct-
ing characteristics of the earth at:
(a) f = 50 Hz (b) f = 1 KHz (c) f = 1 M Hz (d) f = 100 M Hz
(e) f = 1 M Hz

Solution:
The parameters of Earth are σ = 10−2 , εr = 10, µr = 2. Let us write the ratio
σ
ωε
in a more convenient way:
(a) f = 50 Hz

σ 18 × 106
= = 3 × 105  1
ωε 50

Hence at f = 50 Hz Earth behaves like good conductor.

(b) f = 1 KHz

σ 18 × 106
= 3
= 18 × 103  1
ωε 10

Hence at f = 1 KHz Earth behaves like good conductor.

(c) f = 1 M Hz

σ 18 × 106
= = 18 > 1
ωε 106

Hence at f = 1 M Hz Earth behaves like moderate conductor.

(d) f = 100 M Hz

σ 18 × 106
= = 0.18 ≡ 1
ωε 100 × 106

Hence at f = 100 M Hz Earth behaves like quasi-dielectric.

44
 (c) f = 10 GHz

σ 18 × 106
= = 18 × 10−4  1
ωε 10 × 109

Hence at f = 10 GHz Earth behaves like good dielectric.

Example#09
A medium like copper conductor which is characterised by the parameters σ =
5.8 × 107 mho/m, εr = 1, µr = 1 supports uniform plane wave of frequency 60 Hz.
Find the attenuation constant, wavelength and phase velocity of wave.

Solution:
Let us decide based on ratio:

σ 5.8 × 107
= = 173 × 1014  1
ωε 2π × 60 × 8.854 × 10−12

It’s very good conductor. Therefore, for good conductors:

r
ωµσ
Attenuation constant α = = 117.2 N p/m
2
r
ωµσ
Phase shift constant β = = 117.2 rad/m
2
Propagation constant γ = α + jβ = 117.2 + j117.2 (1/m)
2π 2π
Wavelength λ = = = 0.053 m
β 117.2

Example#10
Find the depth of penetration δ of an EM wave in copper at f = 60 Hz and
100 M Hz. For copper σ = 5.8 × 107 mho/m, µr = 1, εr = 1.

Solution: For frequency f = 60 Hz, the ratio

45
 σ 5.8 × 107
= = 175 × 1014  1
ωε 2π60 × 8.85 × 106−12

Therefore, at f = 60 Hz copper is very good conductor. The depth of pene-

tration:
r r
1 2 2
δ= = =
α ωµσ 2π × 60 × 4π × 10−7 × 5.8 × 107
δ = 8.53 × 10−3 m

At f = 100 M Hz, the ratio

σ 5.8 × 107
= = 0.104 × 1011  1
ωε 2π × 8.85 × 10−4

Hence, copper is very good conductor at f = 100 M Hz. Now, the depth of
penetration
r r
1 2 2
δ= = =
α ωµσ 2π × 100 × 106 × 4π × 10−7 × 5.8 × 107
δ = 6.608 × 10−6 m

Example #11
The magnetic field H of a plane wave has magnitude of 5 mA in a medium defined
by εr = 4, µr = 1. Determine (a) average power flow (b) maximum energy density
in the plane wave.

Solution:
(a) We know that

46
 r r
E µ µ0 µr
= =
H ε ε0 εr
r
E µ0 120π
= = √ = 60π = 188.4Ω =⇒ E = 188.4H
H ε0 εr εr

Now the average power

E2 942 × 10−3 × 942 × 10−3

Pav = =
2 × 18.5 377
2
Pav = 2353 µW/m

(b) Maximum energy density of the wave

1
WE = εE 2 = ε0 εr E 2 = 4 × 8.854 × 10−12 × 942 × 942 × 10−6
2
WE = 31.42 × 106 × 10−8
WE = 41.42 pJ/m3

Example#12
A plane wave transmitting in a medium of εr = 1, µr = 1 has an electric field
√
intensity of 100 × π V /m. Determine the energy density in magnetic field and
also the total energy density.

Solution: The electric energy density is given by

1 1
WE = εE 2 = ε0 εr E 2
2 2
1
WE = × 8.85 × 10−12 × 1 × 1002 × π
2
WE = 13.9 × 10−8 = 139 × 10−9
WE = 139 nJ/m3

47
As the energy of electric density is equal to that of magnetic field for a plane wave:

WH = 139 nJ/m3

So total energy density is

WT = 278 nJ/m3

Example#13
A plane wave of frequency 2 M Hz is incidental normally upon a copper conduc-
tor. The wave has electric field amplitude of E = 2 × 10−3 V /m. Copper has
µr = 1, εr = 1 and σ = 5.8 × 107 mho/m. Find the average power density absorbed
by the copper.

Solution:
Copper is good conductor

r r
µω 4π × 10−7 × 2π × 2 × 106
η= =
σ 5.8 × 106
4π 4π
η=√ × 10−4 = × 10−4
5.8 2.40
η = 5.235 × 10−4 Ω

Average Power

1 E2 0.5 × 4 × 10−6
Pav = = = 0.382 × 10−2 W/m2
2 |η| 5.235 × 10−4
Pav = 3.82 mW/m2

48
Chapter 3

EM Radiation and Antennas

3.1 Introduction
This section shall explain the basic mechanism of radiation and the fundamental
types of antennas.

3.2 Short Electric Dipole or Hertzian Antenna

Any linear antenna may be considered as large number of very short conductors
and hence it’s important to consider radiation properties of short conductors. A
short linear conductor is so short that current may be assumed to be constant
throughout its length.
Hertzian dipole is hypothetical antenna and is defined as short isolated con-
ductor carrying alternating current. When length of short dipole is vanishingly
small the term infinitesimal dipole is used. If Idl be infinitesimal small length and
I be the current then Idl is current element required for mathematical analysis.
Since I = Im sin ωt or I0 cos ωt so the current element be referred to as I0 dl cos ωt
or Im dl sin ωt.
””An oscillating current will result in a an oscillating voltage as well or vice-
versa.If the current oscillation is sinusoidal the voltage oscillation will be also
sinusoidal and approximately 900 lagging the current in phase angle or short dipole
is capacitive in nature from current/voltage point of view ”

49
3.3 Retarded Vector Potential
If the expression for vector potential is integrated it follows that potential due to
various current elements are added up. Let the instantaneous current I in element
be sinusoidal function of time as I = Im sin ωt, where Im us maxim current and
I is instantaneous current. The effect reaching a distance point P from a given
element at an instant t is due to current value which followed at an earlier time or
current effective in producing for field. finite amount of time must be taken into
consideration. Mathematically,
 r
I = Im sin ω t − (3.1)
c

For uniform plane wave travelling in +ve z direction sin(ωt − βz) but now
sin(ωt−βr) or sin ω t− rc indicates travelling of spherical waves in radial direction.

Thus retarded current and retarded density in exponential form may be written
as:

r
[I] = Im ejω(t− c ) = Im ej(ωt−βz) Amp (3.2)
r
[J] = Jm ejω(t− c ) = Im ej(ωt−βr) Amp/m2 (3.3)

According to expression for vector magnetic potential A which is applicable in

time-varying conditions where distance travelled are significant in terms of wave-
length. Z
µ J
A= dv (3.4)
4π V r
Vector magnetic potential can also be written in terms of exponential form and
general form respectively as:
Z
µ r
[A] = Jm ejω(t− c ) dv (3.5)
4π v

J(t − rc )
Z
µ
[A] = dv (3.6)
4π v r

50
For sinusoidal current element, retarded vector potential is

J(t − rc )
Z
µ
[A] = ds · dl (3.7)
4π r

Since dv = ds · dl, where ds is cross sectional area and dl is the differential length
R
and I = J ds

I(t − rc )
Z
µ
[A] = dl
4π r
(3.8)
Im sin ω(t − rc )
Z
µ
[A] = dl
4π r

Similarly, scalar potential into the form of retarded scalar potential is written as:
Z
1 [ρ]
[V ] = dv
4πε r
r (3.9)
ρ0 ejω(t− c )
Z
1
[V ] = dv
4πε v r
r
Where [v] is retarded scalar potential and [ρ0 ] = ρ0 ejω(t− c ) is retarded charge
density C/m3

3.4 Antenna Functions

Antenna performs the following functions:

• It is used as a transducer i.e. it converts electrical energy into EM energy at

the transmitting end and it converts EM energy back into electrical energy
at the receiving end.

