Unit – IV

Production Planning and Control- 2

Computerized PPL- 1
Aggregate Production Planning, MPS- 1
MRP, MRP II- 1
ERP and JIT- 1
Automated Data Collection
Bar Codes, OCR, Image Processing, 2
RF Identification, Magnetic Identification, 1
Voice Technology, Comparison, - 1
Control Types – PLC.- 2
(12 hours)

Production Planning and Control

Aggregate production planning

Aggregate planning is an operational activity that does an aggregate plan

for the production process, in advance of 2 to 18 months, to give an idea to
management as to what quantity of materials and other resources are to be
procured and when, so that the total cost of operations of the organization is
kept to the minimum over that period..

The quantity of outsourcing, subcontracting of items, overtime of labour,

numbers to be hired and fired in each period and the amount of inventory to be
held in stock and to be backlogged for each period are decided. All of these
activities are done within the framework of the company ethics, policies, and
long term commitment to the society, community and the country of operation.

Aggregate planning has certain prerequired inputs which are inevitable. They
include:

Information about the resources and the facilities available.

Demand forecast for the period for which the planning has to be done.
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 Cost of various alternatives and resources. This includes cost of holding
inventory, ordering cost, cost of production through various production
alternatives like subcontracting, backordering and overtime.

Organizational policies regarding the usage of above alternatives.

"Aggregate Planning is concerned with matching supply and demand of

output over the medium time range, up to approximately 12 months into the
future. Term aggregate implies that the planning is done for a single overall
measure of output or, at the most, a few aggregated product categories. The
aim of aggregate planning is to set overall output levels in the near to medium
future in the face of fluctuating or uncertain demands. Aggregate planning
might seek to influence demand as well as supply.

Concept of Aggregate production planning

It refers to the process of deciding the overall quantities of products to be

manufactured or produced in a plant or other manufacturing facility during a
medium term planning period such as a month, or a quarter. The aggregate
plan output consist of the total quantities of each product or a group of
product to be manufactured in the plan period of going into details of
scheduling of different manufacturing activities required to achieve the planned
production levels. The aggregate production will also not specify details such as
the dates when material ordered against individual customer order will be
ready for delivery.

The aggregate production plan is prepared as a means of setting overall

production targets and as input for planning availability of other inputs and
supporting activities to meet the production targets.The aggregate plans then
form the basis of more detailed production, including such as daily and weekly
production schedules and customer delivery schedules. Such production plan
are further detailed out as machine loading schedules.
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Master Production Schedule

ERP Master Production Scheduling System considers all significant

demands and replenishments that are identified for production, and translates
those demands into a supply demand schedule for manufacturing.

ERP Master Production Scheduling system is used in conjunction with

Material Requirements Planning (MRP) to schedule finished goods production
and raw materials requirements when and where they are required. Simply put
it, .ERP Master Production Scheduling system translates a business plan with
forecasted demand (sales orders) into a workable production plan (supply
orders). A typical production plan would consist of planned orders in a multi-
level (Bill of Material - BOM) scheduling environment.

ERP Master Production Scheduling system quickly and accurately

schedules all item requirements for each manufacturing facility. Some of the
benefits of using Master Production Schedule module are it helps last minute
scheduling, shortage avoidance, efficient allocations of resources and cost
control. It gives the customer timely information on what they need and when
they need. ERP's MPS module organizes what the customer need to do and
when efficiently. The schedule can be re-calculated easily when a process fails,
for example, the situations like a material shortage or manpower absence.

Material Requirement Planning (MRP)

For any growing business enterprises it is important to have a reliable

and user-friendly ERP system with a genuine MRP module..ERP's Material
Requirements Planning can organize, schedule and reschedule materials as far
into the future as required.

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 Every organization has its own strategy to achieve pre-conceived target
contradictory to working ideas expressed by their marketing or accounts
departments. The marketing group wants to make sure there are enough
inventories on hand to fulfill all customer requests, the accounting group is
charged with keeping cost down, which includes keeping inventory levels low.
In the middle is the inventory control group.

