Research Methods and

Scientific Writing
ANPR

Master Program

Instructor:
Dereje Tadesse (PhD)

Department of Animal
Sciences, College of ANRS

Debre Berhan University

 INTRODUCTION

• Research is a careful and detailed study into a specific

problem, concern, or issue using the scientific method.

• It is a process of steps used to collect and analyze

information to increase our understanding of a topic or
issue

• aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision

of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts.
 The Need for Scientific Research
• Why the scientific method is the only way available for
discovering reliable knowledge?

• Resources are limited to support research activities, hence it is

important that the research that is done is of highest quality and
of potential significance

• It provides an objective and standardized approach to

conducting experiments (free from bias)

• Scientific method is the only one available to us for discovering

reliable knowledge about nature/facts

• It facilitates the independent verification of scientific

observations
 Part 1
The Principles
 Guiding Principles of Research

Use of empirical evidence

•the information received by means of the senses,

particularly by observation and documentation of patterns
and behavior through experimentation
•It is the only type of evidence that you can experience, is
repeatable, and can be experienced by others under the
same experimental circumstances.
•It is something that one can see, hear, touch, taste or smell.
 Guiding Principles of Research

Logical reasoning
•It is a skill that allows determination of truth through a
sequence of steps that are separated from emotional and
hopeful thinking.
•Logic provides a set of rules to reason
•Reasoning allows us to infer or conclude new pieces of
information from existing information.
 Guiding Principles of Research

Having skeptical attitude

•Good scientists and critical thinkers constantly question
evidence, arguments and reasons for beliefs.
•Helps to avoid self-deception and deception by others.
•Scientists must repeatedly and rigorously examine the truth
and reliability of the knowledge.
 Steps in Scientific Methods

Step1 Step 2
Identify Problem/ Ask Answer Question/ Attempt
Meaningful Question Solution to Problem

Step 3
Propose Solution/
Step 6 Answer to Question
Construct, Support or Cast
Doubt on Scientific Theory
Modify

Step 4
Reject
Test Hypothesis
Accept
Step 5
Accept/Reject
Hypothesis
 Step 1. Identify a significant problem or ask a meaningful
question in such a way that there is a conceivable answer.

• For many scientists, this step will be driven by a sense of

curiosity, and the enthusiasm and passion for discovery.

• For others, it may be ambition, or the pressing needs

imposed by others to find a solution to a specific problem.

• The pursuit of science and the identification of research

questions may be influenced by many cultural, social,
political, and economic factors.

• Regardless of the motivation, any attempt to gain

knowledge must begin with this step.
Step 2. Attempt to answer the question posed in step 1 by
gathering relevant information and making observations

• Initial observations might be data obtained by

– a search of current literature,
– the researcher’s own experience, or
– trial experiments.

• These observations should be empirical in character, i.e.,

sensible, measurable, and repeatable.

• Correct observations must be made in the proper manner,

which requires cleverness, hard work, and considerable
training in methods and techniques of data collection and
analyses.
Step 3. Propose a solution to the problem or answer to the
question as a scientific hypothesis

• This is a statement of the research objective in such a

way that it can be tested.

• By definition, a scientific hypothesis is an informed,

testable, and predictive solution to a problem.

• If the proposed answer or solution is not testable, it is

useless for further investigation.

• Many proposed answers are likely to be false and further

investigations is necessary to determine validity.
 Step 4. Test the hypothesis to allow corroboration and
establishment of validity.

• There are basically two ways to do this: "conducting

experiment", or make further observations.

• Experimentation is very prevalent in scientific research,

but many natural problems are not responsive to
experimentation.  
 Step 5. Accept, reject, verify, or modify the hypothesis

• If modified, the hypothesis must be tested again.

• At this stage, the results can be published and subjected

to testing and verification by others scientists.

• If a hypothesis passes the appropriate tests, it is

considered verified

• If further verified by subsequent tests, the information

becomes reliable knowledge.
 Step 6. Construct, support, or cast doubt on a scientific
theory

• A theory is stalk of reliable knowledge and its purpose is

to explain major natural process or phenomena.

• The accumulation of highly verified reliable knowledge

that lead to scientific fact is often a long-term and
extended process.

• So the goal of all scientists should be the formulation of

scientific theory, regardless of whether the research is
fundamental or applied.
Identifying and Prioritizing Research Needs

Before writing a research proposal

Identify the important research needs that are
appropriate for his or her research organization
 consider the mission and strategic plan the
organization
 the input by stakeholders, and
 Assess the resource capabilities and needs.
Identifying and Prioritizing Research Needs

Before writing a research proposal

Prioritization of Needs based on
 significance of the problem or need,
 the capability of the researcher or the organization to
address the need
 the existing availability of resources to carry out the
research, and
 the perception by the public, the government, or
other organizations as to the importance of the
problem
 Defining Problems

• the first step in preparing a research proposal is to define

a problem or set of problems that will be the subject of
the research proposal.

