UNIT-1

Definition, Nature and Scope of Soft Skills

Introduction: Soft skills are personality traits and behaviours. Unlike technical or ‘hard’ skills-soft
skills are not about the knowledge you possess but the behaviours you display in different situations.
Soft skills include any skill that can be classified as a personality trait or habit. Soft
skills are personal attributes that enhance an individual's interactions, career
prospects and job performance.
Unlike hard skills, which tend to be specific to a certain type of task or activity, soft
skills are broadly applicable.
Soft skills are personal attributes that describe an individual's ability to interact with others.
Soft skills, also known as people skills they complement hard skills to enhance an
individual's relationships, job performance and career prospects.
Soft skills differ from field to field, mostly due to different career attributes
requirement though the basic people and social skills remain the same.
Soft skills are the basic requirement for today's employability.
Soft skills are a combination of interpersonal people skills, social skills,
communication skills, character traits, attitudes, career attributes and emotional
intelligence quotient (EQ) among others.
Hard Skills: Technical knowledge of any subject is considered hard skill.
Soft skills are also called corporate skills. Soft skills can be more useful and practical.
Definition: A definition based on review literature explains soft skills as a cluster of
productive personality traits that characterize one's relationships in a social environment
with other people and the key three abilities/elements are people skills, social skills and
personal career attributes, in other words social skills is an umbrella term for skills
under this functional elements.
Soft skills are related with insights, emotions, feelings, gut-instinct and (some would
say) an inner knowing.
Because of this they are not taught passively as in the way of "hard skills". Hence
soft skills are associated with EQ (Emotional Quotient) and EI (Emotional Intelligence)
rather than with IQ.
Soft skills can be said to incorporate all aspects of generic skills that include the
cognitive elements associated with non-academic skills. Soft skills are identified to be
the most critical
skills in the current global job market especially in a fast moved era of technology. The
reorientation of education which is one trust of education for sustainability also relates
the importance of these so-called - soft skills.
Nature and Scope:
Soft skills play an important role for achieving professional growth and employment.
With the knowledge of soft skills, one stand out in a crowd of job seekers with even
mediocre skill and talent.
There is no doubt that hard skills i.e. knowledge and technical expertise are prime
requirement, for employability but without soft skills it becomes difficult for even
highly talented people to corner a job.
The most common traits asked by every prospective employer are positive work
ethics, good attitude, and desire to learn and be trained.
Good attitude being a behavioural skill cannot be taught. But consistent practice and
training can instill that in a person.
Right perspective and readiness to learn and turn the situation to a positive outcome,
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 take responsibility of one‘s action with the capacity to take any challenge, so the job
seekers must possess soft skill to attract the employer.
Soft Skills are the non-technical skills, abilities, traits that workers need to function
in a specific employment environment. They include four sets of work place
competencies:
1. Personal Qualities and Work Ethics
2. Problem- Solving and Decision making skills
3. Oral Communication Skills
4. Impersonal and EQ skills
Soft skills provide:
∙ A realistic perspective of work and work expectations
∙ To develop problem solving skills,
∙ To guide students in making appropriate and responsible decisions,
∙ To create a desire to fulfil individual goals,
∙ To educate students about unproductive thinking, self-defeating emotional
impulses, and self- defeating behaviours.
Hard Skills VS Soft Skills
The key differences between hard skills and soft skills are how they are gained and put
to use in the workplace. Hard skills are often gained through education or specific
training.
They include competencies like how to use a certain machine, software or another tool.
Soft skills are more often seen as personality traits you may have spent your whole
life developing.
They are called upon when you manage your time, communicate with other people or
confront a difficult situation for the first time.
Put another way, hard skills could be defined as your technical knowledge whereas
soft skills are your overall habits in the workplace..
Some of the most sought after soft skills include
Effective communication skills
Teamwork
Dependability
Adaptability
Conflict resolution
Flexibility
Leadership
Problem-
solving
Research
Creativity
Work ethic
Integrity
Importance of Soft Skills
Soft skills play an important role in finding success in communicating with people in all
areas of your life
Soft skills are often transferable across careers and industries.
Because soft skills are often innate personality traits, you already possess several soft
skills that will help you be successful. Soft skills include interpersonal (people) skills,
communication skills, listening skills, time management, and empathy
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Someone can be excellent with technical, job-specific skills, but if they can't manage their
time or work within a team, they may not be successful in the workplace.
Soft skills are personal attributes that influence how well you can work or interact with
others.
Soft skills make it easier to form relationships with people, create trust and
dependability, and lead teams. Wikipedia
Soft skills are the skills concerned with working with other people, ensuring customer
satisfaction, being a team player while delivering a high-quality product within budget and
on time, and exceeding the expectations of stakeholders.
Soft skills, on the other hand, are subjective skills that are much harder to quantify. Also
known as "people skills" or "interpersonal skills," soft skills relate to the way you relate
to and interact with other people. Ex:During our childhood days our parents probably
correct us if behave in a rude or harsh way with our friends or siblings. But if in workplace
under similar situation no one will be there to correct us and the ultimate consequence will
be fired off from the organization.
There is a significant difference in the perception of soft skills for a student and an
employer. Instructors teach the skills students need to get and keep a job, while
employers are more concerned with the skills needed to perform the task at hand. Hard
skills and soft skills are both important skills to have in the working world.
Employers need employees who are reliable, responsible problem solvers with good
social skills who have the ability to work on a team so they seek graduates with soft
skills obtained during study and work experience rather than degree-specific knowledge
and often opt to hire graduates from any discipline.
Soft skills are essential for those entering the working world because these workers are
the business leaders of the future. Business leaders must obtain soft skills as well as hard
skills in order to be viewed as effective leaders.
The skills most demanded by today‘s employers are soft skills such as the ability to work
with others, to communicate effectively, to demonstrate initiative and self-direction, to
solve problems, and to demonstrate a positive work ethic.
Hence Soft skills are very important as they help:
∙ To handle interpersonal relations
∙ To take appropriate decisions
∙ To communicate effectively
∙ To have good impression and impact to gain professional development.
Soft skills describe career attributes that individuals should possess, such as team skills,
communication skills, ethics, time-management skills, and an appreciation for
diversity. In the twenty-first century workforce, soft skills are important in every
business sector.
Soft skills are character traits and interpersonal skills that characterize a person's
relationships with other people.
In the workplace, soft skills are considered a complement to hard skills, which
refer to a person's knowledge and occupational skills. Sociologists may use the term
soft skills to describe a person's "EQ" or ―Emotional Intelligence Quotient," as
opposed to "IQ" or "Intelligence Quotient."
Need for Soft Skills in Academics
To stand out in this competitive world, a student is required to hone many skills and
abilities which is not a one-day job. A student needs to carve out these skills by
practising every day and this takes a long time. These skills will be helpful not just in
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schools and colleges, but also in building a lucrative professional career.
Soft skills are important because they enable students to adjust to the frustrations and
challenges they will encounter in their adult life, as well as the demands of work.
Mastering soft skills help students learn, live and work better.
College students should embrace the following soft skills in order to be efficient and
successful in their work and life:
Need for Soft Skills in Academic & Workplace settings
You require more than hard skills to be successful in your career. While hard skills are
related to specific technical knowledge, soft skills are personality traits that can build a
relationship and solve workplace problems. Also, soft skills help you use your hard
skills to the full extent. While hard skills are measurable, soft skills showcase the
ability to work with others and grow within a company. Because of this reason, nearly
all job role requires candidates to possess excellent soft skills.
Employers often seek candidates with proven soft skills, so it is always a good idea
to highlight them in your job applications. Soft skills are habits and traits that define
how you work with others and on your own. These skills help you succeed in the
workplace and in your job role. Here are some reasons you should use your soft
skills when finding a suitable job and growing your career:
Listening Skill
Listening is just as important as speaking.
Being a good listener helps
to solve problems,
resolve conflicts and
improve relationships.
Effective listening contributes
to fewer errors,
less wasted time,
and improved accuracy.
Effective listening helps
build friendships and careers..
Kinds of listening
Natural sound
News
A
conversation
Music
A call, a phone call
Movie
An announcement
TV program
A lecture
Talk Show
Why do we listen
To get messages
To respond
To follow the instruction
To get answers
To entertain ourselves
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 To improve our language.
Predicting
Listening for general and detailed comprehension
Listening for specific information
Listening for detailed
information Listening for text
construction
1. Face the speaker and give them your attention
It is difficult to talk to someone who is constantly looking around.
Make sure to face the speaker, maintain eye contact, and give them your
undivided attention.
In Western cultures, eye contact is necessary for effective communication.
Although shyness, uncertainty, or cultural taboos may inhibit eye contact, try your
best to make sure the speaker knows that they have your full attention.
2. Keep an Open Mind Do not judge or mentally criticize what the speaker is
telling you. Doing so can compromise your ability to take in what is being said.
Let the speaker finish what they are saying and don’t be a sentence-grabber.
Interrupting the speaker or prohibiting them from finishing what they are saying
can indicate disrespect to the speaker.
Often, interrupting the speaker mid-sentence interrupts their train of thought and can
easily destroy a productive conversation
3. Active Listening : Active listening shows the speaker that you’re interested and it is
an important business communication skill. Using active listening techniques helps
to ensure that you correctly understand what is said.
Active listening techniques:
Paraphrasing back to the speaker what was said, to show understanding
Nonverbal cues (nodding, eye contact, etc.)
Verbal affirmations (“I understand,” “I know,” “Thank you,” etc.)
Demonstrating concern and establishing rapport
4. Just Listen, Create a mental model of the information, whether it be a picture
or an arrangement of abstract concepts.
Listen to keywords and phrases and do not rehearse what you are going to say after
the speaker is done talking.
Think about what the other person is saying rather than what you are going to respond
with.
It is difficult to think of what you are going to say while also listening to the speaker.
Be attentive and relaxed – don’t get distracted by your own thoughts and feelings.
The Importance of Listening
Effective listening is a skill that is frequently undervalued in our society.
Good communication skills require both effective speaking and listening.
By being an attentive listener, you can understand more and improve relationships.
Make sure to:
Maintain eye contact and face the speaker to give them your
attention Don’t be judgmental while listening
Don’t interrupt the speaker
Employ active listening techniques
Listening: Types and Importance
1. Critical Listening/ Analytical:
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Critical listening or Analytical listening is listening to evaluate the message from the
speaker. Part of being a critical listener is listening to all parts of the
conversation (from the big picture to the small details), analyzing the message, and
coming to your own conclusion.
When engaging in critical listening, you're also tapping into your critically thinking
skills. That means not taking everything at face value. You make judgments and
inferences basedon what you hear and see from the speaker. Essentially, it's your
job to fact-check and valid what is being said. Building critical listening skills
Now, that you've got a fair idea about critical listening, it's time to start building up
your critical listening skills with your team. Remember, only rigorous practice will
help you become an effective critical listener and build your team management
skills.
● Use common sense. Relying on your common sense can act as a warning
system for you. If what the speaker is saying seems off or inconsistent, listen
to your intuition.
● Avoid assumptions. It's important when you listen, to stop making
assumptions and place your biases in the back burner. Instead, focus on the
facts and questions that can help the speaker clarify their message
● Welcome new ideas. The truth is, many of us have a tendency to listen to
information aligns with our beliefs and then zone out the stuff that doesn't.
Part of critical listening, is being open to ideas that we don't agree with and
evaluate it to our fullest extent.
● Take notes. Sometimes the conversation with your peer may be rich. We
recommend jotting down careful, selective notes to help you keep track of
the important points
● Push out the empty questions. Remember, try to avoid interrupting the
speaker. And especially avoid asking empty questions that can disrupt the
flow of their thoughts.
● Give candid feedback. Critical thinking and team collaboration starts with
feedback. That's how you and your team will improve your listening skills
overall. Ask your team members for feedback when it comes to your body
language, listening, and analytical skills.
2. Active Listening: Active listening refers to a pattern of listening that keeps
you engaged with your conversation partner in a positive way. It is the process of
listening attentively while someone else speaks, paraphrasing and reflecting back
what is said, and withholding judgment and advice.
When you practice active listening, you make the other person feel heard and
valued. In this way, active listening is the foundation for any successful
conversation. Features of Active Listening
Active listening involves more than just hearing someone speak. When you
practice active listening, you are fully concentrating on what is being said.
You listen with all of your senses and give your full attention to the person
speaking.
Below are some features of active listening:1
• Neutral and nonjudgmental
• Patient (periods of silence are not "filled")
• Verbal and nonverbal feedback to show signs of listening (e.g., smiling, eye
contact, leaning in, mirroring)
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 • Asking questions
• Reflecting back what is said
• Asking for clarification
Active listening means not engaging in unhelpful listening habits such as the following:
• Being stuck in your own head
• Not showing respect for the speaker
• Only hearing superficial meaning (not hearing underlying meaning)
• Interrupting
• Not making eye contact
• Rushing the speaker
• Becoming distracted
• "Topping" the story (saying "that reminds me of the time...")
• Forgetting what was said in the past
• Asking about unimportant details
• Focusing too much on details and missing the big picture
• Ignoring what you don't understand
• DaydreamingOnly pretending to pay attention
Tips for PracticingActive Listening
The following tips will help you to become a better active listener:
• Make eye contact while the other person speaks. In general, you should aim for eye
contact about 60% to 70% of the time while you are listening. Lean toward the other
person, and nod your head occasionally. Avoid folding your arms as this signals that
you are not listening.
• Paraphrase what has been said, rather than offering unsolicited advice or opinions.
You might start this off by saying "In other words, what you are saying is...".
• Don't interrupt while the other person is speaking. Do not prepare your reply while the
other person speaks; the last thing that he or she says may change the meaning of what
has already been said.
• Watch nonverbal behavior to pick up on hidden meaning, in addition to listening to
what is said. Facial expressions, tone of voice, and other behaviors can sometimes tell
you more than words alone.
• Shut down your internal dialogue while listening. Avoid daydreaming. It is impossible
to attentively listen to someone else and your own internal voice at the same time.
• Show interest by asking questions to clarify what is said. Ask open-ended questions to
encourage the speaker. Avoid closed yes-or-no questions that tend to shut down the
conversation.
• Avoid abruptly changing the subject; it will appear that you were not listening to the
other person.
• Be open, neutral, and withhold judgment while listening.
• Be patient while you listen. We are capable of listening much faster than others can speak.
• Learn to recognize active listening. Watch television interviews and observe whether
the interviewer is practicing active listening. Learn from the mistakes of others.
3. Emphatic Listening:
Empathic listening is a structured listening and questioning technique that allows you
to develop and enhance relationships with a stronger understanding of what is being
conveyed, both intellectually and emotionally. As such, it takes active listening
techniques to a new level.
Empathic Listening
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Skills To use empathic
listening,
1. Listen patiently to what the other person has to say, even if you do not agree with it.
It is important to show acceptance, though not necessarily agreement, by simply
nodding or injecting phrases such as "I understand" or "I see."
2. Try to get a sense of the feelings that the speaker is expressing, and stay mindful of
the emotional content being delivered as well as the literal meaning of the words.
3. Think of yourself as a mirror.
4. Repeat the speaker's thoughts and feelings back to them.
5. Encourage the speaker to continue with their message by interjecting summary
responses. For example, "So you do not feel as though you play a strong enough role on
the team." Or, "You feel your talents and experiences would be better utilized in another
position." Or, you could say, "You feel as though you are undervalued on this project."
This should be done in a neutral way, so as not to "lead" the speaker to your way of
thinking.
An empathic listener works to keep the speaker from feeling or becoming defensive .
To do this, avoid asking direct questions, arguing with what is being said, or disputing
facts. The evidence can be considered later. For now, concentrate fully on what is
being said and how the speaker feels.
4. Appreciative Listening: Appreciative listening is a particular listening behavior
defined by when a person seeks out and listens to certain auditory information that
they will personally appreciate or like. It might help them to achieve a specific goal.
For example, you may choose to listen to more classical music and to learn more
about it, something this Udemy course can help you with. Sometimes appreciative
listening serves a need, such as listening to meditation seminars in order to self heal or
fall asleep easier. Sometimes appreciative listening is just about setting aside the time
for yourself to listen to what you enjoy, and nothing more.
Above all, appreciative listening is about you. Unlike informative or relationship
listening, appreciative listening does not rely on any given message from the speaker.
Even though the music, speech, or other material you are listening to may have a
specific message, what is more important is how that message affects you, makes you
feel, and inspires you. The Three Factors of Appreciative Listening
Appreciative listening is subjective. This means it is focused on the thoughts and
feelings of the listener. Rather than judge the material you’re listening to by the way
it affects others, or by other’s opinions of the material, understanding appreciative
listening begins with understanding three factors: presentation, perception, and previous
experience.
Listening to the Radio
Radio is a Mass Medium. Radio is a cost effective medium - Advancement of
technology made radio production and transmission less expensive.
Radio is a Public Medium - Radio can be accessed by any number of people
simultaneously without much technical paraphernalia.
Radio is accessible for the Illiterates. - In developing and under developing
countries it becomes a popular medium because of these characteristics.
Radio is a mobile medium - We can listen to radio while we are moving.
Radio is a background medium - Specialty of a background medium is that it can
be used while doing other jobs.
Radio is a background medium - Specialty of a background medium is that it can
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be used while doing other jobs.
Radio is an Audio Medium -Being an audio medium, radio is accessible to the visually
challenged also.
Radio needs less energy - In that sense it is an environment friendly
medium.Radio is a speedy Medium - Instant live broadcasting with less equipment is
possible in radio section
Overall content broadcasting over a radio station. - In today's age of radio, many
radio formats are designed to reach a specifically defined segment or niche of the
listening population based on such demographic criteria as age, ethnicity, background,
etc.
News, talk, sports formats - Country music formats - Contemporary hit radio (CHR)
music formats -Adult contemporary music formats -Rock and alternative music
formats -Urban music formats -Jazz and Classical music formats -Oldies, Adult Hits
and Nostalgia music formats - Spanish and Latin music formats -World music formats -
Religious programming formats -Public, Government, Community radio formats -
College, student formats -Other formats (children's, ethnic, brokered)
Types of Radio Stations Commercial Stations: Stations under this category
support themselves financially by selling time on their airwaves to advertisers.
Non-Commercial Stations: Non-Commercial Stations do not receive financial
support from advertisers in the sense of airing commercials. Funded by the
governments. Donations from private foundations and organization are the major
sources of income of non-commercial stations.AM and FM Stations: This
categorization is purely based on the type of waves used for transmitting radio
messages. AM (Amplitude Modulation) radio, the amplitude or strength of the carrier
wave’s vibration fluctuates with the sound.
FM (Frequency Modulation) radio, the strength of the carrier wave remains constant,
and instead it is the frequency or number of vibration within the wave that changes
based on sound. Radio programmes can be categorized into two.
News and Non-News (Entertainment) Programmes
News is important because it keeps us informed as to what is happening in our own
community and what is happening in other communities which impinge upon our own.
Newsreel - It is more usual to separate comment from the news by including it in
news talks and newsreels.
It contains eye-witness accounts, extracts of speeches and reports of other events,
commentaries, short talks and interviews in much the same way as a newspaper
includes pictures and feature articles.
Documentaries-The documentary programme is a story of something. It is generally
between 15 and 60 minutes in length.
Listening to talk shows
Talk Show is a television or radio show in which various topics are discussed to inform
or educate the listeners. It is usually hosted by one person, that focuses on
interviews or audience participation. In talk shows guests are those people who are
learned, Highly educated or who have great experience in relation to whatever issue is
being discussed.
¡§Talk Show¡¨ is Basically the word of American & Australian English. In British
English it is know by ¡§Chat Show¡¨.Basically The talk show has been evolved from a
radio station to a television as a TV talk show. Talk show was started for the first time
on-air at radio.
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While you are Listening A news report is often packed with information. So do not
require yourself to understand everything. You can aim at just getting what a story is
about. Give a 25 one-to-two-sentence description after each story. You can just focus on
the latest development of a story to add to what you already know about it. Put forward
a few questions to yourself about a story, and then seek to answer them from your
listening. You may write a full transcript of a story to practise intensive listening.
This may bring to notice listening problems that have skipped your attention when
you only concentrate on the content. When you feel that you can cope with a certain
news report, try to broaden your capability by listening to a different accent, or by
watching other kinds of news programmes.
After you have Listened Even though the listening part is over, some follow-up
activities will help you reinforce your learning. Keep a record book for note-taking,
vocabulary, or just scribbling. This gives a physical shape to the work that you're done,
and motivates you to continue. Learn new words and try your best to make them stay
learned. You may write about the news. For example, you can produce a summary
or express your thoughts in a brief article. You may talk about the news with one or
more friends. This provides an opportunity to clarify what has not been understood in
the listening and to express personal opinions.
Listening and Watching on Television
Watching television shows and films can improve your understanding of everyday
colloquialisms and phrases that can be difficult for non-native speakers to grasp.
Research shows that those who watch non-native TV shows gain improved listening,
reading, vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and comprehension to get started.
Find an English-speaking TV show you enjoy. Watch the show while you read the
subtitles in your native language. Be sure to watch the episodes in sequence from
beginning to end. Once you finish, rewatch the show. If you already speak a second
language, switch the show to second-language subtitles, and watch it again. (This
can help improve your understanding even further.) Keep rewatching the show until
you no longer need to depend on subtitles to understand it. By watching and
rewatching episodes from beginning to end, you will gain deeper insight into English.
Common subscription services like Netflix and Hulu offer a range of popular TV
shows in English that can be viewed with subtitles.
Choose the right genre Many studies have shown that when students watch and study
things they like, they learn better. videos. Sitcoms, movies, music videos, TED Talks &
cat videos. Subtitles
„H Turn off subtitles.
„H Choose a short section of spoken English (2-5 minutes).
„H Using the play and pause button, write down every word you hear.
„H Watch the video again with subtitles on.
„H Compare your notes to the subtitles. Check for accuracy. If there is a section
you don¡¦t catch, review it until you do.
„H Subtitles - Found in
Translation 26
„H This is an awesome exercise that will definitely improve your English. If you can,
find a video that has both your first language and English for subtitles and Turn the
volume off and select subtitles in your language.
„H Watch the video muted with your language subtitles.
„H Translate the subtitles into English.
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„H Turn the volume on and watch the video again.
„H Compare the spoken English to your translation notes.
„H Check for accuracy and synonyms
Reading Along
„H It's a well-known fact that reading along with native speakers will help your
listening skills and your reading skills.
„H Try finding a short clip of a video that you love. It's best to find one with subtitles.
„H Listen to the script a few times. After that, read along with the actors. This will
improve your pronunciation and really help you understand the subtle points of the
language.
Listening to Podcasts
A podcast is an audio file which you can download to your computer, phone or mp3
player and listen to whenever you choose. They are an excellent way to work on
your, listening skills, as you can listen to them as many times as you want to. If you¡¦re
feeling adventurous, you can also manipulate files so that they are faster or slower, or so
that you are only listening to an excerpt of the whole programme.
Podcasts are now available covering almost any topic you can think of. The majority of
podcasts are free, and you can find them in a variety of ways.
When you listen to a Podcast
¡E Read the short summary of the podcast. Predict three things you think the presenters
will talk about. Listen and check.
¡E Choose ten words, phrases or collocations you think the presenters will use. Play
bingo. How many did you hear? If you listen to the same podcasts regularly, you will
start to notice the same phrases appearing again and again.
¡E Play two minutes of the podcast. Stop and predict what you will hear next. Continue
listening. Were you correct? Repeat this at a few different points in the podcast.
¡E Listen to the whole podcast without stopping. Write a short summary of what
you heard, or record an audio summary of it. Listen again and see if you can add any
extra information. Repetition will improve your confidence.
¡E Choose a piece of grammar you¡¦d like to improve, like the present perfect. Focus on
listening for it. How many times did you hear it? What contexts is it used in?
¡E Listen and repeat what a speaker is saying. Mumble it under your breath. Repeating
this a few times can really help your pronunciation.
¡E Use a clip from a podcast to introduce a new topic.
¡E Play a clip from a coursebook listening, then one from a podcast designed for native
speakers. Students should think about the differences between the two, for example the
speed of speech, turn-taking, and how easy it is to distinguish different speakers.
¡E Use excerpts from podcasts to focus on features of connected
speech. 27
¡E Listen to the same podcast a few times. You¡¦ll notice a lot more language the
second and third time you hear it.
Listening to TED Talks
TED Talks have an impressive overall outreach because they are open to everyone
and thereby allow members of society to gain an understanding of social factors that
influence them. TED.com offers great English listening practice, with over 1,000
interesting, clear talks on many subjects. However, most are best for advanced English
learners. Listen at least twice¡Xmore often is O.K. because you will understand more
details each time. The talk will open in a second window so you can go back and
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forth between talk and questions. Pause each talk whenever you need to (and later read
the transcript, if you like.) The talks are long¡X10 to 19 minutes¡Xbut tell very
interesting facts. Concentrate on understanding the facts and the speaker¡¦s main idea
the first time you listen. Check your understanding, and try to summarise, the second
time around. You can practice your English writing (or speaking) skills by trying to
answer one or two of them.
Listening to Youtube Videos
● Predict the Topic / Content ¡
● Use the title, content, & any pictures to guess the topic immediately.
● This will help you to predict the kind of language that you will need.
● Don¡¦t worry if you don¡¦t know much about the topic. Just get ready for
related vocabulary. Find the Keywords
● Look for the most important words in each question.
● Underline them, circle them, whatever you need to do.
● Don¡¦t forget about the answer choices for multiple choice Listen for
Synonyms and Antonyms
● the person speaking doesn¡¦t always use the same words.
● You need to listen for synonyms (different ways of saying the same word).
● And also antonyms (saying the opposite). Always Stay Focused
● Don¡¦t worry if you miss a portion of the video.
● Focus on the next portion of the video.
● Sometimes you may need to refocus. During these times, just take a deep
breath and get back to it.
● Don¡¦t Review. Preview! .
● Instead of going back, focus on previewing the next portion of the video.
● Previewing will include looking for the keywords.
Listening to News
Find out which news report you want to listen to, when and on what channel.
Just watch the report for a few days first, before requiring yourself to understand the
stories. Give yourself time to get familiar with the newsreaders and their accents.
You should also get an idea of the structure of the entire report as well as the
structure of a typical news story.
A news report is often packed with information. So do not require yourself to
understand everything
You can aim at just getting what a story is about. Give a one-to-two-sentence
description after each story.
You can just focus on the latest development of a story to add to what you already
know about it.
Listening to talk shows
Talk Show is a television or radio show in which various topics are discussed to inform
or educate the listeners. It is usually hosted by one person, that focuses on
interviews or audience participation. In talk shows guests are those people who are
learned, Highly educated or who have great experience in relation to whatever issue is
being discussed.
“Talk Show” is Basically the word of American & Australian English. In British
English it is know by “Chat Show”.Basically The talk show has been evolved from a
radio station to a television as a TV talk show. Talk show was started for the first time
on-air at radio.
12
While you are Listening A news report is often packed with information. So do not
require yourself to understand everything. You can aim at just getting what a story is
about.
Give a one-to-two-sentence description after each story.
You can just focus on the latest development of a story to add to what you already
know about it. Put forward a few questions to yourself about a story, and then seek to
answer them from your listening. You may write a full transcript of a story to practise
intensive listening. This may bring to notice listening problems that have skipped your
attention when you only concentrate on the content. When you feel that you can cope
with a certain news report, try to broaden your capability by listening to a different
accent, or by watching other kinds of news programmes.
After you have Listened Even though the listening part is over, some follow-up
activities will help you reinforce your learning. Keep a record book for note-taking,
vocabulary, or just scribbling. This gives a physical shape to the work that you're done,
and motivates you to continue. Learn new words and try your best to make them stay
learned. You may write about the news. For example, you can produce a summary
or express your thoughts in a brief article. You may talk about the news with one or
more friends. This provides an opportunity to clarify what has not been understood in
the listening and to express personal opinions.
Listening and Watching on Television
Watching television shows and films can improve your understanding of everyday
colloquialisms and phrases that can be difficult for non-native speakers to grasp.
Research shows that those who watch non-native TV shows gain improved listening,
reading, vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and comprehension to get started.
Find an English-speaking TV show you enjoy. Watch the show while you read the
subtitles in your native language. Be sure to watch the episodes in sequence from
beginning to end. Once you finish, rewatch the show. If you already speak a second
language, switch the show to second-language subtitles, and watch it again. (This
can help improve your understanding even further.) Keep rewatching the show until
you no longer need to depend on subtitles to understand it. By watching and
rewatching episodes from beginning to end, you will gain deeper insight into English.
Common subscription services like Netflix and Hulu offer a range of popular TV
shows in English that can be viewed with subtitles.
Choose the right genre Many studies have shown that when students watch and study
things they like, they learn better. videos. Sitcoms, movies, music videos, TED Talks &
cat videos. Subtitles
 Turn off subtitles.
 Choose a short section of spoken English (2-5 minutes).
 Using the play and pause button, write down every word you hear.
 Watch the video again with subtitles on.
 Compare your notes to the subtitles. Check for accuracy. If there is a section
you don’t catch, review it until you do.
 Subtitles - Found in Translation
 This is an awesome exercise that will definitely improve your English. If you can,
find a video that has both your first language and English for subtitles and Turn the
volume off and select subtitles in your language.
 Watch the video muted with your language subtitles.
 Translate the subtitles into English.
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 Turn the volume on and watch the video again.
 Compare the spoken English to your translation notes.
 Check for accuracy and synonyms
Reading Along
 It's a well-known fact that reading along with native speakers will help your
listening skills and your reading skills.
 Try finding a short clip of a video that you love. It's best to find one with subtitles.
 Listen to the script a few times. After that, read along with the actors. This will
improve your pronunciation and really help you understand the subtle points of the
language.
Listening to Podcasts
A podcast is an audio file which you can download to your computer, phone or mp3
player and listen to whenever you choose. They are an excellent way to work on
your, listening skills, as you can listen to them as many times as you want to. If you’re
feeling adventurous, you can also manipulate files so that they are faster or slower, or
so that you are only listening to an excerpt of the whole programme.
Podcasts are now available covering almost any topic you can think of. The majority of
podcasts are free, and you can find them in a variety of ways.
When you listen to a Podcast
• Read the short summary of the podcast. Predict three things you think the
presenters will talk about. Listen and check.
• Choose ten words, phrases or collocations you think the presenters will use. Play
bingo. How many did you hear? If you listen to the same podcasts regularly, you will
start to notice the same phrases appearing again and again.
• Play two minutes of the podcast. Stop and predict what you will hear next.
Continue listening. Were you correct? Repeat this at a few different points in the
podcast.
• Listen to the whole podcast without stopping. Write a short summary of what you
heard, or record an audio summary of it. Listen again and see if you can add any extra
information. Repetition will improve your confidence.
• Choose a piece of grammar you’d like to improve, like the present perfect. Focus
on listening for it. How many times did you hear it? What contexts is it used in?
• Listen and repeat what a speaker is saying. Mumble it under your breath. Repeating
this a few times can really help your pronunciation.
• Use a clip from a podcast to introduce a new topic.
• Play a clip from a coursebook listening, then one from a podcast designed for
native speakers. Students should think about the differences between the two, for
example the speed of speech, turn-taking, and how easy it is to distinguish different
speakers.
• Use excerpts from podcasts to focus on features of connected
speech. 27
• Listen to the same podcast a few times. You’ll notice a lot more language the
second and third time you hear it.
Listening to TED Talks
TED Talks have an impressive overall outreach because they are open to everyone
and thereby allow members of society to gain an understanding of social factors that
influence them. TED.com offers great English listening practice, with over 1,000
interesting, clear talks on many subjects. However, most are best for advanced English
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learners. Listen at least twice—more often is O.K. because you will understand more
details each time. The talk will open in a second window so you can go back and
forth between talk and questions. Pause each talk whenever you need to (and later
read the transcript, if you like.) The talks are long—10 to 19 minutes—but tell
very interesting facts. Concentrate on understanding the facts and the speaker’s main
idea the first time you listen. Check your understanding, and try to summarise, the
second time around. You can practice your English writing (or speaking) skills by
trying to answer one or two of them.
Listening to Youtube Videos
Predict the Topic / Content
• Use the title, content, & any pictures to guess the topic immediately.
• This will help you to predict the kind of language that you will
need. Don’t worry if you don’t know much about the topic.
Just get ready for related vocabulary. Find the Keywords
• Look for the most important words in each question.
• Underline them, circle them, whatever you need to do.
• Don’t forget about the answer choices for multiple choice Listen for
Synonyms and Antonyms
• the person speaking doesn’t always use the same words.
• You need to listen for synonyms (different ways of saying the same word).
• And also antonyms (saying the opposite). Always Stay Focused
• Don’t worry if you miss a portion of the video.
• Focus on the next portion of the video.
• Sometimes you may need to refocus. During these times, just take a deep breath
and get back to it. • Don’t Review. Preview! .
• Instead of going back, focus on previewing the next portion of the video.
• Previewing will include looking for the keywords.
Listening to News
Find out which news report you want to listen to, when and on what channel.
Just watch the report for a few days first, before requiring yourself to understand the
stories. Give yourself time to get familiar with the newsreaders and their accents.
You should also get an idea of the structure of the entire report as well as the
structure of a typical news story.
A news report is often packed with information. So do not require yourself to
understand everything
 You can aim at just getting what a story is about. Give a one-to-two-sentence
description after each story.
 You can just focus on the latest development of a story to add to what you already
know about it.
Note taking
Efficient notetaking is necessary for students to have a record of lectures for
future study and review.
How to take Good Lecture Notes
A good set of lecture notes is one of your most important assets in getting ready for
an examination. If you have the facts in readable form, you are well equipped to do
the necessary reviewing. Many students take notes in a very haphazard style
claiming that they will copy them later.
This is a poor policy for two reasons:
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(a) usually the notes don’t get copied and the originals are not much use after a few
days or weeks have gone by, and
(b) if the notes are copied, it is a waste of time because they can just as well be
done correctly in the first place.
Three important findings from studies concerned with notetaking:
1. Notetaking helps you listen; it does not interfere with listening and comprehension.
2. Students who study their notes using the recitation method remember one
and a half times more after six weeks than students who do not review.
3. Students who take no notes or do not study their notes forget
approximately 80% of the lectures by the end of two weeks.
Listening and Notetaking Good lecture notes must:
1. present a neat, attractive appearance.
2. indicate the main points of the lecture.
3. show the relationship of the details to the main points.
4. include enough illustrative detail to enrich notes and content.
Suggestions for Taking Notes:
1. Use Ink!
Notes in pencil will smear and are hard to read anyway. Be sure to use a large notebook.
2. Date your notes for reference in test preparation.
3. Leave wide margins and don’t crowd your lines together. Notebook paper is
cheap - never mind if you use a whole line for just one work. Plenty of white
space is important in order to show the relationships of ideas to each other.
4. Use notetaking shorthand to reduce as many ideas as possible. a. Reduce to
essential words - don’t use complete sentences. b. Use symbols as a substitute for
words. c. Abbreviate by using initials, half words, creative spelling.
5. Don’t take too many notes. Do more listening than writing.
6. Don’t try to take down everything the lecturer says. All lecturers have to
repeat a great deal, but you only need to put it down once.
7. Don’t take down the first thing he says on any topic - it’s probably introductory material.
8. Listen for signals. He’s almost sure to say something about “The first point I
want to discuss today…”
9. Don’t try to make a formal outline. You’ll only get bogged down in your letters
and numbers and won’t be able to concentrate on listening and trying to
understand.
10. Underline the first main topic. Then write down, in list form but without
numbers, the most important things he talks about. (Don’t try to make sub- topics
and sub-sub-topics.) Keep on doing this until you find that he is talking about
something else. Then you will know it’s time for another main topic.
11.Don’t bother to number sub-topics unless the lecturer says: “There are three
reasons…,” or mentions a specific number of facts. Then number them so you
will be sure to learn that many facts when you study for your examination. In
other words, don’t number just for the sake of numbering, but make the numbers
mean something.
12. Read your notes over as soon after class as possible to fix handwriting, spelling and clarity.