ERP's MRP gives you an instant picture of projected inventory investment

levels, as well as projected new purchases in accordance with your plan.
Projections can be made on any MRP cycle. This provides an added dimension
of visibility for directing the planning focus on the most significant areas of
your investment. This also helps you to validate a plan financially and make
swift adjustments before committing your cash.

The aim of the . ERP's Material Requirements Planning (MRP) document

is to supply information that will enable the company to have enough inventory
on hand to fulfill demand, available only when needed, at a quality level that
meets specification, and at the lowest price. .ERP's MRP module can provide
the basic needs of keeping inventory levels low and fulfilling customer
expectations for on time delivery.

ERP's Material Requirements Planning or MRP assists you in getting

material on hand when needed for production or sales. The four basic
information provided by the . MRP module are: informing you (1) when to place
an order, (2) how much quantity to be ordered, (2) who should be the supplier
and (4) when the items to be delivered to you.

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Manufacturing Resource Planning - MRP II

Manufacturing resource planning (MRP II) is defined by APICS as a

method for the effective planning of all resources of a manufacturing company.
Ideally, it addresses operational planning in units, financial planning, and has
a simulation capability to answer "what-if" questions and extension of closed-
loop MRP. Manufacturing resource planning

This is not exclusively a software function, but a marriage of people

skills, dedication to data base accuracy, and computer resources. It is a total
company management concept for using human resources more productively.

Material requirements planning (MRP) and manufacturing resource

planning (MRPII) are predecessors of enterprise resource planning (ERP), a
business information integration system. The development of these
manufacturing coordination and integration methods and tools made today’s
ERP systems possible. Both MRP and MRPII are still widely used,
independently and as modules of more comprehensive ERP systems, but the
original vision of integrated information systems as we know them today began
with the development of MRP and MRPII in manufacturing.

MRP ( and MRPII ) evolved from the earliest commercial database

management package developed by Gene Thomas at IBM in the 1960s. The
original structure was called BOMP ( bill-of-materials processor ), which
evolved in the next generation into a more generalized tool called DBOMP
(Database Organization and Maintenance Program). These were run on
mainframes, such as IBM/360.

The vision for MRP and MRPII was to centralize and integrate business
information in a way that would facilitate decision making for production line
managers and increase the efficiency of the production line overall. In the
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1980s, manufacturers developed systems for calculating the resource
requirements of a production run based on sales forecasts. In order to
calculate the raw materials needed to produce products and to schedule the
purchase of those materials along with the machine and labor time needed,
production managers recognized that they would need to use computer and
software technology to manage the information. Originally, manufacturing
operations built custom software programs that ran on mainframes.

Material requirements planning (MRP) was an early iteration of the

integrated information systems vision. MRP information systems helped
managers determine the quantity and timing of raw materials purchases.
Information systems that would assist managers with other parts of the
manufacturing process, MRPII, followed. While MRP was primarily concerned
with materials, MRPII was concerned with the integration of all aspects of the
manufacturing process, including materials, finance and human relations.

MRP II or Manufacturing Resource Planning by itself is the original

modality of what we know now as ERP, and covered materials planning. This is
part of . ERP solution. MRP II is one of the evolution stages of .ERP and covers
all the resources in a manufacturing company, with the additional ability to
manage "what if" situations. MRP II module in. ERP helps to maintain a neat
agenda for the manner in which the resources are to be allocated without any
confusion.

The interacting functions considered for this model are: Commercial

Planning, Sales, Master Production Scheduling, Materials Resource Planning
(MRP) and support systems for Capacity and Materials Execution. There is a
scheduling capability within the heart of the solution that concentrates on the
resources, such as the plant and equipment required to convert the raw
materials into finished goods. The advantages of this development are that

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detailed plans can be put to the shop floor and can be reported on by
operation, which offers much tighter control over the plant.