• This might be done by suggesting or enumerating

reasons why a particular topic is chosen.

• This may be a simple step for experienced researchers

 

• Once the problem is defined it should be verified so that

this it is a significant problem of importance
 User Input and Stakeholder Needs

• Identification of the stakeholders’ needs is also very

important to assist individual researcher in identification
and definition of research problems and issues

Stakeholders are people, groups, or organizations that

have a claim on the research organization's (and
individual researcher's) attention, resources, or output,
or are affected by that output.

Meeting key stakeholder needs as crucial to the

proposal and to the success for the proposal as
is the validity of the scientific approach
 User Input and Stakeholder Needs

Examples of stakeholders
•farmers
•public officials,
•governing bodies,
•interest groups (industry, environment, cooperatives),
•investors,
•educational institutions,
•donors,
•professional societies, and academies
 Analyzing stakeholder needs
Start on by asking
key questions
Who are the
organization's
(or your research
area's) stakeholders?

What do they want

from the research
project?
What criteria do
they use to
evaluate your
research?
How is your research
(or your organization)
performing against those
criteria?
 Determining Resource Needs

After you identified and

defined a research
problem or need, it is
necessary to consider
the resources that will Make sure you have
be needed personnel,
equipment,
facilities,
supplies,
funding,

If not, will it be possible to

secure the necessary
resources?
 Identifying Sources of Funding

After you identified research needs and determined the areas of

research you should be able to

identify Who is going to support the research?

You should be able to identify sponsors based on their priorities

and interests

understand their mission and mandate and reflect that view in your
research proposal.

be careful not to focus so much on your own priorities that you fail
to match the proposal project to the priorities of the funding sponsor
 Part II
Writing Research
Proposal
 WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROPOSAL?

• A research proposal is a comprehensive plan for a

research project.

• It is a written description of a research plan that has to

be undertaken.

• It determines the specific areas of research, states the

purpose, scope, methodology, overall organization and
limitations of the study.

• It also estimates its requirements for equipment (if

necessary), finance and possible personnel.
 Purposes of writing a research proposal

• To convince others that the proposed research is worth

undertaking.

• To enable the researcher to demonstrate his/her

expertise and competency in the particular area of study.

• To serve as a planning tool for the researcher.

 Organization of a Proposal

• Most granting sponsors offer guidelines that indicate

what information they expect in your research proposal.

• Follow them exactly.

• The content of the research proposal to be discussed

here is organized into the following components.
 Outline of a Proposal

• The title of the proposal

• Abstract (Optional)
• Introduction
– Background and statement of the problem
– Need for the study/Justification
– Objectives of the study
– Hypothesis
• IV. Literature Review
• V. Materials and Methods/Procedures
• 1. Description of the study and target population
• 2. Research Design and Rationale
• 3. Data collection methods
• 4. Data analysis procedures
 Outline of a Proposal

• VIII. Logistics
• 1. Time Schedule/ Work plan /Phases
• 2. Personnel
• 3. Facilities
• - Equipment
• - Supplies
• 4. Travel
• - Transportation
• - Per Diem
• References/bibliography
• Miscellaneous/Appendices
 Title of the proposal

• The title identifies the proposed research project and

must concisely and clearly indicate the key variables in
the study

• The length of the title matters a lot.

• Unnecessary words or waste words that say nothing,

such as "A Study of ...," “Observation of ....“Investigation
on...”. etc. should always be avoided

• It should tell what the proposal is about.

 Abstract (Summary)

• It is a brief summary of the area of investigation and

expected outcome.

• It should reflect familiarity with current issues in the field

and raise research questions or hypotheses suggested
by findings in the current literature.

• In the abstract, the investigator should briefly describe

proposed methods and expected conclusions.

• It is optional.
 1. INTRODUCTION

• The introduction encourages the reader that the topic is

important and that the objective of the research is
justified

• should flow into the statement of problem so the two

sections together make a clear and unambiguous
statement about the significance of the research.

• Should describe the nature and purpose of the study,

• Present the research questions, and explain the

significance of and justification and hypothesis for
conducting the study.
 INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background Information 

• This show the state of the art of a particular field of

endeavour.

• This helps to make clear what you wanted to do.

