Basic Marine EngineeringSone Emam Basic Marine Engineering Contents Page Chapter 1. Engineering Units, Common Terms 11016 . Chapter 2. Power Measurement 170 62 Oo Chapter 3. Steam Turbines 63 to. 74 : ie Chapter 4. Marine Boilers 75 to 93 fi Chapter 5. Distillation & Production of Water 94 to 106. | ° Chapter 6. Pump & Pumping System 107 to 134 a Chapter 7. Refrigeration, Air Conditioning & Ventilation 135.0 146 7 Chapter 8. Propeller & Propeller Shafting 147 to 158 1 oO Chapter 9. Steering Gears 159 to 183 7 Chapter 10. “Pollution Prevention - Monitoring 184 to 195 jo Oily-water Separator - Sewage Treatnient | © Chapter 1. Engine Room Watchkeeping & Equipment 196 to 200, ° Operation | . Chapter 12. Hydraulic System 201 to 216 oO Chapter 13. Deck Machinery 217 to 235, | Q Chapter 14. Diesel Engines 236 to 258 qn zaetee A Chapter 15. Electrical Equipment 259 0 269¢oO (ome) Engineering Units & Common ‘Terms CHAPTER - I Engineering Units & Common Terms Contents 1. SI Units LL 12. 13. Units and Symbols Units and Prefix Most Common Units 2. Engineering Terms 2.4. 2.2. 23. 24. Mass, Force, Force of Gravity, Work, Power and Energy Pressure, Pressure Gauge, Gauge Pressure and Absolute Pressure Volume, Specific Volume, Temperature, Absolute Temperature, Heat, Specific Heat and Latent Heat. Stress and Strain. 3. Properties of Gases 3.1. 3.2, 33. 34, Boyle's Law Charle’s Law Combination of Boyle’s Law & Charle’s Laws Compression of a gas in closed systemEngineering Units & Common Terms oO : Engineering Units & Common Terms ~ 1. SI UNITS 1.1 Units and Symbols: Sl is the abbreviation for systems International d? unites. ‘The system is built upon the six basic units: oO Unit Quantity Symbol © Metre (length) tm} ce oO Kilogram (mass) tke] Second (time) Is} eC = = oO Kelvin (temperature) 1K} Ampere (Electrical Current) [Al ° iq 2) Candela (Luminous Intensity) (ed) & Qo All other units are derived from these basic six units. E.g. unit for area will be, unit length oO (one metre) multiplied by unit length (one metre) i.e. one square metre o Area = Length “x Breadih oO = L{m} xB mJ ; [e} = LxB (’} Oo Square metre [m7] is the unit of area oO 1.2 Units and Prefix: To avoid using large figures repeatedty in the calculations, a prefix before the unit is o used. Example a prefix of *k’ before meier [m] will be representing kilomeire. Thus instead } of writing 1000 [mj, we will write 1 [kth] s 4.3 Most Common Units: ed Similarly other prefix symbols are shown below. CEngineering Units & Common Terms Prefix | Represented by [Prefix indicates a multification] Some example 7 factor of Tera T 10” = Giga G ie” (GN)= Giga Newton O° IN] Mega M 10° Kilo k i (kg) = Kilogram 10 {2} Hecto h 107 = Deca da 10! Deci 10° Centi 107 fem) = Centimeter 0? [ml Milli m 10? Micro nm 108 (mf) = micro farad = 10 [farad] A 10? b joe at Of the most common units is given below = Quantity Basic Unit or Derived ‘Symbol ‘Abbreviation Unit used [Length Meire tml ‘Area Square metre Im] Vorume Cubic mee ——it im} _ Time Seconds {sl Linear Velocity | Metre per second [m/s] ‘Angular Velocity |Radians per second [rad/s] Linear Acceleration | Metre per second” [mvs"] Angular Acccleration| Radians per second? |[rad/s*] Mass Kilogram Itke) Force Newton iN] Moment of force | Newton meter [Nm] Work, Energy Joule (]& is equal to (Nm Power ‘Watt [Weis = Nin/s} Pressure Newton per metre’ [Nim] also called Pascal {Pa} Stress Newton per metre” —_|{N/m?} Mass flow Kilogram per second |Tke/s] Volume flow Cubic metre per second|[m'Vs] Density Kilogram per metre’ | tkg/m'] ‘Temperature Degree Kelvin OK]Engineering Units & Common Terms © a a 2. NGINEERING TERM 2.1 Mass, Force, Force of Gravity, Work, Power & Energy: O oO MASS Mass is quantity of matter possessed by a body. It is a constant quantity, that is, the mass : of a body can only be changed by adding more matter to it or taking matter away from it ° ‘The abbreviation for mass is ‘m’ and the unit is kitogram and symbol used is (kg). Large 6 quantities are often expressed in tonnes {t] where 1 Tonne = 10° {kel 8 oO FORCE oO A force is required to accelerate or retard a mass, O° ‘When unit mass is given unit acceleration then a unit of force has been applied. ‘The unit of force is the newton [N} © Q | Force = mass x acceleration } : 1 IN] = 1 {kg} x 1 [ms?] © : Hence, one newton of force acting on one kilogram of mass will give it an acceleration © i of one metre per second per second. ° | © FORCE OF GRAVITY 38 { Masses are attracted to the earth by a gravitational force which is the product of their * mass and acceleration due to gravity ‘g’. The value of ‘g" is 9.81 [m/s]. The product of mass 0 j & *g" is known as the weight of a body and for a body, | 9 Weight = mass x acceleration due to gravity 3 Weight (NJ = mass [kg] x 9.81 [m/s*} “raat net ea sed De Aue Orssat Movil Yea real, Creo Son Sant O. Engineering Units & Common Terms WORK . When a force applied to a body causes it to move, then work has been done. When point of application of unit force is moved unit distance in the direction of application, then a unit of work has been done. The unit of work is the Joule {J} Work = force x distance = mass x acceleration x distance By = TEN] x 1 fm} Joule is small unit. Larger quantities of work are expressed as Kilojoules [kJ] or megajoules [MJ] POWER This is the quantity of work done in a given time or the rate of doing, work. When unit work is done in unit time then a.mit.of power has been used: The unit of power is the watt {W] Work done. Power = Time Low) 7 Til a 1 {Nm} is Vs) ‘i The watt is a small unit. Larger quantity of power arc expressed as kilowatt [kW] or megawatt (MW} ENERGY ‘This is the stored ability to do work and is measured in units of work done. i.e. Joules iEngineering Units & Common Terms nn 2.2 Pressure, Pressure Gauge, Gauge Pressure & Absolute Pressure : PRESSURE ‘The intensity of force o force per unit area is known as pressure, A unit of pressure exists where unit force acts on unit area. The unit of pressure is the newton per square meter and has the ‘special name Pascal [Paj Pressure: = Force ‘Area LIN) 1 [Pa ret Pal Vim’) Another term often used by engineers is bar, 1 [bar] 10° (Pal = 108 {N/m} ‘The complete absence of pressure is a vacutim and this is therefore the absolute zero of pressure measurement. However, acting upon the earth's surface at all times is what is known as atmospheric pressure. The pressure gauge, which is the usual means of pressure measurement, also accepts this atmospheric pressure and considers it the zero of pressure measurement. Thus absolute pressts gauge pressure + atmospheric pres re. Readings of pressure are considered to be absolute unless followed by the word “gauge” indies if a pressure gauge value. ‘The actual value of atmospheric pressure is usually read from a barometer in millimetre of mercury. we know, Pressure = rgh Where x = density of liquid [ke/m'} g = 9.81 (m/s), h = height of column of liquid {m] ‘One Atmospheric Pressure = 760 mm of Hg OR One Atmospheric Pressure = 760 mm of mercury x 13.6 x 9.81 (Pa) | atmosphere} 101300 [Pal OR = 1.013 {bar} | [atmosphere} = 760 mm Hg = 101300 (Pa) = 1.013 [bar] %.Engineering Units & Common Terms RESsESRnsnSsnnsennsnsens ones IRS SAS IE SSSR ES ESSEESE SESS OED PRESSURE GAUGE ‘The most common instrument used for measuring high static pressure is the bourden type. of pressure gauge. “The tube has elliptical section which tends to become circular on application of pressure. With the effect the tube tends to straighten on application of pressure. Preven Seale ‘Quadrant Sealed ens ofthe ube Secon at AA SS Curves steettube nas lipticl socton. This slips sector end ‘on apptcaton 0} peseure. eating intendoncy ot the tube to saignten Source of pressure Figure 1.1 - Bourden Pressure gauge. Working The effect of the fluid pressure inside the tube is to tend to straighten it. The higher the pressure the greater the straightening effect. The small movement of the seated end of the tube is magnified by linking it to a quadrant meshing with a pinion which carries a pointer on its shaft. The pointer moves, over a circular scale on the dial of the gauge which is graduated in bars or other suitable unitEngineering Units & Common Terms ennai eben Daae GAUGE PRESSURE AND ABSOLUTE PRESSURE solute pressure \N eauge preasre Figure 1.2 - Gauge & Absolute pressure ‘When the bourdens pressure gauge is left open in a room, its pointer will record a pressure of ‘0 bar’ on the dial. If the air present i the room is now evacuated, there will be no pressure left in the room. The pointer of the pressure gauge will take a position below the ‘zero’ on the dial This point on the dial is the indicator of absolute zero (see figure 1.2.). The complete absence of pressure is called vacuum. The room therefore is under vacuum and the pressure in the room is said to be absolute zero. Thus Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure, 2.3 Volume, Specific Volume, Temperature, Absolute Temperature, Heat, Specific Heat and Latent Heat: VOLUME ‘The amount of physical space occupied by a body is called volume. The unit of volume is the cubic metre [m°], Other units, such as litre (L] and cubic centimeter {em'} are also in use. 1 [m'] = 1000 [L} = 1000000 fem") = 10° {em} oO y €Engineering Units & Common Terms Sans =e Specific Volume Specific Volume is the volume o¢cupied by unit mass, the symbol is v and the basic unit is cubic metre per kilogram [m'skg] TEMPERATURE ‘Temperature is an indication of hotness or coldness and therefore is a measure of the intensity of heat. The most common measuring instrument is the mercurial thermometer. This consists of a glass tube of very fine bore with a bulb at its Jower end, the bulb and tube are exhausted of ais, partially filled with mercury and hermetically sealed at the top end. The mercury of the bulb expands (if heated) or contracts (if cooled) and the level, which rises or falls in consequence indicates, on the thermometer scale, the degree of heat intensity. ‘On the ‘Celsius scale thermometer’ the temperature at which pure water freezes into ice is marked zero and the point at which pure water boils into steam at atmospheric pressure is assigned the number 100. In between distance is divided into 100 equal parts, each part indicating one degree Celsius. ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE 4 _—* Volume, eer | — es Sree Ee | | ‘Femperature| | ors je fro | 207 cots sect 9 0 2 BI) 473 ein soa or x « fi K SSoonts seo’ Figure 1.3. Absolute TemperatureEngineering Units & Common Terms LL If a gas is cooled at constant pressure until its temperature is 273 degree below 0°C, the volume of gas would contract until there is nothing left, as is shown in figure 1.3, and therefore no further reduction of temperature would be possible. The gas is said to have reached its “absolute zero of temperature \ Absolute temperature = temperature is degree celsius + 273 {K] pe) + 23 HEAT Heat is energy in motion between a system and its surroundings, as a consequence the unit, as with other form of energy, is the joule [J]. ‘The specific heat of a substance is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of the substance by one degree. Hence total quantity of heat energy transferred to a-substance to raise its temperature is the product of the mass of the substances, its specific heat, and its rise in temperature. mass of body x special heat x (Ti- T) feel x J x {K} F x kg, 7 O) Heat required to raise temperature of a body from Ti tT? Latent heat is the heat which supplies the energy necessary to overcome the bindirig forces of attraction between molecules of a substance and is responsible for it changing its physical state, fom a solid into liquid! or from # liquid into vapont, the change taking place without any: change of temperature. 