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 UNIT 2
Skills of Speaking
Speaking Skills
Speaking/Oral skills are speech enhancers that are used to produce clear sentences that are
intelligible to an audience. Speaking skills are used to enhance the clarity of speech for effective
communication. Communication is the transmission of messages and the correct interpretation of
information between people.
The six important pillars of speaking skills are:
1. FLUENCY:
Fluency is about how comfortable and confident you are in speaking in any language. If
you can speak for an extended period of time, that is an indicator of strong fluency. It is
also about showing a clear connection between each point that you are trying to make.
This skill means that the listener can follow what you are saying and does not get lost.
2. VOCABULARY:
Of course, if you don’t have the words to say what you want to say, then you cannot say
it. Being a good speaker means constantly growing you’re vocabulary. The more
interesting words you know, the stronger your speaking skills. The best way to grow
your vocabulary is to read and make a note of any new words that you encounter in a
vocabulary notebook.
3. GRAMMAR:
The dreaded G word! Grammar does matter and the fewer mistakes you make, the better
your speaking skill will be. However, do not worry about making mistakes either! A
good speaker does not have to use perfect grammar. Certainly, though, it is a good idea
to make sure that you have mastered the major tenses.
4. PRONUNCIATION:
Pronunciation is a complex area, with a lot of sub skills that can be practiced. The basic
rule of thumb is that an average speaker can speak and be understood. A skilled speaker
can use the sub skills of pronunciation to emphasise and make the communicative effect
of their speech more impactful. The sub skills of pronunciation include: word and
sentence stress, intonation, rhythm and the use of the individual sounds of a language. A
good way to practice your pronunciation is to copy! Simply listen to how someone with
good pronunciation speaks, and try to imitate them as closely as possible.
5. VOICE:
Another aspect of speaking skills in communication that is often ignored is your voice.
It includes pitch, tone, and strength. How you speak signals your emotional state. A low
voice and too many pauses could denote hesitation. Clarity and volume could denote
confidence. A strong and confident tone portrays conviction. People believe what you
say when you deliver it in a strong voice.
Public speaking requires practice. You might be quite comfortable talking to small groups or
in informal settings. But that is not the same as addressing a large crowd, which is why
practice and rehearsals matter.
6. NON-VERBAL
The final aspect of speaking skills is not about speaking at all. Non-verbal
communication consists of body language. It includes facial expression, posture, eye contact,
and hand gestures. Your body language must match your words for your address to be
effective.
Your body language signals to the audience how invested you are into what you are speaking