• It’s used as an impedance matching device i.e. it matches the transmitter

and free space on the transmitting side and it matches free space and the
receiver on receiver side.

• It’s used to direct radiated energy into desired directions and suppress it in
unwanted directions.

51
 • It’s used to sense the presence of electromagnetic waves.

3.5 Antenna Properties

The properties of antenna are as follows:

• It has identical impedance when used for transmitting and receiving pur-
poses. This is called equality of impedances.

• It has identical directional patterns when it’s used for transmitting and re-
ceiving purposes. This property is called equality of directional patterns.

• It has same effective length when it’s used for transmitting and receiving
purposes. This property is called equality of effective lengths.

3.6 Antenna Parameters

3.6.1 Antenna Impedance
It’s defined as ratio of input voltage to input current. Mathematically

Vi
Za = (3.10)
Ii

Where Za is complex quantity and it’s written as

Za = Ra + jXa (3.11)

Here the reactive part Xa results from fields surrounding the antenna. The resistive
part Ra represents losses in the antenna. Rr is called radiation resistance.

52
3.6.2 Radiation Resistance
Radiation resistance Rr is a fictitious or hypothetical resistance that would dissi-
pate an amount of power equal to radiate power. Mathematically

Power radiated
Rr = 2
(3.12)
Irms

3.6.3 Directional Characteristics

These are called radiation characteristics or directional patterns. There are two
types of radiation patterns.

Field Strength Pattern

It’s variation of the absolute value of the field strength as a function of θ. Therefore.
E versus θ is called field strength pattern.

Power Pattern

It’s variation of radiated power with θ. Therefore, P versus θ is called power

pattern. Antenna radiation pattern is three directional variation of the radiation
field. It’s pattern drawn as a function of θ and φ. The pattern consists of one
main lobe and a number of side lobes.

3.6.4 Effective Length of Antenna

It’s used to indicate effectiveness of the antenna as a radiator or receiver for elec-
tromagnetic energy.

Effective length of transmitting antenna

It’s equal to length of an equivalent linear antenna which radiates the same field
strength as the actual antenna and the current is constant throughout the length
of the linear antenna. If le of transmitting antenna is defined as
Z l/2
1
le (Tx ) = I(z) dz m (3.13)
I −l/2

53
Effective length of receiving antenna

It’s defined as ratio of the open circuit voltage developed at the terminals of the
antenna under the received field strength E i.e.

VOC
le (Rx ) = m (3.14)
E

Where VOC is an open-circuit voltage. Effective length of an antenna is always less

than the actual length that is le < L

3.6.5 Radiation Intensity

It’s defined as power radiated in a given direction per unit solid angle. Mathemat-
ically
r2 E 2
RI = r2 P = Watts/unit solid angle (3.15)
η0
Where η0 is intrinsic impedance of medium, r is the radius of the sphere, P is power
radiated instantaneously, E electric field strength, RI = RI(θ, φ) is a function of
θ and φ.

3.6.6 Directive Gain

It’s defined as ratio of radiation intensity in a specified direction to the average
radiation intensity. Mathematically,

RI RI
Gd = =
RIav Wr /4π
(3.16)
4π(RI)
Gd =
Wr

Where Wr is radiated power.

54
3.6.7 Directivity
It’s defined as ratio of maximum radiation intensity to the average radiation in-
tensity. Mathematically

D = (Gd )max and in dB

(3.17)
D[dB] = 10 log10 (Gd )max

Directivity is also defined as maximum directive gain.

3.6.8 Power Gain

It’s defined as ratio of 4π times radiation intensity to the total input power. There-
fore, power gain can be given as follows:

4π(RI)
Gp = (3.18)
Wt

Where Wr + Wt and Wl is ohmic loss in the antenna.

3.6.9 Antenna Efficiency

It’s defined as ratio of radiate power to the input power. Therefore, antenna
efficiency ξ can be written as:

2
Irms Rr
ξ= 2 (R + R
Irms r loss )
(3.19)
Rr
ξ=
(Rr + Rloss )

Or equivalently
Wr Wr Gp
ξ= = = (3.20)
Wt Wr + Wl Gd
Therefore, antenna efficiency can be defined as ratio of power gain to directive
gain.

55
3.6.10 Effective Area
Effective area of an antenna depends on wavelength and directive gain. Hence

λ2
Ae = Gd m2
4π (3.21)
WR
Ae = m2
P

Where WR is received power in watts and P is power flow per square meter
(Watts/m2 ) for incident wave.

3.6.11 Antenna Equivalent Circuit

Antenna be equivalently represented in circuit domain and is a series connection
of Ra , La and Ca in a circuit. The main difference between the antenna equivalent
circuit and an RLC circuit is that Ra , La and Ca vary with frequency. As a result
antenna conductance peak appears not at resonant frequency but at a frequency
slightly away from fr . The antenna impedance is combination of resistive real
component and imaginary reactive component as follows:

1
Za = Rj (XL − XC ) WhereXL = ωL , XC = (3.22)
ωC

The correspondent admittance

1
Ya = = g + jb (3.23)
Za

Where g is conductance and b is susceptance.

3.6.12 Antenna Bandwidth

It’s defined as range of frequencies over which the antenna maintains its charac-
teristics and parameters like gain, front-to-back lobe ratio, standing wave ratio,
radiation pattern, polarisation, impedance and so on without considerable change.

56
3.6.13 Front-to-Back Ratio (FBR)
FBR is defined as ratio of radiated power in the desired direction to the radiated
power in the opposite direction.

Radiated power in desired direction

F BR = (3.24)
Radiated power in opposite direction

3.6.14 Polarization
Polarization of an antenna is defined as the direction of the electric vector of the
EM wave produced by an antenna. It’s of the following three types:

• Linear Polarization

• Circular Polarization

• Elliptical Polarization

Linear polarization is of three types i.e. horizontal polarization, vertical polar-

ization and theta polarization.Circular and elliptical polarization are described by
their sense of rotation.The sense of rotation can be right-handed and left-handed.
Accordingly, they are right-handed and left-handed circular/elliptical polariza-
tions.

3.7 Basic Antenna Elements

Basic antenna elements are

• Current element or Hertzian dipole: It’s short linear antenna in which the
current along its length can be considered constant.

• Short dipole: It’s linear antenna whose length is less than λ/4 and the current
distribution is assumed to be triangular.

• Short monopole: It’s linear antenna whose length is λ/8 and the current
distribution is assumed to be triangular.

57
 • Half-wave dipole: It’s linear antenna whose length is λ/2 and the current
distribution is assumed to be sinusoidal. It’s usually center-fed.

• Quarter-wave monopole: It’s a linear antenna whose length is λ/4 and the
current distribution is assumed to be sinusoidal. It’s fed at one end with
respect to earth.

