Faculty of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

Inspection, Quality Control and Reliability

Dr. Shimelis Tilahun

INTRODUCTION TO
QUALITY
IMPROVEMENT AND
STATISTICAL PROCESS
CONTROL:

Chapter One
Dr. Shimelis Tilahun
BASICS OF QUALITY
 INTRODUCTION TO → MOTIVATION FOR
STATISTICAL QUALITY QUALITY CONTROL
CONTROL

Introduction

→ TERMINOLOGY OF STATISTICAL METHODS

QUALITY ENGINEERING FOR QUALITY
IMPROVEMENT
 What does the word “quality”
mean to you?

Quality Think about your

of staying at
various hotels

Concept past experiences: of a product

you bought

How can you define its

“quality”?
Defining Quality

• Definition of quality is dependent on the

people defining it
• There is no single, universal definition of
quality

6
 Defining Quality

QUALITY IS DEGREE QUALITY IS FITNESS QUALITY IS QUALITY SHOULD BE QUALITY IS WHAT

OF EXCELLENCE. FOR USE. (JURAN) CONFORMANCE TO AIMED AT THE NEEDS THE CUSTOMER SAYS
(DICTIONARY) REQUIREMENTS / OF THE CUSTOMER, IT IS.(FEGENBAUM)
SPECIFICATIONS. PRESENT AND
(CROSBY) FUTURE. (DEMING)
Definition
• Garvin (1984) divides the definition of quality into five categories:
• Transcendent → quality is synonymous with innate excellence, absolute
and universally recognizable: ‘You will know it when you see it’.
• Product-based → quality as a precise and measurable variable
• User based → quality ‘lies in the eyes of the beholder’. Consumers have
specific wants or needs
• Manufacturing-based → focuses on internal matters. It refers to
conformance specifications. Products are designed and manufactured
according to predetermined specifications.
• Value-based → buyer’s perception of value represents a mental trade-off
between the quality or benefits perceived relative to price paid.

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝐵𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 =
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑆𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒
 Faculty of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

•
Definition
Crosby (1979): "Quality is conformance to
requirements or specifications."

• A more general definition proposed by Juran

(1974) is as follows: "Quality is fitness for use."
Professionals For engineers,
it is

interpretations to conformance
to
specifications,

the term quality:

For customer service
(Department), a quality For users, it is fitness for
product is that with less use,
customer complaint.

For
marketing, it
is the degree
of excellence
at an
acceptable
price that will
influence the
market share.
 Faculty of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

Meaning of Quality: Consumer’s Perspective

➢ Fitness for use

▪ how well product or service does what it is

supposed to do.

➢ Quality of design

▪ designing quality characteristics into a product or

service.

▪ A Mercedes and a Ford are equally “fit for use,”

but with different design dimensions
(cont’d)

• ISO definition of Quality: "The totality

of features and characteristics of a
product or service that bear on its
ability to satisfy stated or implied
needs“.
Quality refer to one way or
the other, to the following
dimensions of quality:

• Performance,
• Durability,
• Aesthetic,
• Perceived quality
• Reliability,
• Serviceability,
• Functionality,
• Conforman
The Meaning
of Quality
 ➢ ‘Product or Service which fulfils an
A aggregate requirement of customers, in
comprehensive all aspects, at present and in the future
and which customers can buy’
definition of
quality is that: ➢ Thus the closer this conformation
indicates the higher the degree of
quality.
“Even though
Quality cannot be
defined, you know
what Quality is!’’
Dimensions of
Quality: (Service)
• 1. Time and Timeliness
• How long must a customer wait for service,
and is it completed on time?
• 2. Completeness:
• Is everything customer asked for provided?
• Is a mail order from a catalogue company
complete when delivered?
• 3. Courtesy:
• How are customers treated by employees?
• Are catalogue phone operators nice and are
their voices pleasant?
• 4. Consistency
• Is the same level of service provided
to each customer each time?
• 5. Accessibility and convenience
• How easy is it to obtain service?
• 6. Accuracy
• Is the service performed right every
time?
• 7. Responsiveness
• How well does the company react to
unusual situations?
Quality Eras Faculty of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Evolution of Quality Management

Systems

Process

Products

QC QA QM
Faculty of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
 • “The first job we have is to turn out quality
Modern merchandise that consumers will buy and keep
on buying. If we produce it efficiently and
Importance of economically, we will earn a profit.”
Quality • - William Cooper Procter
Introduction to
Statistical
Quality Control
 • Quality control is important in ensuring
products comply with the standards,
especially in the more regulated
industries.
• Quality control (QC) is a process by
which. entities review the quality of all
factors involved in production
• Quality control is essential to building a
successful business that delivers
products that meet or exceed customers’
expectations.
• A good quality control system ensures
that the people closest to the work have
the knowledge, tools and procedures in
place to review, reflect and more
importantly, react, with immediacy, to
Why we need Quality Control? discrepancies between observed – and
agreed – improved levels of
performance
Why we need
Quality Control?