17
 about. It shows the passion behind your words and helps draw the audience emotionally to
your message and make them feel involved.
Importance of Speaking Skills:
The importance of speaking skills in communication has no limit. The ability to combine the
words in a meaningful way of reflecting thoughts, opinions, and feelings has the following
advantages:
Notify, induce, and direct power.
Ability to stand out from the rest.
Derivative ability to benefit
Personal satisfaction
Valuable at work
Helps your career progress
You can talk briefly
Builds better rapport with customers
Influences how you learn
Enhances your professional image
1. Nervousness Is Normal. Practice and Prepare!
All people feel some physiological reactions like pounding hearts and trembling hands. Do not
associate these feelings with the sense that you will perform poorly or make a fool of yourself.
Some nerves are good. The adrenaline rush that makes you sweat also makes you more alert and
ready to give your best performance.
The best way to overcome anxiety is to prepare, prepare, and prepare some more. Take the time
to go over your notes several times. Once you have become comfortable with the material,
practice—a lot. Videotape yourself, or get a friend to critique your performance.
2. Know Your Audience. Your Speech Is About Them, Not You.
Before you begin to craft your message, consider who the message is intended for. Learn as
much about your listeners as you can. This will help you determine your choice of words, level
of information, organization pattern, and motivational statement.
3. Organize Your Material in the Most Effective Manner to Attain Your Purpose.
Create the framework for your speech. Write down the topic, general purpose, specific purpose,
central idea, and main points. Make sure to grab the audience’s attention in the first 30 seconds.
4. Watch for Feedback and Adapt to It.
Keep the focus on the audience. Gauge their reactions, adjust your message, and stay flexible.
Delivering a canned speech will guarantee that you lose the attention of or confuse even the most
devoted listeners.
5. Let Your Personality Come Through.
Be yourself, don’t become a talking head—in any type of communication. You will establish
better credibility if your personality shines through, and your audience will trust what you have
to say if they can see you as a real person.
6. Use Humor, Tell Stories, and Use Effective Language.
Inject a funny anecdote in your presentation, and you will certainly grab your audience’s
attention. Audiences generally like a personal touch in a speech. A story can provide that.
7. Don’t Read Unless You Have to. Work from an Outline.
Reading from a script or slide fractures the interpersonal connection. By maintaining eye contact
with the audience, you keep the focus on yourself and your message. A brief outline can serve to
jog your memory and keep you on task
8. Use Your Voice and Hands Effectively. Omit Nervous Gestures.

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Nonverbal communication carries most of the message. Good delivery does not call attention to
itself, but instead conveys the speaker’s ideas clearly and without distraction.
9. Grab Attention at the Beginning, and Close with a Dynamic End.
Do you enjoy hearing a speech start with “Today I’m going to talk to you about X”? Most
people don’t. Instead, use a startling statistic, an interesting anecdote, or concise quotation.
Conclude your speech with a summary and a strong statement that your audience is sure to
remember.
10. Use Audiovisual Aids Wisely.
Too many can break the direct connection to the audience, so use them sparingly. They should
enhance or clarify your content, or capture and maintain your audience’s attention.
Communication within Teams Or Team Work
What are teamwork skills?
Teamwork skills are the qualities and abilities that allow you to work well with others during
conversations, projects, meetings or other collaborations. Having teamwork skills is dependent
on your ability to communicate well, actively listen and be responsible and honest. There are
many other additional soft skills that can help you be an exceptional teammate at work that we
will discuss more below.
Why are teamwork skills important?
You will be required to work alongside others in every industry at every level in your career.
Doing so in an empathetic, efficient and responsible manner can help you accomplish career
goals, grow your resume and contribute positively to your organization. It can also help you
build rapport with others. Buildingrapport can lead to deeper working relationships, new
connections and possibly new opportunities.
Being able to work in a team is essential when you are a part of a large endeavour. Though some
persons are natural team players, for others working in a team can be a learning experience. With
the right knowledge and aproach we can all be good team players. Here is information to help
you build the skills required to work well in a team.
Examples of Teamwork Skills:
Contribute
Teamwork requires each member of the team to contribute. A member can contribute in several
ways. For example, with strategy suggestions, ideas and effort. Of these, contributing effort is
very important, teams where effort is shared work better.
Cooperate
Teamwork requires cooperation. There will usually be several persons contributing and they will
need to have good coordination. As a team member you should be open to working together
with other members of the team.
Communicate
Teamwork requires good communication skills. Your team members will appreciate your inputs
best when you communicate them well. So put forward your thoughts clearly and in an easy-to -
understand way. If you feel you are not able to communicate well you should work on your
communication skills.
Assign roles & responsibilities
Teams usually bring together diverse talents. Therefore, assigning a proper role to leverage each
talent is important. There may also be hierarchy among the roles such as team leaders and group
leaders. For the success of team’s clarity of roles and responsibilities is very important. If you are
assigned a role, you should know it well and understand your responsibilities. You should
communicate openly with team members while following the established culture for respecting

19
hierarchies. You should also be ready to assign roles and plan hierarchies yourself. For this you
will need to have good delegation skills and communications skills.
Be respectful
When you work in teams you will find a variety of approaches, ideas, customs, opinions and
preferences. The diversity of opinions is a key strength of a team. A key aspect of being
respectful is listening attentively. You should give due consideration to the opinions of others.
You should comment on the opinions respectfully. This will enable you to participate in group
decision making.
Be open & share your thoughts
An open and free exchange of ideas makes sure a team evaluates a wide range of options. Do not
worry too much about how your ideas will be received. Speak your mind if you have something
to say. If there is criticism of your ideas don't take it personally. You can either defend your idea
or if the criticism is valid, learn from it. Good teams will encourage openness and benefit from
it.
Accept team decisions
Not everything that the team decides will be aligned with what you had wanted. A broad
consensus is often not possible. One option is to be flexible, avoid conflict and let two different
outlooks co-exist. It is important that once a plan has been made, everyone works to make it
succeed.
Be reliable
Teamwork depends a lot on each person fulfilling their assigned tasks. Team members who can
be relied on, are valued highly. Being able to work in a team will give a person a lot of strength.
A person's self -belief will go up. Specially, when the person realizes that others depend on the
person and the trust is vindicated. A person's vision broadens with the realization that diverse
talents can work together towards a common goal.
GROUP DISCUSSION
Group Discussion (GD) is a process where an exchange of ideas and opinions are debated upon.
This process is mostly used for selecting candidates for admission to management schools
basically for MBA/Govt. Jobs/ Competitive Exams. It is widely used in many organisations for
decision making and problem solving. They are used widely as a personality test for
evaluating several candidates simultaneously. They help to shortlist candidates for a final
interview, to select personnel for positions of responsibility. Most reputed business schools
require students to participate in a GD before moving on to the final stage of the selection
procedure, the interview
A typical GD comprises of a small group of candidates. Each group is then given a topic for
discussion. The topic can be general or specific. Example: Kashmir Conflict or just a phrase
saying "Where there's a will there's a way".
Purpose/Objective of GD
Exchange of information
Solve problems
Persuade
Take decision
Assess or judge personality traits
Procedure to participate in GD
Need to understand the team members
Discuss the given topic
Should come to common consensus

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Different types of Group Discussion
1) Topic-based
2) Case Study based
Topic-Based Group Discussions are further divided into:
1) Knowledge Based Topics
2) Abstract Topics
3) Controversial Topics
4) Opinion Seeking Topics
Topic Based Study
Elaborating on each, let’s read what each type of topic-based Group Discussion is all
about:
1) Knowledge Based Topics:
Under this kind of group discussion, you require in-depth information about the topic been given
to you.
1) You should be able to support it with facts and figures
2) Your information should be substantial.
Examples:
a) Unique Identification Number
b) Cold War
c) Is terrorism the price we have to pay for democracy?
d) Globalisation and Privatisation
e) Is Mixed Economy preferred?
f) MBA or PGDM?
g) Privatisation of Universities/colleges/schools
h) Does India need a dictatorship?
i) MBA in India is overrated
2) Abstract Topics:
Under this type of a group discussion, the panellist gives a topic which is absolutely out of the
box. Abstract topics are more about intangible things. These topics test your creativity and also
to some extent your thinking ability.
Such topics can be interpreted in different ways by the candidates. In such topics, your
comprehension skills and communication skills are judged.
Example:
1) A Teardrop on my Guitar
2) Where there’s a will there’s away
3) 26 Alphabets
4) Infinite Numbers
5) A Walk to Remember
6) Six Billion and One Gold
Such topics do not require facts or figures but simply judge your imagination and how well you
can associate it with you day to day life.
3) Controversial Topics
Such topics can lead to an argument, they’re argumentative in nature. They are meant to generate
controversy and at the same time, judge the analytical skills of the participant to see if he/ she
can think rationally, without any bias and arrive at a harmonious conclusion.
Such topics are also given by the panelists so that they can judge the maturity level of the
students and they don’t start screaming at other candidates., If, as a student, you are not in

21
favour of what the another candidate is saying, then you should be smart enough to put across
your point candidly without / bashing the speaker.
Example:
1) Reservation should be removed
2) Quota System should be Abolished
3) Maintaining brotherhood is a social obligation
4) Beauty Pageants give a wrong impact on the women of India
5) Politics in India
6) Reality shows- Should children be banned from coming to such shows?
4) Opinion Seeking Topics:
In such topics, candidates are asked to put across their opinions, their point of views. The
panellists look for presentation skills when given such topics and also your ability to work in a
team which means that your leadership skills are also judged.
Example:
1) Women – boon to the society or bane to the society
2) Love Marriage or Arranged Marriage
3) Nuclear Family or Joint Family
Case Based Study
Under a case based study, a situation or a scenario is left to students for an open discussion. The
information about the situation will be provided to you, a problem regarding the same situation
will be given, all you will be asked for is to resolve it.
Topics given during this type of discussion are more management related, for example, the
panellists might give you a situation which could be a conversation/argument between an
employee and the boss etc.
These are open end discussions, wherein nobody is right or wrong, using their thinking ability
they decide what they can do in such situations etc.
The panellist under the case based study, look for the decision-making skills, his/her ability to
work in a team etc.
NOTE: IIM A, IIM Indore and IIT SOM Mumbai have a case-based discussion rather than
topic-based discussion in their selection procedures.
TIP 1: Be updated with the latest current affairs which will provide you to give facts and figures
during a Group Discussion which will value addition for you.
TIP 2: Practice topics well in advance, manage a list of topics from various group discussions
held in the previous years, consult your friends or seniors who have been through the same
process.
Group Discussions also categorised into two forms: They are
a. Oraganisational GDs
In an organisation the GD is mainly used for decision making. GDs can help to
reduce the many problems inherent in the traditional interactive groups. The participants may
censor themselves and pressure other group members into agreement. In order to minimise this,
the following techniques may be used
i) BRAIN STORMING: It is a method of generating ideas and perspective. It is as uncritical as
possible because criticism inhibits the free flow of ideas. No criticism is allowed, and all the
alternatives are recorded for later discussions and analysis. They are two types
1. Story Boarding: The participants identify major issues and brain storm each of them . It is
often used to solve complex problems.
2. Lotus Blossom: A core thought is presented and participants provide eight ideas surrounding

22
it like the petals of a lotus blossom, as it were.
ii) NOMINAL GROUP TECHNIQUE: It restricts discussion or interpersonal communication
during the decision making process and hence the term nominal group. In other words members
of the group before any discussion they silently write down their ideas on the problem given and
as his/ her turn comes , they present their version and it is recorded for future purpose. No
discussion takes place until all ideas have recorded.
iii) DELPHI TECHNIQUE: It is more complex and time-consuming alternative in group
decision making. It is similar to the nominal group technique except that it does not require the
physical presence of the group members.
b. GDs as a Part of Selection Process:
GDs conducted for the selection of candidates to any professional institutions are well-
formulated devices for judging the personality of candidates, their communication skills,
knowledge, and their ability to work as team. The evaluation components are
Knowledge: Depth and range of his/her knowledge as well as analytical and organizational
abilities are tested.
Communication Skills: The participant’s active listening skills, clarity of thought, apt language,
and appropriate body language will be checked. In addition to this tone, voice, articulation,
fluency, modulation, good delivery is also observed . Group behaviour and leadership skills are
checked thoroughly. The candidate who possess both functional ability and coordinating ability
will emerge as a leader.
Language Expressions for a G D
Stating an opinion
 In my opinion...
 The way I see it...
 If you want my honest opinion....
 According to Lisa...
 As far as I'm concerned...
 If you ask me...
Asking for an Opinon
 What's your idea?
 What are your thoughts on all of this?
 How do you feel about that?
 Do you have anything to say about this?
 What do you think?
 Do you agree?
 Wouldn't you say?
Expressing Agreement
 I agree with you 100 percent.
 I couldn't agree with you more.
 That's so true.
 That's for sure.
Dos and Don’ts of a Group Discussion
Dos
 1. Initiate the discussion if you are familiar with the topic.
 2. Be gentle with your presentation
 3. Say what you feel, without going in ‘favour’ or ‘against’ the topic
 4. Intervene if the discussion is turning out to be hostile

23
  5. Maintain eye contact
 6. Speak to the point without repeating
 7. Think before you speak
Don’ts
 1. Don’t be aggressive
 2. Don’t go overboard if you are familiar with the topic
 3. Do not depreciate other speakers
 4. Do not stop abruptly
 5. Do not question
 6. Do not get nervous if the previous speakers have presented their points in a better way.
 7. Do not make mere statements but with facts and figures.
List of Group Discussion Topics
1. Which job you prefer? A lucrative private job or a secured Govt. Job?
2. Man or Machine?
3. City life Vs Rural life?
4. Daughters are more caring than sons?
5. Money makes as well as mars many things.
6. Nuclear family Vs Joint family.
7. Love marriages Vs arranged marriages.
8. Is science a boon or a bane?
9. Is cricket eclipsing other sports in India?
10. Brain drain
11. Is India a soft Nation?
12. How to deal with terrorism.
13. Are beauty pageants necessary when people are starving around?
14. Who is performing better - India or Indians?
15. Can we never be a corruption free country?
16. Are we living a better life or our ancestors?
17. Wisdom does not come from degrees.
18. Is social net working only a time pass activity?
19. Fate of Apple after Steve Jobs.
20. India – really a next generation’s super power?
21. Indian villages our strength or weakness?
22. Are we really a civilized society?
23. Which will be more useful smart or hard working?
24. Does Texting affect the spelling negatively?
25. Can India be made a corruption free country?
26. Abundance of food grains and hunger in India.
27. Is internet producing copy cats?
28. China - A threat to India.
29. Depreciation of India Rupee has only negative impact on Indian economy
30. India – really next generation’s super power?
Interview Skills
An interview is a psychological and sociological instrument. It is an interaction between two or
more persons for a specific purpose, in which the interviewer asks the interwee specific
questions in order to assess his suitability for recruitment, admission, or promotion, or for an
opinion. These interviews can be either face to face or telephonic

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OBJECTIVES
The conduct of an interview depends very much on the reason behind it. Generally interviews are
conducted to achieve some of the following objectives.
 To select a person for a specific task
 To monitor performance
 To collect information
 To exchange information
 To counsel
Types of
interviews
Depending upon on their objective and nature, interview can be categorized into the following
type:
 Job
 Information
 Persuasive
 Exit
 Evaluation counseling
 Conflict resolution
 Disciplinary
 Termination
Job interviews: The candidate wants to learn about the position and the organization. The
employer wants to learn about the applicant’s abilities and experience. These interviews
are usually formal and structured. But later, interviews may be relatively spontaneous as
the interviewer explores the candidate’s response.
Information interviews: The interviewer seeks facts that bear on a decision or contribute
to basic understanding. Information flows mainly in one direction. Eg- doctor- patient,
boss-subordinate
Persuasive interviews: One person tells another about a new idea, product or service and
explain why the other should act on his or her recommendations. These interview
require skill I drawing out and listening to others as well as the ability to impart
information.
Exist interviews: The interviewer tries to understand why the interviewee is leaving the
organization or transferring to another department.
Evaluation interviews: A supervisor periodically gives an employee feedback on his or
her performance. They may also discuss goals and evaluate areas that require
improvement.
Counseling interviews: A supervisor talks to an employee about personal problems that
are interfering with work performance. The goal is to establish the facts, convey the
company’s concern and steer the person towards a source of help. ( only trained
professional should involve in this for eg: substance abuse, marital tension, financial
problems.)
Conflict resolution interviews: Two competing people or groups of people with opposing
points of view explore their problems and attitudes. The goal is to bring two parties
closer together, cause adjustments in perceptions and attitudes, and create more
productive climate.
Disciplinary interviews: A supervisor tries to correct the behavior of the employee who
has ignored the organizations’ rules and regulations. The interviewer also reviews the
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 facts and explores the person’s attitude.
Termination interviews: A supervisor informs an employee of the reason for the
termination of the latter’s job. The interviewer tries to avoid involving the company in
legal action and tries to maintain as positive a relationship as possible with the interwee.
Employer’s expectations in face- to-face interviews:
Candidate’s Disposition: Appearance, clothes, facial expressions, gestures, manners, the
way the person is presenting him/herself.
Career objectives: the panel will try to gauze the candidate’s goal in the life. The panel
will try to evaluate the candidate’s career objective, consistency and reasons for a
change.
Subject knowledge: the candidate should be well versed with the subjects they had
pursued in the past or are currently pursuing.
General knowledge: A good general knowledge awareness is the primary requisite of a
candidate aspiring for a job today. The way each question is tackled is very important. It
is necessary to feel confident and develop a positive frame of mind.
Communication skills: The employer will try to assess how effective the candidate in
communicating his/her ideas to him both verbally and non-verbally and how intensely
the candidate can listen and comprehend.
Mental agility: The ability to quickly grasp the question and reply appropriately is a sign
of mental alertness.
Consistency: A good candidate has a positive, definite and well developed approach to
life. The candidate should stick to one opinion and make justification for the same coz the
interviewer may the same question in too many different forms.
Self confidence: It means trust in oneself. This generates self esteem and self respect.
Telephone Interviews
The telephone/mobile phone has a great deal of power. A telephone interview is
also an interview not just a phone call and it has it treated as any other face to face
interview and need to be prepared well in advance.
 Keep all the related documents within the easy reach of the phone so that it can
be referred if it is required.
 Have a note pad and pen to take notes.
 Try to match speaking rate with the interviewer’s tone and pitch of the voice.
 Have a glass of water handy, since one may not have a chance to take a break
during the call.
Ten success factors in an interview
Positive attitude towards work
Proficiency in the field of study
Communication skills (oral and written)
Interpersonal skills
Confidence
Critical thinking and problem solving skills
Flexibility
Self motivation
Leadership
Teamwork
Proving one’s competence time to time
Ten failure factors in an interview