ENTERPRISE RESOURCE PLANNING-ERP

Enterprise resource planning (ERP) system is a business management

system thatcomprises integrated sets of comprehensive software, which can be
used, when successfully implemented, to manage and integrate all the
business functions within an organisation. These sets usually include a set of
mature business applications and tools for financial and cost accounting, sales
and distribution, materials management, human resource, production
planning and computer integrated manufacturing, supply chain, and customer
information. These packages have the ability to facilitate the flow of information
between all supply chain processes (internal and external) in an organization.
Furthermore, an ERP system can be used as a tool to help improve the
performance level of a supply chain network by helping to reduce cycle times.
However, it has traditionally been applied in capital-intensive industries such
as manufacturing, construction, aerospace and defence. Recently, ERP
systems have been expanded beyond manufacturing and introduced to the
finance, health care, hotel chains, education, insurance, retail and
telecommunications sectors. ERP is now considered to be the price of entry for
running a business, and at least at present, for being connected to other
enterprises in a network economy to create “business to business” electronic
commerce

Furthermore, many multinationals restrict their business to only those

companies that operate the same ERP software as the multinational firm. It is a
fact that ERP is for big firms and smaller firms have to adjust their business
model and approach according to the practices and software adopted by the big
firms. With the opening up of the economy, small to medium sized enterprises
(SMEs) have found the going very difficult. Since they do not have the
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robustness associated with large companies, SMEs have to tap the power of IT
and an integrated information system to stay competitive and customer
oriented.

ERP is often considered the answer for their survival. Therefore, the ERP
software market has become one of today’s largest IT investments worldwide. It
continues to be one of the largest, fastest-growing and.The ERP vendors are
transitioning to Web-based applications. This may lead to faster flow of
information in the logistics chain, and therefore, many ERP customers will
require these Web-based ERP systems.

What is the difference between MRP software and MRP module of ERP?

Material Requirement Planning, popularly known as MRP, was developed

during 1960s. This was a proactive manner of inventory management. This
technique fundamentally explodes the end product demand obtained from the
'Master Production Schedule' (MPS) for a specified product structure (which is
taken from Bill of Material) into a detailed schedule of purchase order or
production orders, taking into account the inventory on hand. MRP is a simple
logic but the magnitude of data involved in a realistic situation makes it
computationally cumbersome. If undertaken manually, the entire process is
highly time consuming. It therefore becomes essential to use a computer to
carry out the exercise.

MRP successfully demonstrated its effectiveness in reduction of

inventory; production and delivery lead times by improving coordination and
avoiding delays, thus making commitment more realistic. MRP proved to be a
very good technique for managing inventory, but it did not take into account of
other resources of an organization. Due to this shortcoming a modified MRP
logic, popularly known as 'closed loop MRP' has been developed. A new module
called Capacity Requirement Planning (CRP) has been incorporated in this.
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This module manages the capacity of the organization to produce a particular
product. A feedback loop is provided from the CRP module to MPS if there is
not enough capacity available to produce.

Later the need was felt to integrate the financial resource with the
manufacturing activities. From this evolved an integrated manufacturing
management system called Manufacturing Resources Planning (MRP II).
Transition from MRP II to ERP happened some time later because the basic
MRP II system design was suffering from a few inherent drawbacks such as
limited focus to manufacturing activities, assumption of the mass or repetitive
production set ups, and poor budgetary and costing controls.

The shortcomings o MRP-II and the need to integrate these new

techniques, led to the development of a total integrated solution called
Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP), which attempts to integrate the
transactions of suppliers and customers with the manufacturing and service
environment of the organization to produce the best possible plan. Today there
are further development in the ERP concept and evolution of Web-enabled ERP.

JUST-IN-TIME MANUFACTURING.

JIT is a philosophy of continuous improvement in which non-value-

adding activities (or wastes) are identified and removed for the purposes of:

Reducing Cost Improving Quality Improving Performance

Improving Delivery Adding Flexibility Increase innovativeness

JIT is not about automation. JIT eliminates waste by providing the

environment to perfect and simplify the processes. JIT is a collection of
techniques used to improve operations It can also be a new production system
that is used to produce goods or services.
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The American Production and Inventory Control Society (APICS) has the
following definition of JIT:

"A philosophy of manufacturing based on planned elimination of all

waste and continuous improvement of productivity. It encompasses the
successful execution of all manufacturing activities required to produce a final
product, from design engineering to delivery and including all stages of
conversion from raw material onward. The primary elements include having
only the required inventory when needed; to improve quality to zero defects; to
reduce lead time by reducing setup times, queue lengths and lot sizes; to
incrementally revise the operations themselves; and to accomplish these things
at minimum cost."