3.8 Directivity of Electric Current Element

Directivity is defined as maximum directive gain of electric current element ob-
tained by comparing it with isotropic radiator

Power radiate by current element

G= (3.25)
Power radiated by isotropic antenna
Prad Prad
G= 2
= 4πr2 (3.26)
Wi /4πr Wi
Where 4πr2 is area of the sphere since isotropic radiates uniformly in all direc-
tions and Wi is input power. It’s known that power radiated by current element

2
Im dl sin θ
Pr (av) = η W att/m2 (3.27)
8λ2 r2

Power will be maximum when θ = π/2

2
θ Im dl
Pr (rad) = W att/m2 (3.28)
8λ2 r2

Also input power is given by

 dl 2  dl 2
Wi = 80π 2 2
, Irms = 40π 2 2
Im (3.29)
λ λ

Putting equations 3.28 and 3.29 in eq.3.26, we have

η(Im dl)2 1
G = 4πr2 × I2
8λ r2 2
40π ( dlλ )2 m
2
(3.30)
η 120π
G= = = 3/2 = 1.5
90π 80π

58
The linear value of gain can also be converted in dB value as follows:

GdB = 10 log G = 10 log(3/2) = 1.761 dB (3.31)

3.9 Gain of Half-wavelength Antenna

Gain of λ/2 antenna is ratio of power radiated by λ/2 antenna to the power
radiated by isotropic antenna. Mathematically

Power radiated by half-wavelength antenna

G= (3.32)
Power radiated by isotropic antenna

Equivalently

Pr
G=
Wi /4πr2
(3.33)
Pr
G = 4πr2
Wi

Poynting vector for λ/2 antenna can be given as:

!
2 2
30Irms cos (π/2 cos θ)
Pr (av) = (3.34)
πr2 sin2 θ

The above expression for Pr (av) becomes maximum when θ = 900 ∵ cos2 θ = 1.
Therefore, eq. 3.34 can be rewritten as:
2
30Irms
Pr (av) = (3.35)
πr2

Input power to λ/2 antenna is given by

2
Wi = 73.14Irms (3.36)

59
 Hence, the gain of λ/2 antenna is given by

Pr (av) 4πr2 2
30Irms
Gλ/2 = 4πr2 = 2
·
Wi 73.14Irms πr2 (3.37)
Gλ/2 = 1.641

In terms of dB, the gain of λ/2 antenna is

Gλ/2 = 10 log G = 10 log 1.641 = 10 × 0.2151

(3.38)
Gλ/2 = 2.141 dB

3.10 Radiation Pattern of Alternating Current

Element
The alternating current element is also called dipole or oscillating dipole or current
element. The radiation field of z-directed current element is

60πIdl
E= sin θ V /m (3.39)
λr

Where Idl is current element, dl is differential length,r is far-field distance, λ

is operating wavelength, and θ angle between dipole axis and the line of far-field
point.
Let the eq. 3.39 is be represented by

E = Em sin θ (3.40)

60πIdl
Where Em = λr
. The normalised field is

E
En = = sin θ (3.41)
Em
The horizontal pattern of elementary dipole is a circle. This could be obtained
for θ = 900 . It is evident from above expression that the field is independent of φ.

60
3.11 Radiation Pattern Expression of Center-fed
Vertical Dipole of Finite Length
Half-wave dipole antenna is shown in the following figure 3.1 which shows the
current passing through half-wave dipole fed through transmission line and also
the current distribution along the arms of half-wave dipole.

Figure 3.1: Half-wave dipole antenna

The magnitude of the radiation field of a vertical dipole l is given by:

   #
βl cos θ βl
− cos
"
60Im cos 2 2
E= (3.42)
r sin θ

The normalised radiation field is

   #
βl cos θ βl
− cos
"
cos 2 2
En = (3.43)
sin θ

We can substitute the required of length and can get the corresponding nor-
malised field strength value. For example, the normalised field strength of half-
wave dipole l = λ/2 is

61
    
cos βλ/4 cos θ − cos βl2
En =
 sin θ  
2π 2π
cos λ λ/4 cos θ − cos λ λ/4
(3.44)
En =
  sin θ
π
2
cos θ
En =
sin θ

Moreover, the horizontal pattern of any length is represented by

" #
   
βl βl
cos 2
cos θ − cos 2


En =

(3.45)
sin θ


θ=900

En = constant

Therefore, horizontal pattern of dipole is circle.

62
3.12 Radiation Pattern of Center-fed Vertical Dipole

Figure 3.2: Radiation Pattern of Vertical Dipole (a)normalised E-plane or vertical

pattern (φ = 0) (b) normalised H-plane or horizontal pattern (φ = π/2) (c) three-
dimensional plane

63
3.13 Radiation Pattern of Center-fed Horizontal
Dipole

3.14 Radiation Pattern of Vertical Monopole

Figure 3.3: The monopole antenna

3.15 Two-element Uniform Array

The array of radiators is defined as a system of antennas which are similar or
non-similar and either similarly oriented or differently oriented. Arrays are used
to increase the directivity and gain. We shall discuss arrays of similar antennas
and similar orientation.
Expression for Resultant Radiation Pattern of Two-element Array
The expression for resultant radiation pattern of two-element array can be given
as follows:
!
πd cos φ αe
ER = 2EA cos + (3.46)
λ 2

Where d is spacing between antennas, φ is angle between the axis of the array
and line of the observer, EA field strength due to antenna A alone, λ is operating
wavelength, αe is excitation phase. If point P as shown in Fig. 3.4 is far away
from the array, Ray A and Ray B can be assumed to be parallel. Hence the path
difference between two rays is

64
 P (Observer)

RayB
RayA
rA
rB
rA − rB

φ Array Axis

Figure 3.4: Two-element antenna array diagram

rA − rB
rA − rB = d cos φ ∵ cos φ =
d (3.47)
rB = rA − d cos φ

This exact expression must be used in the phase term of the field. But in the
magnitude term of the field, we can use the approximation i.e. RA ≈ RB . Now
the resultant phase difference due to spacing of antennas is given by

αd = β × d cos φ (3.48)

If the excitation phase difference is αe , the total phase difference is

ψ = βd cos φ + αe (3.49)

Here, αe is the phase angle by which current IB in antenna B leads current IA

in antenna A. The resultant field in phasor form when two antennas are uniformly
excited is given by:

65
 !
ER = EA 1 + ejψ (3.50)

Magnitude of total field strength when IA = IB is

 !
 
|ER | = EA 1 + ejψ 
 
 
 
= EA 1 + cos ψ + j sin ψ
q (3.51)
= EA (1 + cos ψ)2 + sin2 ψ
q
= EA 1 + cosψ +2 cos ψ + sinψ
p p
= EA 2 + 2 cos ψ = EA 2(1 + cos ψ)
 
ψ
∵ 1 + cos ψ = 2 cos2 2

q
ψ
E = EA 2 × 2 cos 2
(3.52)
ψ
= 2EA cos
2

Now, substituting eq. 3.49 into eq. 5.20 we can write field strength expression
as

!
βd cos φ + αe
E = 2EA cos
2
! (3.53)
βd cos φ αe
= 2EA cos +
2 2

Hence !
πd cos φ αe
EA = 2EA cos + (3.54)
λ 2

In practical applications, two-element array is rarely used. Mostly arrays with

66
more number of elements are used to get high directivity and gain and have con-
trol over more parameters like spacing, current amplitude, phase and antenna
configuration.

3.16 Field Strength of Uniform Linear Array

The normalised field strength of uniform linear array is
 
 sin N ψ 
2 
E= (3.55)

 sin ψ2 


Here N is number of elements in the array, ψ = βd cos φ + αe , β is wave number, d

is spacing between elements, ψ is angle between axis of array and line of observer
and αe is excitation phase (progressive phase shift). r1 , r2 , r3 and rN are ray
paths of 1,2, 3, and N th antenna to point P . Let P be point far-away. If field of
antenna 1 is E1 the field of antenna 2 is E1 ejψ and the field of antenna 3 is E1 ej2ψ .
Similarly, the field of antenna N is

E1 ej(N −1)ψ (3.56)

The total field is vector sum of fields

ER = E1 + E1 ejψ + E1 ej2ψ + · + E1 ej(N −1)ψ (3.57)

Where ψ = βd cos φ + αe and αe is progressive phase shift between antennas. Eq.