• This provides information or the reason to justify the

study
 INTRODUCTION

1.2. Research Problem (Statement of problem)

• The purpose is to further increase the understanding of

the significance of the proposed research

• This section is the most critical task in writing research

proposal (i.e., the central point in any research).

• Without a research problem, there is no real thinking,

just wandering, dreaming or associating.
 INTRODUCTION

1.2. Statement of problem

•The following questions helps in clarifying research

problems:

– Is the problem interesting?

– Is the problem new?
– Will the study add to knowledge?
– Is the problem feasible?
– Has anyone else had a claim to it?
 INTRODUCTION

1.3. Justification (Importance) of the study

• Describes the gaps the research is intended to fill

• addresses the likely contribution to knowledge that the

research will make and its place in current debate/
theory.

• Describe the value of specific applications of knowledge

to be gained and the potential importance of these
applications
 INTRODUCTION

1.4. Defining the Objectives of the Study

• The objectives should specify measurable outcomes

(end products) of the research project

• Objectives must be typically very brief (specific) and

achievable.

• The objectives must neatly fit into the statement of the

problem
• General objective provides a short statement of the
scientific goal being pursued by the research.
• The specific objectives are operational in nature.
 1. INTRODUCTION

1.5. The Hypotheses

•It is a predictive statement of the relationship between two

or more variables

•It caries clear implications for testing the stated

relationship

•The hypotheses statements contain two or more variables

that are measurable or potentially measurable
 2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

• A literature review is an account of what has been

published on a topic by accredited scholars and
researchers.

Purpose:
• to convey to your reader what knowledge and ideas
have been established on a topic

• Provides the theoretical basis for the research question

• Helps the researcher in the interpretation the findings.

• Helps to further define the research problem

 2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Basic Guidelines

•The task of reviewing is the most difficult section for a

beginning researcher

•It is not necessary to review all the literature in the field

•What you need are materials that have direct relevance to

the study

•It is an extremely important part of a thesis.

 3. MATERIALS AND METHODS

• This section shows how the research objectives/

hypotheses will be answered/tested

• Describes in detail the specific methods and the

materials needed

• It is not necessary to describe in detail a procedure

already published; just so cite the original reference

• Provide a clear and complete descriptions for all

experimental, analytical, and statistical procedures
 3. MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Description of the study area

•Describing the biophysical environment of the study area

is very important

•Suggestion for content include:

– Location and physiography
– Climate
– Geology and soils
– Population and production systems
 3. MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.2. Experimental /Research design

•It is the plan, structure and strategy of the investigation

•the plan is the overall scheme to be followed in conducting
the research
•the structure is the more specific outline of how the
variables are operationalized
•the strategy is a description of details such as methods to
be employed in collecting and analysing the data.

•Describe clearly and carefully your experimental subjects,

numbers, treatments, environmental conditions,
measurements, field layout and statistical models
 3. MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.3. Data Collection

•Describe exactly how you are going to collect your data

•Describe how you are going to proceed in using questions/

interview/ other methods

•Describe sampling techniques (random, systematic,

stratified, purposive, accidental, quota,..)

•List the specific materials that will be required such as:

– Laboratory facilities
– Field equipment
– Computer facilities
 3. MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.4. Data analysis

•Discuss how you will present and analyse your data

•There are two major types of data analysis:

•Quantitative Analysis: descriptive statistics and ANOVA

•Qualitative Analysis: Interpreting based on frequencies
 4. WORKPLAN (TIMETABLE) AND BUDGET

• present timetable/work plan/schedule for each activity to

be implemented

• The budget section is a statement of proposed support

and expenditures

• A poorly presented budget probably reflects a poorly

developed proposal

• State also if there is special collaboration/ cooperation

 5. BIBLIOGRAPHIY /REFERENCE

• list of materials that were cited or mentioned in the

proposal

• Citing a source without having read the original can lead

to loss of credibility if the secondary source is in error

• Follow guidelines demanded by the particular journal,

proceeding, etc. They do have their own style

• General rule: Author (s). Year of Publication. Title of

Work. Publication source (journal, book, …).
 5. BIBLIOGRAPHIY /REFERENCE

In-text references (citations)

•References in text are treated somewhat differently from

references in the complete list at the end of a paper.

•Use the author-date format to cite references in text.

– For example: as Smith (1990) points out,
– For two-author, spell out both authors on all occurrences.
– For multiple-author, use et al.
 5. APPENDIX

• Things not included in the main body of the text will be

list after the reference

• It could be different formats, layout, pictures,

questionnaires, etc, ..
 Part III
Types of Research
 Types of Research

• Based on the basic aim of research (nature of

application)

1 Fundamental (basic) Research

• It is a type of research activity pursued with the aim of
discovering or creating new knowledge regardless of its
immediate application

• It has little concern for immediate application of findings

to actual problems.