When the JIT principles are implemented successfully, significant

competitive advantages are realized. JIT principles can be applied to all parts
of an organization: order taking, purchasing, operations, distribution, sales,
accounting, design, etc.

Elimination of Waste:

JIT usually indentifies seven prominent types of waste to be eliminated:

Waste from Overproduction Waste of waiting/idle time

Transportation Waste Inventory Waste

Processing Waste Waste of Motion

Waste from Product Defects

Concept of JIT

Material related costs are reduced by reducing the number of suppliers a

company deals with and developing long-term contracts through creative
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supplier networking, eliminating the need to count individual parts, reducing
order scheduling, eliminating expediting, simplifying receiving systems,
eliminating receiving inspection, eliminating most unpacking, eliminating the
stocking of inventory, and eliminating excess material spoilage.

Manufacturing related costs are reduced by design for manufacture and

design for assembly techniques where unnecessary parts or processes are
eliminated. They are also reduced through the elimination of excess material
handling, inspections, and storage of parts. The primary goal is to eliminate
non-value adding tasks. Quick change over techniques replace long set-up
times. Cells will replace traditional assembly lines.

Visual controls are often used to schedule the production of parts in place of
systems such as MRP. Statistical process control is used to assure that the
outcome of production is consistently met with desired results.

MATERIAL FLOW

Efficient and Stream-lined processes are required to remain competitive

in today's marketplace. Material flow, distribution, logistics, purchasing and
planning are all important factors for success and competitiveness. Inventory
Solutions can help you by optimizing your material flow.

Material flow involves Production Planning, Purchasing, Just-In-Time (JIT), and

Inventory Management / Inventory Control.

Optimization of Material Flow can have the following benefits:

Improve Product Quality

Reduce Purchasing Costs

Reduce Freight / Transportation Cost

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Reduce Manufacturing Waste

Increase Production

Improve Customer Satisfaction

Reduce Downtime

Reduce Product Cost

Increase Cash Flow

Inventory Solutions can help to train the following personnel and help your
company reduce costs:

Materials Planners

Purchasing Agents

Quality Assurance personnel

Inventory Control personnel

Production Engineers

Materials Management Professionals

What is Inventory Control?

Inventory or stock represent a large portion of the business investment

and must be well managed to maximize profits. The most common problems
with inventory are that they are:

. uncontrolled

inefficient

costly

unreliable

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Companies usually lean towards keeping inventory levels on the high side to
insure stock is available when needed. However, this is a high investment
which yields a lower return on the dollar invested. Inventory Solutions can
help you improve your inventory control so that you:

Maintain a proper variety of required items

Increase inventory turnover

Reduce and optimize inventory and safety stock levels

Obtain lower raw material prices through creative supplier networking

. Eliminate obsolete items

.

.
. cash flow and working capital
Increase

Reduce storage cost

Reduce insurance cost

Reduce taxes

Reduce downtime

Automated Data Collection

Automatic Identification and Data Capture (AIDC) refers to the methods
of automatically identifying objects, collecting data about them, and entering
that data directly into computer systems (i.e. without human involvement).
Technologies typically considered as part of AIDC include bar codes, Radio
Frequency Identification (RFID), biometrics, magnetic stripes, Optical
Character Recognition (OCR), smart cards, and voice recognition. AIDC is also

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commonly referred to as “Automatic Identification,” “Auto-ID,” and "Automatic
Data Capture."

AIDC is the process or means of obtaining external data, particularly

through analysis of images, sounds or videos. To capture data, a transducer is
employed which converts the actual image or a sound into a digital file. The file
is then stored and at a later time it can be analyzed by a computer, or
compared with other files in a database to verify identity or to provide
authorization to enter a secured system. Capturing of data can be done in
various ways; the best method depends on application.