3.57 is geometric progression and now multiplying both sides by ejψ , we get
 
ER ejψ = E1 ejψ + ej2ψ + · · · + ejN ψ (3.58)

Now subtracting eq. 5.16 from eq. 3.57

ER ejψ = E1 ejN ψ − 1

(3.59)


ER ejN ψ − 1
=

E1 ejψ − 1

67
The normalised magnitude of field strength
 
 E   ejN ψ − 1

 R 
 =  jψ
 (3.60)
E1 e −1 



Now
   
 jψ
e − 1 =  cos ψ + j sin ψ − 1
  
q
2
= cos ψ − 1 + sin ψ
p
= 1 + cos ψ − 2 cos ψ + sin ψ
q
(3.61)
= 2 1 − cos ψ
√ p
= 2 1 − cos ψ
ψ ψ
= 2 sin sin = 1 − cos ψ
2 2

Similarly,  √

 jN ψ Nψ
e − 1 = 2 sin (3.62)

2
From eq. 3.60
   
 ejψ − 1
  sin N ψ 
2 
E =  jψ
 =  (3.63)
  
 e − 1   sin 2  ψ 

The normalised field strength is plotted as a function of ψ and typical variation

lis shown below.
Salient Features of Uniform Linear Array

1. Maximum value of normalized field strength

E 
 R
E= (3.64)
E1


2. Maximum value N at ψ = 0 is called principle maximum of the array

3. Minimum value of E called nulls occur at N ψ/2 = ±kπ k = 1, 2, 3, · · ·

4. Secondary maximums occurs approximately between nulls. The secondary

68
 maximum occur when numerator of
 
 sin N ψ 
2 
E= (3.65)

ψ
 sin 2 


becomes maximum i.e. secondary maximums occur at N ψ/2 = ±(2m +

1)π/2 m = 1, 2, 3, · · ·

5. Ratio of first secondary maximum to principle maximum is called side lobe

ratio (SLR) and the first SRL of ULA is −13.47 dB

3.16.1 First Side-lobe Ratio (FSR)

First side lobe ratio is defined as the ratio of the first side lobe level to the main
side lobe level i.e.

First Side Lobe Level

SLR = (3.66)
Main Side Lobe Level

SLR of uniform array is −13.5 dB. We know that

 
 sin N ψ 
2 
E= (3.67)

 sin ψ2 


Secondary maximum occur approximately at the centre between nulls i.e. they
occur at
Nψ

= ±2 2m + 1 π/2 m = 1, 2, 3, · · · (3.68)
2
Hence the first SRL maxim occurs at

Nψ
3π
= ± 2 + 1 π/2 = (3.69)
2 2

Putting eq. 3.69 in eq. 3.67

   
 sin 3π
  1 
2
E=
 =  (3.70)
 
3π 
 sin sin 2N 3π 
 sin 2N

For large values of N , 3π/2N is very small so

69
  
 1  1
= (3.71)
 
3π 3π


 sin 2N  2N

that’s E = 2N/3π The amplitude of main lobe or principle maximum is N . There-

fore,

2N
3π
SLR = = 0.212 (3.72)
N
Hence logarithmically SRL is given as

SRLdB = 20 log(0.212) = −13.47 dB (3.73)

3.17 Broadside Array and End-fire Array

Broadside array is defined as an array of elements for which maximum occurs
perpendicular to axis of the array as shown in fig. 3.5, that’s φ = 90◦
End-fire array is defined as an array of elements for which maximum occurs along
the axis of the array that’s φ = 0◦

3.17.1 Broadside Array

We know that

ψ = βd cos φ + αe (3.74)

We know the maximum of E occurs at ψ = 0 and for broadside array it occurs at

φ = 90◦ .

0 = βd cos φ + αe (3.75)

The null-to-null beam width of broadside array is

2λ
F N BW = (3.76)
Nd

70
Proof We know the normalised field strength of ULA
 
 sin N ψ 
2 
E= (3.77)

 sin ψ2 


From this it’s evident that the nulls appear at

Nψ
= ±kπ k = 1, 2, 3· (3.78)
2

First null occurs at k=1

N ψ1
= ±π (3.79)
2

2ψ
ψ1 = (3.80)
N

Now consider the phase difference due to path difference and excitation phase
difference

ψ = βd cos φ + αe = βd cos φ ∵ αe = 0 (3.81)

First null occurs at ψ = ψ1 . That’s

 pi 
ψ = ψ1 = βd cos + ∆φ (3.82)
2
From eq. 3.80 and eq. 3.82 we have

2ψ π 
= βd cos + ∆φ
N 2
(3.83)
2ψ 2π
= βd∆φ =⇒ ∆φ =
N βN d

Now the FNBW is

71
Figure 3.5: Radiation patterns of broadside array, intermediate array and end fire
array [2]

FNBW = 2∆φ
2πλ 2λ (3.84)
=2× =
2πdN Nd

Therefore, FNBW is
2λ
FNBW = (3.85)
Nd

3.17.2 End-fire Array

Consider ψ = βd cos φ + αe
Beam maximum occurs at ψ = 0 and also φ = 0. The maximum radiation
pattern occurs along the axis of the array as shown in fig. 3.5.

0 = βd cos(0) + αe
(3.86)
αe = −βd

Which is condition for end-fire array. Now, the null-to-null beamwidth of end-fire
array is
r
2λ
FNBW = 2
Nd

72
 Proof :
 
 sin N ψ 
2 
E= (3.87)

ψ
 sin 2 


From this, it’s evident that nulls occur at

Nψ
= ±kπ k = 1, 2, 3, · · · (3.88)
2
Nψ
First null occur at 2
= ±kπ. Consider the negative sign for convenience

−2π
ψ1 = (3.89)
N

The corresponding ψ1 from ψ = βd cos φ + αe is

ψ1 = βd cos ∆φ − βd (3.90)

Because φ = ∆φ and αe = −βd from eq. 3.86. From eq. eq. 3.89 and eq. 3.90

−2π
− = βd cos ∆φ − βd (3.91)
N  
= βd cos ∆φ − 1 (3.92)

∆φ2 ∆φ4
cos ∆φ = 1 − 2!
+ 4!
+ · · · For small ∆

∆φ2
cos ∆φ = 1 − (3.93)
2

From eq. ?? and eq.3.93, we get

!
2π ∆φ2
− = βd 1 − +1 (3.94)
N 2
∆φ2 4π 4π
=− βd =⇒ ∆φ2 = = (3.95)
2 βdN 2π/λ N d
2λ
=⇒ (3.96)
Nd

73
 r
2λ 2λ
∆φ2 = =⇒ ∆φ = (3.97)
Nd Nd

FNBW = 2∆φ
r
2λ (3.98)
FNBW = 2
Nd

Therefore, the null-to-null beamwidth of end-fire array is given as:

r
2λ
FNBW = 2 (3.99)
Nd

3.18 Examples
Example#01
Calculate radiation resistance of current element whose overall length is λ/50
Solution:
Radiation resistance Rr of λ/50 antenna can be calculated as follows:
!2 !2
dl λ
Rr = 80π 2 = 80π 2
λ 50 × λ
1 1
= 80π 2 × ×
50 50
788.768
=
2500
= 0.315Ω

Example#02
Calculate the power radiated by λ/16 dipole in free space if it carries uniform
current of I = 100 cos ωt Amp. What’s radiation resistance?