9 oo ) oe oO IOCCEAOG8SOEO’ ¢Engineering Units & Common ‘Terms ee eet Sr 2.4 Stress and Strain: STRESS ‘When a component oF structure is subjected to a force, it is said to be in a state of stress, When the applied force tends to shorten the material or crush it, the material is said to be in compression, and the stress 3s referred to as a compressive stresy (example the chocks placed under a diesel engine experience the weight of engine which cause the chocks to be under compressive stress) When the force tends to lengthen the material or tear it apart the material is said to be in ension and the stress is referred to as a tensile stress (example is lifting of cargo load by a hook. ‘The hook and wire is under tension or under tensile stress). When the force tends to cause the particles of the material to slide over each other the material is said to be in shear and the stress is referred to as a shear stress, Stress is always expressed as force per unit area of the material Total force Stress STRAIN Strain is the change of shape that takes place in a material due to it being stressed, Change in length Linear strain = Original length Change in length and original length are in the same units, therefore in dividing one by other the units cancel. Hence strain is a pure numberEngineering Units & Common Terms 3. PROPERTIES OF GASES A substance can exist as a solid, liquid or gas. Taking example of H,O, it can exist as ice, water or steam (also reteer to section 3 of chapter 4). However in gaseous state, the steam could be wet (i.c. steam contains water droplets), dry (contains no water droplets) or superheated (ce. steam is heated beyond saturated temperature) steam, Behaviour of any other substance will be similar Unlike liquid, the gases can be compressed into smaller volumes and expanded to larger volumes. While compressing or expanding, the gas which is considered ideal gas (perfect gas), will sitictly follow the Boyle’s & Charle’s law of gases. 3.1 Boyle’s Law: States that the absolute pressure of a fixed mass of a perfect gas varies inversely as its volume if the temperature remains unchanged. 1. at constant temperature \ To illustrate this, consider 3m* of a pefect (ideal) gas at a pressure of 2 bar, contained in a cylinder with a gas tight movable piston as shown in figure 1.4 — @ @ Piston | i a Oo ero Oy Or O OH OD) Q.O-O 7Engineering Units & Common Terms ER When piston is at position - 1, p, = 2 bar = 3m When piston is at position - 2, V, = 15a R=? PY, = PY, 2x3 = pyxls 6 =a5 ; = 4 [bar] ‘Thus variation of pressure with change in volume can be shown by the graph as: The graph works out to be a hyperbola. Since process is at coiistant temperature, this process is also termed as “isothermal” process. Example: 4.5m of air at a pressure of 1.5 bar gauge is compressed isothermally to a pressure of 600 kN/m? gauge. Taking atmospheric pressure as 1 bar, calculate the final volume of the air, Consider air to be a perfect gas. Initial absolute pressure = 1.5 + 1.0 = 2.5 [har] Final absolute presse = 600 is] + 1.0 [bar} mEngineering Units & Common Terms ea Deedee che = 6.0 [bas] + 1.0 [bar] ~> 100 KN = I bar 7.0 {bar} PY, Py 25x35 = T0xV, 2.5x3.5_ : 7.0 = 125° [m'] Ans. 4 3.2 Charles’ Law: Charles’ law states that the volume of a fixed mass of a perfect gas varies directly as its absolute temperature if the pressure remains unchanged, also, the absolute pressure varies directly _as the absolute temperature if the volume remains unchanged. constant hence Or Also p 2 T : Po = constant T Py Or p, PF Example: A pressure vessel contains air at 20 bar gauge and 30°C. If the pressure vessel is heated up to 70°C, what would be the pressure of the air in the vessel. There is no increase in the volume of the vessel. Consider air to be a perfect gas. Initial absolute temperature = 30 + 373 = 303 [K] Initial absolute pressure = 20+ 1.013 = 21.013 foar} Final absolute temperature. = 70 +273 By) cps — sue)c Engineering Units & Common Terms i = 343 [K} P, P, r PL 21.013 x 343 303 23.8 {bar} Ans 3.3. Combination of Boyle’s and Charles’ laws: “The combined law of Boyles’ & Charles’ is: : PY. Ps T T, And is tue for a given mass of any perfect gas subjected to any form of compression or expansion, Example: 15m’ of a perfect gas at a pressure of 1.25 bar gauge pressure and temperature of 27C ‘ are compressed to a volume of 0.5m? and the final pressure is 6.5 bar gauge pressure. Calculate ( the final temperature i Initial absolute temperature = 274273 ; = 300 {K} Initial absolute pressure 1.25 + 1.013 2.263 {bar} : Final absolute pressure 6541013 = 7.513 [bar] : BY, _ BY. n Tate & r= Bw A pv : t 1513 x 0.5 x 300 ; we PSB x05 1 300 2.263 x 1.5 ( = 332 (K] = 59 PC] Ans 3.4 Compression of a Gas in closed system: Gas can be comps ssed from volume V, to volume V, in thtee different ways.Engineering Units & Common Terms RE Isothermal compression: Here while compressing gas no heat is allowed to get into gas to avoid any rise in temperature, Hence gas is compressed at constant temperature & thé process is called isothermal compression. Using Boyles’ law: pV =constant or —p,V Adiabatic compression: Here while compressing g; » gas heats up and is not allowed to give away any heat energy to surroundings. This is called Adiabatic Compression, The relationship between pressure and volume for adiabatic compression is vii o pV = Where ; (gamma) is the ratio of the specific heat of gas at constant pressure to the specific heat at constant volume, thus C, = Specific heat at constant pressure C, = Specific heat at constant volume Polytropic compression: In practice, neither isothermal nor adiabatic process can be achieved perfectly. This in between compression is called polytropic compression when there will be a partial amount of heat energy exchange. The relationship between pressure and volume is a a pV = constant or p,V,_ = p,V, Example: 0.025 m of gas at 30 bar absolute is expanded in 2 closed system to a volume of 0.15mn" and the final pressure is 1.5 bar absolute. If the expansion takes place according to the law pV"= constant, find the value of n. 30 x 0.025" = 1.5 x 0.15" H30rPeEe Ono te 1s a 0.025 20 = (6) n= 1.1675 (Ans)Power Measurement esi i i CHAPTER - 2 Power Measurement Contents 1. Diesel Engine Power measurement; General 1.1. The Engine Indicator 1.2, Indicated Power 1.3. Mechanical efficiency Brake Power and Shaft Power 1.4. Power utitisation, Tr smission efficiency, Propeller efficiency & Hull efficiency LS. Examples 2. Propellers 2.1. Pitch, Propeller Slip, Apparent Slip and Real or True Slip 2.2 Examples 3. Power Estimation and Fuel Estimation 3.1. Power Estimation 3.2. Fuel Estimation 3.3 ExamplesPower Measurement Sree: Power Measurement 1. DIESEL ENGINE POWER MEASUREMENT; GENERAL wank tit ww al ‘The burning of fuel in an engine cylinder (2 stroke oF 4 strokes diesel engine) will result in val) the production of power at the output shaft, some of the power produced in the cylinder will be dG used to drive the rotating masses of the engine. i ‘The power produced in the cylinder can be measured by an engine ‘indicator mechanism i as described below. This power is often referred to as ‘indicated power’. The power out-put of @ the engine at the shaft is known as ‘shaft’ or “Brake power’. On smaller engines it conid be al measured by applying a type of brake to the shaft, hence the name. 6, ~ & 1.1. The Engine Indicator: p ee | Sty. Ccatbrates spring Ingcotor cock _ - 7 i _—— rum as iy TL I oO a: _— indicator cord : O [— comburton gor a (Piston under power Oo rote) Figure 2.1 - Engine IndicatorPower Measurement er RR ee ‘An engine indicator is shown in figure 1. It is made up of a stalt piston of known size, which operates in a cylinder against specially calibrated spring, Stylus through magnifying finkage (not shown in sketch) transfers the up and down piston movements to a drum on which is mounted a piece of paper or card ‘The drum oscillates (along its polar axis) under the pull of the Cord. The cord is moved by aa reciprocating (up and down) mechanism, & these movements are proportional and synchronous with the engine piston movement in the cylinder. The stylus thus draws out an indicator diagram which represents 1 pressure on the engine piston at different points of the stroke, and the area of the indicator diagram produced represents the power developed in the particular cylinder. 12 Indicated Power: INDICATED POWER ‘Typical indicator diagram for a wo stroke engine is showa in figure 2.2. The area within de diagram represents the work done within the cylinder in one eyele. | [Average or meen pressure [Pex] | fo] Figure 2.2 - Indicator diagram ‘The area can be measured by an instrument known as ‘Planimeter’ or by the use of the mid-ordinates rule. [On modem engine thi diagram can be continuously taken by employing two, transducers, one pressure transducer on the combustion space and other transducer on the shaft ‘Through the computer we can thus get on line indicated diagram & power of all cylinders. ‘The area is then divided by the fength of the diagram in order to obtain mean height, (see figure 2.3) This mean height, when multiplied by the spring scale of the indicator mechanism, gives the indicated mean effective pressure for the cylinder. The ‘mean effective’ or ‘average’ pressure [pr] can now he used to determine the work done in the cylinder.urement WORKING 1. Area of the indicator diagram = a {mm’} 2. Average height of the diagram == 2 mm} 1 {mm} 2 a a { Aimocphere S fine { Pee ® Stroke i © al Figure 2.3 - Indicated Power | © mn] k [ bar I 3. 2. Average or mean: indicator pressure = x ji cr 7 mm mm Oo, | oO {Pm} = ak fbar] | 1 oO; Where k is ‘spring scale’ in bar per mm. c 3 4. Work done in one cycle = Mean indicator pressure x Area of Piston x Length O of stroke (Pmy x fAR x o 5. To obtain the power of this unit, it is necessary to determine the rate of doing work © ic. multiply work by number of power strokes in-one second. oO Indicated Power of Unit {ip] = oO + Mean indicator pressure x Area of Piston x length of swoke x No. of power L strokes per second o {Pm} x 1A] x tL} IN} = PmLAN C |Power Measurement RE Ina four-stroke cycle engine every alternate stroke is a power stroke and in two-stroke cycle engine every stroke is a power stroke. N= Engine revs per second (for 2-stroke engine) N = Engine revs per second + 2 (for 4-stroke engine) UNITS ip = PmLAN ak fbar) x Lim) x Atm} x N Ws} 1 [bar] x fm} x fm} x Es} [10 Nim? xm x om ox Usd = 1 [10° Nims } = 18 [| 10's) = 1@ £10" Wany 10?