26
  Arrogance
 Apathy
 Uninhabited nervousness
 Lack of concentration
 Lack of social skills
 Lack of firmness
 Unsuitable personality
Preparation for the interview: Successful interviews begin with preparations. Go through the
mock interviews if possible, try to gather adequate inside information about the organization –
the recent the better. One should dress appropriately. The campus fashion and work fashion is
entirely different and one should be aware of it. Memorize the resume and quote the information
from the resume. Be punctual and atleast try to be 15 minutes before the interview. By the time
the interview rolls around the candidate he/she should be relaxed and be confident.
Answering Techniques:
1. Behavioural Answering Technique
Need to be prepare to use examples from work, classes and extracurricular activities.
2. Compelling story technique
Expand the answers by developing the specific examples into compelling stories with
personality, flair and interest. Do not however , be tempted into lengthy monologues that will
stretch the interviewer’s time.
3. Personality Matching technique
Should take a cue from the interviewer in terms of tome an approach. Do not be causal ,
even if the interviewer seems to be.
4. Parroting Technique
If an asked question is unclear it is absolutely appropriate to ‘parrot back’ the question in
own words to make sure to have the correct meaning.
5. Reframing technique
Reframe the original question to illustrate an area of your background that can further
enhance the overall image of the candidate.
6. Abraham Lincoln Technique
Point to one’s strengths instead of making excuses for shortcomings. First speak about
grades, credentials work experience etc., Abraham Lincoln while arguing in the court, would
usually argue both the sides of the case to the jury.
Most Frequently Asked Questions
 What are your strengths and weaknesses?
 Tell me about yourself.
 What are your team-player qualities? Give examples.
 Of the courses you have had at college which courses have you enjoyed the most?
 What is your GPA? How do you feel about it? Does it reflect your abilities?
 How have your educational and work experiences prepared you for this position?
 What work experiences have been most valuable to you and why?
 What have the experiences on your resume taught you about managing and working
with people?
 Of the hobbies and interests listed on your resume what is your favorite and tell me why?
 Where do you see yourself in five years?
 What goals have you set for yourself? How are you planning to achieve them?
 To what do you owe your present success?

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 Why should I hire you?
 What makes you think you can handle this position?
 What is your most significant accomplishment to date?
 Why do you want to work here?
 Describe a leadership role of yours and tell why you committed your time to it.
 In a particular leadership role you had, what was your greatest challenge?
 Give me an example of an idea that has come to you and what you did with it?
 Give me an example of a problem you solved and the process you used?
 Give me an example of the most creative project that you have worked on.
 Tell me about a project you initiated?
 Describe the project or situation that best demonstrates your analytical abilities?
 Since attending college, what is the toughest decision that you have had to make?
 Tell me about your most difficult decision and how did you go about making it?
 What types of situations put you under pressure, and how do you deal with pressure?
 Give me a situation in which you failed, and how you handled it?
 Why are you interested in our organization?
 What type of position are you seeking?
 Where do you think your interest in this career comes from?
 What industry besides this one are you looking into?
 Why have you chosen this particular profession?
 What interests you about this job?
 What challenges are you looking for in a position?
 What can you contribute to this company?
 What motivates you?
 What turns you off?
 If I asked the people who know you well to describe you, what three words would they use?
 If I asked the people who know you for one reason why I shouldn't hire you what would they
say?
 When you take on a project do you like to attack the project in a group of individually?
 Describe the type of manager you prefer.
 Tell me about a team project of which you are particularly proud and your contribution?
 Describe a situation where you had to work with someone who was difficult, how did you
handle it?
 What type of work environment appeals to you most?
 With which other companies are you interviewing?
 What charactersitics do you think are important for this position?
 Why do you feel that this company will be a career for you rather than a job?
 Name two management skills that you think you have?
 What characteristics are most important in a good manager? How have you displayed one
of them?
 Why did you choose this college and how did you arrive at this decision?
 What factors did you consider in choosing your major?
 Describe how your favorite course has contributed your career interests?
 Since you have been at college, what is it that you are proudest of?
 How have you changed personally since starting college?
 What has been your greatest challenge?
 If you could change a decision you made while at college what would you change and why?

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 Why did you choose the campus involvements you did? What did you gain? What did
you contribute?
Presentation Skills
Delivering professional presentations includes planning, preparing and then performing.
Planning and preparing is as important as delivering the presentations as it gives the initial
amount of the confidence needed.
I Planning and Preparing a Presentation
This part as five sections:
 Why (the purpose)
 Who (the audience)
 What (the outline/organization)
 How (the methodology)
 Where and When (the venue and time)
Why (the purpose)
Here are some examples of the purpose of giving a presentation on HP
Precision Scan LT software.
At the end of my presentation, the audience will be able to describe three
advantages of using HP Precision Scan LT software.
(Informative Presentation)
At the end of my presentation, the audience will believe that the HP Precision Scan
LT software is the best software in the market.
(Persuasive Presentation)
At the end of my presentation, the audience will be able to use the HP Precision
Scan LT software.
(Demonstrative Presentation)
Who (the audience)
Who are they?
How many will be there?
Why are they coming?
What do they know about the subject?
What is there relationship to you?
What (the organization/outline)
Helps you remember.
Helps the audience understand and remember.
Helps you keep to the point.
Helps you reduce your nervousness.
How (the methodology)
Use index cards
Print in big letters
Write only the keywords
Number the cards
Where and When (the venue and time)
Things to take Things to check

II Performing the presentation

While structuring the presentation, care should be taken that the sequence of the ideas should
be such that the listeners should follow them without straining themselves much

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 Beginning
 Allocating enough time for preparation is essential. If you have not had enough time
for whatever reason, never tell it to the audience.
 With a small audience, you should encourage interruptions to communicate well.
With a very large audience, you may want to ask them to keep the questions until the
end of the presentation.
 Unless the length of the presentation has already been announced, it is always a good
idea to tell them how long they can expect to be there.
 In most cases you should prepare handouts and tell the audience that you will be
distributing the handouts (summary) after the presentation. Otherwise the listeners
may start taking down the notes rather than listening to you.
Middle
 Language:
-When one writes down one’s presentation as a part of preparation, one tends
to use formal words. This may distance the speaker from the audience.
-Using jargon (specialized vocabulary used as per the profession/field) with the
professionals is fine but otherwise the vocabulary should be simplified.
-Don’t utter sentences which are too long. (but as you are reading, you can go back
and read it again). There is a reasonable chance that the audience will have forgotten
the beginning by the time you reach the end.
 Visual Aids
 Visuals should support a presentation but not replace it.
 One should use a slide for not more than three minutes.
 The audience cannot read and listen at the same time so make sure that
the audience listens as you explain.
 Visuals should be simple.
Ending
 The ending can be memorized so that the presenter has the maximum impact.
 Never rush through the conclusion.
 Relate the conclusion to the beginning.
 Always finish on time.
Questions
 Tricky and nasty questions are rare.
 Questions help the presenter achieve his/her objectives.
 Never criticize or putdown a member of the audience.
 Use 80:20 rule of eye contact. When listening to a questioner, 80% of eye contact to
him/her, 20% of eye contact to the rest of the audience. But when replying, 20% of
eye contact to the questioner and 80% of eye contact to the audience.
 If you cannot answer a question, tell the audience that you did not think from that point of
view.
 Paraphrase the question so that the rest of the audience understands it too.
Non-verbal Communication
Non-verbal communication refers to interaction among people without the use of language. It
includes body motion, characteristics of appearance, characteristics of voice, facial
expressions, eye-contact, gestures, distancing and touch.
The non-verbal symbols signify:
 Repetition: They can repeat the message the person is making verbally.

30
  Contradiction: They can contradict a message the individual is trying to convey.
 Substitution: They can substitute for a verbal message. For example, a person's eyes
can often convey a far more vivid message than words and often do.
 Complementing: They may add to or complement a verbal message. A boss who pats a
person on the back in addition to giving praise can increase the impact of the message.
 Emphasis: They may emphasize a verbal message. Pounding the table, for example, can
underline a message.

The Non-verbal Cues
Personal Appearance: The audience starts judging the speaker from his/her personal appearance
and also try to visualize the way the speaker is going to speak. One should not wear too many
accessories while speaking at a public gathering. The dress code, personal hygiene, the perfume
used, hair style matter a lot in public speaking. One should wear clothes in which one feels
comfortable.
Posture: Postures are the positions adopted by the body. It is an important part of body language
and refers to the way one stands, sits and walks. The movement of the body, the position of
hands and legs reveal an individual’s personality – whether he is vibrant, alive and dynamic or
nervous and jittery. One should not lean over a wall, table or lectern for support, but can place
the hands on the lectern in a casual manner.
Gestures: A gesture is the movement of the head, arms or hands to illustrate or reinforce what
one says. A gesture increases the value of a spoken word and so as more impact on the audience.
A right gesture can drive a point home.
There are several types of gestures which people make while communicating orally:
a. Enumerative gestures: It is raising the appropriate number of fingers while mentioning
any number.
b. Descriptive gestures: Showing the approximate size of an object with hands away
from the body is a descriptive gesture.
c. Locative gestures: These gestures indicate location of an object or an area. For
example, you may raise your right thumb and tilt it backwards to refer to a chart behind
you.
d. Symbolic gestures: The symbolic gesture is suggestive, conveying an abstract idea to the
audience. For example, to convey the idea of cooperation or team spirit, you can clasp
the hands in front with fingers intertwined. Similarly you may make the letter ‘V’ with
your fingers to indicate victory.
e. Emphatic gestures: An emphatic gesture is a definite or voluntary movement of hand or
arm to give emphasis to a point. For example you may use a clenched fist to show
determination.
Facial expressions: Face is supposed to be the index of mind. We communicate a range of
emotions like anger, discontent, disbelief, anxiety, so on and so forth. A smile (friendliness, a
frown (discontent), raising of eyebrows(disbelief) can add meaning to oral communication. A
warm smile always desirable. It gives you confidence, lets the audience respond positively,
and thereby sets the ball rolling with an ease.
Eye contact: Eye contact with the listener is the most important aspect of body language.
Stress is laid on continuous eye contact between the listener and speaker because it tells
whether the speaker is sincere and the listener is interested. Eye contact is means of gaining
feedback, enabling the communicator to alter, adjust, and refine his message while
transmitting it.

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Distancing: Each communicator maintains a personal territory around himself. He normally does
not allow it to be invaded at the time of communication unless the relationship between him and
the listener is very friendly or intimate. The extent of space you create indicates either the
importance you have or the degree of formality you wish to maintain with the listener. Proxemics
is the study of set measurable distances between people as they interact.
Haptic communication is the means by which people and other animals communicate via
touching. A warm touch conveys friendliness and empathy towards the other person.
Paralanguage
Paralanguage refers to the non-verbal elements of communication used to modify meaning and
convey emotion while speaking. It is a part of oral communication. Paralanguage may be
expressed consciously or unconsciously, and it includes the pitch, volume, and, in some cases,
intonation of speech. Sometimes the definition is restricted to vocally-produced sounds. The
study of paralanguage is known as paralinguistics.
The paralinguistic properties of speech play an important role in human speech communication.
There are no utterances or speech signals that lack paralinguistic properties, since speech
requires the presence of a voice that can be modulated.
The elements of paralanguage
Pitch: As you tighten your vocal cords you raise your voice. Intense feelings of joy, fear, or
anger make your voice go up. When you are depressed, tired, or calm, the muscles of your voice
goes down. The pitch moves to the extreme when you are expressing intense feelings.
Tempo: The tempo or speed at which words are spoken reflect s emotions and attitudes. Fast
talkers convey excitement and can be expressive and persuasive. Speaking too fast, however can
make the listener nervous. Rapid speech can also signal insecurity or nervousness of the speaker.
Hence the language should be articulated clearly using appropriate pauses where necessary.
Volume: On the positive side, loud volume is usually associated with enthusiasm and
confidence. Negative connotations include aggressiveness, an over-inflated ego, or an
exaggerated belief in the importance of the message.
In everyday (informal) settings a soft voice is often heard as a sign of trustworthiness, caring and
understanding.
Rhythm and Intonation : Rhythm determines which words will be emphasized in a sentence. In
the question “what time is it?”, we generally emphasize the word `time’. The emphasis on a
particular word conveys the right message to the listener.
Leadership Skills
What is Leadership?
Leadership is the ability of an individual or a group of individuals to influence and guide
followers or other members of an organization.
It is a process by which an executive can direct, guide and influence the behavior and work of
others towards accomplishment of specific goals in a given situation. Leadership is the ability
of a manager to induce the subordinates to work with confidence and zeal.
Leadership is the potential to influence behavior of others. It is also defined as the capacity to
influence a group towards the realization of a goal. Leaders are required to develop future visions,
and to motivate the organizational members to want to achieve the visions.
Characteristics of Leadership
1. It is an inter-personal process in which a manager is into influencing and guiding workers
towards attainment of goals.
2. It denotes a few qualities to be present in a person which includes intelligence,
maturity and personality.

32
 3. It is a group process. It involves two or more people interacting with each other.
4. A leader is involved in shaping and molding the behavior of the group towards
accomplishment of organizational goals.
5. Leadership is situation bound. There is no best style of leadership. It all depends upon
tackling with the situations.
Importance of Leadership
Leadership is an important function of management which helps to maximize efficiency and to
achieve organizational goals. The following points justify the importance of leadership in a
concern.
1. Initiates action- Leader is a person who starts the work by communicating the policies and
plans to the subordinates from where the work actually starts.
2. Motivation- A leader proves to be playing an incentive role in the concern’s working. He
motivates the employees with economic and non-economic rewards and thereby gets the
work from the subordinates.
3. Providing guidance- A leader has to not only supervise but also play a guiding role for
the subordinates. Guidance here means instructing the subordinates the way they have to
perform their work effectively and efficiently.
4. Creating confidence- Confidence is an important factor which can be achieved through
expressing the work efforts to the subordinates, explaining them clearly their role and
giving them guidelines to achieve the goals effectively. It is also important to hear the
employees with regards to their complaints and problems.
5. Building morale- Morale denotes willing co-operation of the employees towards their
work and getting them into confidence and winning their trust. A leader can be a morale
booster by achieving full co-operation so that they perform with best of their abilities as
they work to achieve goals.
6. Builds work environment- Management is getting things done from people. An efficient
work environment helps in sound and stable growth. Therefore, human relations should be
kept into mind by a leader. He should have personal contacts with employees and should
listen to their problems and solve them. He should treat employees on humanitarian terms.
7. Co-ordination- Co-ordination can be achieved through reconciling personal
interests with organizational goals. This synchronization can be achieved through
proper and effective co- ordination which should be primary motive of a leader.
Types of Leadership Skills:
1. Authoritarian Leadership
Authoritarian leadership styles allow a leader to impose expectations and define outcomes. A
one- person show can turn out to be successful in situations when a leader is the most
knowledgeable in the team. Although this is an efficient strategy in time-constrained periods,
creativity will be sacrificed since input from the team is limited. The authoritarian leadership
style is also used when team members need clear guidelines.
Advantages:
 Time spent on making crucial decisions can be reduced.
 Chain of command can be clearly emphasized.
 Mistakes in the implementation of plans can be reduced.
 Using authoritarian leadership style creates consistent results.
Disadvantages:
 A very strict leadership style can sometimes lead to employee rebellion.
 It kills employee creativity and innovation.

33
 It reduces group synergy & collaboration.
 Group input is reduced dramatically.
 Authoritarian leadership increases employee turnover rate.
2. Participative Leadership
Participative leadership styles are rooted in democratic theory. The essence is to involve team
members in the decision making process. Team members thus feel included, engaged and
motivated to contribute. The leader will normally have the last word in the decision-making
processes. However, if there are disagreements within a group, it can be a time-consuming
process to reach a consensus.
Advantages:
 It increases employee motivation and job satisfaction.
 It encourages use of employee creativity.
 A participative leadership style helps in the creation of a strong team.
 High level of productivity can be achieved.
Disadvantages:
 Decision-making processes become time-consuming.
 Leaders have a high probability of being apologetic to employees.
 Communication failures can sometimes happen.
 Security issues can arise because of transparency in information sharing.
 Poor decisions can be made if the employees are unskilled.
3. Delegative leadership
Also known as "laissez-faire leadership", a delegative leadership style focuses on delegating
initiative to team members. This can be a successful strategy if team members are competent, take
responsibility and prefer engaging in individual work. However, disagreements among the
members may split and divide a group, leading to poor motivation and low morale.
Advantages:
 Experienced employees can take advantage of their competence and experience.
 Innovation & creativity is highly valued.
 Delegative leadership creates a positive work environment.
Disadvantages:
 Command responsibility is not properly defined.
 Delegative leadership creates difficulty in adapting to change.
4. Transactional leadership
Transactional leadership styles use "transactions" between a leader and his or her followers -
rewards, punishments and other exchanges - to get the job done. The leader sets clear goals, and
team members know how they'll be rewarded for their compliance. This "give and take"
leadership style is more concerned with following established routines and procedures in an
efficient manner, than with making any transformational changes to an organization.
Advantages:
 Leaders create specific, measurable and time-bound goals that are achievable for
employees.
 Employee motivation and productivity is increased.
 Transactional leadership eliminates or minimizes confusion in the chain of command.
 It creates a system that is easy to implement for leaders and easy to follow by employees.
 Employees can choose reward systems.
Disadvantages:
 Innovation & creativity is minimized.