Solution:

74
 Radiated power in watts
 2
π  Im dl 
Pr (av) = η0   W atts
3 λ 
 2
π  100 × λ 
= 120π   W atts
3  16 × λ 
= 1.540 × 1064 W atts

Pr (av) = 15.4 KW

Now, the radiation resistance is

!2
2 λ
Rr = 80π
16 × λ
= 80 × 9.8596

Rr = 3.081 Ω

Example#03
A transmitting antenna with an effective height of 10 m has a current of 50 Amp
at the base. The operating frequency is 600 KHz. Calculate the power radiated.
Solution:
From the problem statement le = 10 m and Irms = 50 Amp and λ = c/f =

75
2 × 108 /600 × 103 = 500 m
!2
le
W = 160π 2 2
Irms
λ
!2
2 10
= 160π 50 × 50
500
1
= 160π 2 × 2500 = 160 × 9.8956
2500
= 1577.536W atts
W = 1.58 KW

Example#04
A short vertical transmitting antenna erected on the surface of a perfectly con-
ducting earth produce an rms field strength Eθ = 100 sin θ mV /m, where θ is polar
angle at a distance of 1 Km from antenna. Calculate the total power radiated by
an antenna.
Solution:

1 |Eθ |2
Prad = W att/m2
2 η
!2
100 sin θ × 10−3
1
=
2 120π
125 × 10−6
= W att/m2
9.42
= 13.2696 × 10−6
Prad = 13.27 µW att/m2

Example#05
Calculate radiation resistance of λ/8 long dipole antennaWhat’s efficiency of an-
tenna if the equivalent loss resistance is 1.5Ω?

76
 Solution:
Radiation resistance of such antenna can be given as follows:

!2
λ
Rr = 80π 2
8×λ
80 × 9.8596
=
64
98.596
=
8
Rr = 12.3245

Now for the equivalent terminal or total resistance

TT = Rr + Rloss = 12.3245 + 1.5 = 13.8245

Now, the efficiency of antenna can be given by

Power radiated
ξ=
Power input
2
Irms Rr
= 2

Irms Rr + Rl oss
Rr
=

Rr + Rloss
12.3245
= = 0.89149
12.3245 + 1.5
ξ = 89.149%

Example#06
Calculate the strength of electric field at a distance of 100 Km due to power of
100 KW radiated from an antenna of 100 m effective height if the wavelength is
500 m and absorption effects are negligible.
Solution:

77
 √
90 Wt
Erms = V /m
√ r
90 × 100 × 103
= V /m
√ 100 × 103

9 × 106
= 2
10 × 103
Erms = 0.03 V /m

Example#07
If transmitting antenna carries a current of 25 A at a frequency of 150 KHz and
produce a field strength of 1.5 mV /m at a distance of 25 Km. Estimate the effective
height of antenna.
Solution:
From the problem statement λ = c/f = 2000 m. Erms = 1.5 × 10−3 V /m,r =
25 × 103 Km and Irms = 25 A. Now the electric field strength is given by

60πIrms le
Erms =
λr
Erms λr
=⇒ le = m
60πIrms
1.5 × 10−3 × 2000 × ×2.5 × 10−3
=
60π × 25
3000 300
= =
60π 6π
le = 15.9235 m

Example#08
Calculate the radiation resistance, power radiated and efficiency of antenna having
total resistance of 50 Ω, an effective height of 60.96 m and current of 50 A(rms) at
frequency of 480 KHz.
Solution:

78
 From the problem statement le = 60.96Ω,Irms = 50 A, R = 50Ω,f = 480 KHz
and λ = c/f = 625 m. The radiation resistance can be given by
!2
2 le
Rr = 160π
λ
!2
60.96
= 160 × 9.8596 ×
635
1577.536 × 3716.12
=
625 × 625
Rr = 15 Ω

Now total useful transmitted power in free space

2
W = Irms Rr
= (50)2 × 15
W = 37.5 KW atts

Now the efficiency of the antenna

Rr
ξ=
Rloss + Rr
15
=
35 + 15
ξ = 30%

It’s obvious that this antenna is less efficient because loss resistance is greater
than radiation resistance that means a sufficient amount of input power is being
dissipated in the form of heat in Ohmic resistance.

Example#09
A transmitting antenna radiates 100 KW of power. Calculate the field strength
at a distance of 3000 Km.

79
 Solution:

√
90 Wt
Erms =
√ r
90 × 100 × 103
=
√ 3000 × 10
3

900 × 104
=
3000 × 103
Erms = 1 mV /m

Example#10
What’s the effective area of half-wave dipole operating at 500 M Hz?
Solution: The effective area of an antenna is:

λ2
Ae = Gd
4π

Wavelength at operating frequency of 500 M Hz:

3 × 108
λ=
500 × 106
λ = 3/5 = 0.6 m

Directivity of half-wave dipole is:

(Gd )max = D = 1.644

Therefore

0.62
Ae = 1.644
4π
Ae = 0.047 m2

80
Example#11
Find the effective area of Hertzian dipole operating at 100 M Hz.
Solution: Wavelength at a frequency of 100 M Hz

3 × 108
λ= = 3m
100 × 106

Directivity of Hertzian dipole, D=1.5 and hence the effective area:

λ2 9
Ae = = × 1.5
4π 4π
Ae = 1.07 m2

81
Chapter 4

Antennas for HF, VHF and UHF

4.1 Introduction
This chapter deals with various antennas that find their usage at HF, VHF and
UHF part of radio frequency band. These antennas are used in classical com-
munication that takes place in aforementioned bands. However, some of these
antennas are still used in modern communication systems and others evolved in
new shapes. To name a few are V-antennas, inverted V-antenna, Rhombic antenna,
folded dipole arrays, Yagi-Uda antenna, log-periodic antenna, loop antenna, helical
antenna, whip antenna and ferrite rod antenna etc.

4.2 Yagi-Uda Antenna

This antenna was developed Yagi and Uda which is extensively used for TV recep-
tion. It consists of driven element, a reflector and set of directors. Driven element
or active elements is usually folded dipole and us excited whereas reflector and
directors are known as parasitic elements in that because these elements are not
excited directly but work on principle of induction. Yagi-Uda antenna is used as
transmitting antenna at HF and for TV reception at VHF. Its radiation pattern
is uni-directional and gives gain of 7 dB. More directors can be used to increase
the gain and close-spaced elements can be used to suppress the back-lobe of ra-
diation pattern. This antenna is broadband antenna and has good front-to-back

82
lobe ratio. Additionally, highest gain is obtained when reflector is slightly greater
than λ/2 in length and spaced λ/4 from driven-element and the length of director
is 10% less than λ/2 with optimal spacing of about λ/3.
Design Parameters of Yagi-Uda Antenna The design of six-element Yagi-Uda
antenna which gives directivity of about 12 dBi at the centre of bandwidth of 10
percent of half-power are given by:

• The length of active element is La = 0.46λ

• The length of reflector Lr = 0.457λ

• The length of directors:

Ld1 = 0.44λ, Ld2 = 0.44λ, Ld3 = 0.43λ, Ld4 = λ

• Spacing between reflector and driven-element SL = 0.25λ

• Spacing between director and driven-element Sd = 0.31λ

• Diameter of the elements d = 0.01λ

• Length of Yagi array 1.5λ

The design parameters of typical Yagi-Uda antenna are

• Length of driven element La = 478/fM Hz feet

• Length of reflector Lr = 492/fM Hz feet

• Length of director Ld = 461.5/fM Hz feet

• Element spacing S = 142/fM Hz feet

4.3 Folded Dipole

It’s an antenna that’s composed of two or more parallel and closely spaced dipole
antennas connected together at their ends with one dipole antenna being center-
fed.
Salient Features of Dipole Antenna

83
 • It’s single antenna but consists of two elements

• First is fed directly and second is inductively coupled at the ends

• Its radiation pattern is same as that of straight dipole

• If the current fed is I, then the current in each arm is I/2

• When the same power is applied, only half of the current flows in the first
arm. Therefore, input impedance is four times that of straight dipole Rr =
4 × 73 = 292Ω

• Folded dipole is used in Yagi-Uda antenna

• It has advantage of high input impedance, greater bandwidth, ease and low
cost of construction with better impedance-matching

4.4 V-antenna
It’s an antenna in which conductors are arranged in V-shape. It’s balanced fed
at the apex and the included angle, length and elevation are chosen to obtain the
desired directional properties.
Salient Features of V-antenna

• It consists of two long wire antennas arranged in the form of V and it’s fed
at apex. The excitation to each wire is out-of-phase

• It offers greater gain and directivity when length of each leg or wire is in-
creased. Its radiation pattern is bidrectional and these antennas are useful
at HF band

• Apex angle ranges between 36◦ to 72◦ for V-antennas of 8λ to 2λ length.