_ kW. KLAN x 10? [kW] whefe a = Area of indicata diagram, in {mom} T= Length of indicata diagram, in (mm) A k= Spring scale, in {bar/mm] L_ = Stroke of engine, in {m} A. = Area of cylinder, in (m") N- = Power stroke per second, in {1/8} Total indicated power of a multi-cylinder engine would be addition of indicated power of each eylindss Ip [of the Engin = Ipof unit No. i Ip of unit Nu. 2 + Ip of unit No. 3+Power Measurement c Ree ene Example: The area of an indicator diagram taken of one cylinder of a four cylinder, four stroke, internal combustion engine is 384 mm?, the length is 72 mm, and the indicator spring scale is ! mm = 2.0 bar. ‘Phe diameter of the cylinders is 260mm, — C stroke 310 mm, and rotational speed 300 rev/min. Caleulate the indicated power of the ‘engine assuming all cylinders develop equal power. oO jolut 2 Q We know Indicated Power [ip] in a cylinder =| PmLAN ° e 384 € Mean height of diagram | = So ES 3 72 ™ @ = 5.333 [mm] @ © bar sal Mean Indicated Pressure [Pm] = 5.333 fmm) x 2] 2& ! mm a 4 = 10.666 [bar] Qa oO I ee i Number of Power strokes per second (N] = 300. , 1 [Rev Oo i 00 2 |s o = 25 | Re oO 5 Indicated Power = Pm LAN oO = 10.666 bar} x 0.310 {mn} x px 2250 frmey x25. [1Vs) oO } = 0439 [ bar x mx m Us} : oO 2 10° Nm = 0439 x 10° eet [ = ] a = 43.9_kW. oO Total Indicated Power for four cylinders, = 4 x 43.9 assuming all cylinders are developing same power 175.61_kW. Ans.Power Measurement ean 13 Mechanical efficiency, Brake power and Shaft power: Power is absorbed in overcoming frictional resistances at the various rubbing surfaces of the engine, such as at the piston rings, cross head, top end bearings, shaft bearings ete. Hence only part of indicated power (ip) developed in the cylinders is transmitted as useful power at the engine shaft. The power absorbed in overcoming friction is termed friction power (fp). The power available at the shaft is termed shaft power (sp) or as this means of a brake it is also called brake power (bp). measured by ip- bp = Friction losses Mechanical Efficiency = Bike Power or Shalit Power Indicated Power It is common practice to state the efficiency as a percentage by multiplying the fraction by 100, A torsionmeter is usually used to measure the torque on the engine shaft. This torque, together with the rotational speed, will give the shaft power of the engine. Brake power is measured by applying a resisting torque as a brake on the shaft, the heat generated by the friction being transferred to, and carried away by circulating water. Let FIN} = resisting force of brake R[m] = is radius at which the force is applied Nirev/s} revolution per second of the engine Brake Power = 2 «NT 2mNx FR (because Torque T = FR) 2m NFR [Nmn/s} 2 NBR [Watt) Example: The torque on an engine shaft is found to be 320 KNm when it is rotating at 110 rev/min, Determine the shaft power of the engine, 2aNT Shaft Power Qnrevscc x torque 2ax x 320 [Ws x kNm]Power Measurement ee 1.4 Power Utilisation, Transmission Efficiency, Propeller Efficiency & Hull Efficiency: POWER UTILISATION ‘The engine shaft power is transmitted to the propeller with only minor wansmission losses. ‘The power delivered to propeller is called delivered power (dp). The transmission efficiency is a measure of effectiveness of transmitting shaft power to propeller. The operation of the propeiler results in a forward thrust on the thrust block and the propulsion of the ship at some particular speed. The propeller efficiency is a measure of effectiveness of the power conversion by the propeller. The hull efficiency is a measure of effectiveness of the power conversion by the hull trom thrust power to effective power, see figure 24 ip ~ Indicated power < ‘Sp = Shaft(Broke) power p= Delvered power = Thrust power Effective poier Figure 2.4 - Power Utilisation Efficiency _ Delivered power (dp) Shaft power (Sp) sp dp = Transmission losses Propeller Efficiency — Thrust power (tp) Delivered power (dp) dp - tp = Propeller losses Hull Bificiency _ Etfective power (ep) ‘Thrust power (tp) tp - cp = hull losses pate ewe “ar mat a One eB) a wa aaa! ot Del heal [emame ces tek tl Ce, Be =e 1Power Measurement ooo 1.5 Examples: |. Asingle cylinder two stoke Marine Diesel Engine has a cylinder diameter of 200 mm and a stoke length of 270 mm. if the Mean effective pressure [P ,._.,, ]i8 5 bar, when running at 360 rpm, calculate the indicated power developed. (Note: } bar = 10° Nim?) Solution: We know Indicated Power [ip] in a cylinder = PmLAN Mean Indicated Pressure [Pm] = 5 (bar) Stroke length (L] = 270 (mm} = 0.270 [m} ad ~ 4 200 |? L {m’} Area of piston [A] = eae | piston [A] = 1 “Ei x4 = 0.031428 frn’} per second 60 He fe] s Indicated Power [ip] = Pm LAN Number of Power Strokes [N] _ 360 [| = 5x 0.270 x 0.031428 x 6 [bar x mx nv x Us} = 0.25456 [108 x Nim? xm xm? x Is} = 0.25456 x 10? [10° x Nm/s} = 25.456 _IkW] Ans.Power Measurement NE 2. The area of an indicator diagram taken of one cylinder of a six cylinder, two-stroke large diesel engine is 450mm’, the length is 72 mm and the indicator spring scale is 1 mm = 1.5 bar. The diameter of the cylinders is 900 mm, stroke 1800 mm and rotational speed is 105 rp.m. Calculate (i) the indicated power of the engine assuming all cylinders develop equal power. If the mechanical efficiency of the engine is 97%, the transmission losses 3% and the propeller efficiency is 95%, determine (ii) the thrust power. Solution: We know Indicated Power [ip] in a cylinder = PmLAN Mean height of diagram = 450. [= 72 Limam = 6.25 [mm] Mean Indicated Pressure [Pm] = 6.25 [mm] x 1.5 [=] mm 9.375 [bar Stroke length (L] 1800 {unm} = 18{m} ‘Area of piston [A] = nd? 4 = wool ee Kl (my 10004 4. 0.6364 [mt Number of Power Strokes per second [N] 105, ES 60 3 = 15 [= $ Indicated Power [ip] per cylinder =. Pm LAN = 9375 x 18x 0.6364 x 1.75 [oar x mx m? x Is} = 18.7944 [10° x Nim? x mx m? x Is] = 1879.44 [kW] a Total Indicated Power of the engine, é 5 assuming alf cylinders develop similar a indicator diagrams & hence same power, = 187944 x 6 y 11276.64 [kW] Ans (i)Power Measurement a RSENS (ip) = 1276.64 (kW) ny Mechanical Efficiency = 97% Transmission losses 3% Propeller efficiency = «95% Mechanical Efficiency = = SP ip Pee eee 100 1276.64 sp 10938.34 {KW} Transmission Efficiency; £2. sp 97 dp (+2 Transmission losses are 3%) 100 1093834 dp = 10610.19 [kW) tu Propeller Efficiency = 2 Peo tp 100 10610.19 tp = 1007968 Thrust Power [tp] = 4079.68 _[kWI Ans (ii)Power Measurement 3. The area of an indicator diagram taken of one cylinder of a four cylinder, four-stroke intemal combustion engine is 378 sq. mm, the length is 70 mm, and the indicator spring scale is 1 mm = 1 bar. The diameter of the cylinders is 250 mm, stroke 300 mm, and rotational speed 5 revolutions per second. Calculate the i) indicated power of the engine. State any assumptions taken in your calculations. If frictional loss in the engine is 1.5 kW and transmission efficiency is 95%, find the if) delivered power Solution: We know Indicated Power fip] in a cylinder= PmLAN Mean height of diagram = ES} fe] 701 {mm = 54 [mm] ‘Mean Indicated Pressure [Pin] = 5.4 [mm} x 1.0 [ bar] | mmm, = 5.4 {bar} Stroke length {L] == 300 [mm] = 0.300 [m] Area of piston [A] = = m xf 2507? ¢ 1 fm 1000 4 = 0.04910 [m"] No. of Power Strokes per second [N] = SK Be 2 Ls Indicated Power [ip] per cylinder = Pm LAN = 54 x 0.300 x 0.04910 x 25 fbar x m xm’ x Us} 1 0.19888 {10% x Nim? x m xm? x Us} 0.19888 x 10? [10" x N/m? x m x m? x I/s} = 19.888 [kW] ' CEP) sek ia a te a tara el we De Osmo Joa 8, Lone @Power Measurement Total Indicated Power of the engine assuming all cylinders develop similar Indicator diagram & hence same power = 4 x 19.888 79.553_{kW] Ans (i) ip = 79.553 [kW] sp = ip ~ frictional losses 15 (kW) = 78.05 [kW] = 79 ‘Transmission Efficiency dp sp 95 dp ° 100. ~ 78.05 3 dp = 74.15 TAAS_{kW] Ans. (ii) Delivered Power [dp] >) | 4. Explain fully the meaning of the terms “Indicated Power” and “Brake Power”. State the relation between them. 5, Related to LC. Engines define the following terms: (i) Specific fuel consumption 9 (ii) Maximum continuous rating (iii) Propulsion efficiency (iv) Thrust (w) Power weight ratio Qo © 6. Explain indicated power, shaft power, thrust power, delivered power and hull efficiency. Ly @o qPower Measurement 7. The area of an indicator diagram taken of one cylinder of a four cylinder, four-stroke internal combustion engine is 378 sq. mm., the length is 70 mm, and the indicator spring scale is 1 mm = 100kN/sq. m. The diameter of the cylinders is 250 mm, stroke of the cylinder is 310 mm, and rotational speed 6 revolutions per second. Calculate the indicated power of the engine. State any assumptions taken in your conclusions. Solution: We know Indicated Power fip] in a cylinder = PmLAN Mean height of diagram = = 378 fin’? 70 mm = $4 {mm} Mean Indicated Pressure {Pm} = 5.4 x 100 fmm x KN.x 1 i mm = 54 x 100 px | & i m i Suoke length [L} = 310 [mm] ¥ = 0.310 [m} g Area of piston [A] = xd? G 4 i =n * [20] x Lim y 1000 4 O = 0.04910 [m"} a Number of Power Strokes per secorid {N}_ = 6 x1 [es t 2Ls G = fi q : é Indicated Power [ip] per cylinder. = = Pm LAN A = 54 x 100 x 0.310 x 0.04910 x 3 {kN/m? x mx m! x Us} = 24.658 [kW] oa! eC Total Indicated Power of the engine c hae i assuming all cylinders develop similar Indicator diagrams & hence same power 4 x 24.658 = 98.632 [kW] Ans ee COPower Measurement 8. A six cylinder two stroke diesel engine has a cylinder diameter of 690mm and a stroke of 1060mm. Calculate the total indicated power of the engine wheri the mean effective pressure in each cylinder is 5.3 bar and the speed is 112 rev/min, Sol We know Indicated Power fip] in a cylinder = PmLAN Mean Indicated Pressure [Pm] =5.3 {bar} Stroke length [L} = 1060 {mm} = 1.060 {mJ Area of piston [A] = nd 4 = mw x [690 690} 1000} 4 0.37407 [m*] Number of Power Strokes per second [N}_ = 2 [esl 60 Ls 1.8666 [=] Indicated Power [ip] per cylinder = Pm LAN = 53 x 1.060 x 0.37407 x 1.8666 [bar x m x m? x Is] = 3.9228 [10% x Nim? x mx m? x Us} = 392.28 {10° Nm/s} = 392.28 [kW] ‘Total Indicated Power of the engine assuming all cylinders develop similar Indicator diagrams. & hence same power 6 x 392.28 2353,20_1KWI AnsPower Measurement 2. POWER UTILISATION AT PROPELLER FOR PROPULSION. ‘The power conversion achieved by the propeller is a result of its rotating action and the geometry of the blades. The principal geometrical feature is. the pitch. 2.1 Pitch, Propeller Slip, Apparent Slip and Real or True Slip: PITCH ‘This is the distance that a blade would move forward or backward in one revolution if it did not slip with respect to the water. Circumferance 2 TTR Figure 2.5 - Propeller Pitch Referring to figure 2.5, consider a section of a blade. The angle at which it lies to the plane of rotation is termed the pitch angle and it can be seen from the development that oR radius from centte of shafi to section 6 = pitch angle then 2eR = circumference Pi Tan0 = 2nR Pitch = 2nR tan 0Power Measurement RS Farther constant pitch propellers are those where every part of the blade has the same pitch & thus, tends to move the same axial distance for one revolution of the propeller. The pitch angle of the blade therefore varies from root to tip such that R tan 6 is constant, hence the greater the radius of the section from the ceritre of the shaft, the smaller the angle at that part and the blades have a twisted appearance when viewed from tip to centre, ‘Most propellers have, however, a variation of pitch throughout the length of the blade, very carefully designed to take many factors into consideration and resulting in an increased efficiency, the pitch at the root usually being less than the pitch near the tip. The pitch of the propeller is then taken-as the average value over the blade length. Example: The pitch angles of a propeller blade measured at radii of 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5 and 3 metes are respectively 42, 31, 25, 22.5 and 19 degrees. Calculate the pitch of the propeller. Solution : Pitch = 2nR tan 6 At | metre radius, Pitch = xi xtand2 = 5.6596 AU LS metre radius, Pitch = Ix LS xtan3! = 5.6600 At 2 metre radius, Pitch = Ix 2x tan25 5.8568 At 2.5 metre radius, Pitch = = = nx 2.5 xtan22.5 = 65031 At 3 metre radius, Pitch = Inx3xtanl9 = 6.4871 Propeller pitch mean value 5.6596 + 5.6600 + 5.8568 + 6.5031 + 6.4871 5 6.0333 metres Ans.Power Measurement ASSEN PROPELLER SLIP ‘The distance the propeller would advance in