AIDC also refers to the methods of recognizing objects, getting

information about them and entering that data or feeding it directly into
computer systems without any human involvement. Automatic identification
and data capture technologies include barcodes, RFID, bokodes, OCR,
magnetic stripes, smart cards and biometrics (like iris and facial recognition
system).

In biometric security systems, capture is the acquisition of or the process

of acquiring and identifying characteristics such as finger image, palm image,
facial image, iris print or voice print which involves audio data and the rest all
involves video data.

Radio frequency identification (RFID) is relatively a new AIDC technology

which was first developed in 1980’s. The technology acts as a base in range
automated data collection, identification and analysis systems worldwide. RFID
has found its importance in a wide of markets including livestock identification
and Automated Vehicle Identification (AVI) systems because of its capability to
track moving objects. These automated wireless AIDC systems are effective in
manufacturing environments where barcode labels could not survive.

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Optical character recognition (OCR):

Optical character recognition, usually abbreviated to OCR, is the

mechanical or electronic translation of scanned images of handwritten,
typewritten or printed text into machine-encoded text. It is widely used to
convert books and documents into electronic files, to computerize a record-
keeping system in an office, or to publish the text on a website. OCR makes it
possible to edit the text, search for a word or phrase, store it more compactly,
display or print a copy free of scanning artifacts, and apply techniques such as
machine translation, text-to-speech and text mining to it. OCR is a field of
research in pattern recognition, artificial intelligence and computer vision. OCR
systems require calibration to read a specific font; early versions needed to be
programmed with images of each character, and worked on one font at a time.
"Intelligent" systems with a high degree of recognition accuracy for most fonts
are now common. Some systems are capable of reproducing formatted output
that closely approximates the original scanned page including images, columns
and other non-textual components.

Image processing

In electrical engineering and computer science, image processing is any

form of signal processing for which the input is an image, such as a
photograph or video frame; the output of image processing may be either an
image or, a set of characteristics or parameters related to the image. Most
image-processing techniques involve treating the image as a two-dimensional
signal and applying standard signal-processing techniques to it.

Image processing usually refers to digital image processing, but optical and
analog image processing also are possible. This article is about general
techniques that apply to all of them. The acquisition of images (producing the
input image in the first place) is referred to as imaging.
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Radio-frequency identification

Radio-frequency identification (RFID) is a technology that uses radio

waves to transfer data from an electronic tag, called RFID tag or label, attached
to an object, through a reader for the purpose of identifying and tracking the
object. Some RFID tags can be read from several meters away and beyond the
line of sight of the reader. The application of bulk reading enables an almost-
parallel reading of tags.

The tag's information is stored electronically. The RFID tag includes a

small RF transmitter and receiver. An RFID reader transmits an encoded radio
signal to interrogate the tag. The tag receives the message and responds with
its identification information. Many RFID tags do not use a battery. Instead,
the tag uses the radio energy transmitted by the reader as its energy source.
The RFID system design includes a method of discriminating several tags that
might be within the range of the RFID reader.

A number of organizations have set standards for RFID, including the

International Organization for Standardization (ISO), the International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), ASTM International, the DASH7 Alliance
and EPCglobal. (Refer to Regulation and standardization below.) There are also
several specific industries that have set guidelines. These industries include
the Financial Services Technology Consortium (FSTC) which has set a standard
for tracking IT Assets with RFID, the Computer Technology Industry
Association CompTIA which has set a standard for certifying RFID engineers,
and the International Airlines Transport Association IATA which has set
tagging guidelines for luggage in airports.

RFID can be used in many applications. A tag can be affixed to any

object and used to track and manage inventory, assets, people, etc. For
example, it can be affixed to cars, computer equipment, books, mobile phones,

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etc. The Healthcare industry has used RFID to reduce counting, looking for
things and auditing items. Many financial institutions use RFID to track key
assets and automate compliance. Also with recent advances in social media
RFID is being used to tie the physical world with the virtual world.