• These antennas are easy to construct and hence cheap. The only main dis-
advantage is that of high side lobes

• There are two types of V-antennas i.e. resonant V-antennas and non-resonant
V-antennas.

84
 • Resonant V-antennas have bidirectional radiation pattern. Non-resonant
V-antennas two wires forming V are terminated with load and have unidi-
rectional radiation pattern

• The optimum included angle is


−149.3(`/λ)3 + 603.4(`/λ)2 − 809.5(`/λ) + 443.6 for 0.5 ≤ `/λ ≤ 1.5
α=
13.39(`/λ)2 − 78.27(`/λ) + 169.77 for 1.5 ≤ `/λ ≤ 3
(4.1)

• The maximum directivity

D = 2.94(`/λ) + 1.15 0.5 ≤ `/λ ≤ 3 (4.2)

4.5 Inverted V-antenna

It’s an antenna in which conductors are arranged in the shape of inverted V-
antenna.
Salient features of inverted V-antenna

• The direction of maximum radiation is towards the terminated end. Ad-

ditionally feeding is done through transmission lines with respect to radial
earth wires.

• Gain is function of angle of tilt, leg lengths, and terminating resistance. Main
disadvantage is that it has high side lobes.

• It’s used up to 60 M Hz for receiving purpose and it’s not preferred for trans-
mitting purpose.

4.6 Rhombic Antenna

This antenna has shape of rhombus. It is high bandwidth HF-band antenna and
has greater directivity than V-antenna. It’s very useful for point-to-point commu-

85
 Figure 4.1: Rhombic antenna geometrical structure and its radiation pattern[2]

nication. Directivity of each wire is:


sin pi`/λ(1 − cos θ)Big)
" #
60I
D(θ) = sin θ (4.3)
r (1 − cos θ)

Tilt angle φ varies from 40◦ to 75◦ . It’s inefficient, difficult to erect and power is
lost in termination. It is used for transmission and reception at HF band.
Design Parameters Leg length and heigh of rhombus above the surface of
ground are given as follows:

λ λ
`= = (4.4)
2 cosφ 2 sin2 ∆
and

λ
H= (4.5)
4 sin ∆
Where ∆ is elevation angle and is complement of φ (sin φ = cos ∆). H is
height of Rhombus. Fig. 4.1 shows geometrical structure and radiation pattern of
Rhombic antenna.

86
4.7 Helical Antenna
It’s an antenna which has a shape of helix. Its polarization and radiation properties
depend on diameter, pitch, number of turns, wavelength, excitation and spacing
between helical loops.
Length of one turn L is given as follows:

√
L= S2 + C2 (4.6)

and pitch angle

 S 
α = tan−1 (4.7)
πDh
Where C is circumference of helix, S is loop separation, La is axial length,
N number of turns, d is diameter of helix. Few important parameters of helical
antenna are as follows:

• Input impedance

C
140 (4.8)
λ
• HPBW
52λ3/2
4 √ (4.9)
C La

• FNBW
115λ3/2
4 √ (4.10)
C La

• Directivity
C 2S
D = 15N (4.11)
λ3
• Axial Ratio (AR)
2N + 1
(4.12)
N
• Normalized axial field

87
 Figure 4.2: Helical antenna operating modes

 
 π  sin N2ψ
E = sin sin θ   (4.13)
2N sin ψ
2

Salient Features of Helical Antenna

• Helical antenna generates circularly polarized signal and is used at VHF and
UHF bands

• It operates in two modes i.e. axial mode and normal mode. It is normally
used in axial mode because in normal mode beam width and efficiency are
very small

• It is used for extra-terrestrial communication. satellites, space probe com-

munication, radio astronomy and so on.

• It’s used to transmit and receive VHF waves for ionospheric propagation

4.8 Whip Antenna

It’s a short vertical monopole used for mobile communication purposes. It’s used
at HF and VHF bands and its length can be reduced by loading. It’s used for

88
 Figure 4.3: Whip Antenna

mobile communication and is oftentimes found on vehicles and TV receivers. Its

standard length is 4 feet for most of the applications.

89
Chapter 5

Radio Wave Propagation

5.1 Factors Involved in Propagation of Radio Waves

Electromagnetic waves/Radio wave travel from transmitter to receiver in three
different types of modes known as radio propagation modes.

• Ground wave or Surface wave

• Space wave or Troposheric wave

• Sky wave or Ionospheric wave

Ground wave is also called surface wave when transmitter and receiver antennas
are close to earth and are vertically polarized. This type of wave propagation is
useful at broadcast and low frequencies. It’s useful for communications at VLF,
LF and MF.
Space wave is also called tropospheric wave. Here wave propagates directly
from transmitter to receiver in tropospheric region. This portion of the atmosphere
above earth and within 16Km is called Troposphere. This is useful above 30MHz.
Fr reception is normally uses space wave propagation.
Sky wave propagation is also known as ionospheric wave propagation. The
signal reception is by reflection of waves from ionosphere. The Ionosphere is ionised
region which lies approximately between 60 Km to 450 Km of the atmosphere.
Long distance communication is possible by this mode of propagation. It’s useful
for frequencies below 2 MHz to 30 MHz.

90
5.2 Factors that Influence the Propagation
The factors that influence the propagation are as follows:

• Earth’s characteristics in terms of conductivity, permeability and permittiv-

ity i.e. characteristic parameters.

• Frequency of operation and polarization of transmit antenna

• Height of transmit antenna and transmit power

• Curvature of earth and obstacles between transmitting and receiving antenna

• Characteristics of the ionosphere and moisture content in the troposphere

• Refractive index of troposphere and ionosphere

• Distance between transmitter and receiver

• Type of earth like hilly terrain, forest, seawater, freshwater etc.

5.3 Ground Wave Field Strength

According to somerfield analysis, the ground wave field strength for flat earth is
given by

AE0
E= (5.1)
d
Where E0 is field strength of the wave at unit distance from transmitting
antenna reflecting earth’s losses, A factor of the ground losses and d is distance of
the point from transmitting antenna. E0 depends on

• Power radiated by transmitting antenna

• Directivity of antenna in vertical and horizontal planes

A depends on

• Conductivity σ

91
 • Permittivity of earth εr

• Frequency of wave f

• Distance from transmitter d

Salient Features of Ground Wave Propagation In ground wave or surface wave

propagation electric field vector that defines the polarzation of the wave crawls on
the surface of earth. Additionally, the most important points for ground wave or
surface wave are as follows:

• Ground wave propagates by gliding over the surface of earth

• It exists for antennas close to surface of earth and with vertically polarization

• This form of communication is suitable at VLF, LF and MF communications

• It can be used at 15 KHz and upto 2 MHz

• Ground wave field strength is AE0

d

• Ground wave require relatively high transmitter power and losses vary con-
siderably with type of earth terrain

• Ground wave can be used to communicate between any two points on the
globe if there is sufficient transmit power

• It can be used for

– Radio Navigation
– Ship-to-ship communication
– Ship-to-shore communication
– Maritime mobile communication