• It is usually carried out in a laboratory situation, often with

animals as subjects
 Types of Research

2 Applied Research

•It is directed towards the generation of knowledge with the

aim of solving predetermined problems

•It is generally concerned with the adaptation, conversion

and/or processing of knowledge from basic research to
develop useful innovation or technology.

•It has most of the characteristics of fundamental research,

including the use of sampling techniques and the
subsequent inference about the target population
 Types of Research

3 Action Research

•It is an emerging research process. It may be described as

type of applied research methodology which pursues action
(or change) and research at the same time.

•In most of it forms, it is a participatory and interdisciplinary

process

•In short action research produces knowledge through doing

rather than only conceptualization.

•It is focused on the immediate application, not on the

development of theory, not upon general application
 Types of Research

• Based on specific procedures in conducting the research

1. Descriptive Research
• It describes what is?
• It involves some type of comparison or contrast and may attempt
to discover relationships that exist between existing non-
manipulated variables.

2. Experimental Research
• Describes what will be when certain variables are carefully
controlled or manipulated
• The focus is on the relationship of variables
• The researcher has a strong control over the environment being
observed
 Types of Research

3. Survey Research

•The approach has its own roots in the work of sociologists

•The researchers typically a considerable sample to be

analysed which suggests the use of questionnaire with
questions that are easy to be answered and that permit
qualitative evaluation

•It is typically applied to validate models or hypothesis.

 Types of Research

4. Case Research

•Roots mainly in business research

•Cases are analyzed either to build or validate models or

theories typically through collection of textural data through
interviews.
 Part IV
Writing
Scientific Paper
 What Is a Scientific Paper?

• Definition: It is a written and published report describing

original research results.

• Science is all about the pursuit of knowledge

• Communication is crucial to the development of science.

• A research project is not complete until its results are properly

disseminated.

• The most recognized way of doing that is through well-

presented research publications
Why Writing Scientific Papers?
•Communicate with fellow scientists
•Help advance knowledge in the field
•Support progression of professional career
•Satisfy the donor
•Become famous and respected

Why is good writing important?

•Writing is highly competitive
•Market your product: Style is as important as substance
•Journals receive more papers than they can publish
•Poorly written papers will be the first ones to be rejected
 Types of papers

• Scientific papers are published in peer-reviewed

research journals for the community of scientists

• Popular science writing: for readers who are not

specialists in the discipline
•
 Types of Scientific Publications

• Research (Journal) Paper

• Review Paper
• Book Chapter
• Conference Paper/Abstract/Poster
• Thesis/Dissertation
• Short Communication/Research Report
• Monograph
 Characteristics of a Good
Scientific Paper

Presents an accurate account of the

investigation
Has logical flow
Is clearly written and easily understood
Follows a particular style of discipline
Is free from jargon and local slang
Has appropriate and adequate illustrations
Does not contain plagiarized information
Contains original results
Requirements for Producing Publications

Before planning a manuscript, target a publication for

your paper by consider ring
Reputation
Appropriateness of your subject and its quality
Appropriate readership
Frequency of publication
Circulation
Journal’s criteria and style
Budget to meet page/reprint charges, where applicable
 Choosing a Journal

Most journals receive more papers than they can possibly publish
Best journals have a high rejection rate.
If you are a beginning writer, you stand a better chance of having
your paper accepted if you select a less prestigious journal.
Should you try an international journal or a local or regional one?
It probably requires more effort to write, but the rewards are
greater because greater numbers of readers will come across
your paper.
Local journals need the support of scientists and writers to
increase their value and readership.
 Organization of a Scientific Paper

• Most scientific papers are prepared according to a format

called IMRAD.

• The term represents the first letters of the words Introduction,

Materials and Methods, Results, And, Discussion.

• the missing parts of a paper are: Title, Authors, Keywords,

Abstract, Conclusions, and References.

• Additionally, some papers include Acknowledgments and

Appendices.
Organization of a Scientific Paper

Title (the label of the paper)

Authors and their affiliation
Abstract
Key words, if needed
Introduction
Materials and methods
Results and discussion
Acknowledgements
References
 Organization of a Scientific Paper
Title:
•It is an extremely important component of the paper.
•A good title will attract readers who might not otherwise read the
paper

•Authors:
•Individuals who have made an important contribution to planning and
carrying out the research reported,
•anyone listed as an author should also have helped in the preparation
of the paper.
•Technicians and other helpers are usually mentioned in the
acknowledgments.
 Organization of a Scientific Paper

Keywords:
•These are words by which the paper should be indexed by
abstracting services.