• Ans. Existence of Variations in the

process and Product
Causes of
Variation
• Special causes of variation
• Common causes of Variation
Special causes of
variation
• Special cause of variation is assignable to a defect, fault, mistake,
delay, breakdown, accident, and/or shortage in the process.
• special cause variation refers to the unforeseen anomalies or
variance that occurs within business operations
• Special Cause Variation, is a process anomaly that is induced by
an unpredictable event
• Special cause variation is a shift in output caused by a specific
factor such as environmental conditions or process input
parameters
• Special Causes of Variation are also known as Assignable Causes
(un natural) of variation.
•
 • Common Cause Variation, also referred to as
“Natural Problems, “Noise,” and “Random Cause”
was a term coined by Harry Alpert in 1947.
• are inherent to the system and are always present.
• Their impact on the output may be uniform relative
to that of special causes.
• An example of a common cause is the variability in a
characteristic (say, a diameter) caused by the
inherent capability of the particular equipment used
(say, a milling machine).
• This means that all other factors held constant, the
milling machine is unable to produce parts with
exactly the same diameter. To reduce the inherent
variability of that machine, an alternative might be
to install a better or more sophisticated machine.

Common causes of
Variation
 1. The assignable causes of variation:
Summary for ➢ involves variations where the causes can
SOURCES OF be precisely identified and eliminated.
➢ special causes of variation due to
VARIATION: identifiable factors
2. Common causes of variation:
COMMON AND ➢ are based on random causes that
cannot be identified.
ASSIGNABLE ➢ are inherent in a process, and can be
CAUSES: eliminated only through improvements
in the system
Manufacturing
Variance
The Objective of Quality

The central objective of Quality is to

eliminate waste by cutting
manufacturing variance to the
minimum.

This is equally applicable to the

manufacturing as well as to the
service giving industries.
 Definition 1: Quality is inversely
proportional to variability
Modern
Definition of
Quality Definition 2: Quality Improvement
is the reduction of variability in
process and products
 • Efforts to reduce both the variability of a
process and the production of
nonconforming items should be ongoing
because quality improvement is a never-
ending process.
Quality • Whereas process control deals with
Improvement identification and elimination of special
causes (those for which an identifiable
& Process reason can be determined) that force a
system to go out of control (e.g., tool wear,
Control operator fatigue, poor raw materials).
• Quality improvement relates to the
detection and elimination of common
causes.
 • To many in the Quality profession, the
terms Quality Management (QM) and
Quality Engineering (QE) tend to be used
Quality interchangeably, or at least there has been
little official attempt to distinguish them.

Engineering • ASQ (American Society for Quality)

• Describes QE as “The analysis of a
manufacturing system at all stages to
today maximize the quality of the process itself
and the products it produces.”
Quality Engineering
today
• The fact is, Quality today is not just about
manufacturing (as quality of service has gained
considerable attention nowadays) and QE, unlike
many traditional engineering
disciplines, cannot be effective without
management elements—and that is why one
needs the wisdom of both Shewhart and
Deming:
• P-D-C/S-A cycle for quality improvement is
attributed to both Shwehart and Deming,
arguably from the engineering and management
perspectives, respectively.
 • While there is no commonly recognized
definitive delineation of what QM is meant
to be and what QE precisely is,
• it may be said that the former (QM)
touches more on conceptual and
Quality behavioural matters as well as approaches
to accomplishing business objectives, and
Engineering • the latter (QE) the application of generic
and usually rigorous analytical tools
today comprising technically justifiable
methodologies devoid (w/t) of ideologies or
subjective judgments.
• QM – Soft Part of Quality – QE – Hard Part
of Quality
 Faculty of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

Quality Engineering Terminology

• Every product possesses a number of elements that jointly
describe what the user or consumer thinks of as quality.
These parameters are often called quality
characteristics. Sometimes these are called critical-to-
quality (CTQ) characteristics.
• Critical to Quality (CTQ) is simply a measure of the
quality of a product in the eyes of your customer. It
includes all the essential attributes that customers identify
in a product (or service) that makes it appealing to them.
• Quality characteristics may be of
several types:
1. Physical: length, weight, voltage, viscosity
2. Sensory: taste, appearance, color
3. Time Orientation: reliability, durability,
serviceability
Quality in
Production
Quality engineering

• Quality engineering is the set

of operational, managerial, and
engineering activities that a
company uses to ensure that
the quality characteristics of a
product are at the nominal
or required levels and that the
variability around these desired
levels is minimum
Quality
engineering
• Most organizations find it difficult (and
expensive) to provide the customer with
products that have quality characteristics
that are always identical from unit to unit,
or are at levels that match customer
expectations.
• A major reason for this is variability.
• There is a certain amount of variability in
every product; consequently, no two
products are ever identical.
 Faculty of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