92
5.4 Reflection of Radio Waves by the Surface of
Earth
If an EM wave is incident on the earth, it’s reflected back. Moreover, angle of
incidence is equal to angle of reflection. The ratio of reflected wave to the incident
wave is know as reflection coefficient ρ and can be written as follows:

reflected wave Er
ρ= = (5.2)
incident wave Ei
Where Ei and Er are the incident and reflected wave field strengths respectively.
The reflection coefficient ρdepends on:

• Dielectric constant εr

• Conductivity of Earth σ

• Frequency of the wave f

• Polarization of the wave

• Angle of incidence of wave θi

Brewster Angle The angle of incidence at which there is no reflection is known

as Brewster angle.
r
−1 εr2
Brewster Angleθb = θi = tan (5.3)
εr1

5.4.1 Roughness of Earth

Reflection of EM waves vary with the nature of earth. Earth is defined as rough
or smooth. Roughness of earth according to Rayleigh criteria is defined as:

4πσs sin θi
R= (5.4)
λ
Where σs is standard deviation of the surface irregularities relative to mean
surface height, θi is angle of incidence measured from earth’s surface, λ is operating
wavelength. Now

93
 • if R < 0.1 then earth is considered electrically smooth

• if R > 10 then earth is considered electrically rough

5.4.2 Reflection Factors of Earth

Earth is neither good conductor nor good dielectric. It’s partially conductive
dielectric medium and hence its dielectric medium and hence dielectric constant
can be considered to be complex.
 σ
ε0 = ε + (5.5)
jω

Keeping this in mind, the reflection coefficient for horizontal polarization is given
by

Er
ρh =
Ei
p (5.6)
sin θi − (εr − jDf ) − cos2 θi
= p
sin θi + (εr − jDf ) − cos2 θi
σ
Where Df = ωε0
. For vertical polarization
p
(εr − jDf ) − cos2 θi
(εr − jDf ) sin θi −
ρv = p (5.7)
(εr − jDf ) sin θi + (εr − jDf ) − cos2 θi

5.5 Space Wave or Tropospheric Wave Propaga-

tion
The EM wave that propagates from Transmitter to receiver in earth’s atmosphere
is called space wave or ionospheric wave. Troposphere is region of atmosphere
within 16 Km above the surface of earth.
In space wave propagation, the field strength at receiver is contributed by:

• Direct ray from transmitter

• Ground reflected ray

94
 • Reflected and refracted rays from the troposphere

• Diffracted rays around the curvature of earth, hills and so on.

• However, contribution of the first two rays is predominant

Space wave propagation is useful at frequencies above 30 MHz. It’s useful for
FM, TV and Radar applications. It’s also used in VHF, UHF and higher frequency
bands.

5.6 Field Strength Due to Space Wave

The space wave involves a direct line-of-sight (LOS) path and the earth reflected
path. The field strength due to space wave is

2E0 2πht hr 4πht hr

E= sin orE = E0 (5.8)
d πd λd2

Where E0 is field strength due to direct ray at unit distance. This depends on
directivity of transmitting antenna and transmitter power, ht is height of transmit-
ting antenna, hr is height of receiving antenna, d is distance between two antennas.
Proof
The field strength at the receiver is mostly contributed by direct and ground
reflected rays.
We have
h  h − h 2 i1/2
t r
r12 = (ht − hr )2 + d2 orr1 = d 1 + (5.9)
d
From Binomial series we have (1 ± x)1/2 = 1 ± 12 x − 2.4
1 2
x + · · · . If x is small higher
1
order terms can be neglected then (1 ± x)1/2 = 1 ± 2 x. Therefore eq. 5.9 can be
rewritten as

h 1  ht − hr 2 i
r1 =d 1 +
2 d (5.10)
h (ht − hr )2 i
= d+
2d

95
 Similarly, r22 = d2 + (ht + hr )2
h (ht + hr )2 i
r22 2
=d 1+ (5.11)
d
h (ht + hr )2 i
r2 = d + (5.12)
2d
From eq. 5.9 and eq. 5.12, the path difference between two rays is given by

(ht + hr )2 (ht − hr )2
r2 − r1 = d + −d−
2d 2d
2 2
! ! (5.13)
ht + hr + 2ht hr h2t + h2r − 2ht hr
= −
2d 2d

4ht hr 2ht hr
r2 − r1 = = (5.14)
2d d
The pass difference due to path difference α is

α = path difference × wave number

= (r2 − r1 ) × β (5.15)
2ht hr 2π
= ×
d λ

The resultant field ER at the receiver is given by

ER = (Ed + Er e−jψ ) (5.16)

When a wave is incident on earth, it’s reflected with same amplitude but with phase
reversal. Therefore, the total phase is ψ = 180◦ + α. Moreover, Ed = Er = Es .
Now eq. 5.16 becomes

ER = Es [1 + e−j(180+α) ]
= Es [1 + cos(180 + α) − j sin(180 + α)] (5.17)
= Es [1 − cos α + j sin α]

96
 Now the magnitude of ER is

|ER | = Es [(1 − cos α)2 + sin2 α]

p
= Es [ 2(1 − cos α)] (5.18)
r
α
= Es 4 sin2
2

α
E = 2Es sin (5.19)
2
E0
But Es = d
. Therefore

2E0 2πht hr
E= sin (5.20)
d λd

As d >> hr or ht eq. 5.20 becomes as

4πht hr
E= E0 (5.21)
λd2

5.7 Duct Propagation

Duct propagation is a phenomenon of propagation making use of the atmospheric
duct region. The duct region exists between two levels where the variation of
modified refractive index with height is minimum. It is also said to exist between
a level, where the variation of modified refractive index with height is minimum,
and surface bounding the atmosphere.
In duct propagation, the ray which is parallel o the earth’s surface travels the
earth in a series of hops with successive reflections from the earth.
Salient features of duct propagation

• It happens when dielectric constant changes with height suddenly and rapidly.

• It’s specific case of refraction of RF energy

• It takes place at VHF and UHF and microwave range and in areas contiguous
to oceans

97
 • It’s not standard propagation and it’s rare phenomenon. It’s dependable
propagation and happens during monsoons.

• Long distance communication is possible when duct phenomenon takes place

• The transmitting antenna should be within the duct. Otherwise, the signal
even if it’s powerful will not propagate

5.8 Duct Propagation

Horizon means visible. It has another meaning, that is, a line at which earth
and sky appear to meet. Radio horizon of an antenna is defined as the locus of
the distant points at which direct rays from the antenna become tangential to
a planetary surface. The distance to the horizon is affected by the atmospheric
refraction
Salient features of radio horizon

• Radio horizon is range by which a direct ray from transmitting antenna

reaches receiving antenna

• The earth’s curvature exhibits a horizon to space-wave propagation. This is

actually the radio horizon

• The radio horizon extends beyond optical horizon for standard atmosphere.
This is due to bending or refraction of the radio wave.

• Radio horizon is about 4/3 times the optical horizon

• The refraction of wave takes place because of changes in density of tropo-

sphere, temperature, water-vapour content and relative conductivity.

• Radio horizon can be increased by increasing the antenna height.

• Radio horizon between transmitting and receiving antenna

p p
– Radio horizon distance dmiles = 2ht (f eet) + 2hr (f eet)
p p
– Radio horizon distance dkm = 17ht (m) + 17hr (m)

98
5.9 Troposcatter
This is a mechanism by which propagation is possible by the scattered and diffracted
rays. The scattering takes place by the tropospheric region. This mode of propa-
gation occurs in high frequency range from 160 MHz onwards.
The EM wave generated by high powered transmitters with high gain directive
gain antennas reach the upper layer of troposphere. Scattering of wave takes place
due to considerable variation of refractive index.