unit time if working in an unyielding fluid is called the theoretical or propeller speed (V,). Vv, = Px N [m/min} P_x_N x 60 [Kno 1852 Where =P = Pitch in metres N Revs per min APPARENT SLIP ‘The actual distance the ship moves forward is less than the above because, as the propeller works in water, there is always a certain amount of slip. The slip is the difference between the speed of the propeller (V,) and the speed of the ship (V) and is expressed as a percentage of propeller speed. Propeller speed - Ship speed Propeller speed - Vx 100 Percentage slip = x 100 If the ship speed is measured relative to the surrounding water, i.e. by means of a log line , the propeller speed will invariably exceed the ship speed, giving a positive slip. If, however, the ship speed is measured relative to the land, then any movement of water will affect the slip, and should the vessel be travelling in a following current the ship speed may exceed the theoretical speed, resulting in a negative slip. This is the reason that slip calculated from above expression is not the real or true slip bat is only apparent slip. Example: The pitch of a propeller is 4.9 m and the speed of the ship is 13.5 knots when the propeller is turning at 95 rev/min. What is the percentage apparent stip of the propeller? Pitch x rewmin x 60 10 “x 1-852 49 x 95 x 60 = py 15:09 Knots) Propeller speed Percent apparent stip = 15.09 - 13.5 x_100_ 15.09 = 10.54% Ans.Power Measurement SND Example: The pitch angle of the blades of a propeller measured at radii of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0 metres are respectively 40, 29; 24 and 21 degrees. i) Calculate the pitch of the propeller ii) During a voyage when the propeller was tuming at 103 rev/min the actual speed of the ship was 12.8 knots, calculate the percentage slip. Solution : Pitch = mR tan @ At 0.5 m radius , Pitch 2 x 05 x tan 40? = 2.636 fm] At LOmeradius Pitch = 2e x 1.0 x tan29” = 3.483 {mj At 1S mradius, Pitch = 2 x LS x tan2d? = 4.197 fm) At 2.0 mradius, Pitch = 2 x 20 x tan2I" = 4823 [mj Propeller pitch = mean value = 2636 + 3.483 + 4.197 + 4.823 4 = 3785 Im} Ans (ij) Pitch {m]_x rewmin x 60 Pi Hi ed [knot oe oe ropeller speed {knots} Pes = EBS KIB xO _ 19.63 (Knois] 10? x 1.852 a 12.63 - 12.8 Propeller speed [knots] eee 100 fo 12.63 = = 1.346 percent Ans (ii) “Minus slip" is due to the ship wavelling. at a greater speed than the propeller. This is probably due to a strong following current.Power Measurement A REAL SLIP OR TRUE SLIP We have seen that ship apparent slip can be positive or even negative. This is why itis called slip apparent. However itis important to know the true (real) slip of the ship. ‘When a ship passes through water, it sets in motion particles of water in its neighbourhood, caused by friction between hull and the water. This moving water is known as wake. The propeller therefore receives water having speed of wake (V.) and further adds to ita speed of advance (V.) Sum of V, and V, is the speed V of the ship. V=V+V, Real slip is the difference between the propeller theoretical speed and the speed of advance (contribution by the propeller). expressed as a ratio or percentage of theoretical speed. Real stip Wake Speed is given by = wake fraction x Ship speed ‘Ships: ropelter Wake iishsaenysabeltaited eee Smee ase Spes Sect | Vy =x oo. ef Wake fraction *w’ may be obtained from various expressions available Example: A propeller of 4.5 m pitch turns at 120 rev/min and drives the ship at 15.5 knots. If the wake fraction is 0.30 calculate the apparent slip and the real slip. 45 x 120 x 60 + v, = 48-4120 x60 ; 1852 ¥ = 17.49 [Knots] ‘ Apparent Slip = 1749 - 155 tag y 17.49 ! B = 138% ; v,-v, Real Slip x 100 E i: 5 E 17.49 = ¢ ) x 15.5 17.49 _ 1749 ~ 1085 iy 17.49 ( = 32.96% Ans. 'Power Measurement Example: A ship on a voyage between two ports travels 2400 nautical miles in eight days. On the voyage the engine has made 820000 revolutions. The propeller pitch is 6 m, Calculate the percentage propelter apparent slip. 820000 x 6 1852 2656.59 [M] Theoretical distance = = ‘Theoretical distance - Actual distance ———E—e————— or x 100 heoretical distance Percent Apparent Slip = e 2659.59 _- 2400 gg 2659.59 9.66% Ans.te nm en ek ee ee os at memos ean ne “hom ee ek, Power Measurement ee eC 2.2. Examples: 1. A ship’s propeller has a pitch of 5.1m. After 24 hrs, of steaming at a propeller speed of 91 revsfmin, it was found that vessel has actually moved 331 nautical miles. Find the percentage slip. Propeller speed - Ship speed Percentage slip = Propeller speed a vt Propeller speed {knots}. Pitch {m}_x_rewimin 10" x 1.852 Sx 91 x 60 10° x 1.852 { = 15.03. [knots] " 331 M Ship speed = -—| oe 24 Ee] = 13.79 {knots} 15.03 15.03 = 8.23% Ans. Percentage slip = 8.23 % is the percentage slip or more correctly percentage apparént slip of the ship 2. Define: (Apparent Slip (i) Real Slip i Gi) Speed of advance (iv) Wake I () Theoretical Speed |Power Measurement ES 3. A ship's propeller has a pitch of 5.4m, After 24 tys. of steaming at a propeller speed of 6540 revsfhr, it was found that vessel has actually moved 386 nautical miles, Find the percentage slip. Solut Percentage slip SH eope Nor speed eC omip speed A +100. Propeller speed Propeller speed {knots} pitch {m]_x_tevimin x 60 10° x 1.852 _ S4_x_ 6540 10) x 1.852 49.07. {knots} Ship speed = 386 [_M_ 24 Hr = 16.08 {knots} Percentage slip = 19.07 _- 16.08 x 100 19.07 = 15.65% Ans. 15.65% is the percentuge slip or more correctly percentage apparent slip of the ship. 4. A ship of 12000 tonnes displacement is 120 m long, 17.5 m beam and floats at a draft of 7.5 min SW. The propeller has a pitch of 3.52 m and, when running at 100 rpm produces ship's speed of 12 knots, Calculate the apparent slip and real slip. The wake fraction (w) may be found from the expression, w = 0.5 C, - 0.05 Solution: C, = Volume displaced L=length; b= beam; d= draught; Lxbxd Volume Displaced = Displacement 1.0125 c = 12,000 0.7433 1.0125 x 120 x 17.5 x 75Power Measurement wake fraction (w) 0.5.C, - 0.05 0.5 x 0.7433 - 0.05 = 03216 wake speed (V,) = wV i Speed of advance (V,) = V- V, V (t-w) (I~ 0.3216) 12.0 = 814 Propeller speed (V,) = pitch (m)_x_fevimin_x 60 [knots] 10° x 1.852 ( (V,) = 352_x 100 x 60 = 11.40 [knots} 10° x 1.852 Percentage real slip. = Percentage apparent slip = AnsPower Measurement NEN 5. The pitch angles of a propeller blade measured at radii of 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, and 3 meters are respectively 42, 32, 26, 22, and 19 degrees. Calculate (i) the pitch of the propeller. This propeller turns at 110 rp.m. and drives the ship at 15 knots. If the wake fraction is 0.30, cal- culate (ji) the apparent slip and (iii) the real slip. Pitch = mR tan 0 At 1.0 m radius , Pitch Qn x 10 x tan 42 5.6574 [m) At 1.5 m radius , Pitch Qe ox LS x tan 32 5.8893. [m] At 20 mradius Pitch = 2m x 20 x tan 26° = 6.1290 [m] At 2.5 m radius , Pitch Qn x 25 x tain 22 6.3464 {m} At 3.0 mradius, Pitch = 2m x 3.0 x tan 19° = 6.4904 [m} 5.6574 + 5.8893 + 6.1290 + 6.3464 + 6.4904 i Propeller pitch —e————E—E—e——e—E—EOE—rro ° = 61025 fm) Ans (i) Propeller speed - Ship speed : = Propeller speed = Ship speed, 99 © Percentage apparent slip Propeller speed x of ( pitch {mJ x revimin x _ 60 Propelier speed {knots} = oO baad 10" x 1.852 c 6.1025_x_110 x 60 Percentage apparent sli pile ree See ULB Se © ° 10 x 1852 @ = 21.7476 {knots} OF Ship speed = 15 {knots} 21.1476 -_15 Percentage apparent stip, = 2/7476 -_15 x j99 ee 21.7876 = 31.03% Ans (ii) e Propeller speed _- Speed of adh e Percentage Real slip =_-—«wOPeler speed’ _-_ Spree of atvane®. x 100 © Propeller speed © Speed of advance = (I~ wake fractiap) x ships speed = (1-030) x 15 i = 10.5 {knots} _t Percentage Real slip = ee x 100 a = SUTA% Ans (iii) ct |c 6. The pitch angle of the blades of a propeller measured at radii of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 & 2.0 metres are respectively 38, 28, 23 and 20 degrees. Calculate (i) the pitch of the propeller. Doring 4 voyage when the propeller wats turning at 98 xpm, the actual speed of the ship was 12.3 knots. Calculate (ii) the Zoage apparent stip. (iii) Make an analysis of the answer Solution: Pitch = 2nR tan @ At 0.5 mradius Pitch = 2m x 05 x tan 38" = 2.4555 [m} At LO m radius, Pitch = 2m x 10 x tan 28" = 3.3422 [mJ ‘At 15 m radius , Pitch Qn x 1.5 x tan 23 = 4.0022 [m] AU 2.0 m radius , Pitch Qn x 20 x tn 22 = 4.5756 {m] + 4.0022 + 4.5756 4 = 35939 Im) Ans (i) Percentage apparent slip. Propeller speed - Ship speed Propeller speed 2.4555 + 3.34: Propetier pitch = x 100 pitch (ml x rev/min x 60 Propeller speed (knots), EXO MM! * revitnin x 60 fee loo x 1.852 _3.5939_x 98 x 60 10” x 1.852 Al {knots} Ship speed 12.3 [knots] Percentage apparent stip = LL41_- 1230, sag ray Ans (ii) “Minus slip’ is due to the ship wavelling at a greater speed than the propeller speed. This is probably due to a strong following current. Ans (iii) 7. Explain in brief: - (i Propetler stip (ii) Wake fraction (ii) Speed of advance (iv) Admiralty Coefficient. ) ia eRe HH Hee Cee eet er reat oS eon eae oe ce ee Cece ce eee eee «Power Measurement se SESS 8. The pitch angle of the blades of a propeller measured at radii of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 & 2.0 metres are respectively 40, 29. 24 & 21 degrees. Calculate (i) the pitch of the propeller. During a voyage when the propeller was turing at 103 rpm, the actual speed of the ship was 12.8 knots. Calculate (ii) the Sage apparent slip. (ii) Make an analysis of the answer. Solution: Pitch = 2nR tan At 0.5 m radius . Pitch Qe x 05 x tan ao? = 2.6372 [m} At LO meadius , Pitch = 2% x 10 x tan 29% = 3.4842 [mj At LS muadius , Pitch = 2m x 15 x tan 24” = 4.1979 Im} At 20 mradius. Pitch = 2m x 20 x tan2I° = 4.8257 [mJ peal pet _ 2.6372 + 34842 + 4.1979 + 4.8257 4 = 3.7863 [m} Ans (i) Percentage apparent slip = Propeller speed - Ship speed Propeller speed itch [m} revh 60 Propetter speed {knots} TOS x 1.852 it _ 3.7863 103 x 60 a 10° x 1.852 = 12.6345 [knots] Ship speed = 128 [knots] Percentage apparent stip = = 2238 -_ 128, 199 12.63 = 23107% Ans (ii) “Minus slip" is due to the ship travelling at a greater speed than the propeller speed. This is probably due to a strong following current, Ans (ii) 9. With respect fo propellers, define the following: (#) Apparent slip {b) Wake speed (c) Real slip.i Power Measurement s propeller has a pitch of 3,28m. The truc slip is 35% and the ship's speed is 1.5 times the speed of advance. If the ship uses 20 tonnes of fuel per day at 12 knots, with conswmp- tion varying as the cube of the speed, determine the daily fuel consumption when the propeller runs at 100 RPM. Solutior Fuel consumption/day a Fuel consumption /day Fuel consumption /day Fuel consumption /day = Fuel consumption Jday = Ship speed, 7 For finding ship speed, we have: Ship speed = Percentage Real slip = Percentage Real slip = Propeller speed [knots] 35 = Speed of advance = & ship speed, = From (i) we have 20 Fuel consumption /day Fuel consumption /day Daily fuel consumption (ship speed) [ ship speed, ship speed. 