Three Aspects of Quality

strict
TQM focuses on:
✓ customer-driven quality standards,
✓ managerial leadership,
✓ continuous improvement,
✓ quality built into product and process
design,
✓ quality identified problems at the
source, and
✓ quality made everyone’s responsibility.
➢ However, talking about solving quality
problems is not enough.
➢ We need specific Quality control tools that
can help us make the right quality
decisions.
STATISTICAL
METHODS FOR
QUALITY
IMPROVEMENT
 Faculty of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

Statistical Methods
• Since variability can only be described in statistical terms, statistical methods
play a central role in quality improvement efforts.
• The application of statistical methods to quality engineering, it is fairly typical to
classify data on quality characteristics as either attributes or variables data.
• Variables data are usually continuous measurements, such as length,
voltage, or viscosity. Simply put, variable data is the value you get when you
measure something with a measuring device (scale, tape measure, stopwatch, etc.)
• Attributes data, on the other hand, are usually discrete data, often taking
the form of counts. Such as the number of loan applications that could not be
properly processed because of missing required information, or the number of
emergency room arrivals that have to wait more than 30 minutes to receive
medical attention.
 “statistical quality control” (SQC) refers to the
application of statistical methods to monitor and
evaluate systems and to determine whether changing key
input variable (KIV) settings is appropriate.

“statistical
quality Specifically, SQC is associated with Shewhart’s statistical
process charting (SPC) methods.

control” These SPC methods include several charting procedures

for visually evaluating the consistency of key process
outputs (KOVs) and identifying unusual circumstances
that might merit attention.
 “statistical quality
control”
❖ Statistical quality control tools are used
to help identify quality problems in the
production process as well as in the
product itself.

❖ Statistical quality control (SQC) is the

term used to describe the set of
statistical tools used by quality
professionals.
❖ SQC can be divided into three broad
categories:
 • 1. Descriptive statistics:
• Are used to describe quality characteristics and
relationships.

“statistical • Includes statistics such as the mean, standard deviation,

the range, and a measure of the distribution of data.

quality • 2. Statistical process control (SPC):

• Involves inspecting a random sample of the output from
control” a process and deciding whether the process is producing
products with characteristics that fall within a
predetermined range.
• SPC answers the question of whether the process is
functioning properly or not.
 3. Acceptance
“statistical sampling:
quality
The process of Acceptance sampling
control” randomly inspecting a determines whether a
sample of goods and batch of goods should
deciding whether to be accepted or
accept the entire lot rejected based on the
based on the results. inspected sample.
 Although this information of acceptance sampling is helpful in
making the quality acceptance decision after the product has
been produced, it does not help us identify and catch a
quality problem during the production process.

“statistical
For this we need tools in the statistical process control (SPC)
quality category.

control”
All three of these statistical quality control categories are
helpful in measuring and evaluating the quality of products or
services.
 However, statistical process control (SPC) tools are used
most frequently because they identify quality problems
during the production process

The quality control tools do not only measure the value of a

quality characteristic, They also help us identify a change
“statistical or variation in some quality characteristic of the product or
process.
quality Variation in the production process leads to quality defects
and lack of product consistency.
control”
Variation in materials, in machinery condition, in work
methods and in inspections are the causes of defectives
 Quality control is:
➢ the activity by which we measure the quality
characteristics of the product/ output of a product in a
process,
➢ compare them with specifications or requirements, and
What is ➢ take appropriate remedial action whenever there is a
Quality difference between the actual performance and the
standard.
Control? Quality control consists of:
➢ developing, designing, producing, marketing and
servicing products and services with optimum cost-
effectiveness and usefulness, which customers will
purchase with satisfaction”.
(Ishikawa)
 • Quality control may generally be defined as
a system that maintains a desired level of
QUALITY quality, through feedback on product/service
characteristics and implementation of
CONTROL remedial actions, in case of a deviation of
such characteristics from a specified
standard.
 QC

• In the practice of quality

control, in addition to the quick
detection of process change, it
is also critical to diagnose the
change and identify which
variable(s) has changed after an
out-of-control signal occurred.
 ➢ The objectives of QC function at
Operators level, Foremen level,
Quality Inspectors level, or Managers level
➢ It is to involve operational techniques
Control and activities carried both:
✓ at monitoring a process and
Evolution ✓ at eliminating causes of
unsatisfactory performance.
 1. Operators quality control: this was
inherent in the manufacturing jobs up to
the end of 19th century.
Quality
Control
Under this system, one worker or a very
Evolution small number of workers were responsible
for the manufacture of the entire product
and therefore, each worker could totally
control the quality of his/her work.
 2. Foremen quality control: in this kind of QC,
many individuals performing a similar task were
grouped so that they could be directed by a
foremen who then assumes responsibility for the
Quality quality of the their work