34
 Empathy is not valued.
 Transactional leadership creates more followers than leaders among employees.
5. Transformational Leadership
In transformational leadership styles, the leader inspires his or her followers with a vision and
then encourages and empowers them to achieve it. The leader also serves as a role model for the
vision.
Advantages:
 It leads to a lower employee turnover rate.
 Transformational leadership places high value on corporate vision.
 High morale of employees is often experienced.
 It uses motivation and inspiration to gain the support of employees.
 It is not a coercive approach to leadership.
 It places high value on relationships.
Disadvantages:
 Leaders can deceive employees.
 Consistent motivation and constant feedback may be required.
 Tasks can’t be pushed through without the agreement of employees.
 Transformational leadership can sometimes lead to the deviation of protocols and regulations.
Role of a Leader
Following are the main roles of a leader in an organization :
1. Required at all levels- Leadership is a function which is important at all levels. In the top
level, it is important for getting co-operation in formulation of plans and policies.
2. In the middle and lower level, it is required for interpretation and execution of plans
and programmes framed by the top management. Leadership can be exercised through
guidance and counseling of the subordinates at the time of execution of plans.
3. Representative of the organization- A leader, i.e., a manager is said to be the
representative of the enterprise. He has to represent the concern at seminars, conferences,
general meetings, etc. His role is to communicate the rationale of the enterprise to outside
public. He is also representative of the own department which he leads.
4. Integrates and reconciles the personal goals with organizational goals- A leader
through leadership traits helps in reconciling/ integrating the personal goals of the
employees with the organizational goals. He is trying to co-ordinate the efforts of people
towards a common purpose and thereby achieves objectives. This can be done only if he
can influence and get willing co- operation and urge to accomplish the objectives.
5. He solicits support- A leader is a manager and besides that he is a person who entertains
and invites support and co-operation of subordinates. This he can do by his personality,
intelligence, maturity and experience which can provide him positive result. In this regard,
a leader has to invite suggestions and if possible, implement them into plans and
programmes of enterprise. This way, he can solicit full support of employees which results
in willingness to work and thereby effectiveness in running of a concern.
6. As a friend, philosopher and guide- A leader must possess the three-dimensional traits in
him. He can be a friend by sharing the feelings, opinions and desires with the employees.
He can be a philosopher by utilizing his intelligence and experience and thereby guiding
the employees as and when time requires. He can be a guide by supervising and
communicating the employees the plans and policies of top management and secure their
co-operation to achieve the goals of a concern. At times he can also play the role of a
counselor by counseling and a problem-solving approach. He can listen to the problems of

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 the employees and try to solve them.
Leadership Traits
A leader has got multidimensional traits in him which makes him appealing and effective in
behavior. The following are the requisites to be present in a good leader:
1. Physical appearance- A leader must have a pleasing appearance. Physique and health
are very important for a good leader.
2. Vision and foresight- A leader cannot maintain influence unless he exhibits that he is
forward looking. He has to visualize situations and thereby has to frame logical
programmes.
3. Intelligence- A leader should be intelligent enough to examine problems and difficult
situations. He should be analytical who weighs pros and cons and then summarizes the
situation. Therefore, a positive bent of mind and mature outlook is very important.
4. Communicative skills- A leader must be able to communicate the policies and
procedures clearly, precisely and effectively. This can be helpful in persuasion and
stimulation.
5. Objective- A leader has to be having a fair outlook which is free from bias and which
does not reflects his willingness towards a particular individual. He should develop his
own opinion and should base his judgement on facts and logic.
6. Knowledge of work- A leader should be very precisely knowing the nature of
work of his subordinates because it is then he can win the trust and confidence of
his subordinates.
7. Sense of responsibility- Responsibility and accountability towards an individual’s work is
very important to bring a sense of influence. A leader must have a sense of responsibility
towards organizational goals because only then he can get maximum of capabilities
exploited in a real sense. For this, he has to motivate himself and arouse and urge to give
best of his abilities. Only then he can motivate the subordinates to the best.
8. Self-confidence and will-power- Confidence in himself is important to earn the
confidence of the subordinates. He should be trustworthy and should handle the situations
with full will power.
9. Humanist-This trait to be present in a leader is essential because he deals with human
beings and is in personal contact with them. He has to handle the personal problems of his
subordinates with great care and attention. Therefore, treating the human beings on
humanitarian grounds is essential for building a congenial environment.
10. Empathy- It is an old adage “Stepping into the shoes of others”. This is very important
because fair judgement and objectivity comes only then. A leader should understand the
problems and complaints of employees and should also have a complete view of the needs
and aspirations of the employees. This helps in improving human relations and personal
contacts with the employees.
From the above qualities present in a leader, one can understand the scope of leadership and it’s
importance for scope of business. A leader cannot have all traits at one time. But a few of them
helps in achieving effective results.
Leadership and Management - Relationship & Differences
Leadership and management are the terms that are often considered synonymous. It is essential
to understand that leadership is an essential part of effective management. As a crucial
component of management, remarkable leadership behaviour stresses upon building an
environment in which each and every employee develops and excels. Leadership is defined as
the potential to influence and drive the group efforts towards the accomplishment of goals. This

36
influence may originate from formal sources, such as that provided by acquisition of managerial
position in an organization.
A manager must have traits of a leader, i.e., he must possess leadership qualities. Leaders
develop and begin strategies that build and sustain competitive advantage. Organizations require
robust leadership and robust management for optimal organizational efficiency.
Differences between Leadership and Management
Leadership differs from management in a sense that:
1. While managers lay down the structure and delegates authority and responsibility, leaders
provides direction by developing the organizational vision and communicating it to the
employees and inspiring them to achieve it.
2. While management includes focus on planning, organizing, staffing, directing and
controlling; leadership is mainly a part of directing function of management. Leaders
focus on listening, building relationships, teamwork, inspiring, motivating and
persuading the followers.
3. While a leader gets his authority from his followers, a manager gets his authority by
virtue of his position in the organization.
4. While managers follow the organization’s policies and procedure, the leaders follow their own
instinct.
5. Management is more of science as the managers are exact, planned, standard, logical and
more of mind. Leadership, on the other hand, is an art. In an organization, if the managers
are required, then leaders are a must/essential.
6. While management deals with the technical dimension in an organization or the job
content; leadership deals with the people aspect in an organization.
7. While management measures/evaluates people by their name, past records, present
performance; leadership sees and evaluates individuals as having potential for things that
can’t be measured, i.e., it deals with future and the performance of people if their potential
is fully extracted.
8. If management is reactive, leadership is proactive.
9. Management is based more on written communication, while leadership is based more
on verbal communication.
The organizations which are over managed and under-led do not perform upto the
benchmark. Leadership accompanied by management sets a new direction and makes
efficient use of resources to achieve it. Both leadership and management are essential for
individual as well as organizational success.
Unit-3
Skills of Reading for Communication Effective Reading
Dr Sunita Vijay Kumar
Skillful reading is reading for specific information for a better learning experience in a short span
of time. Though complex, skilled reading is not difficult. It is an art which can be learnt easily
by using a systematic approach and by undergoing formal trainingwhile reading, you employ
different reading speeds and different approaches to them. However, it is also true that different
people have carried speeds of reading and understanding.
Benefits of Effective Reading
1. Effective reading can provide you with a ‘comprehensible input’ from the book or
document that you read.
2. It can enhance your general ability to use other language skills such as listening,
speaking, and writing.

37
3. It can enhance your vocabulary, that is, you can always learn new words, phrases, and
expressions.
4. Effective reading also helps you keep your mind focused on the material and prevents it
from unnecessary distractions.
5. Moreover, this enables you to extract useful information much more efficiently within a
limited time.
6. It can help you consolidate both previously learned language and knowledge.
7. It helps in building confidence as you start reading longer, and later, voluminous texts.
8. It gives you pleasure and relaxation as books are the best and most reliable friends.
9. Effective reading facilities the development of various other skills, such as making
predictions, comparing and contrasting facts, creating samples, hypothesizing,
reorganizing, the message as transmitted by the text, improving your critical thinking,
and hence developing a sharp acumen with passage of time.
Methods of Reading
There are several methods of reading, with different rates, for different kinds of material
and purposes.
Sub-vocalized reading: It combines sight reading with internal sounding of the words as if
spoken. It is a bad habit that slows down the pace of both reading and comprehension.
However, some studies show that it helps the readers better, particularly while reading
complex texts.
Speed reading: It is a method for increasing reading speed without a reduction in
comprehension or retention. With effort, you can acquire a speed of as much as 1000 words
per minute.
Photo reading: It is a kind of reading for detecting typographical errors in a printed text.
One can learn to do it rapidly, and professional proofreaders typically acquire the ability to
do so at high rates, faster for some kinds of material than for others. They may largely
suspend comprehensive while doing so, except when needed to select among several possible
words for a suspected typographical error.
Structure – Proposition - Evaluation (SPE) Mortimer Adler popularized this method in his
book How to Read a Book, mainly for non-fiction treatise, in which one reads writing in three
phases (1) for the structure of the work, (2) for the logical propositions or progression made,
and (3) for evaluation of the merits of the arguments and conclusions. This method demands
suspended judgment of the work or its arguments until they are fully understood.
Survey – Question – Read – Recite – Review (SQ3R)This method involves immaculate
and perfect reading, that is, you read so as to teach what is read or be able to explain or apply
the knowledge obtained in other domains. Through this method, the reader assimilates the
information in such a way that he/she can use it later at an appropriate place or occasion. In
this method, the reader absorbs the information and uses it without having to refer to notes or
the book again.
Multiple intelligences-based methodThismethod draws upon the reader’s diverse ways of
thinking and knowing to enrich his/her appreciation of the text. Reading is fundamentally a
linguist activity. Most readers use several intelligences, such as auditory, visual, and logical
intelligence, while reading, and making a habit of doing so in a more disciplined manner, that
is, constantly or after every paragraph, which results in more vivid and memorable
experience.
Tips for Effective Reading
Following are some of the important tips you must keep in mind about reading

38
 1. Get your eyes checked. Often, very slow reading is related to uncorrected eye defects.
Before embarking on speed reading, make sure that any correctable eye defects you may
not have are taken care of.
2. Get rid of the habit of pronouncing words – if you have – as you read. If you sound out
words in your throat or whisper them, your reading rate is slowed considerably. You
should be able to read most material at least two or three times faster when reading
silently than orally.
3. Find out what you want to know, and for that you need to cut through and assess what is
to be skipped from reading.
4. Your reading rate should vary accordingly to your reading purpose. To understand the
information, for example, skim or scan at a rapid rate.
5. It is always important to stress on qualitative not quantitative reading.
6. Cultivate a positive attitude towards reading. The more you read the more love you
develop towards reading.
7. Even if you find reading to be tedious, try to give your talk an extended stretch of an hour
or so. Don’t give up reading in the first 10-15 minutes itself.
8. Learn to underline the key parts/words/concepts for further references.
9. While reading new ideas and concepts will flash in the mind and the same may be added
in the margin.
10. By using different coloured pencils, the importance level of the contents can be realized
for further reading.
11. Try to convert the written information into pictorial format while reading for effective
comprehension of contents.
12. Fix some amount of time daily, exclusively for reading, and over a period of time it will
become a practice.
Recapitulation
 There are four skills that are essential for all, namely speaking, writing, listening, and
reading skills. However reading helps you increase your competence in other language
skills as well.
 Reading speed can be increased up to 1000 words per minute by following certain tips
given in the chapter.
 For developing effective reading, you need to have the desire to improve, to make
conscious efforts to the new techniques and also to have motivation to practice.
 Word-by-word reading, slow eye movement, complex words in the text, and lack of
concentration are the major hurdles in effective reading.
 Reading helps in building confidence besides giving you pleasure and relaxation, as you
start reading extended or longer texts.
 For reading comprehension tests, passages are drawn from different subject areas,
including humanities, social sciences, biological sciences, and physical sciences. Some
are more difficult than others. So, a proper training is required to enhance your reading
ability.
 Vocalization, word-by-word reading, speed reading, SQ3R, SPE, and multiple
intelligences-based methods are various methods that people use while reading but you
should select the suitable method of reading different types of texts.
 As a good reader, you should effectively use skimming, scanning, extensive, and
intensive reading skills.
Employing different Reading Skills
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 There are four reading skills, namely skimming, scanning, intensive and extensive reading
skills, which help you attempt a reading comprehension passage. Detailed discussion and
elaborate tips on how to judiciously employ these skills have been provided in Chapter 16.
Go through that conscientiously, pick up the nuances of all these skills and use them
appropriately while attempting a reading comprehension exercise.
Understanding the Author’s Point of View
While approaching a passage, it is important for us to identify its nature. Broadly speaking,
the passages can be information based or point-of-view based. There are passages in which
the author intends to inform the reader about some phenomenon. In such passages, the author
does not really have a point of view to prove. In other types of passages, however, he/she
may have an opinion or an argument to establish. Understanding the author’s opinion helps
you answer various point-of-view based questions worded in different ways such as
following examples.
1. The author’s primary purpose in this passage is to…
2. With which of the following statements would the author of the passage be most likely to
agree?
3. The author’s argument would be most weakened by the discovery of which of the
following?
4. Which of the following examples could be substituted for the author’s example of …
5. The author’s tone is best described as …
6. The author views his subject with…
7. The author’s presentation is best characterized as …
Identifying the Central Idea
All passages have a central or main idea which becomes very important for us to understand. It
is to because out of the questions asked in a reading comprehension exercise, most of these
relate to the central idea of the passage. Therefore, attempting a passage without understanding
the main or central idea of the passage is like fighting a battle without knowing with whom or
what is being fought for. Let us see how questions related to the central idea of a passage abound
in a reading comprehension exercise and are posed to the reader in a variety of ways.
1. The passage is primarily concerned with..
2. Which of the following statements best expresses the main idea of the passage?
3. The author’s primary purpose in this passage is to …
4. The author in the passage implies that…
5. It can be inferred from the passage that…
6. With which of the following statements would the author of the passage be most likely to
agree?
7. The author’s argument would be most weakened by the discovery of which of the
following?
8. Which of the following examples could best be substituted for the author’s
example of…?
9. Which of the following statements best summarizes the main idea of the passage?
Tips for Identifying the Central Idea
Following are some important instructions for identifying the central idea of any passage:
1. Never read a passage in a laid-back manger. Always attack it vigorously so as to
scavenge it thoroughly.
2. A passage – particularly a longer one –is often divided into several paragraphs. Now each
of these paragraphs has a topic sentence which expresses the main concern of that

40
 particular paragraph.
3. Carefully read the beginning of each paragraph.
4. Also carefully/follow the ending of each paragraph since the author is most likely to
wind up his/her main concern in this part of the paragraph.
5. Predicting and anticipating certain views to come up and express themselves also
helps us to move with the central thread of an argument.
6. Paying careful attention to each of the linkers and establishing their function in the
overall tapestry also helps you figure out the movements of ideas.
7. We can understand the central idea of a passage by thinking about a suitable title for the
passage and making an effort to determine its tone as we read it.
Recapitulation
 Reading comprehension is a two-fold process as it requires you to understand the passage
and reproduce or express the ideas as comprehended.
 You need to continuously strive to improve your speed of reading and level of
comprehension.
 To improve your speed of reading you should try to cultivate the habit of reading
larger groups of words and train your eyes to move faster.
 Try to get rid of the habit of regression, that is, rereading the text to ensure clarity of
comprehension.
 Employ different types of reading skills, such as skimming, scanning, intensive and
extensive for different purposes.
 You should try to figure out the central idea of a passage, the author’s point of view, and
discourse features of the passage.
 You may come across many unfamiliar words of which you do not the meaning try to guess
these from the given context.
Subskills of Reading
There are four sub skills of reading
1. Skimming
Skimming is used to quickly gather the most important information or ‘gist’ from the
document or novel that you read. For this, you should make your eyes run over the text,
nothing important information. You may also go through the contents of the chapters
rapidly, picking out and understanding the key words and concepts. Thus, you can use
skimming to go through a current business document or literary work, swiftly and rapidly. It
is not essential to understand each word when you employ skimming while reading. For
example, while reading the newspaper in the morning, you quickly try to get the general
news of the day or you go through magazines quickly to discover while articles you would
like to read in more detail.
2. Scanning
Scanning is used to find a particular piece of information. In this type of reading, you allow
your eyes to run over the text, looking for the specific piece of information that you need.
You use scanning when you go through your schedule or meeting plans, look for specific
advertisements, or some specific information in a book, etc. This is the most effective way
of getting information from magazines – scan the table of contents or indexes and turn
directly to interesting articles to arrive at the specific information.
3. Extensive Reading
Extensive reading is used to obtain a general understanding of a subject. It includes reading
of longer texts for pleasure, and business report to know the general trends. In this type of
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 reading, you should not worry if you do not understand each and every word. You can use
this type of reading to improve your general knowledge of business procedures, or to know
the latest marketing strategy. Also, while you read a novel before going to bed, or magazine
articles that interest you, you use your extensive reading skills.
4. Intensive Reading
Intensive reading is used on shorter texts in order to extract detailed information. It includes
very close and accurate reading for details. You use this skill to grasp the details of a
specific situation. In this case, it is important for you to understand each word, information,
or fact. When you read your text book for understanding the concepts or various theories,
you have to read intensively. You also required to read every single detail when you want to
go for an insurance claim or want to sign a contract. Intensive reading help you understand
and interpret the text, infer its central idea, observe the common thread that runs through it,
and intuit its overall purpose and significance.
NoteMaking
Note Making is a way of recording important details from a source. This source can be any book,
article, meeting or any oral discussion. In note making, the writer records the essence of the
information. It helps us to understand and clarify thinking. Note making saves a lot of time by
going through the notes made. Note making is not just about writing down everything you hear
or read. It is a process of reviewing, connecting and synthesising ideas from your lectures or
reading. Making notes helps you to:
 stay active and engaged during your lectures, reading and revision
 understand what you are learning and clarify your thinking
 be selective and identify key ideas
 remember the material
 organise your ideas and make connections
 plan and structure written assignments
 review and revise before exams.
Advantages of Note Making
Few advantages of note-making are as follows.
 It has great importance in exams or academic writing.
 It is a record of the main points of a meeting, lecture, or study for future use.
 It helps in keeping the information handy whenever we require it.
 Note making helps in recollecting and recalling the past events said or heard.
 It helps in understanding, concentrating, and provides a permanent record.
 The format helps a writer to go through bulky documents faster.
 It helps in understanding a concept easily, if the notes are in your own words.
 It helps to distinguish between the key points and details.
You can also see our note making techniques tutorial, which explores the different approaches
you can take to note making. You will learn the various options for note making in different
contexts and explore.
All good notes should contain:
 source information (title, author, date etc)
 headings to help you identify the key topics
 key points, examples, names, new ideas
 triggers to make your notes more memorable – such as mnemonics, colour or drawings
 further reading and ideas to follow up later.
Consider developing a system of symbols and abbreviations to help you speed up your note