20 (tonne) to be found, 12 [knots] 15x speed of advance Propeller speed - Speed of advance x 100 Propeller speed x rev/min x 60 x 1.852 1oo_x 60 328 x 10° x 1.852 10.6263 {knots} 10.6263 - V, x 100 10.6263 6.9071 {knots} 15 x 6.9071 10.36 {knots} [=e 12.86 fronne} 36 [tonne] Ans. TTT | : } ji ' I 3 ee ated "ee |Power Measurement oe EA A 10. a) A propeller has a diameter of 5.2m, a pitch ratio of 1.12 and works at an apparent slip of 7%. Fora ship speed of 17.5 knots determine the revs/minute. b) If the length of the ship is 225m, breadth is 38m, and floats ata draught of 12m insea water with displacement of 89,000 tonnes, find the real slip given wake fraction, w=0.5 c, - 0.05 Solution: a) Ship speed V = 17.5 {knots} Percentage apparent slip = 7% Percentage apparent slip = Propeller speed - ship speed x 100 Propeller speed “175 x 100 0.07 Propelior speed (V,) = 18.82 Propeller speed (V,) = pitch (m] x rev/min x 60. {knots} 10° x 1.852 Pitch = Pitch ratio x diameter 112 «5.2 = 5,824 {m]} Vy = 5.824{m 18.82 = 5.824{m] x revsinin x 60 10? x 1.852 revs/min = 100 Ans b) C, = Volume Displaced L= length; b=beam; d= draught Lxbxd Volume displaced = Displacement 1.0125 ¢, = 89,000 = 0.846 1012S x 225 x38 x 12Power Measurement ee ES wake fraction (w) = 0.5C, - 0.05 = 0.5 x 0.846 -0.05 = 0.373 wake speed (V.)) = wV Speed of advance (V,) = V-V, =V(i-w) =(1-0373)175 = 10.97 Percentage Real Slip = V,-V, x 100 v. = (18.82- 10.97) x100-= 41.7% Ans 18.82Power Measurement A 3. POWER ESTIMATION & FUEL ESTIMATION 3.1 Power Estimation: The power developed by a ships machinery is used to overcome the ships resistance and propel it at some speed. The power required to propel a ship of a known displacement at some spéed can be approximately determined using the Admiralty coefficient method The total resistance of a ship, R, can be expressed as follows: Total Resistance R, = pSV" Where pis density of water fkg/m'] S_ is wetted surface area [m"] V is speed [Knots} Now wetted surface area ot (Lengthy? Displacement, A cc (Length)! Thus wetted surface area @ (Displacement) a (Ae ‘Most merchant ships will be slow of medium speed and the index ‘n’ may therefore be taken as 2. The density, p, is considered as a constant term since all ships will be in sea water oO Total resistance, R, a A™ V2 | ° Propeller power (p) &@ = R, x V oO ao AB VEY lot e A™ Vv S ora constant. = —— i P oO Hs This constant is known as the “Admiralty Coefficient’ and may be used for estimating 8 the power of the ships engines under different conditions of displacement and speed, or for ay the comparison of the engine power of similar ship, as iP gine p P. PAS EH eEN x Vs Where P is in KW P cr P A is in Tonne V is in KnotsPower Measurement Example : A ship of 15000 tonnes displacement has a speed of 14 knots. If the Admiralty Coefficient is 410, calculate the power developed by the machinery Solution: Admiralty Coefficient ARy Power developed PAGEL c a (1s000y* x (14)" - 410 = 4070 KW. Ans. Example: The power developed by a ships engine was 3,200 kW when her displacement was 10,000 tonne and speed 14 knots. Estimate the power required to run at a speed of 16 knots when her displacement is 12,000 tonne. 7 eo P, at 10000%* x14 3200 : 12000] [16] * P, = 32000 x [eae] x fiel KW. Ans. In case where there is no of very little change in displacement of the ship, the formula will be Speed,’ Power, 3.2. Fuel Estimation: The fuel conssimption in a given time (ie. per hour or per day) of an engine depends upon the power developed. The power estimation method described previously can therefore be modified to provide fuel consumption values, The rate of fuel consumption is the amount of fuel used in a unit time, e.g, tonne/day.Power Measurement Since fuel consumprion in a given time a power ABV nen os ~ ‘Kdmiralty Coefficient any ‘Thus the fuel consumptionday = EL Sachin Where the fuel coefficient is considered constant a number of relationships can be built up to deal with changes in ship speed, displacement, etc. ARV? ie. Fucl coefficient = EGer consumption day ~ Fuel Where | & 2 relates to condition | & 2. Fuel consumption /day Fuel consumption Jday Considering the situation for a particular voyage over some distance. Fuel consumption/day x number of days = voyage consumption Voyage consumption, Fuel consumption /day _x number of days Voyage consumption, ~ Fuel consumption day “x number of days, Voyage consumption, Fuel consumption /day _x_ Voyage distance, x Speed, Voyage consuimption, ~ Fuel consumption /day “x Voyage distance, “X” “Speed, [: Number of day o —Yovage die | ‘Speed and from an earlier expression Fuel consumption day _ fa, | x Fuel consumption jay ~ Voyage distance, Voyage consumpt Voyage distance, Voyage consumption, [3] a f = 4 Voyage consumption, 4) ‘Voyage consumption,4, Voyage distance “Voyage consumption, =| A, | ‘Voyage distance, Power Measurement Example: A vessel uses 300 tonne of fuel on a voyage of 3000 nautical miles iravelling at a speed. ‘of 12 knots when her displacement is 10,000 tonne. Estimate the fuel required for a voyage of 1500 nautical miles at a speed of 15 knots and displacement of 14,000 tonne. tu Voyage consumptior AJ , YP, ovage distance, Voyage consumption, ~ | a, vy, Voyage distance, Voyage consumption, [140007], [15], 1500 300 ~ — {10000. 12 3000 Voyage consumption, = 300 x 14x 125? x 0.5 = 293.3 tonne Ans Example: A vessel with a displacement of 12,250 tonne burns 290 tonnes of fuel when travelling at a speed of 15 knots on a voyage of 2850 nautical miles. On a voyage of 1800 nautical mites at a speed of 13 knots and a displacement of 14,200 tonnes estimate the quantity of fuel that will be burnt. Voyage consumption Voyage consumption, 14200°P* [13 1800 290 = [12250 15] 2850 Voyage consumption, = 290 x 1.103 x 0.75 x 0.63 41S1.14 tonne Ans.Power Measurement I aE EET Example: A vessel of 10,000 tonne displacement burns 25 tonne of fuel per day when her speed is 12 knots. Calculate the probable consumption of fuel over a voyage of 3000 nautical miles at a speed of 11 knots when the displacement is 11,000 tonne. Solution ; The original fuel consismption is given as 25 tonne per day. Assume the original voyage to be of one day run which is 12 x 24 nautical miles and the consumption of fuel For the voyage is thus 25 tonne. Voyage consumption, Voyage distance, Voyage consumption, Voyage distance, Voyage consumption, _ i . 3000 - , 12 x 24 3000 Voyage consumption, = Gear ieeo i 7 12 x 24 Example: A ship travels 900 nautical miles at a speed of 12.5 knots and burns 150 tonne of fuel over the voyage. Estimate the distance the ship could travel at a speed of 13.5 knots on 250 tonne of fuel tution Assuming the displacement to be the same in each case: Voyage consumption, bP fv, 2 Voyage distatice, xi x qo V; Voyage distance, Voyage consumption, 250 150 Voyage distance,3.3 Examples: 1. A ship’s main propulsion plant burns 40 tonnes of fuel per day when her displacement is 16,500 tonnes and speed 14.5 knots. Auxiliary engine burns 2 tonnes of fuel per day when at sea or in port. Estimate the total consumption of fuel for a voyage of 2,040 M at a speed of 17 knots when the displacement is. 13,000 tonnes. Solu To find i) Voyage consumption for main propulsion plant, Voyage distance, ainee cae Voyage distance, Voyage consumption, [6 if | ear x 4, Voyage consumption, 7 Consider first voyage is uf 24 huts, Voyage consumption, = 40 {tonne) Voyage consumption, = to be found 4, = 16,500 ftonne} vy, = 14.5 {knots} Voyage distance, = 14.5 x 24 = 348 [M] A, = 13,000 {tonne} v, = 17 {knots} Voyage distance, = 2040 [M} 40 i piss so), ps 43) 348 ‘Voyage consumption, = 13.00 2040 Voyage consumption, = 274.95 [tonne] ii) Voyage consumption for auxiliary engine, per day consumption x No. of days 2040 oa pees 17 x24 = 10 {tonne} Total consumption during the voyage = 274.95 + 10 284.95 [tonne] AnsPower Measurement A ship having a light displacement of 6,000t, takes on board 7,500t of cargo, 300t of stores and 200t of fuel. Calculate the speed which she should make in order to. cover 700M on half her bunker fuel. The daily fuel consumption at a load displacement of 15,000t and speed of 14 Knots is 60t. olution: Voyage consumption, _ fa Pe [YEP Voyage distance Voyage consumption, — [A] * | VY, Voyage distance, Consider first voyage is of 24 hours. =. Voyage consumption, 60 {tonne} 4 = 15,000 {tonne] v, = 14 knots} Voyage distance, = 14 x 24 = 336 [M) Voyage consumption, = .200 2 = 100 ftonne} . =, 6000 + 7500 + 300 + 200 [tonne) = *14,000 {tonne} * Though fuel is consumed during the voyage, but we shall consider the displacement to be steady at 14,000 {tonne} y, = tobe found Voyage distance, 700 [M] 0 _ 150001”, ey? x 336 100 14,000 vt 700 Sknots} Ans.Power Measurement A 3. A Vessel left port with 280 tonnes of fuel in bunkers, covered a journey of 2.250 nautical miles ata speed of 12 knots and arrived at her destination with 40 tonnes of fuel in hand. What (i) speed would have enabled the ship to arrive at her destination with the same reserve of fuel 3 if she started off from port with 201 tonnes in the bunkers? What would be the (ii) daily consumption of fuel at this new speed? Solution; ay? wp Voyage distance, [ | . [% Voyage distance, Voyage consumption, = 280 - 40 240. tonne} 12 [knots] 2250 [M} < q Voyage distance, Voyage consumption, = 201 - 40 161 {tonne} v. to be found Voyage distance, 2250 [MJ yt x 2250 V, 2250 98 ots] Ans, (i) 161 Daily consumption at this u Days to.cover 2250 miles Days 10 cover 2250 [M} at 9.828 [knots] 2250 24 x 9.828 = 9. 538 [days] te 9.538 = 1687 [lonne] Ans. (ii) Daily consumption at new speed —Power Measurement 4, A ship has a fuel consumption of 60 tonne per 24 hours when the displacement is 15,500 tonne and the ship speed 14 knots. Determine the ship speed during a passage of 640 nantical miles if the displacement is 14,500 tonne and the total fueRconsumption is 175 tonne. Solution: Voyage consumption, _ [4] . fv, FF, Voyage distance Voyage consumption, a 5 Voyage distance, Consider first voyage is of 24 hours, ». Voyage consumption, = 60 {tonne} A = 15,500 tonne} y, = 14 [knots] Voydige distance, = 14 x 24 = 336 [M] Voyage consumption, = 175 Ay = 14,500 {tonne} y, to be found Voyage distance, 640 [M} oO 175Power Measurement AE 5. A vessel on a voyage of 2500 Nautical mites has a daily fuel consumption of 30 tonnes at 18 knots. The return journey at the same lacement is made at 14 knots. Determine the fuel saving in tonnes. Soluti Voyage consumpti fap, —™ Voyge consumption, A, y, Consider first voyage is of 24 hours, Voyage distance, Voyage distance, Voyage consumption, = 30 {tonne} vy, = 18 knots} Voyage distance, = 24x 18 {Mj = 432 [MI] Voyage consumption, = to be found vy, = 14 {knots} Voyage distance, = 2500 [M] zt 30 es | aa 432 Voyage consumption, 14 2500 Voyage consumption, = 105.02 [tonne] <. Save in fuel on rem = 22% 2500 - jos.02 24x 18 = 68,5911 [tonne] Ans‘Solution: Voyage consumption, ‘Voyage consumption, Voyage consumption, i Voyage distance, ‘Voyage consumption, Voyage distance, 248, 163 Daily consumption at this, No. of days at sea Daily consumption at new speed Power Measurement a A 6. A Vessel left port with 288 tonnes of fuel in bunkers, covered a journey of 2,244 nautical miles ‘at a speed of 12 knots and arrived at her destination with 40 tonnes of fuel in hand. What (i) speed would have enabled the ship to arrive at her destination with the same reserve of fuel if she started off from port with 203 tonnes in the bunkers? What would be the (ii) daily con- sumption of fuel at this new speed? We know, when displacement in each case is same that =~ Voyage distance, ‘Voyage distance, 288 248 tonne} 12 [knots] 2244 [M} --40 203 - 40 163 tonne] to be found out 2244 [M} 127? be * aa 2.876 [knots] Ans. (i) 163 "No. of days at sea 2244 24 x 9.876 9. 