Control
3. Inspectors quality control: Manufacturing
Evolution system became more complex during the world
war-I, involving large number of workers reporting
to each production foreman. As a result, the first
full time inspector appeared on the scene initiating
the 3rd step known as inspection QC.
 4. Managers quality control: in effect,
this is an extension of the inspection
phase and boiled down to making the
big inspection organization more
Quality efficient.
Control
The most significant contribution of SQC
Evolution is that it provides sampling inspection
rather than 100% inspection. The task of
quality control, however, remains
restricted to production areas only.
 Total quality
control (TQC)
Statistical prob.
QC DEPT
Solving (SPS)
Statistical
process
control
(SPC)
Statistical
sampling
inspection
(SQC)
Evolution

100 %
inspection

Foremen
verification
Operator
inspection

1890 1920 1940 1960 1980 1990

 • Statistical Process Control (SPC) is an
Statistical analytical decision making tool which allows
you to see when a process is working
Process correctly and when it is not.
• Variation is present in any process, deciding
Control (SPC) when the variation is natural or assignable
Techniques and when it needs correction is the key to
quality control.
 • Statistical Process Control (SPC) charting
includes several methods to assess visually and
statistically the quality and consistency of
Statistical process OF (key process outputs (KOVs)) and to
identify unusual occurrences.
Process • Therefore, SPC charting is useful for initially
establishing the value and accuracy of current
Control (SPC) settings and confirming whether recommended
changes will consistently improve quality..
Techniques
•
 The key process for monitoring and investigating
quality control tools include:
Statistical ➢ Histograms,
➢Check sheets,
Process ➢Pareto charts,
Control (SPC) ➢Cause and effect diagrams,
➢Scatter diagrams, and
Tools ➢Control charts
➢Flow Charts
Application of
SPC
END OF CHAPTER
ONE
 Faculty of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

Statistics needed for SPC: graphics,

distributions, tests of hypothesis

Chapter 2
 Frequency Distribution &
Histogram

Describing Numerical Summary of

Variation Data

Probability Distribution
 • Statistics is a collection of techniques useful for
making decisions about a process or population
based on an analysis of the information
Statistics contained in a sample from that population.
• Statistical methods play a vital role in quality
control and improvement.
Two kinds of statistics
• Descriptive and inferential
 • No two units of product produced by
DESCRIBING a process are identical. Some
variation is inevitable. As
VARIATION examples, the net content of a can of
soft drink varies slightly from can to
can, and the output
voltage of a power supply is not
exactly the same from one unit to
the next.
• Statistics is the science of analyzing
data and drawing conclusions, taking
variation in the data into account
 • The Stem-and-Leaf Plot
DESCRIBING • The Histogram
• Numerical Summary of Data
VARIATION • The Box Plot
• Probability Distributions
 • Suppose that the data are represented by x1,
x2, . . . , xn and that each number xi consists
of at least two digits.
• To construct a stem-and-leaf plot, we divide
each number xi into two
1. The Stem- parts: a stem, consisting of one or more of the
leading digits; and a leaf, consisting of the
and-Leaf Plot remaining digits.
• For example, if the data consist of percent
defective information between 0
and 100 on lots of semiconductor wafers, then
we can divide the value 76 into the stem 7 and
the leaf 6.
 Example
• 15, 27, 8, 17, 13, 22, 24, 25, 13, 36, 32, 32, 32, 28, 43, 7
• Step 1 – Arrange in ascending order
0th – 7, 8

10th – 13, 13, 15, 17

20th - 22, 24, 25, 27, 28
30th – 32, 32, 32, 36
4oth – 43
 • Use 25, 32, 46, 11, 51, 39, 45, 32, 17, 30
and draw the stem and leaf and also
calculate the following
A. What is the range of this data (range =

Exercise highest value – minimum value)

B. What is the mean of the data (average)
C. What is the median of the data
D. What is the mode of the data?
 Stem Leaf
1 17
• A. What is the range of this
2 5 data (range = highest value –
minimum value) 51 – 11 = 40
3 0229 • What is the mean of the
data (average) = 32.8
4 56 • What is the median of the
data
5 1 • 11, 17, 25, 30, 32, 32, 39, 45,
46, 51 = 64/2 = 32
• What is the mode of the
data? The most frequent = 32
25, 32, 46, 11, 51, 39, 45,
32, 17, 30
 Exercise

Draw a stem and leaf diagram for the following data

Question A. 72, 85, 89, 93, 88, 76, 108, 115, 97, 102, 113

Question B. 1.2, 2.3, 1.5, 2.4, 3.6, 1.8, 2.7, 3.2, 4.1, 2.9, 4.5, 7.6, 5.8,
9.3, 10.6, 12.4, 10.9