5.10 Fading of EM Waves in Troposphere

Fading is loss of signal due to change in electrical characteristics of troposphere.
It’s mainly due to following:

• Variation of dielectric constant

• Presence of eddies

• Uneven variation of refractive index

• Variation of effective earth radius factor, K

5.11 Line of Sight (LOS)

It’s defined as distance that’s covered by a direct space wave from the transmitting
antenna to the receiving antenna. Its depends on:

• Height of receiving antenna

• Height of transmitting antenna

• Effective earth’s radius factor, K

• For standard atmosphere K=4/3

• Line of Sight (LOS) distance is given by

p p
dLOS = 17ht (m) + 17hr (m) (5.22)

99
5.12 Ionospheric Wave Propagation
Ionospheric wave propagation is also known as sky wave propagation. EM waves
directed upward at some angle from earth’s surface are called sky waves. Sky
wave propagation is useful in the frequency range of 2 MHz and 30 MHz and for
long distance communication. Ionosphere is the upper portion of the atmosphere
between approximately 60 Km to 450 Km above the earth which is ionised by
absorbing large quantities of radiation energy from the sun. The major ionisation
is from α, β and γ radiations from the sun and cosmic rays and meteors.

5.13 Characteristics of Ionosphere

Physical properties of ionosphere vary from time to time as the temperature, ion-
isation density and composition change regularly. As a result ionisation tend to
be stratified and it doesn’t have regular and constant distribution. Ionosphere
is divided meteorologically into different regions or layers and each layer exhibits
different characteristics.
The layers of ionosphere are as follows:

• D-layer

• E-layer

• Es layer

• F1 layer

• F2 layer

5.13.1 Characteristics of D-Layer

It’s lowest layer of the ionosphere and exists at average height of 70 Km and its
thickness is 10 Km. It exists only daytime and is not useful layer for HF communi-
cation. This layer reflects some VLF and LF waves and absorbs MF and HF waves
to some extent. Its electron density is N = 400electrons/cc and critical frequency
of the layer is 180 KHz.

100
5.13.2 Characteristics of E-Layer
It exists next to D-layer and at average height of 100 Km and its thickness is about
25 Km. It exists only in day time. The ions are recombined into molecules due to
absence of the sun at night. It reflects some HF waves at day time and it disappears
at night time. E-Layer has electron density of N = 5×105 electrons/cc. Its critical
frequency fc = 4 M Hz and maximum hop range is 2350 Km.

5.13.3 Characteristics of Es -Layer

It’s sporadic E-layer and its appearance is sporadic in nature. It at all it appears,
it exists in both day and night time. It’s thin layer and its ionisation density is
very high. It appears close to E-layer and it provides good reception. It’s not
dependable layer for communication.

5.13.4 Characteristics of F1 -Layer

It exists at hight of 180 Km in day-time. Its thickness is about 20 Km. It combines
with F2 -layer during nights. HF waves are reflected back to some extent and and
its absorbs HF waves to a considerable extent. Its critical frequency is 5 MHz. and
maximum single-hop range is 3000 Km.

5.13.5 Characteristics of F2 Layer

It’s the most important layer for HF communication. Its average height is about
325 Km in day-time and its thickness is about 200 Km. It falls to thickness of
300 Km at nights and combines with the F1 layer. It topmost layer of the iono-
sphere and is highly ionised .The height of F2 layer varies drastically with the time
of the day, average ambient temperature and sunspot cycle. Its electron density
is N = 2 × 106 electrons/cc. Its critical frequency fc = 8 M hz in day-time and
fc = 6 M Hz in night-time. Maximum single-hop range is around 3800 Km during
day-time and 4100 Km at night.

101
5.14 Refractive Index of Ionosphere
Refractive index of ionosphere is defined as ratio of phase velocity of wave in
vacuum to the velocity in ionosphere. The refractive index of ionosphere:

√
ν0 1/ µo ε0
η= = √
νp 1/ µ0 ε
√ (5.23)
µ 0 ε0 √
= √ = εr
1/ m0 ε0 εr

5.14.1 Critical Frequency

The highest frequency of the wave that is reflected back from ionosphere layer is
determined by the maximum electron density of that layer. This is called critical
frequency of the wave and is given by
√
fc = 9 N (5.24)

Where Nm ax is maximum electron density of the layer.

5.15 Mechanism of Ionospheric Propagation—Reflection

and Refraction
Ionospheric propagation involves he reflection of the wave by Ionosphere. In actual
mechanism, refraction takes place. As ionisation density increases at an angle for
the incoming wave, the refractive index of the layer decreases and the dielectric
constant also decreases. Hence the incident wave is gradually bent away from from
normal. The bending of a wave produced by the ionosphere follows optical laws.
The direction of propagating wave at a point in the ionosphere is given by snell’s
law. that’s
sin θi
η= (5.25)
sin θr
Where θi is angle of incidence at lower edge of ionosphere and θr angle of refraction
at point P.

102
5.16 Characteristics Parameters of Ionospheric
Propagation
Generally, propagation characteristics of the the layers are described in terms of
the following parameters:

• Virtual heigh hv : virtual height of the layer is greater than actual height

• Critical frequency fc : highest frequency hat will be reflected to earth by that

layer at vertical incidence.

• Maximum Useable Frequency M U F : highest frequency of wave that is re-

flected by layer at angle of incidence other than normal. MUF depends on
time of day, distance, direction, season and solar activity.

fc
MUF = (5.26)
cos θi

or
fc
MUF = (5.27)
sin θc
or in terms of height h of the layer and distance between transmitting and
receiving antennas:
!1/2
d2
M U F = fc +1 (5.28)
4h2

• Skip distance: It defined as shortest distance from the transmitter that’s

covered by fixed frequency. Skip distance ds is found from

2h
ds = (5.29)
tan θc

Where h is height of the layer and θc is critical angle. Skip distance in terms
of MUF can be given as:
" !2 #1/2
fM U F
ds = 2h −1 (5.30)
fc

103
 • Lowest Usable Frequency (LUF): The lowest frequency that can be used for
communication is called LUF.

• Critical Angle θc : Critical angle is defined as the angle of incidence of a wave

at which the wave will not be reflected when θ > θc and it will be reflected
when θ < θc . It depends on thickness of the layer, height and frequency of
the wave.

5.17 Faraday Rotation

Rotation of the plane of polarisation is defined as Faraday Rotation. The process
occurs in the ionospheric regions when a plane wave enters the ionosphere. It’s
variable effect and leads to loss of signal power at the receiving antenna due to
polarisation mismatch.

5.18 Ionospheric Abnormalities

Electrical characteristics of the ionosphere depend on solar radiation and hence
they vary continuously. the variations of ionosphere are classified as follows:

5.18.1 Normal
Normal variation in the characteristics of the ionosphere occur due to the following:

• Diurnal

• Seasonal

• Thickness

• Height variations of the ionosphere layer

5.18.2 Abnormal
The abnormal variations in the characteristics of the ionosphere occur mainly due
to changes in solar activity. The common abnormal variations are:

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 • Ionospheric storms

• Sunspot cycle

• Fading

• Whistlers

• Tides and Winds

5.19 Ionospheric Storms

These are due to high absorption of sky waves and abnormal changes at critical
frequencies of E and F2 layers.These storms usually persist for few days.

5.20 Sudden Ionospheric Disturbance (SID)

The sudden appearance of solar flares causes SIDs. The solar flares occur suddenly
and sporadically. These occur during solar peak activity. SIDs block out signals
completely. They persists for few minutes to an hour. SIDs do not occur at layer
of low air density and hence it’s not found in E, F1 and F2 layer.

105
 Bibliography

[1] William Hart Hayt and John A Buck. Engineering electromagnetics, volume 7.
McGraw-Hill New York, 2001.

[2] Warren L Stutzman and Gary A Thiele. Antenna theory and design. John
Wiley & Sons, 2012.

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