RFID is a superior and more efficient way of identifying objects than

manual system or use of bar code systems that have been in use since the
1970s. Furthermore, passive RFID tags (those without a battery) can be read if
passed within close enough proximity to an RFID reader. It is not necessary to
"show" the tag to the reader device, as with a bar code. In other words it does
not require line of sight to "see" an RFID tag, the tag can be read inside a case,
carton, box or other container, and unlike barcodes RFID tags can be read
hundreds at a time. Bar codes can only be read one at a time.

Magnetic identification

MID is an active identification technology device with the unique ability

of being able to go through metal and liquids. It uses a very low frequency and
can be used for very specific applications.

MIDs are currently being developed by RFIDEA; this is exclusive technology.

Voice technology

Any sound that misses your intended audience is noise. Only the Audio
Spotlight system can keep sound focused specifically to your listeners,
providing sound where you want it, and quiet everywhere else.

The revolutionary Audio Spotlight technology creates a tight, narrow beam of

sound that can be controlled with the same precision as light. Aim the flat, thin
speaker to your desired listening area and provide all of the sound – with none
of the noise.
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Since 2000, Audio Spotlight systems have been installed in thousands of
locations around the world. From museums, exhibits, galleries and retail stores
to digital signage and special projects, the world's top companies have chosen
the unique, patented Audio Spotlight technology to provide high-quality,
precisely targeted sound.

Programmable logic controller (PLC)

Introduction

The National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) as defines a

programmable logic controller: A digitally operating electronic apparatus which
uses a programmable memory for the internal storage of instructions for
implementing specific functions such as logic, sequencing, timing, counting,
and arithmetic to control, through digital or analog input/output modules,
various types of machines or processes.

In essence, the programmable logic controller consists of computer

hardware, which is programmed to simulate the operation of the individual
logic and sequence elements that might be contained in a bank of relays,
timers, counters, and other hard-wired components.

We will adopt the initials PLC as an abbreviation for the programmable

logic controller. PC Is widely used in industry for the programmable controller,
but the increasingly popular personal computer is also abbreviated PC. To
avoid confusion in our book, we will use PLC exclusively for the programmable
controller and PC for the personal computer.

The PLC was introduced around 1969 largely as a result of specifications

written by the General Motors Corporation. The automotive industry had
traditionally been a large buyer and user of electromechanical relays to control
transfer lines, mechanized production lines, and other automated systems. In

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an effort to reduce the cost of new relays purchased each year, GM prepared
the specifications for a “programmable logic controller” in 1968. The
requirements included:

• The device must be programmable and re-programmable.

• It must be designed to operate in an industrial environment.

• It must accept 120-V ac signals from standard pushbuttons and limit

switches.

• Its outputs must be designed to switch and continuously operate loads such
as motors and relays of 2-A rating.

• Its price and installation cost must be competitive with relay and solid —state
logic devices then in use.

Several companies saw a commercial opportunity in the GM initiative and

developed various versions of a special-purpose computer we now refer to as
the PLC.

There are significant advantages in using a programmable logic controller

rather than conventional relays, timers, counters, and other hardware
elements. These advantages include:

• Programming the PLC is easier than wiring the relay control panel. We
discuss PLC programming in one of the following subsections.

• The PLC can be reprogrammed. Conventional controls must be rewired and

are often scrapped instead.

• PLCs take less floor space then relay control panels.

• Maintenance of the OPLC is easier, and reliability is greater.

• The PLC can be connected to the plant computer systems more easily than
relays can.

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The following subsections describe the components, programming, and
operation of the PLC.

We also survey some of its additional capabilities beyond logic control and
sequencing.

Components of the PLC

A schematic diagram of a programmable logic controller is presented. The basic
components of the OPLC are the following

• Input module

• Output module

• Processor

• Memory

• Power supply

• Programming device

Diagram of the programmable logic controller

The components are housed in a suitable cabinet designed for the industrial
environment. A commercially available PLC is shown in figure.
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 The input module and output module are the connections to the
industrial process that in to be controlled. The inputs to the controller are
signals from limit switches, pushbuttons, sensors, and other on/off devices. In
addition, as we will describe later, larger PLCs are capable of accepting signals
from analog devices of the type modeled. The outputs from the controller are
on/off signals to operate motors, valves, and other devices required to actuate
the process.