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 taking. Common abbreviations in notes include “poss.” for possibly, “esp.” for “especially”,
and “govt.” for government, but you can create a list that works for you.
Three stages of note making
Note making doesn’t only happen when you are reading or attending lectures. There are three
stages to making effective notes: before, during, and after.
1. Before: Prepare by finding out what you need to know and what the purpose of the reading
or lecture is.
2. During: Note down main ideas and keywords. Find techniques that work for you.
3. After: Reflect and review and then organise your notes.
Note Making Format
A note making format involves the selection, analysis, summarization, and organization of
information. There are different note-making formats. Let us make ourselves familiar with them.
1. Split Page Format (A narrative format of note-making method)
In this method, the page is divided into two columns. The first column had the standard notes.
The second column will have a summary. This is the most common format to note down lecture
notes.
2. Diagram or Pattern format (A visual note making format method)
In this method, the information is introduced by a diagram. Related ideas connect the main topic.
This method is visually easier to understand.
3. Mind Map (A visual note making method)
Here, the main points and all the related points are presented through a map. It contains text and
images both. For a clear understanding, the information is linked in the proper sequence.
4. Outline Format (A visual note making format method)
Here the information is presented as an outline. Proper titles and subtitles are numbered
accordingly for this outline.
5. Question and Prompt Format (A visual method)
Here the main points are highlighted as a series of questions and appropriate answers. It helps in
quickly revising the notes.
Strategies Of Note Making
The use of bullet points is something we commonly come across in various books. The basic
idea behind this practice is providing a gist about something in a way that is not easily
forgettable. The purpose of note-making is the same; to bring the focus of readers on the most
significant information, leaving behind everything else. Now let us read about the strategies one
must follow to make appropriate notes, point by point.
1. Heading/Subheading
To allot a short and best-understood heading and subheading, we need to go through the source
content at least twice.
2. Content
Only write the most applicable content to make your notes truly accurate and also do not forget
to include those important details that you think you will have a hard time recalling later.
3. Readability
There are a few tips that one can use to avoid any ambiguity to make the notes more catchy.
 Do not leave unnecessary spaces to avoid confusion.
 Make use of as many abbreviations as possible, but it should not come out as poor
comprehension.
Reading Different Genres of Texts
As determining the overall purpose of reading is very important, the reader should analyze/study

43
the kind of text that he/she has to read. This will help him/her identify appropriate reading
strategies. He/she may have to read different kinds of texts with different purpose and varying
levels of reading comprehension. The text or the written message that he/she reads may vary
from a light entertaining short story to a serious discussion about the latest developments in
nuclear physics. Some of the aspects related to different reading activities are discussed below.
Reading Entertaining Messages/Texts
We may read entertaining messages or texts for relation. This is the most common form of
reading and it is casual as we are normally not serious about what we are reading. For example,
when we read a short story or a gossip about a film actress, the purpose is not to receive serious
information but to be entertained. Similarly, we may read a novel, an entertaining write-up, or a
joke for pleasure and enjoyment. Although the output in this type of reading may be some
entertaining information, the reader need not concentrate on the theme, main points, and
supporting details of the text or message.
Reading General Messages/Texts
We may read general messages or texts, such as newspapers, magazine articles, encyclopedias,
and so on, to improve our general awareness or knowledge about various areas of general
interest. The main purpose of such reading is to broaden our outlook and widen our intellectual
understanding and appreciation of things around us. Although this kind of reading is generally
broad and extensive, the reader has to concentrate on the theme, main points, and supporting
details of the text or message.
Reading Reference Materials
The main purpose of reading or scanning reference materials is to obtain specific information
that might be used in various academic and professional activities. It involves focused reading to
quickly identify a specific listing, an entry, or any other relevant piece of information. This kind
of reading requires effective scanning skills.
Reading Business Documents
Reading different kinds of business documents such as business and project reports, letters,
memos, e-mail messages and so forth, requires our complete attention. The reader must pay
attention to all parts of the document. As this kind of reading is interactive and productive,
facilitating proper interaction and more effective reader-writer relationships, it requires
conscious efforts on the part of the reader and demands concentration, involvement, and
responsibility. Some other examples of this kind of reading include reading administrative
instructions, business proposals, company profiles, and so on.
Reading Scientific and Technical Texts
Reading scientific and technical texts is a complex and multifaceted process. As we are
concerned with the subject-content of what we read as well as language in which it is expressed,
we should try to understand not only linguistic and semantic patterns, but also discipline-specific
information. Comprehension of linguistic and semantic patterns involves visual skills,
perceptual skills, vocabulary skills, skimming skills, critical reading skills, and knowledge of
how linguistic symbols combine to convey meaning. However, the comprehension of discipline-
specific information transfer entails a basic understanding of the subject and familiarity with the
material.
Active and Passive Reading
Reading is not merely a passive process of absorbing the message encoded in the printed word,
but a dynamic communicative process in which the reader approaches the text for a particular
reason. You need to be an active reader rather than a passive one. Active reading refers to a set
of reading practices you may use to help understand the meaning of a written message.

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Active Reading Passive Reading
*The reader pays attention to both content as *The reader pays attention to either content or
well as style style.
*The reader interprets and analyses what he or *The reader does not analyse what he or she
she reads in order to understand both explicit reads
as well as implicit meaning of a written *The reader does not predict and respond to
message context
*The reader pays attention to the writer’s *The reader does not pay attention to the
intention writers intention
*The reader differentiates between ideas, *The reader does not distinguish between
opinions feelings, and facts factual and non-factual information
*The reader infers the meaning of unfamiliar *The reader does not infer the meaning of
words from contextual or internal clues unfamiliar words from contextual or internal
*The reader identifies and evaluates a writer’s clues
attitude *The reader does not identify or evaluate a
*The reader understands and interprets graphic writer’s attitude
information *The reader does not interpret graphics
*The reader draws inferences and conclusions *the reader is only concerned with the literal
meaning of a written message
The passages that are given for reading comprehension in different examinations are drawn
from different subject areas, including humanities, social sciences, life sciences, and physical
sciences. Some are considered more difficult than others.
The passages you will encounter in any examination will most likely relate to one of the
following five topics that will be elaborated here. Each types of passage calls for a slightly
different optimum test-taking strategy .
Science Passages
These passages deal with hard facts of science, and the topics are related to different
branches of science such as biology, chemistry, medicine, etc. They are objective and neutral
in tone. Often, you will observe that the terminology in such write-ups is a little complex,
but the theme is quite tangible. You should approach these types of passages by doing an
initial speed reading/skimming of the text. Your goal in the first reading is simply to
understand how the passage is structured and to analyse its outline. This will help you focus
on the main idea of the passage.
Since science passages are mostly factual and straightforward, they probably provide the
easiest questions you will encounter in reading comprehension. Normally, you are not likely
to see many inference questions drawn on a science passage. You are much more likely to
see several factual questions that can be answered directly from the passage. Thus, science
passages are likely to form the easiest reading comprehension question you encounter.
Social Science Passages
Typically, these passages deal with topics such as history, politics, psychology, geography,
philosophy, literature, language, art, music, social theories, etc. In other words, social
science is a broad term that includes many subject areas under its roof. This may give a
perspective or outlook on the history of something which you are not aware of, or provide an
insight into psychology or sociology. In other words, they are in contrast to the hard core
science passages and their questions deal more with inferences and less with explicit
information given in the passage. They will probably be the most enjoyable reading
comprehension passages you will read. Despite this, you must read these passages
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 painstakingly in order to answer the many inference questions they are sure to present.
While reading such texts, you are required to not just read what is explicitly stated but also
figure out what is implicitly suggested. Such passages require you to read between the lines.
Business Passages
Business passages involve very difficult structures. They present questions that require you
to infer information and at times even determine the authors’ mood, views, and opinions.
They need to be read slowly and carefully. Many people think they understand the
economics better than they do. Be especially careful to answer questions based on the
content in the passage (not other things you have read) and be clear on the differing opinions
that the passage presents. Have an in-depth understanding of financial twists and woes,
market trends, foreign exchange, and export and import trade, etc to be comfortable in
reading passages of this type.
Entertainment Passages
This usually discusses a topic related to entertainment, sports, or leisure. The passage could
be a topic such as lifestyle of the rich and famous, the reason for the success of a Hollywood
or Bollywood movie, or current dilemmas in sports, or some trends in adventure sports.
Literary Passages/Poems
At times, you get a literary passage or a poem for reading comprehension. While reading one
such piece of writing you need to understand and appreciate the imaginative and creative use
of language. So you need to develop sensitivity to the author’s attitude or the poet’s vision
while reading their works. You are supposed to understand the themes and sub-themes. Also
identify the element of style such as a humour, pathos, satire, irony, etc.
Approaches to Efficient Reading
You should know that forced acceleration may destroy confidence in one’s ability to read.
The obvious solution, then, is to increase your reading pace as a part of the total
improvement of the whole reading process.
Reading and Interpreting Graphic Information
As technical writers use several graphic techniques to presenttechnical information, readers
should be able to understand and interpret these graphic elements.
A table is a very simple graphic aid that organizes data into groups and shows quantitative data
and related information. It may show several variables for a number of items and convey
maximum data in minimum space. In order to interpret and analyse a table, the reader should
concentrate on the information given in the columns and rows.
Graphic Aids Functions
Tables *Organise data into groups and show quantitative
Bar Charts/Diagrams data and related information.
Tree Diagrams/Organizational Charts *Show comparative or contrastive information
Graphs/Line Charts/Line Diagrams *show classificatory data
Flow Diagrams *show the trend or relationship between two
Pie Charts/Diagrams dimensions
Flow Charts *show the steps of a process
*show information related to proportions or
percentages
*present complex processes.
Diagrams and charts are frequently used by technical writers to simplify complex information.
They are used to present comparative, contrastive, or classificatory information. In order to
interpret them, the reader should understand their nature and functions. Diagrams include bar
46
diagrams, tree diagrams, line diagrams, flow diagrams, and pie diagrams while charts include bar
charts, organizational charts, line charts, pie charts, and flow charts.
Bar diagrams and charts show comparative or contrastive information, convey relative
magnitude, provide comparative analysis, and illustrate information classified into different
groups. Tree diagrams or organizational charts show classificatory data and provide
classificatory analysis. Flow diagrams show the steps of a simple process whereas flow charts
present complex process. Pie diagrams and charts show the relative size of the parts of a whole
and show information related to proportions or percentages.
A graph is another important technique or simplify and present complex information. Graphs as
well as line diagrams and line charts show the trend or relationship between two dimensions,
reveal the distribution of data points in a certain dimension, and show trends in data. Moreover,
they focus on the change in quantity
Mechanics of Summarising
Since technical language is concise, it is essential ot know how to write summarises. Writing a
summary is one of the most important study skills needed by professional students. It also helps
in reading as it forces us to focus on what we read. It encourages you active reading and helps
remember the material better. Summarizing also improves our ability to write concisely by
making us aware of the kind of details of expressions that can be avoided to achieve precision in
writing.
The meaning of the word summary is ‘summed up’, or ‘condensed’. Summarizing is an essential
study skill required for study purposes. Students need summarizing skills for various purposes.
Then may have to write an abstract a synopsis, a précis, or an outline. They need to understand
these terms before becoming familiar with the concept of summarizing.
An abstract is a very short version of a long text or passage. Every research article or paper
contains an abstract, which very briefly tells the reader what the article is all about. A synopsis is
generally a brief account of a research plan, which a researcher is supposed to submit before he
or she starts the research work. Precis, which is synonymous with summary, is a brief account of
something without details or formalities. An outline is a sketch in phrases or sentences that
professional writers make before they start writing a professional document like a proposal or a
report.
All the above forms of writing involve the process of summarizing. Now we can define
summarizing as a process of condensing information without changing the original meaning and
focus of a passage. This requires language competence and regular practice.
Summarizing like note making is a productive skill integrating both reading and writing skills. It
involves the following:
Reading Strategy/plan:
A careful reading plan to identify the central idea,
the main points and important supporting details are as follows
Summarising Techniques:
Rejection, selection, substitution.
Outlining and Paraphrasing
Reading Strategy
In order to summarise a text or a passage, a careful reading plan should be adopted to ensure
complete comprehension. The following reading method may be used:
 Glance through the text quickly in order to understand its central idea and main
points. Concentrate on the topic, heading, and sub-headings.
 Then, read the text again carefully in order to understand the details. You should

47
 be able to make a distinction between:
- Main versus secondary points
- Facts versus opinions
- Ideas versus examples and opinions
- Important versus less important points
- Relevant versus irrelevant information
- Explicit versus implicit information
 While making a detailed reading of the text , you should analyse it in order to
- Recognize key lexical items and markers of cohesion to identify relationships
among different units within the texts;
- Identify all examples, repetitions, restatements, and unnecessary details in
order to remove them;
- Note phrases and expressions that can be replaced by words or shorter
phrases; and
- Note the logical organization of the passage (the logical order may be changed
without disturbing the meaning)
Summarisng Techniques
Mainly three techniques are used in summarizing, that is, selection, rejection and substitution.
Selection
In order to summarise a passage, the reader may select what is important. This process of
choosing the information that is essential to the meaning of the passage is known as ‘selection’.
In order to select the core information, the reader need to concentrate on the central idea or
theme of a passage, main points and major supporting points. He/she may select the following in
a text or passage:
(a) The theme, as expressed in the main heading or title;
(b) The main ideas of each paragraph and a few key phrases that support the main idea;
and
(c) Special terms or new phrases essential to understand the theme
Rejection
Rejection is the process of removing all that is not important. The reader may reject all
information that is unnecessary or redundant. The following are generally not included in a
summary:
(a) Repetitions
(b) Examples and illustrations
(c) Redundant expressions
(d) Minor supporting details
Substitution
In order to summarise a passage, the technique of substitution may have to be used. It may
involve synthesis (combining several sentences into one sentence), sentence substitution
(substituting short sentences for long and clumsy sentences), and one word substation
(substituting one precise word for several words or phrases).
Synthesis: Synthesis, which is grammar strategy of combining several sentences into one
sentence, may be effectively used in summarizing.
Sentence Substitution (Short sentences may be used to substitute long sentences)
Outlining and Paraphrasing
An outline of the core information given in a passage should be prepared writing a summary of
it. An ‘outline’ is defined as a general statement without details. An outline of a passage or a text
48
is a sketch containing only the main ideas. Once an outline of the core information has been
prepared, the passage should be reconstructed by paraphrasing the core information.
Paraphrasing refers to the process of rewriting a passage or text in different words
without changing or distorting its original meaning. It involves changes in lexis, structure, and
the logical organization of the core information in a passage without changing its meaning.
Paraphrasing requires various linguistic skills, which include using appropriate
synonyms, replacing sentence patterns by appropriate equivalents, simplifying difficult terms and
expressions for clarity, and modifying paragraph structure and organization without altering the
basic meaning. Paraphrasing has its uses in several writing activities. As technical writing
involves selection of relevant material, evaluating evidence, and drawing appropriate
conclusions, the ability to rephrase technical material in one’s own words is essential. Rewriting
and rephrasing are essential components of effective presentations.
Dos and Dontsof Paraphrasing
 Note down the essential/core information
 Read the core information for identifying all the words and phrases that can be replaced
without distorting the meaning of the passage.
 Restructure the outlines by using different words, phrases, sentence structures, sentence
types and organization.
 Note expressions that can be replaced by changing sentence structure/sentence type.
 Do not replace scientific and technical terms, or standard formal phrases.
 Note the logical structure of the passage. (Micro-structure=the ordering of phrases and
sentences in a paragraph and Macro-structure=the ordering of main points/main
supporting details in a passage.) The logical order can be changed without disturbing the
original meaning.
 All the words and expressions changed.
 A final draft should be prepared.
Use of Visual Aids in Technical Communication
Visual aids are an important part of written technical communication. These include illustrations
such as tables, graphs, maps, diagrams, charts, or photographs. Text and illustrations are
complementary in technical communication. These are used extensively in reports, presentations,
and proposals, to support the facts and figures being investigated and presented. Visual
communication has more impact than verbal communication. Using illustrations has many
advantages:
• Arouses interest and focuses on essentials
• Leads the reader to quicker comprehension
• Supports and reinforces words
• Saves much time and effort in explaining
and interpreting complex ideas
• Explains the data in much lesser space but with greater accuracy
• Simplifies numerical data
• Emphasizes and clarifies certain facts and relationships
• Makes the descriptions vivid and eye-catching
• Renders a professional flavour to the communication
Guidelines to use illustrations effectively. The illustrations should be
• neat, accurate, and self-contained
• appropriate to the data
• labelled completely
49
• self-contained
• integrated with the text
• placed as close to the first reference as possible
• sized appropriately so that they are clear even upon reproduction
• such that they create a good balance between the verbal and the visual
Graphics can be used to represent the following elements in technical writing.
Concepts This element depicts non-physical, conceptual things and their relationships. If you
want to show how your company is organized, that is, the relationships between the different
departments and officials, you could set up an organization chart—boxes and circles connected
with lines that show how everything is hierarchically arranged and related
Objects
Photographs, drawings, diagrams, and schematics are the types of graphics that show objects. If
you are describing a fuel-injection system, you will probably need a drawing or diagram to
explain the system properly.
Numbers
Numbers are used while presenting data and statistics. If you are discussing the rising cost of
housing in a particular city, you could use a table, with the columns showing the data for
fiveyear periods since 1995. The rows could be for different types of housing. You could show
the same data in the form of bar charts, pie charts, or line graphs.
Words
Graphics are also used to depict words. You have probably noticed how textbooks put key
definitions and examples in boxes with words.
Visual aids can be broadly classified into two main categories, namely tables and figures.
All illustrations other than tables are usually categorized under figures.