466. [days] 163 9.466 2244 17.218 {tonne} Ans (ii)Power Measurement a 7. fon one leg of a loaded passage a vessel displacing 12,000: is found to consume 2101 HFO. for a distance of 2020M on an average of {2knots, project the HFO required for the next leg of 3400M with a displacement of 10,000t at a speed of 16knots. : Soliatio . Voyage consumption, Voyage distance ‘Voyage consumption, Voyage distance, Voyage consumption, 210 {tonne} A = 12,000 {tonne} vy, = 12 [knots} Voyage distance, = 2020 [M} ; Voyage consumption, = to be found out : A, = 10,000 {tonne} vy, = 16 fknots} Voyage distance, = 3400 [M} 210 12,0007 2 2020 Voyage consumption, Feens| 3400, Voyage consumption, =" $56.53 [knots] Ans.Power Measurement A 8. A vessel loads bunkers for a voyage of 4500 miles at 16 knots. ‘The main engine consumes 50 tonnes per day at this speed, the auxiliary plant requiring 2 tonnes per day, which is independent of speed. Just before sailing at 1824 hours on 3° March, the vessel is ordered to proceed on voyage at 14 knots. At 0624 hours on 11* March, orders are received to proceed for the rest of the voyage at 16.2 knots. Calculate: (a) The estimated time of arrival (b) The bunkers remaining on atvival Solution: i) Voyage consumption for main engine when displacement in each case is same is given by = Voyage consumptior Voyage consumption, V,]? __ Voyage distance, V,1 * Voyage distance, For first leg Consider first voyage is of 24 hours. Voyage consumption, = 50 {tonne} y, = 16 {knots} Voyage distance, = 16 x 24 [MI = 384 (MI Voyage consumption, = to be found (3% March 1824 hrs. to 11" March 0624 hs. or 7.5 days) y, = 14 tknots} Voyage dist = 4x Wx 75 = 2520 [MJ 50 167? 384 Voyage consumption, EA x 3520 Voyage consumption, 251.22 ftonne} Auxiliary Plant consumption 2x15 15 [tonne]o % we Power Measurement AC For 2" Voyage Distance, (Distance to be covered) Voyage consumption, 50 Voyage consumption, Voyage consumption, Auxiliary Plant Consumption Bunker remaining on board = Initial bunker Initial bunkers = (50 +2) x = 609.375 *. Bunker remaining on board Speed in 2'leg ie. V, is Distance = 4500 - 2500 1980 (MI 16.2 [knots] to be found = fel 1980, 264.29 [tonne] 1980 162 x 24 = 10.18 ftonne] = (251.22 + 264.29) - Aux. Plant Consumption 4500 16 x 24 tonne} = 609.375 - 515.51 - (15 + 10.18) = 68.685__ Ans. (b) = 16.2 [knots] = 1980 [M) Days at sea from 11" March 0624 hrs. ‘The estimated time of arrival 1980 162 x 24 = 5.0926 = 5 days 2 hours & 13.34 minute =1 March 0838 hrs. Ans (a) ; > h t See ey CaeR Ra eC ae eee peer ee Oyknots,*f which 7 tonnes per reserve for a speed of 19 knots. Voyage consumptioi Voyage consumption, Consider the first voyage Voyage consumption, V, Voyage distance, Voyage consumption, v. Voyage distance, 68 ‘Voyage consumption, Voyage consumption, To calculate 4 days reserve we No. of days at sea Auxiliary plant, consumption we have Fuel consumption /day Fuel consumption /day 68 Fuel consumption, /day Power Measurement a ‘A Vessel of 10,000 tonnes displacement constmes fuel at the rate of 75 tonnes per day at 18 day are consumed by the auxiliary plant. Calculate the bunkers required 10 complete a passage of 3000 miles at 12 knots, allowing for 4 days Solution:, When displacement remains same, the voyage consumption is given by :- ey Voyage distance, ol V, Voyage distance, is of 24 hours = 15-7 = 68 {tonne} = 12 [knots] = 18 x 24 (M} = 432 (Mj = tobe found = 12 {knots} = 3000 [Mj Wy? 432 2 fH * 3000 = 209.87 {tonne} @ have = 3000 12 x 24 = 10.4166 {days} for (10.4144 ) days is = 7 x 144l 100.87 a Gi) ‘And for main propulsion plant to find for 4 days reserve required at 19 [knots],Power Measurement cr a EA Fuel consumption day = 79.97 {tonne} 7997 x 4 Oo 2. 4 days reserve at 19 [knots] is = 319.90 {tonne] (i QO Bunker required = (i) Mii) + iii) a = 20987 + 10087 + 319.90 = 630.63 {tonne} Ans. BO cee > 10. A ship’s speed is increased by 20% above normal for 10 hours, reduced by 10% below normal for | 8 hours and for the remaining hours in the day, the speed is normal. Calculate the percentage variation in fuel consumption in that day from normal. Fuel consumption, /day =P ayy, P Vz? oe Fuel consumption, 7 day [ =| eal i 7 Let Normal FC/day = x and Normal Speed = V Bo : 3 #o Leg I FC, /day = |12V1 Since Ais same fete = [ee] ° Be FC, /day = (1.2)x = 1.728 per day BS) ce and fuel for 10 hours = 1.728x x 10 = 0.72x ic) . 24 t Leg I FC, / day = fee vy]? Oe FC, / day = 0.729% per day OO and fuel for 8 hours = 0.729% x 8 = 0.243x 4 iO 1. Leg I FC / day x ' and fuel for 6 hours = x x 6 = 0.25x \ ry 1 Total consumption per day = 0.72" + 0.243% + 0.25% = 1.213% + Ye variation of daily fuel consumption = (1.213x — x) x 100 = 21.3% AnsSteam Turbines CHAPTER - 3 Steam Turbines Contents 1. General 2. Types of Turbines 2.1. The Impulse Turbine 2.2. The Reaction Turbine 3. Gearing 4, Feed System 4.1.1. Open Feed System 4.1.2. Closed Feed System 5. Turbine, Boiler Feed and the Boiler-as a system 6. Warming through a Steam ‘Turbine 6.1. Warming through of main propulsion turbine 6.2, Warming through of cargo oil pump turbineSteam Turbines GENERAL ‘The steam turbine is a device for obtaining mechanical work fiom the energy stored in steam, Steam enters the turbine with a high energy content and leaves after giving up most of it. The high pressure steam from the boiler is expanded in nozzles to create a high-velocity jet of steam. The nozzle acts to convert heat energy in the steam into kinetic energy. This jet is directed into blades ‘mounted on the periphery of @ wheel or disc (figure 3.1), ‘There are two types of turbines, the impulse and the reaction. And the way the steam is, expanded at the blades decides if the turbine is a impulse turbine or a reaction turbine. 2. TYPES OF TURBINE 2.1 The Impulse Turbine AAs stated carlicr, in the impulse turbine the high pressure steam passes into nozzles wherein it expands from high pressure to a lower pressure thus the pressure energy in the steam is converted into velocity energy (kinetic energy). ‘The high velocity steam is directed on (o blades fitted around the turbine whee!, the blades are of curved section so that the direction of the steam is changed thereby imparting a force to the blades to push the wheel around, see Figure 3.1 Applying Principal of Force as learnt in mechanics Force = Mass x Acceleration Mass x change in velocity Thus, Force on each blade = Mass of steam flowing on x change of velocity of steam while each blade passing over the blade. Hence as steam blows across a curved blade of rotor, it changes its direction, thus changes its velocity, and change in velocity causes acceleration, that causes a force to produce, which will tum the wheel The best efficiency is obtained when the linear speed of the blades is half of the velocity of the steam entering the blades, Thus, when one set of nozzles is used to expand the steam from i high supply pressure right down to the final tow pressure, the resultant velocity of the steam from the nozzle is very high, and (o obtain a high efficiency it means therefore that the wheel should run ata very high rotational speed. This is not practically suitable because of high forces, vibration and failures that can result ‘Thus in the pressure-compounded impulse turbine, the drop in steam pressure is carried out in stages. each stage consi 1g of one: set of no7zles and one bladed turhine wheel, the series of wheels being keyed to the one shaft with nozzle plates fixed to the easing between the wheels,Steam Turbines And in the velocity-compounded impulse turbine, the complete drop in steam pressure takes place in one set of nozzles but the drop in velocity of the steam is carried out in stages, by absorbing only a part of the steam velocity in each row of blades on separate wheels and having guide blades fixed to the casing at each stage between the wheels to guide the steam in the proper direction on to the moving blades. co — Figure 3.1 - Impulse Turbine - working, principle Qo © © @ ®| cna Steam Turbines 4 oo ‘The pressure-velocity-compounded turbine is a combination of the two, (figure 3.2). These turbines can be used for many dutied such as ‘Ahead running propulsion turbine’ or ‘turbine for cargo oil pump’ called COPT. 9 i § i be 0OdBes , BEE O £8 $88 ) 228 g | esse | RS gk joo Be «ESF yg 5 3s g ¢ gf sa é 38 5 S ais Sl ag 2. © By {Sn b : © 834 “ . s ge | ) g oO HESS ee 2 Q | = a 5 a t be 7 2 @ | E : ; a C07 & Wo Ef. at a > 2 og & sil g atee eee ‘ z 2 yo 3 é 3 a. : S F gO E avowed _ fo For astern running, same shaft can be used but will have one more set of rotor blades O and fixed blades on left hand side as shown in figure 3.3. To accomplish astern running, RHS steam (Ahead turbine steam) is to be shut, and LHS steam (Astern turbine steam) is to iy be opened.Steam Turbines t Exhaust steom to condensor Figure 3.3 - Main propulsion - Ahead Aster Turbine 2.2 The Reaction Turbine: ‘When the high-pressure steam enters the reaction turbine, itis first passed through a row. of guide blades in the casing, Here steam is expanded slightly, causing a litle drop in pressure with a resulting increase in velocity. ‘This steam is now guided on to the blades in the first row of the rotor, giving an impulse effect at the starting section of these blades. However, the main transfer of energy takes place when this steam is allowed to expand further at rotor blades, so that the steam issues from these blades at a high relative velocity in a direction approximately opposite to the movement of the blades, thus exerting, a further force due t6 reaction, see figure 3.4. ‘The principle of “reaction force on the blade” can be understood by imagining some one is standing on the blade and suddenly takes off. The reaction of leaving the blide will cause the movement of these blades in opposite directionExpanded steam coming out ot high velocity a thus gli renction force on rotor, Movernent of retor : blades & rotor 4 because of reaction Steam Turbines Inlet stearn Guide blades fixed fon cosing only auide steam into ‘moving blades rotor biedes ~~ cuise blades fixed in casing ~ Moving blode mounted on rotor steam guided on Steam pressure drops & velocity increase ot eoch ‘olor Bote, steam therfore escopes ‘ut from och tolor Bote ot igh velociy. Escaping loan gies rection force to rotor blades & rotor Figure 3.4 - Reaction turbine - Principle of workingSteam Turbines ——————— 3. GEARING Steam turbines operate at speeds upto 6000 rev/min. Medium-speed diesel engines operate upto about 750 rev/min. The best propeller speed for efficient operation is in the region of 70 10 90 rpm. The turbine or engine shaft speed is reduced to that of the propeller by the use of a system of gearing, see figure 3.5. Helical gears have been used and remain 4 part of most systems of gearing. Epicyclic gears with their compact, light weight construction are being increasingly used in marine transmission Le pal 1F BA —| BZ—- Intermedite — Z \= ‘whee! coupting Te stern Bearings oe ay Pinion GeoeTeeth Figure 3.5 - Turbines with double - reduction gearing 7 © ©: | @ gSteam Turbines 4. FEED SYSTEM 4.1 Open Feed System: ‘An Open Feed System for an auxiliary boiler is shown in figure 3.6. The exhaust steam from various services is condensed in the condenser. ‘The condenser is circulated by seawater and may be operated at atmospheric pressure of under a small amount of vacuum. ‘The condensate then drains under the action of gravity to the hotwell and feed filter tank. Where the condenser is under an ammount of vacuum, extraction pump will be ‘used to transfer the condensate to the hot-well. The hot-well will also receive drains from possibly contaminated systems, e.g, fuel oil heating system, oil tank heating system etc. These may arrive from a drain cooler or from an observation tank. An observation tank, where fitted, permits inspection of the drains and their discharge to the oily bilge if contaminated. The