The processor is the central processing unit (CPU) of the programmable

controller. It executes the various logic and sequencing functions described in
previous Sections by operating on the PLC INPUTS TO DETERMINE THE
APPROPRIATE OUTPUT SIGNALS. The processor is microprocessor very similar
in its construction to those used in personal computers and other data-
processing equipment. Tied to the CPU is the PLC memory, which contains the

program of logic, sequencing, and other input/output operations. The memory

for a programmable logic controller is specified in the same way as for a
computer, and may range from 1k to over 48 k of storage capacity. A power
supply of 115 V ac is specially used to drive the PLC even though the
components of the industrial process that are regulated may have a higher
voltage and power rating than the controller itself.

The PLC is programmed by means of a programming device. The

programming device (sometimes referred to as a programmer) is usually
detachable from the PLC cabinet so that it can be shared between different
controllers. Different PLC manufactures provide different devices, ranging from
simple teach pendant-type devices, similar to those used in robotics, to special
PLC programming keyboards and CRT displays.

Programming the PLC

Most of the programming methods in use today for PLCs are based on
the ladder logic diagram. This diagram has been found to be very convenient

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for shop personnel who are familiar with circuit diagrams because it does not
require them to learn an entirely new programming language. What is required
is a means of inputting the program into the OPLC memory:

There are various approaches for entering and interconnecting the individual
logic elements.

These include:

1. Entry of the ladder logic diagram

2. Low-level computer-type languages

3. High-level computer-type languages

4. Functional blocks

5. Sequential function chart

The first method involves direct entry of the ladder logic diagram into the
PLC memory. This method requires the use of a keyboard and CRT with limited
graphics capability to display symbols representing the components and their
interrelationships in the ladder logic diagram. The PLC keyboard device is often
designed with keys for each of the individual symbols.

Programming is accomplished by inserting the appropriate components

into the rungs if the ladder diagram. The components are of two basic types.
Contacts and coils. Contacts are used to represent loads such as motors,
Solenoids, relays, timers, counters, etc. in effect; the programmer inputs the
ladder logic circuit diagram rung by rung into the PLC memory with the CRT
displaying the results for verification. The second method makes use of a low-
level computer-type language that parallels the ladder logic diagram. Using the
language instructions, the programmer contracts the ladder diagram by
specifying the various components and their relationships for each rung. Let us
explain this approach by developing an elementary PLC instruction set. Our
PLC “language” will be a composite of various manufacturers’ languages,

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containing perhaps fewer features than most commercially available PLCs. We
will assume that the programming device consists of a suitable keyboard for
entering the individual components on each rung of the ladder logic diagram. A
CRT capable of displaying each ladder rung, and perhaps several rungs that
precede it, is useful to verify the program. The low-level languages are generally
limited to the types of logic and sequencing functions that can be defined in a
ladder logic diagram. Although timers and counters have not been illustrated
in the two preceding examples, some of the problems at the end of the chapter

require the reader to make use of them. High-level computer-type languages

are likely to become more common in the future to program the PLC. There are
several of these languages that are beginning to be offered commercially,
including [ SYBIL (GTE Sylvania), MCL model APC-2 (Cincinnati Milacron), and
Control Statements (Reliance Electric). Most of the available languages use an
instruction set that is similar to the BASIC computer language for personal
computers. There are additional statements available beyond the normal BASIC
set to accomplish the control functions.

The principal advantage offered by the high-level languages for

programming the PLC is their capability to perform data processing and
calculations on values other than binary.. Ladder logic diagrams and low- level
OPLC languages are usually quite limited in their ability to operate on signals
that are other than ON/OFF types. The capability to perform data processing
and computation permits the use of more complex control algorithms,
communications with other computer-based systems display of data on a CRT
console, and input of data by a human operator. Another advantage of the
higher-level languages is the relative case with which a user can interpret a
printout of a complicated control program. Explanatory comments can be
inserted into the program to facilitate the interpretation.