•Words that appear on the title should not be repeated as

keywords because titles and keywords are listed together
by abstracting services.

•Most journals allow not more than six keywords;

 Organization of a Scientific Paper

Abstract: (mainly past tense)

•should stand on its own, i.e., be complete in itself.

•It starts with a statement of rationale and objectives and

reports the methods used, the main results including any
newly observed facts, and the principal conclusions and their
significance

•should not contain Abbreviations, References to tables or

figures in the paper, Literature citations, General statements
 Organization of a Scientific Paper
• The Introduction explains the scope and objective of
the study in the light of current knowledge on the subject;
(mainly present tense)

• the Materials and Methods describes how the study

was conducted; (past tense)

• the Results section reports what was found in the study;

(past tense). it is the core of the paper
• Present the results simply and clearly
• Tables and figures are usually included here
 Organization of a Scientific Paper

• Discussion explains meaning and significance of the results and

provides suggestions for future directions of research (present and
past tenses)

• The section pulls everything together and shows the importance and
value of the work and is therefore the most innovative and difficult part
of the paper to write.

• Relate the results to the questions that were set out in the Introduction

• Show how the results and interpretations agree, or do not agree, with
the previously published work
 Organization of a Scientific Paper
• Conclusions: should, rather than just repeating results,
state well-articulated outcomes of the study and

• briefly suggest future lines of research in the area based

on findings reported in the paper.

• Acknowledgement: This short section is for thanking

the institutions and individuals who helped significantly in
the work reported in the paper
 Part V
How to Proceed
Writing?
 A Plan for the Paper
• A plan should contain something about everything in
the paper:

– a working title,
– ideas of what should go into the Abstract,
– Potential keywords,
– what the Introduction should contain,
– what Materials and Methods should be included
– what are the nature and contents of tables and figures,
– what are the major issues around which the Discussion should be
developed,
– how many literature citations would be included
 Starting

Begin with the easiest section

 Materials and Methods (need simple description)
 Results (describe what happened)
 Discussion (interpreting the results)
 Everything after these is easier
Write whenever you have time
At early stage consider each section
independently
 First Draft

• Making a start is one of the most difficult steps.

• Once you start writing a section, finish its first draft as
soon as possible
• Do not worry about language, grammar, spelling or style
(change your note into sentences and paragraphs)
• Write whatever is clear in your mind
• Leave wide white space between lines
 Second Draft

• It may be far from complete and perfect, but it gives the

appearance of how the final paper will look like.
• From this point forward, the whole paper is
considered as one unit (rather than individual sections)
• Do not worry if the paper seems awkward at this stage
• Once you have a second draft prepare the paper to fit
the style of the journal
• Give the draft to a colleague who works in the same field
and get comments
 Second Draft

When revising the first draft ask yourself:

Are parts of the paper properly described?
Are many changes needed?
Is the logic sound?
Is the order satisfactory?
Do I need all text?
Can I eliminate or combine some tables and figures?
Is the piece of text in a section correct?
Is paragraph sequencing correct?
Are headings and sub-headings enough or excess?
 Third Draft

• At this stage, you must check that all the references in

your reference list are mentioned in the text,
• any reference listed in tables or figures should be in the
List of References.
• Make sure that you are following the style of the journal
for which you are writing.
 Final Manuscript

• The manuscript is now nearing its final form.

• Now is the time to ensure that ALL instructions of the journal on
manuscript preparation have been followed completely and
consistently
– style, lettering,
– units, nomenclature,
– reference citation,
– page numbering,
– line numbering, and so on,

• Feel confident about the content and structure

• Every section of the paper should be clear
 Publishing Ethics

The common ethical issues that scientists have to

consider are:

Double publishing: refers to publishing the same

paper in multiple journals or using the same set of
data in multiple papers

Authorship …. conflict of interest. The common

issues are related to who holds the right to the idea
and data and what is the contribution of each claiming
or entitled to authorship
 Publishing Ethics
Copyright … right to copy & distribute it

In academia, if a written work is to be published, the

authors will usually transfer:
some or all of these rights, by formal agreement, to the
publisher.

If you wish to reproduce a paper from your previous

publication, you must get permission from the publisher

Plagiarism…refers to theft or stealing of intellectual

property
 Publishing Ethics
• Taking a substantial number of words or the bulk of an
idea that had been written by someone else and publish
them in your own paper without attribution to the original
author is plagiarism by definition