feed filter and hotwell tank is aranged with intemal baffies to bring about pretiminary oil separation from any contaminated feed or drains. Exhoust steom from i.cor 2.08 Hooter STenk Heatingete. Condensec (ay be ot sight voouum. Hance extacoa pup wi be various fuel oi fo used) heath \} From Brain cool rk Feed Wot well & ‘Observation Tonk ‘ed fee Heater tone oo-Gpe—L} Over flow Feed voter ; 2 INE fain tnt Figure 3.6 - Open feed systemSteam Turbines RE At The feed water is then passed through charcoal or cloth filters to complete the cleaning process. Any overflow from hot-well passes to the feed water tank which provides additional feed water to the system when required, Feed heater may be of direct contact type, which will de-aerate in addition to heating. De-aeration is the removal of oxygen in feed water, which can cause corrosion problem in the boiler. ‘Sand steom 4.2 Closed Feed System: oes hee Extroction pump : ey Heating \t a) ‘Stearn a \ ~ ish Super fester Deoerator presaxe SF fecter To Air ejector Bottle plate t Condensate Figure 3.7 - Closed feed systemSteam Turbines ‘The feed water system allows for the continuous recycling of water and steam in circuit and So enables water and steam to be used as carriers to transport energy from one part of a steam plant to another. ‘The steam turbine will exhaust into the condenser, which wit! be ata high vacuum, see figure 3.7. The condensate is removed by an extraction pump and circulates through an air ejector. The condensate is heated in passing through the air ejector. The ejector removes air from the condenser using steam-operated ejectors. The condensate is now circulated through gland steam condenser where it is further heated. Both these heat exchangers improve the plant efficiency by recovering heat and the increased feed water temperature sts in the de-aeration process. ‘The de-aerator is a direct contact feed heater, ie. the feed water and the heating steam ally mix. In addition to heating, any dissolved gases, panicularly oxygen, are released from the feed water. Lower part of de-aerator supplies feed water to the main feed pumps, one of which will supply the boiler’s requirements. The Feed water passes to a high-pressure feed heater and then to the economiser and the boiler water drum. 5. TURBINE, BOILER FEED AND THE BOILER; AS A FULL SYSTEM Figure 3.7, shows a complete system of ‘turbine’ and ‘boiler’ alongwith its ‘feed water’ ‘arrangement 6. WARMING-THROUGH A STEAM TURBINE The steam turbines are mostly used as main propulsion unit or as a primemover for cargo oil pumps, ie. as COPT ~ (Cargo Oil Pump Turbine)Steam Turbines os Main condenser Steom control valve for manoeuvring Main stearn stop volve specs Feed — Turbins bearing pump — lubrication Figure 3.8 - Warming - Through of a steam turbine ‘The steam turbine require a considerable period for warming-through prior to any manoeuvring taking place, otherwise uneven heating may result, causing thermal stress and possible failures, The high-speed operation of the turbine and its simply supported rotor also requires great care during manoeuvring operation. 6.1 Warming-through of Main Propulsion Turbine: Refer to figure 3.8 1. Open all turbine-casing drain valves (Drain ‘1 in the figure). 2. Open all the main steam-line drain valves (Drain °2° in the figure). 3. Ensure all steam control valves at the manoeuvring station and around the turbine are closed 4, Start tubricating oil pump and see that the oil is flowing freely to each bearing and gear sprayer.Steam Turbines ne eee 5. Obiain clearance to turn the shaft Engage the tuming gear and rotate the turbine in each direction. 6. Start the sea water circulating pump for the main condenser 7. Allow small quantity of steam to pass through the turbine and heat it, Turbine should be continuously turned with the turning gear unt “ a uniform temperature is reached in one hour time, ‘The expansion arrangements on the turbine to allow freedom of movement should be checked g (Turbine foot fin the figure). 8. Raise'vacuum in main condenser, open gland steam, disengages fuming gear. 9. Introduce short blast of steam.to the turbine to spin the propeller through one revolution. Repeat this every five minutes for next thirty minutes Turbine is now ready for manoeuvring from the bridge or engine room. Manoeuvring ah Once warmed through, the turbine rotor must not rémain stationary more than a few minutes at «time because the rotor could sag or distort, which would fead to failure, if not regularly rotated g 2. Astem operation involves admitting steam to the astern turbine (see figure 3.3.) 3. For Emergency Astern Operation, ahead steam is shut off possibly by an emergency tip mechanism, and the aster steam valve is partly opened to admit a gradually increasing amount of steam. ‘The turbine can thus be brought quickly to a stopped condition and if required can then be operated astern. Use of emergency procedure can lead to serious damage in the turbine, gearbox or boilers, 4. Manocuvcing revolutions are usually about 80% of the full away or full speed condition. On receiving fall away command; the turbine can gradually be brought upto full power in about 2 hours time, 5. Prior to arrival port the bridge should provide one to two hours notice to enable the turbine to be brought down to manoeuvring revolutions 6.2 Procedure of Warming-through of ‘Steam, turbine of a Cargo Oil |. Turbine, is warmed-through in similar way as said earlier. However, as there is no tuming gear arrangement, the steam should be crack opened, to let turbine run for 15 minutes oF So at a very very slow cpm. This will help in raising the temperature gradually * 4 2. Once turbine is ready to be :un at full load, suction valve to the cargo oil pump could be gradually opened and thus the load brought on to the steam turbine in steps.Marine Boilers CHAPTER - 4 Marine Boilers Contents 1. General 2. Boiler Types 2.1, Water Tube Boilers 2.2. Fire Tube Boilers 2.2.1. Vertical Smoke Tube Boiler Suitable for Auxiliary Purposes 2.2.2, Package Boiler 2.2.3. Exhaust Gas Heat Exchangers 23. Other Type of Boiler 2.3.1. Steam to Steam Generator 3. Properties of Steam 4. Boiler Mountings 4.1, Water Gauge 42. Safety Valve 43. Main Steam Stop Valve 44. Auxiliary Stop Valve 4.5. Main Feed Check Valve 4.6. Blow Down Valve 4.7. Air Vents 48. Salinometer Valve 49. Pressure Gauge Cock 4.10. Soot Blowers 5. Combustion 5.1. Air Supply (Forced Draught Fans) 5.2. Fuel Supply 53. Fuel Burning 5.4, Lighting up of boiler and process of raising steam from cold 6. Purity of Boiler Feed Water 6.1. Feedwater Water Treatmentae vay ao eu Marine Boilers Marine Boilers 1. GENERAL Boilers of varied design and working conditions are installed in both steam and motor vessels. ‘The most modern steamships have boiler plant of a sophisticated nature, and even on motor-ships the steam plant can be q e extensive, providing usefull services (including cargo pumping service in oil tankers) and enhancing the overall efficiency of the vessel ‘The demand for steam propulsion is currently very low, being confined to specialised ships such as liquid natural gas (LNG) carriers. (Here boil off of LNG cargo is used at boiler furnace to raise steam) 2. BOILER TYPES The water tube boiler is employed for high-pressure, high-temperature, high-capacity stearn applications, e.g. providing steam for main propulsion turbines or cargo pamp turbines. Fire. tube boilers are used for auxiliary purposes to provide smaller quantities of low-pressure steam on diesel engine powered ships. 21 Water Tube Boilers: ‘The construction of water tube boilers, which use small diameter tubes and have a small steam drum, enables the generation or production of steam at high temperature and pressures. The weight of the boiler is much less than an equivalent fire tube boiler and the steam raising process is much quicker. Design arrangements are flexible, efficiency is high and feed water has a good naturat circulation.Marine Boilers Flue goses to ‘mosphere __ Re hester Ar from forced > crought fon Saad ves stean == Stat’ Soper tootr Feed tom = feat stem Ecoomisee Sper heated steam to turbines floor Lower rear header Figure 4.1 - Foster Wheeler - water tube boilerMarine Boilers Cs Construction A foster Wheeler “ESD” type water tube boiler is shown in figure 4.1. This consists of two horizontal cylindrical drums, one above the other, the top being the steam and water drum (referred to briefly as the steam drum) and the bottom the water drum, these are connected directly by vertical generating tubes, and by other tubes via headers. ‘One set of tubes from the steam drum are bent at approximately the middle of their fength so that the upper portion (x) forms part of the roof of the combustion chamber and lower portion {y} forms the side wall. These tubes are connected to water drum through a side header at floor level. Vertical ubes from upper rear header to lower rear header form a back wall ‘Saturated steam is ted by a pipe from the top of steam dram to the superheater inlet header, und the superheated steam leaves the outlet header, ‘The water circulates upwards through the vertical generating tubes nearest the oil burners, and downwards through the vertical bank of generating tube behind the superheater Baffles are fitted to direct the hot gases from all the bumers, first over the bank of generating lubes and next over the superheater, then up through economiser and air-heater to the uptake and funnel The economiser is so called because economy is effected by transferring heat from the hot waste gases to the boiler feed water. This heat which would otherwise be lost in the gases escaping, tp the funnel, increases the temperature of the feed water, hence less heat is requied from the fuel per given mass of steam generated in the boiler, resulting in increased efficiency. ‘The whole system of drums and tubes is encased in sheet steel with fire brick work bolted to inside and thermal lagging to outside of casing, 2.2 Fire Tube Boilers: The fire tube boiler is usually chosen for low-pressure steam production on vessels requiring steam for auxiliary purposes. Operation is simple and feedwater of medium quality may be employed Fire tube boilers have large water capacity and therefore also called ‘tank boilers’, Smoke tube boiler and donkey boiler ave soine other terms also used for fire tube boilers. 2.2.1 Vertical Smoke Tube Boiler suitable for Auxiliary Purposes: The Cochran is a typical tank boiler of vertical type suitable for producing relatively small amount of low-pressure steam for auxiliary purposes.=. = a 3 é aaa 7 ah Marine Boilers The fuel ix burnt in a furnace having seamless hemispherical crown, attached to the boiler shell by means of an ogee ring: The products of combustion pass from furnace through smoke tubes into the oil fire uptake, The figure 4.2 shows a Composite Cochran boiler and here generation of steam can be done using heat either from main diesel engine exhaust gas or from oi firing or from both. Thus the boiler shown here can also be called an exhaust gas boiler. This boiler is therefore used (i) as an exhaust gas boiler using. only exhaust-heat (in this case the bottom oil firing and associated tubes will not be present) (ii) as an oil fired auxiliary boiler (in this case top exhaust gas tubes will not be present) (ii) as composite boiler as shown in the figure (where both set of tubes are present) Woter tevel Exhaust gos, fromm diesel => engine Ogee sing Hemispherical Furnace crown Figure 4.2 - Cochran smoke tube boilerAs said earlier the generation of steam can be maintained by oil firing when the exhaust gas temperature falls due to low load running of the diesel engine or when in port Internal access to the boiler is provided by a manhole in the top of the shell, while handholes in the lower section of the shell provide access to the lower parts of the water space for cleaning and inspection. Hinged smoke box doors give access to the tubes and tube plate at the front, while a removable rear panel fitted to the combustion chamber give access to the back tube plate. 