In the process of selecting and designing illustrations, choosing the appropriate type is important.
Which type of illustration can be used most effectively to accomplish the desired objective?
What type will present the facts more clearly?
The type of data will often aid in the selection of the appropriate type of media.
Several factors are considered for a decision of this kind, such as the nature of the data, the
anticipated use, and the intended audience. These factors are usually interrelated.
The following preliminary steps must be taken.
 First the material must be arranged in some sort of systematic order: a series, a
distribution, or some other logical arrangement.
 Next, we must be thoroughly familiar with the material and be aware of the
implications of its use.
 The final step involves a decision about the type of illustration to be used.
I. Tables
The most important use of tables is for presenting numerical data.

50
A table is a systematic arrangement of numbers, words, or phrases in rows and columns, used to
depict original numerical data as well as derived statistics. It permits rapid access to and
relatively easy comparison of information. If the data is arranged chronologically (for example,
sales figures over a ten-year period), the table can show trends—patterns of rising or falling
activity. Of course, tables are not necessarily the most clear or vivid means of showing such
trends or relationships between data—that is why we have charts and graphs (discussed later in
this chapter).
There are three types of tables:
• Dependent: Dependent tables are those whose contents cannot be understood without going
through the text. This type is used for presenting less data
• Independent: Independent tables are the most commonly used ones. Though the text should
explain each table, readers need not go through the text to understand the contents of these tables
• Phrase: Phrase tables are used when the data is in words or phrases instead of numerical figures
Advantages and disadvantages
The tabular form of presentation, while simple for the communicator, has both advantages and
disadvantages. A lot of numerical figures can be depicted through a table. A number of
combinations are possible in the tabular form; for example, numeric and non-numeric data can
be depicted together. However, it also has certain disadvantages: while it is a part of visual
depiction, yet, visually, the details are not evident at a glance. Occasionally, the writer might, in
the process of putting in too much data, make it too detailed and complicated. Finally, there is
very little visual appeal in tables.
II.Graphs
Graphs are actually just another way of presenting the same data that is presented in tables— in a
more impressive and interesting way. A chart or diagram offers less detail or precision than
tables. Several types of graphs can be used. The various types are rectilinear or line graph, bar
graph, pie graph, scatter graph, pictorial graph, and surface graph.
Line graphs: Line graphs are used to show continuous change with respect to time. For
example, the increase, decrease, or no change in temperature along with time can be depicted
through a line graph. If two or three experiments have been conducted, the three different
readings can be depicted using three lines.
Bar graphs: Bar graphs are effective in emphasizing the comparison of various data items. They
can be used to depict the quantity of different items during the same period or the same item
during different periods. They could be of various types: vertical with singular or multiple bars
stacked or comparative and horizontal. If these graphs depict more than one variable, two colours
or designs are used to highlight the difference between the two variables.
Pie graphs: Alternatively known as a percentage graph or circle graph, a pie graph is a circular
chart divided into sectors, illustrating proportion In such type of graph, the arc length of each
sector (and consequently its central angle and area) is proportional to the quantity it represents.
This is one of the most popular forms used to depict the share of various categories making up a
certain quantity and their correlations to the whole as a percentage.
Scatter graph A scatter graph is used to show the correlation between two variables. Usually,
dots (•) or crosses (×) are used to represent the data. In scatter graphs, the plotted data must lead
to clusters. The absence of clustering refers to the absence of correlation between the two items
represented on the horizontal and vertical axes.
III. Pictograms /pictorial graph Pictograms are similar to bar graphs, with figures or small
pictures plotted instead of bars. The pictures are chosen in accordance with the variables
represented. This graph is self-explanatory; for example, if a graph were to indicate the

51
population boom in the last five years, human figures could be used, thus illustrating the point
being made by the writer. The advantage of pictograms is that large numbers can be presented by
a single cluster of figures. Much time and effort goes into the design of this graph so as to make
it truly representative of the situation it seeks to address
Area graphs Area graphs can be used to show how something changes over time. Usually, the x
axis represents the time period and the y axis represents the variable being measured. Area
graphs can be used to plot data that has peaks (ups) and valleys (downs), or data that was
collected in a short time period.These graphs also help to compare
trends over a period of time.
IV. Charts: There are two types of charts: organization charts and flow charts.
Organization charts are generally used to illustrate the various positions or functions of an
organization. Most of the communication channels in an organization are described through such
charts.
Flow charts
Flow charts present a sequence of activities from start to finish. They are normally used to
illustrate processes, procedures, and relationships. The various elements in the chart are
generally depicted through geometrical figures Circular or oval boxes are used to indicate the
start or stop of the procedure, diamond-shaped boxes represent decision-making steps, and
rectangular boxes indicate processing steps. Arrows indicate the process
flow.
V.Drawings and Diagrams
In technical documents, drawings and diagrams are used to depict the objects, processes, circuits,
etc. that are being described. Diagrams can be used to show the normal, sectional, or cut-away
view of an object. Drawings and photographs range from those showing minimal detail to those
illustrating maximal and minute details. For example, a simple line drawing of how to graft a
fruit tree reduces the detail to simple lines representing the hands, the tools, the graft stock, and
the graft.
VI. Photographs
Photographs are often used in feasibility, recommendation, and evaluation reports. For example,
if you are recommending a photocopier, or if you want to compare various cars, automated teller
machines, etc., you might want to include photographs to support your report. Photographs give
the reader a realistic view of the object.
VII. Maps
Maps graphically represent spatial relationships on plane surfaces. They are used to establish a
frame of reference and to facilitate the understanding of spatial relationships that are difficult to
describe in words, especially to serve as navigational aid. The choice of scale for a map depends
on its purpose and the amount of detail to be shown. It should be an accurate representation of
the geographic details (places, buildings, streets, etc.)
Graphic Organizers
Increasing Understanding by Creating Graphic Organizers:
The process of converting a mass of data/information/ideas into a graphic map gives the student
an increased understanding and insight into the topic at hand. To create the map, the student must
concentrate on the relationships between the items and examine the meanings attached to each of
them. While creating a map, the student must also prioritize the information, determining which
parts of the material are the most important and should be focused upon, and where each item
should be placed in the map.
The creation of graphic organizers also helps the student generate ideas as they develop and note

52
 their thoughts visually. The possibilities associated with a topic become clearer as the student's
ideas are classified visually.
Uses of Graphic Organizers:
Graphic organizers can be used to structure writing projects, to help in problem solving, decision
making, studying, planning research and brainstorming.
Creating Graphic Organizers:
Graphic organizers can be drawn free-hand or printed. To go to print outs of many graphic
organizers, click on one of the links above or below.
Adding color-coding and/or pictures to a graphic organizer further increases the utility and
readability of the visual display.
The task at hand determines the type of graphic organizer that is appropriate. The following is a
list of common graphic organizers - choose the format that best fits your
How to Choose a Graphic Organizer for Your Topic/Task (click on a graphic organizer
below to go to printable worksheets):
Star: If the topic involves investigating attributes associated with a single topic, use a
star diagram as your graphic organizer. Example: Find in methods that help your study skills (like

taking notes, reading, doing homework, memorizing, etc.).

Spider: If the topic involves investigating attributes associated with a single topic, and
then obtaining more details on each of these ideas, use a spider diagram as your graphic organizer.

This is like the star graphic organizer with one more level of detail. Example: Finding methods that
help your study skills (like taking notes, reading, memorizing, etc.), and investigating the factors
involved in performing each of the methods.
Fishbone: If the topic involves investigating multiple cause-and-effect factors
associated with a complex topic and how they inter-relate; use a fishbone diagram as your graphic

organizer. Example: Examining the effects of improved farming methods. Cloud/Cluster: If the
topic involves generating a web of ideas based on a stimulus
topic, use a clustering diagram as your graphic organizer. Example: brainstorming.

53
 Tree: If the topic involves a chain of events with a beginning and with multiple outcomes
at each node (like a family tree), use a tree as your graphic organizer.

Example:Displaying the probabilistic results of tossing coins.

Chain of Events: If the topic involves a linear chain of events, with a definite beginning,
middle, and end, use a chain of events graphic organizer. Example: Analyzing the plot of a story.

Continuum/Timeline: If the topic has definite beginning and ending points and a
number of divisions or sequences in between, use a continuum/timeline. Example: Displaying

milestones in a person's life.

Clock: If the topic involves a clock-like cycle, use a clock graphic

organizer. Example topic: Recording the events in a typical school day or making a story
clock to summarize a story.
Cycle of Events: If the topic involves a recurring cycle of events, with no beginning and

no end, use a cyclic graphic organizer. Example topic: Documenting the stages in the life cycle
of an animal.
Flowchart: If the topic involves a chain of instructions to follow, with a beginning and

multiple possible outcomes at some node, with rules at some nodes, use a flowchart. Example:
Computer programmers sometimes use flowcharts to organize the algorithm before writing a
program.
54
 Venn Diagram: If the task involves examining the similarities and differences betweentwo or

three items, use a Venn diagram. Example: Examining the similarities and differences between fish
and whales, or comparing a book and the accompanying movie.
Chart / Matrix Diagram: If the task involves condensing and organizing data about
traits of many items, use a chart/matrix. Example: Creating a display of key inventions, who

invented them, when, where and why they were invented, etc.
Y-Chart Diagram: If the task involves analyzing and organizing with respect to
three qualities, use a Y-Chart. Example: Fill out a Y-Chart to describe
what you know about an animal, including what it looks like, what it sounds like, and what it
feels like. Or describe a character in a book, including what the character looks like, sounds
like, and how the character feels.
T-Chart Diagram: If the task involves analyzing or comparing with two aspects

of the topic, use a T-Chart. Example: Fill out a T-Chart to evaluate the pros and cons associated with a
decision.
Fact/Opinion: If the task involves distinguishing the facts vs. the opinions in a theme or

text, use fact/opinion charts. Example: Fill out a fact/opinion chart to evaluate the facts and
opinions presented in a news article.
PMI Diagram: If the task involves analyzing the plusses, minuses, and implicatios of a

decision or an action, use a PMI Chart. Example: Fill out a PMI Chart to help evaluate the positive,
negative and interesting points associated with taking a new job
55
 Decision Making Diagrams: If the task is making a decision, use a graphic organizer

to enumerate possible alternatives and the pros and cons of each. Example: Fill out a desicion
making diagram to help decide which elective courses you'd like to take next quarter
Semantic Feature Analysis Charts: If the task is comparing characteristics among a

group of items, use Semantic Feature Analysis . Example: Fill out a Semantic Feature Analysis
chart to compare and contrast the care needed for various pets.
Cause and Effect Diagrams: If the task is examining possible causes and effects in a

process, use a cause and effect graphic organizer. Example: Fill out a cause-and-effect diagram to trace the
steps in a feedback loop..
KWHL Diagram: If the task involves analyzing and organizing what you know and what
you want to learn about a topic, use a KWHL chart. K stands for what you already

KNOW about the subject. W stands for what you WANT to learn. H stands for figuring out HOW you can
learn more about the topic. L stands for what you LEARN as you read. Example: Fill out a KWHL chart
before, during, and after you read about a topic. Pie Charts: If the task involves showing divisions with a
group, use a pie chart

56
 Example: Draw a pie chart to show what percentages of a population have blue eyes, green
eyes, or brown eyes.
Vocabulary Map: Graphic organizers can be useful in helping a student learn new

vocabulary words, having them list the word, its part of speech (noun, verb, adjective, adverb,
etc.), a synonym, an antonym, a drawing that represents the word, and a sentence using the
word.
Paragraph Structure: These graphic organizers help you organize the structure of a
paragraph, including a topic sentence, sentences with support details, and a conclusion sentence.

5 W's Diagram: If the task involves analyzing the Five W's (Who, When, Where, What,
and Why) of a story or event. Example: Fill out a
5 W's Chart to help evaluate and understand the major points of a newspaper story.

Story Map: Story maps can help a student summarize, analyze and understand or
Event

Character Traits: Graphic organizers help the student identify the traits of fictional

57
characters by looking at events surrounding the character in the text.
Biography Diagrams Graphic organizers are useful to help prepare for writing a

biography. Before writing, the graphic organizer prompts the student to think about and

list the major events in the person's life.

Animal Report Diagrams: Many graphic organizers are useful to help prepare for
writing a report on animals. Before writing, the student should think about and list
the major topics that will be researched and covered
in the report.
Geography Report Diagrams: These graphic organizers are useful to for doing
a short report on a country or other area. The student draws a map and flag, and
looks up basic information on the area.

Math Diagrams: Many graphic organizers are useful to learn and do math, include Venn
diagrams, star diagrams, charts, flowcharts, trees, etc.

Scientific Method Diagrams: Graphic organizers used to prepare and organize a

scientific experiment.

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 UNIT-4
Skills of Effective Writing
Dr.Sunita Vijay Kumar
Introduction: Writing skills are specifics or abilities which help writers put their
thoughts into words in a meaningful form and to mentally interact with the message.
There are some different definitions of writing explained by some different linguists. Writing
is the primary basis upon which one's learning and intellect will be judged. Writing skill
equips us with communication and thinking skill --- It also fosters our ability to explain and
refine our ideas to others and ourselves. Writing skills are an important part of
communication. Writing is a very important and powerful tool used in everyday life. Writing
is used to store information, make a permanent record, and for communication.
How to Make Your Writing Communicate Effectively
 Know Your Goal and State It Clearly. ...
 Use the Correct Tone for Your Purpose. ...
 Keep Language Simple. ...
 Stay on Topic and Keep It Concise. ...
 Use Active Voice. ...
 Have Someone Proofread Your Writing.
Writing Types there are many reasons why you might be putting pen to paper or tapping
away on the keyboard, there are four main types of writing: expository, descriptive,
persuasive, and narrative. Each of these four writing genres has a distinct aim, and they all
require different types of writing skills. The most common types of writing styles differ from
their intended purpose to their structure to the level of emotional appeal for which they call.
Expository: The word expository contains the word expose, so the reason expository is an apt
descriptor for this type of writing is that it exposes, or sets forth, facts. It is probably the most
common writing genre you will come across throughout your day. In an expository piece, a
topic will be introduced and laid out in a logical order without reference to the author’s
personal opinions. Expository writing can be found in: Textbooks Journalism (except for

59
opinion and editorial articles) Business writing Technical writing Essays Instructions.
Expository writing, as the title suggests, is predicated on exposition, or the description and
explanation of a particular idea. Topics cover pretty much the entire gamut of human
experience, from inventions to nature, emotions to politics, family to hobbies and more.
This type of writing places primary emphasis not on an introduction, three-body exposition
and conclusion, and on what the piece calls for. In teaching your students, ask them questions
such as:
 What’s the “newsworthy” piece of this paper?
 How can you introduce your piece other than giving away that newsworthy element
upfront?
 How can you conclude it without simply rehashing the above information?
 What techniques can you use to vary sentence structure and make for a more
interesting read?
 How can you incorporate supporting material in an engaging way?
However students may explore this form of writing to this form, even though some of the
techniques may feel a little advanced at first, almost all of them can be broken down into
simple directions that middle school students can make use of.
Descriptive: The aim of descriptive writing is to help the reader visualize, in detail, a
character, event, place, or all of these things at once. The author might describe the scene in
terms of all five senses. Descriptive writing allows the writer a great deal more artistic
freedom than expository writing does.
Descriptive writing can be found in: Fiction Poetry Advertising Journal and diary writing
Persuasive: The aim of persuasive writing, or argumentation, is to influence the reader to
assume the author’s point of view. The author will express personal opinions in the piece and
arm him- or herself with evidence so that the reader will agree with him or her.
Persuasive writing can be found in: Advertising Opinion and editorial pieces Reviews Job
applications

“Persuasive writing is a form of nonfiction writing that encourages careful word choice, the
development of logical arguments, and a cohesive summary,” there are two main components
of persuasive writing: logic and emotional appeal. Logic comes first in persuasive writing. In
order to have any chance of convincing people, students have to develop a sound premise.
That means choosing a topic and backing it up with good logic. Give them examples, such as:
Everyone should keep their cats indoors, because there are many dangers to cats outside.
They can then expand on these dangers (coyotes, racoons, rabies) to convince people, this
topic should have an opposing stance. Simply stating that ‘we shouldn’t do wrong things’
isn’t a good stance, because it’s too vague and no one would argue against it. Persuading
people relies heavily on reaching them emotionally. Not only must your point make sense,
but you need to make them feel what you’re saying in their hearts as well as their minds. For
this reason, students should choose a topic or stance about which they feel passionate. They
can save more formal academic positions for argumentative writing.
Narrative writing can be found in: All types of fiction (e.g., novels, short stories, novellas)
Poetry Biographies Human interest stories Anecdotes narrative writing as “writing that is
characterized by a main character in a setting who engages with a problem or event in a
significant way. As writing instruction goes, narrative writing encompasses a lot: author’s
purpose, tone, voice, structure, in addition to teaching sentence structure, organization, and
word choice.” As the above definition indicates, there are a number of elements required in
good narrative writing. To weave together a compelling story, students must choose
 A theme, or the main “human” idea that they want to convey
 A main character with a minimum number of well-defined personality traits