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Binary Control Logic
In some application of control systems, the variables are binary — they
can be either of two possible values, 1 or 0. These values can be interpreted to
mean ON or OFF, true of false, object present or not present, high voltage value
or low voltage value, and so on. Followings are some binary input and output
devices. Table I .1 Binary Input and Output devices

Logic Control And Sequencing

A logic control system is a switching system whose output at any
moment is determined exclusively by the value of inputs.

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 A logic control system has no memory and does not consider any
previous values of the input signals in determining the output signal. Neither
does it have any operating characteristics that perform as a function of time.

An example from Robotics.

A sequencing system is one that uses internal timing devices to
determine when to initiate changes in output variables.

Logic Control Elements

There are three basic elements of Logic Control, which are also called
Logic Gates:

1. AND

2. OR

3. NOT

There are other elements which are derived from these three basic elements
above like NOR, and NAND, etc.

In each case, the logic gate is designed to provide a specified output value
based on the values of input(s). For both inputs and outputs, the values can be
either of the two levels, the binary values 0 or 1. For purpose of industrial
control, we will define 0 (zero) to mean OFF and 1 (one) to mean ON,

Logic Gate AND

The logic gate AND outputs a value of 1 if all of the inputs are 1, and 0
otherwise. Figure (a) illustrates the operation of a logical AND gate. If both of
the switches, Xl and X2 (representing inputs), in the circuit are closed, the
lamp Y (representing the output) is on. The truth table for the AND gate is
shown in Figure (b).

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Figure Logical AND gate: (a) Circuit illustrating the operation, (b) Its truth table

Logic Gate OR
The logic gate OR outputs a value of 1 if either of the inputs have a value
of 1, and 0 otherwise. Figure 10.3 (a) illustrates the operation of a logical OR
gate. In this case, Xl and X2 (representing inputs) are arranged in a parallel
circuit, so that if either of the switches is closed, the lamp Y (representing the
output) will be on. The truth table for the OR gate is shown in Figure (b).

Figure Logical OR gate: (a) Circuit illustrating the operation, (b) Its truth table

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Logic Gate NOT
Unlike the AND and OR gate, logic gate NOT has a single input and a single
output too. If the input is 1, the output is 0; if the input is 0, the output is 1.
Figure 10.4 (a) shows a circuit in which the input switch Xl is arranged in
parallel with the outputs so that the voltage flows through the lower path when
the switched is closed (thus Y = 0), and the upper path when

circuit is open (thus Y = 1), The truth table for the NOT gate is shown in Figure
10.4 (b).

Figure 10.4: Logical NOT gate: (a) Circuit illustrating the operation, (b) Its truth
table

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In addition to the three basic elements, there are two more elements that can
be identified for use in combinational switching circuits. These are the NAND
and NOR gates.

Logic Gate NAND

Logic gate NAND is formed by combining and AND and a NOT gate in
sequence, as shown in Figure 10.5(a). The logical network symbol for the NAND
gate and its truth table are shown in Figure 10.5 (b) and Figure 10.5(c).

Logic Gate NOR

Logic gate NOR is formed by combining an OR gate followed by a NOT gate as
illustrated in Figure 10.6 (a). The Logic Gate and truth table for the NOR gate
are presented in Figure 10.6 (b) and Figure 10.6 (c).

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Figure 10.5: NAND gate: (a) combining AND and NOT gates to form NAND; (b)
logic network symbol for NAND; (c) truth table for NAND.

Figure 10.6: NOR gate: (a) combining OR and NOT gates to form NOR; (b) logic

network symbol for NOR; (c) truth table for NOR.

Example
A motor has one start and one stop button. Being power to motor the output,
construct the logic flow diagram and, the truth table.

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Figure 10.7: (a) Pushbutton switch; (b) its truth table; (c) its logic network
diagram

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Logic Ladder Diagram

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Figure 10.8: Symbols for common logic and sequence components in a ladder
logic diagram

An example of Logic Ladder diagram

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