2.2.2 Package Boilers: Most fire tube boilers are now supplied as a c mpletely package unit. This will include the oil bumer, fuel pump, forced draught fan, feed pumps and automatic controls for the system, The boiler will be fitted with all the appropriate boiler mountings. 2.2.3 Exhaust Gas Heat Exchangers: ‘The use of exhaust gases from diesel main propulsion engines to generate steam is a means of heat energy recovery and improving plant efficiency. Figure 4.2 of Composite Cochran Boiler, shows one of the methods of using the diesel engine exhaust gas heat energy. Another method employed in an exhaust gas heat exchangers is shown figure 4.3. Here simply a row of tube banks are circulated by feedwater, over which the exhaust gases flow. A boiler drum is required for steam generation and separation to take place and use is usually made of the drum of an auxiliary boilerMarine Boilers Exheust gas Ou Exhaust gos heat exchanger 4 circuiting pump c © Figure 4.3 - Auxiliary steam plant system - water tube boiler with exhaust gas heat exchanger. wy 2.3 Other Type of Boiler: re 2.3.1 Steam To Steam Generator: ©: e : pen Low pressure contaminated feed woter High pressure rain ‘be bundto Figure 4.4 - Steam - to - Steam generator @Marine Boilers ee NNR Steam to steam generators produce low-pressure sat ed steam for domestic and other services. They are used in conjunction with water tube boilers to provide a secondary steam circuit, which avoids any possible contamination of the primary-circuit feedwater. The arrangement may be horizontal or vertical with coils within the shell, which heat the feedwater. ‘The coils are supplied with high-pressuse temperature steam from the main boiler. Figure 4.4 shows a horizontal steam to steam generator They are used where steam heating is used in cargo tanks or oil fuel heaters, which present risk of the retums drains being contaminated with oil from leaking heating coils. In this arrangement, if oi should enter the steam to steam generator, it would only cause a reduction in the evaporation rate and would not lead to tube failures, as could happen if oi! enters a directly fired boiler. 3. PROPERTIES OF STEAM Saturated Steam: “Scaurated Steam is the steam, which is in physical contact with the boiling water from which it was generated, its temperature is the same as the boiling water from where it has generated and this temperature is referred to as the ‘Saturated Temperature’ (Steam produced on top of steam-water drums of water tube boiler explained earlier, is saturated steam). If the vapour produced is pure steam at th saturated temperature, it is called dry Saturated steam. If the steam contains water (usually very fine particles held in suspension in the form of a mist), it is called wet saturated steam or just wer steam, see figure 4.5. Wet stom (Gteom cont Sroter rept n fee Stspenson, Nore the topes eos AE yh is the tines : foci ef stam, Dry steom: (Contains no S water droplets Dros fant) Figure 4.5 - Dry and wet steamaA ° O° Marine Boilers Superheated Steam: In order to increase the temperature of steam above its saturation temperature, without ncreasing the pressure. the steam must be taken away from its contact with the water from which it was generated and heated externally. (In the water tube boiler explained earlier, the steam is drawn from steam-water drum and taken to supetheater where the steam is heated externally to produce superheated steam.) Steam whose temperature is higher than its saturated temperature corresponding to its pressure is termed — superheuted steam. When steam is superheated. its volume increases approximately, in proportion to its increase in absolute temperature, As superheated steam is at a higher temperature and greater volume than saturated steam at the same pressure, more heat energy is stored in e: ch kilogram. ‘This extra energy can produce more power in the engines and the efficiency is thereby increased Whereas saturated steam begins to condense immediately it comes into contact with engine parts of a lower temperaturé than the steam, superheated steam contains heat above its saturation temperature and therefore initial condensation and power loss due to, is reduced. Advantages and disadvantages of use of superheated steam: ‘The main advantages of using superheated steam are: for the same power. the engines consume less steam and therefore less fuel is required. ‘This results in smaller boiler capacity and less fuel to be carried for a given voyage. There is also less likelihood of water hammer in steam pipes and fess initial impact loss and erosion of tube blades because of the absence of water droplets. Against above advantages, superheated stéam is not so suitable as saturated steam for reciprocating machinery as there are no water particles to act as a lubricant on shuttle and slide valve faces and piston rings. BOILER MOUNTINGS Boi listed below: + mountings ate the valves and cocks fitted to’ the boiler, the usual fittings are41 Marine Boilers Water Gauge: : \ mee / PN | open fF | : | Ane 6 & Wloter level Water cock a Drain cock (ronda ba ok von sock Ta Cr iad closed) Figure 4.6 - Water gaugeMarine Boilers “The water gauge is a glass tube gripped in steam tight glands with steam and water cocks. The water level in the boiler can be seen as it takes up same level in the glass. ‘The water gauge has three cocks, a steam cock, a water cock and a drain cock, (see figure 4.6). The handles of the steam and water cock must lie vertically downwards when in the fall open position, while the drain cock handle must be in this position when closed. ‘This is to prevent vibration etc. causing the cock to move to such a position that a false indication of the water level could result. ‘A ball valve is fitted to the lower end of the gauge jin order to shut off the water in the event of the glass fracturing. Otherwise, as the water is blown out; the large volume of scalding steam will be formed that could cause injury to personnel If the doubt exists about the accuracy of the reading indicated by a water level gauge, it should be tested by blowing through, in the correct manner. To blow through this gauge 1. Close steam & water cocks and open drain. Nothing should then blow out of the gauge if the steam and water cocks are not leaking. Open and close water cock to check that the water cock connection to the boiler is clear. ‘Open and close steam cock to check that the steam cock connection to the boiler is clear. Close drain valve. awey Open the water cock. Water should gradually up to the top of the gauge glass. Open the steam cock and the water i the glass should fall to the level of the water in the boiler, ae Important: If at step (5) when the water cock is opened and water does not flow up the gauge glass, the water level in the boiler is even below the gauge water connection to the boiler and it is very unsafe. Sometime itis also unsafe to put feed water into boiler under such condition, If however at step (5) water does flow to top and when steam cock is opened the water flows down and out of the glass, the water level is in between the water connection to the boiler and bottom of the gauge glass. In this case it is safe to put feed water into the boiler. Reasons that can lead to false reading by such a water level gauge: 1. If the steam cock is choked, a vacuum forms in the upper part of the gh water to rise until it completely fills the glass. 2. If the water cock is choked, the water will become cold, steam will start condensing in the steam space, and thus gradually filling the glass. s causing the Sithilar results, although to a lesser extent, can be caused by partially choked cocks and passages.Marine Boilers 42 Safety Valve ‘This is a safety device fitted to the boiler to preven’ overpressure. The regulations demand a minimum of wo safety valves to each boiler. Figure 4.7 shows a spring-loaded safety valve Spring-loaded valves have the disadvantage of causing accumulation of pressure, that is, as the valves are lifting, more pressure is necessary to compress the spring and lift them further ce at The valves are required to be : - 1. Set to blow off at a pressure not exceeding 3% of the working pressure and 2. designed so that, under full firing conditions of the boiler and with the steam stop valve Shut the valve must lift sufficiently so that the pressure does not rise above 10% of designed blow-off pressure, i.e. the valve should not allow steam to accumulate. It is also called accumulation test of the boiler. Specially shaped lips on valve and seat assist in minimising accumulation of steam pressure, Providing arrangement for waste steam to act under waste steam piston helps to give further increased valve lift. “ey The safety vaives are fitted with hand operated easing gear by which the valves can & be manually floated in case of emergency Loose fing Escaping: steam gives upword thrust on specially esigned lips of valve to assist. in minimising ‘accumulation of steam Volwe sect pressure incde boiler pot “4 ‘Beller drum a far a ae Figure 47 - High lift Safety Valve |Marine Boilers 43 Main Steam Stop Valve: hts function is to isolate the boiler from the main steam line and therefore fitted on top of the boiler on main steam fine. Its either full open when boiler is supplying steam to the main turbines (cargo pump turbines in case of oil tanker). of tight closed when the boiler is not supplying main steam. This is a screw down valve mostly non-retum type, see figure 4.8 pani or peed Figure 4.8 - Screw down non-return vilve 44 Auxiliary Stop Valve This is basi ally a smaller version of the main steam stop valve. fitted for the purpose of isolating the boiler from the auxiliary steam lines. An auxiliary steam fine carries steam to various stcam pumps, winches, heaters ete. Again these must be screw down. non-return type valves if necessary (0 prevent steam flowing back into the boiler in the event of damage 45 Main Feed Check Valve: ‘These are fitted 10 give final control over the entry of feed water into the boiler. ‘They must bbe “screw down - non-return valve" so that in the event of a loss of feed pressure, the boiler water cannot blow back into the feed line. It is positioned on the shell of the boiler at the water level Extended spindles are usually fitted so the checks can be operated from a convenient position.Marine Boilers From feed pump e~Two blow down volves: lio mounted in series Ship side i ! | atharge vowe to i Figure 4.9 - "blow down’, “feed check’ & ‘air vent’ valves Oo 4.6 Blow Down Valve: ° ‘These are fitted to the water drum to enable water to be blown from the boiler in order to Oo reduce the density. They usually consist of two valves mounted in series, arranged so that the first valve must be full open before the second can be cracked open; ic. sufficient to give the required rate of blow down. In this way the seating of the first valve is protected from damage, so reducing the risk of leakage when the blow down vaives are closed, See Figure 4.9, hese blow down valves discharge into a blow down line, leading to a ship-side discharge valve.