60
  Side characters, if the length and complexity of the story allows (for instance, a
narrative capstone project might have 2-3 secondary characters)
 A setting or multiple settings in which the story takes place
 A particular structure – the style in which they will tell their story – with the various
narrative elements represented: dialogue, description, action
 Literary elements, such as symbolism, simile and metaphor
 Vocabulary words, depending on your desires and requirements as a teacher
Writing for different purposes
Publications
Writing for publications
Introduction:
The noun publication comes from the Latin word “publicare” meaning “make public.”
Publication usually means something is written and made available publicly, but a company
or government can submit publications of things like earnings or unemployment indexes that
are communicated differently.
The different forms of publications include:
E-books, Journal articles, Encyclopaedia articles, Newspaper articles, Theses, Conference
and meeting proceedings, Websites, Non-periodical internet documents or reports, etc.
As exists different varieties of publications, so does the need arise to be aware of the nuances
or techniques to employ appropriately for these varieties.
7 Tips for Writing a Good Article Quickly
 Keep a list of ideas handy. You never know when writer's block will hit. ...
 Eliminate distractions. A lot of people claim to work better while multitasking. ...
 Research efficiently. ...
 Keep it simple. ...
 Try writing in bullet points. ...
 Edit after writing. ...
 Set a timer.
For professional students, most of their publications have to be set in IEEE format. A
sample IEEE format highlighting the guidelines is at:
https://www.coep.org.in/page_assets/491/IEEE_Template_4.pdf
Choose a topic. Think (brainstorm). Research. Discover your thesis. Plan (outline). Write.
Revise. Edit. Proofread
Thinking (Brainstorming)
When you have a topic, start brainstorming. Write down all the possible answers to your
question, and write down all the information, opinions, and questions you have about your
topic. Brainstorming will help you see what you already know, what you think, what you
think you know, and what else you need to find out about your topic. Writing things down
also ensures that you will not forget your great ideas later. (Although this is a really short
section, it is a very important step!)
Since writing for publications belongs to the genre of academic writing, one should know,
identify and establish the goals of academic writing.
This will develop skills in researching, evaluating information, organizing, arguing,
responding to others’ arguments, analyzing, and expressing yourself clearly in writing (in
English too).
10 Principles that can make Academic Writing effective:
1. Clear Purpose. The goal of your paper is to answer the question you posed as your topic.
Your question gives you a purpose. The most common purposes in academic writing are to
persuade, analyze/synthesize, and inform.
Persuasive purpose – In persuasive academic writing, the purpose is to get your readers to
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adopt your answer to the question. So you will choose one answer to your question, support
your answer using reason and evidence, and try to change the readers’ point of view about the
topic. Persuasive writing assignments include argumentative and position papers.
Analytical purpose – In analytical academic writing, the purpose is to explain and evaluate
possible answers to your question, choosing the best answer(s) based on your own criteria.
Analytical assignments often investigate causes, examine effects, evaluate effectiveness,
assess ways to solve problems, find the relationships between various ideas, or analyze other
people’s arguments. The “synthesis” part of the purpose comes in when you put together all
the parts and come up with your own answer to the question. Examples of these assignments
include analysis papers and critical analyses.
Informative purpose – In informative academic writing, the purpose is to explain possible
answers to your question, giving the readers new information about your topic. This differs
from an analytical topic in that you do not push your viewpoint on the readers, but rather try
to enlarge the readers’ view.
Some assignments will have a pre-determined purpose (see the examples above); for other
assignments, you will have to choose a purpose when you choose a topic. And some
assignments may have two purposes. In all cases, the purpose will be clear at the beginning of
your paper, and your paper must achieve its purpose in order to be successful.
2. Audience Engagement: As with all writing, academic writing is directed to a specific
audience in mind. Unless specified, consider your audience to be fellow students with the
same level of knowledge as yourself. So you will have to engage them with your ideas and
catch their interest with your writing style. Imagine that they are also skeptical, so that you
must use the appropriate reasoning and evidence to convince them of your ideas.
3. Clear Point of View. Academic writing, even that with an informative purpose, is not just
a list of facts or summaries of sources. Although other people’s ideas and research are
considered, the goal of your paper is to show what you think about these things. Your paper
will have and support your own original idea about the topic. This is called the thesis
statement, and it should answer the question posed by you.
4. Single Focus. Every paragraph (even every sentence) in your paper will support your
thesis statement. There will be no unnecessary, irrelevant, unimportant, or contradictory
information
5. Logical Organization. Academic writing follows a standard organizational pattern. For
academic essays and papers, there is an introduction, body, and conclusion. Each paragraph
logically leads to the next one.
The Introduction catches the readers’ attention, provides background information, and lets
the reader know what to expect. It also has the thesis statement.
The Body paragraphs support the thesis statement. Each body paragraph has one main point
to support the thesis, which is named in a topic sentence. Each point is then supported in the
paragraph with logical reasoning and evidence. Each sentence connects to the one before and
after it. The readers do not have to work to find the connection between ideas.
The Conclusion summarizes the paper’s thesis and main points and shows the reader the
significance of the paper’s findings.
6. Strong Support. Each body paragraph will have sufficient and relevant support for the
topic sentence and thesis statement. This support will consist of facts, examples, description,
personal experience, and expert opinions and quotations.
7. Clear and Complete Explanations. The reader should not have to think hard to
understand your ideas, logic, or organization. English readers expect everything to be done
for them; your thoughts and thought processes should be clearly and completely explained.
8. Effective Use of Research. Your paper should refer to a variety of current, high quality,
professional and academic sources. You will use your research to support your own ideas;
therefore, it must be integrated into your writing and not presented separately. That means
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that source material will be introduced, analyzed, explained, and then cited.
9.Correct APA Style. All academic papers should follow the guidelines of the American
Psychological Association as found in Research and APA Style Guide 2010, regarding 4 in-
text citations, the reference list, and format.
10. Writing Style. Because this is your work, you should use your own words whenever
possible. Do not try to write like a boring, overly formal scholarly article. Use the natural
conversational style that you would use in the classroom. Your writing should be clear,
concise, and easy to read. It is also very important that there are no grammar, spelling,
punctuation, or vocabulary mistakes in academic writing. Errors convey to the reader that you
do not care.
Letters
I Parts of a Business Letter
There are 12 Parts of a Formal Letter
1. The Heading or Letterhead: It usually contains the name and the address of the business
or an organization. It can also have an email address, contact number, fax number, trademark
or logo of the business.
2. Date: We write the date on the right-hand side corner of the letter below the heading.
3. Reference: It shows the department of the organization sending the letter. The letter-
number can also be used as a reference
4. The Inside Address: It includes the name, address, postal code, and job title of the
recipient. It must be mentioned after the reference. One must write inside address on the left-
hand side of the sheet.
5. Subject: It is a brief statement mentioning the reason for writing the letter. It should be
clear, eye catchy, short, simple, and easily understandable.
6. Greeting: It contains the words to greet the recipient. It is also known as the salutation.
The type of salutation depends upon the relationship with the recipient. It generally includes
words like Dear, Respected, or just Sir/Madam. A comma (,) usually follow the salutation.
7. Body Paragraphs: This is the main part of the letter. It contains the actual message of the
sender. The main body of the mail must be clear and simple to understand. The body of the
letter is basically divided into three main categories.
• Opening Part: The first paragraph of the mail writing must state the introduction of the
writer. It also contains the previous correspondence if any.
• Main Part: This paragraph states the main idea or the reason for writing. It must be clear,
concise, complete, and to the point.
• Concluding Part: It is the conclusion of the business letter. It shows the suggestions or the
need of the action. The closing of the letter shows the expectation of the sender from the
recipient. Always end your mail by courteous words like thanking you, warm regards, look
forward to hearing from your side etc.
8. Complimentary Close: It is a humble way of ending a letter. It is written in accordance
with the salutation. The most generally used complimentary close are Yours faithfully, Yours
sincerely, and Thanks & Regards.
9. Signature and Writer’s Identification: It includes the signature, name, and designation
of the sender. It can also include other details like contact number, address, etc. The signature
is handwritten just above the name of the sender.
10. Enclosures: Enclosures show the documents attached to the letter. The documents can be
anything like cheque, draft, bills, receipts, invoices, etc. It is listed one by one.
11. Copy Circulation: It is needed when the copies of the letter are sent to other persons. It
is denoted as C.C.
12. PostScript: The sender can mention it when he wants to add something other than the
message in the body of the letter.
It is written as P.S.
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II. Writing a Business Letter
A. Know the format: There are some business standards that need to be followed. One must
use a common font to type a business letter. One must use indentation, paragraphs, margins,
etc. The text must be typed in black color only.
Choose the Right Kind of Paper: One must print a letter in a letter-sized paper. The
standard size of the paper is A4. Include information about the Company: One must clearly
state the name and the address of the company. Try to use a letterhead of the company for
any business use.
Include the date: Writing the date helps the person to have a record of the on-going
business.
Add the Recipient’s Information: In a business letter, one must clearly type the name,
address, and job title of the recipient to remove any ambiguity.
Choose a Salutation: It is a way of showing respect towards the recipient. One can also use
‘To Whom It May Concern’ if he doesn’t know the person addressed.
B. Composing the Body
Strike the Right Tone: The tone of the letter must be formal, clear and polite. Do not use
fancy, lengthy, and big words. One must be persuasive in the letter.
Use of Personal Pronoun: One can use personal pronouns in a business letter. If writing on
behalf of the organization one must use ‘we’ instead of ‘I’.
Write Precisely and Clearly: The content of the letter must be precise, clear, brief, and
easily understandable.
Use the Active Voice: Always write your letter in an active voice.
Be Courteous: Always write a letter in a polite and respectful way. Always use courteous
words.
Use Additional Pages: If the matter is not fitting in one page of the letterhead, use the
second page. One must keep in mind to include the page number on the second and
subsequent pages.
C. Closing the Letter
Choose a Closing: One must use a proper closing in a business letter. Use a comma (,) after
it.
Sign the Letter: Always sign the letter in ink. If sending a printed copy, always affix the
scanned signature.
Make Note of Enclosure: One must properly enclose a list of attached documents with the
letter. One can use the abbreviation of the enclosure, i.e., Encl. or Enc.
Use of C.C.: For persons other than the recipient, include their name on the letter by typing
C.C.
Finalizing the Letter
Edit and Review: Once you are finished writing the letter, try to look for errors. Check for
spellings, punctuations, grammatical errors. Don’t Staple the Letter: Use a paperclip on the
top of the left corner if there are many pages. The use of staple doesn’t look nice for a
business letter.
Posting of the Letter: Always use clear and correct spelling for mentioning the name and
address of the recipient.
There are four basic business letter formats. i.Full Block Format ii.Semi-Block Format
iii.Modified Block Format iv.The Hanging- Indention Format.
III.Formatting Rules The following are the standard rules that should be adhered to when
formatting the page of a formal letter:
1. Alignment: All proper business letters should be left-aligned, any other type of alignment
is considered unacceptable in most professional settings.
2. Spacing: Your letter should be single-spaced. In addition, there should be a space between
the date, address, salutation, and each paragraph. Include four line breaks between the closing
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and your printed name to leave space for your signature.
3. Font: The standard font style is Times New Roman, size 12. However, you can use fonts
such as Arial also at size 12. because of their balanced typeface.
4. Lines: When using a letterhead, be sure to add a horizontal line underneath it. You can
refer to our letters above to see some examples.
5. Margins: Keep your margins between 1 to 1.5 inches. Generally speaking, 1-inch margins
are the most widely accepted format for professionals
Cover Letters
Cover letters usually accompany a package, report or other merchandise. They are used to
describe what is enclosed, why it is being sent and what the recipient should do with it, if
there is any action that needs to be taken. These types of letters are generally very short and
succinct. Cover letters are sent with job applications and are addressed to an employer from a
job seeker. They typically accompany a job resume and highlight an individual's education
and skills. This type of letter generally refers to the open position and introduces the job
seeker's resume while explaining experience and skills the applicant has that are relevant to
the job.
When writing a cover letter, you should:
• introduce yourself
• mention the job (or kind of job) you're applying for (or looking for)
• show that your skills and experience match the skills and experience needed to do the job
• encourage the reader to read your resume.
Sample Cover Letter
Joanne Tint
Email: joannetint@xmail.com
Mobile: XXX XXXX XXXX
7 December 2018
Mr Allan Moyle John Smith and Associates
Phone: XX XXXX XXXX
Email: enquiries@johnsmithandassociates.com.au
RE: General application for available positions within your
organisation Dear Mr Moyle,
As a highly motivated and dedicated student with strong communication and interpersonal
skills, I would like to enquire about positions available at Moyle Retail Solutions, and
provide you with my details for your records.
Moyle Retail Solutions has a strong reputation for providing quality products, after-sales
service and a positive customer experience. I believe I have skills, experience and personal
qualities to make a meaningful contribution to your business.
While studying at high school, I have been extensively involved in my school community,
which has allowed me to develop strong interpersonal skills. My involvement in various
events, including drama eisteddfods and sports carnivals, has allowed me to work closely
with my peers while supporting the school community as a whole.
These experiences have given me strong time management, communication and
organisational skills, which are all vital to providing strong customer service and
administration in a retail environment. Personal attributes that I believe make me suitable for
this position include:
• motivation – volunteer participation and school results demonstrate high motivation
• customer service – assisting with the sale of products at community events has given me
customer service skills
• communication – acting in drama performances and working as an MC for school events
has given me communication skills.
My teachers and educators have commended me for my willingness to participate and my
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dedication to helping out where possible. I enjoy working with others, and believe my strong
communication skills will ensure that I can meet the expectations of this role.
I would very much appreciate the opportunity to meet with you to introduce myself and
discuss any suitable positions that may be available. I enclose my resume for your
consideration.
I will follow up this enquiry in the coming weeks, but in the meantime please don’t hesitate
to contact me if you have a position available.
Thank you in advance,
Joanne Tint
Resume
With employers receiving hundreds of resume on a daily basis, how do you ensure your
resume hooks an employer’s attention in just a glance? Writing a resume involves a lot of tips
and tricks. A great resume must follow certain dos and don’ts.
1. Is your résumé the right length? No matter how long you have worked, never let your
resume run for more than one or two pages at the maximum. Bear in mind that no one will
have the patience to flip them. Keep it short and to the point, follow the (very general) rule of
thumb that less than 5 years experience probably only requires one page and more than that
may need two.
2. Does your résumé clearly position you as someone who can meet the needs of the
employer? Think of a résumé as an advertisement for a product, only this time the product is
you. Just like any other advertisement, positioning is everything. The person who receives
your résumé will scan it quickly perhaps for no more than 20 seconds to determine whether
you can help his / her company. Your job is to say quickly, clearly and loudly that you can.
You should use the first 1/3 of your résumé to create a compelling personal profile which
highlights your key strengths in an attractive, easy-to-read format. Remember you have to
market yourself through your resume. However, never overdo it, as you might end up
blowing your own trumpet. As long as you avoid this, your marketing efforts are sure to fetch
you a job
3. Does your résumé begin with an objective? Don’t start with an objective. Recruiters and
hiring managers don’t like them because they focus on the needs of the job seeker rather than
the needs of the potential employer. Consider this objective statement: “Seeking a software
engineer position with a progressive employer where I can contribute to the development of
new technologies and work with bright, committed people.” try using a positioning statement
that clearly and concisely explains what you have to offer. “Senior Software Engineer with
10 years experience developing leading-edge technologies.”
4. Does your résumé contain specifics? You must place your achievements in context by
providing specifics. For example, don’t say something vague like “contributed to product
design. Instead be specific about what you did: “Conducted market analysis for (name of
product) to determine design and mechanics.
5.What if I don't have much experience? While things like your academic record and work
experience are typical ways to show how suited you are to a particular job, these are not the
only things you should include. There are other ways to demonstrate that you are the right
person for the job, including your: Personal traits - you're an honest worker, you enjoy being
part of a big team Strengths - things you're good at or enjoy Experiences - volunteering or
extracurricular activities Key responsibilities and achievements - any awards or recognition
that you've received
6. Have you outlined achievements as well as responsibilities? Don’t provide a laundry list of
responsibilities without showing what results you achieved. Most employers already know
what the main responsibilities of your job were. They want to know what makes you different
from all the other applicants. An effective résumé summarizes job responsibilities in a few
sentences and then provides details of quantifiable achievements. Focus most of your résumé
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on the results you accomplished, not the regular duties of your job.
Common Resume Blunders
 Missing dates
 Vague language
 Typos.(bold, italics, bullet points, lines etc.)
 Controversial hobbies/interests
 Misrepresentation/ inaccurate statements
Know the purpose of your resume The first thing that you need to understand is that a resume
is not going to fetch you a job. It is the first step to get an interview call which will in turn
land you in a job.
Back up your strengths While most of us like to flaunt off our strengths, a resume is just not
the right place do to so. Any company or recruiter will get a better idea of your strengths
when you relate it with your work/college experience, lest it might appear too vague.
Usage of language Like it or not, employers can judge your resume in no time. Using the apt
language is the key to get interview calls. Simple English is appreciated over long, complex
sentences.
Avoid jargon, keep the titles short and crisp, be descriptive and stick to...
Order of details Ensure your education details follow ascending or descending order. Your
prior work experience can help the recruiter gauge your skills and abilities. So put them first.
While adding your other achievements, add the most recent ones on top.
Typography Big fonts make the recruiter’s job easier. However, 11 or 12 is the smallest you
can go.
Do not use capitals all over your resume.
Remember your goal is to communicate the message as crisply as possible.
Stick to one font style.
Keep negativity at bay
Spare your resume from any kind of negative information. Things that you hated about
previous employer, personal opinions etc can create a negative impression about you.
Irrelevant information Don’t include irrelevant information like your religion, age or political
affiliation. Just skip these! It might interrupt your chances of landing in an interview. Read
and re-read
Once you are done, proof read your resume.
Check for spelling errors, facts and other important factors. You could also take help from a
friend, family or someone who has more experience than yourself.
Sample Resume-1
First Name Last Name
Complete Postal Address.
Mobile,
E-mail id
Objective “Seeking a software engineer position with a progressive employer where I can
contribute to the development of new technologies and work with bright, committed people.”
Education
Work experience
Research and analytical experience
Leadership experience
Activities/service
Computer skills
Language skills
Special skills
Sample Resume-2
Here's a brief rundown on the essential things to include on your resume.
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Personal details
Full name and contact details including address,
telephone number(s) and
email address.
Education and training
A summary of your education and training history, starting with your most recent studies,
making sure you include all training that's relevant to the job you're applying for.
Employment history
Start with your most recent work history and work backwards chronologically, listing the
name of the employer, your job title, the dates you worked there, and your responsibilities,
tasks and achievements. Make sure you include everything that's relevant to the job.
Skills and abilities
A list of the things you're good at. These can be general skills or skills specific to a particular
job. List them under broad headings such as
"Communication" and
"Teamwork".
Career objective (optional) Tell the employer what type of job you want end up with; this
shows that you've given thought to your future career. Interests (optional) A list of your
Hobbies and Interests;
this gives employers more information about you and also shows other areas of your life
where you've gained experiences such as teamwork and commitment.
Referees
List people who can talk about how good a worker you are. Make sure you get their
permission before including them on your resume. List their name, company name
occupation, and contact details. For more information, look at our Who can be my referee
page.
Memos
Inter Office Memorandum
Memoranda are written communication that stay within an organisation. Business letters are
written communication to recipients who are external to the organisation of the sender.
A memorandum is a short piece of writing generally used by the officers of an organization
for communicating with the personnel of the organization. The main purpose of a memo is to
record or convey information and decisions or to make short requests. A memo orm can be
used for a short report too – a memo in which an officer sends some information to another
officer which would enable the latter to take a decision.
The style is direct, matter-of-fact and lucid in expression. No attempt is made to make an
emotional appeal. A memo ensures quick and smooth flow of information in all directions. A
memo comes to one’s aid when one wishes to avoid coming into personal contact with
certain colleagues.
Another useful function of a memo is to establish accountability. Since it is a record of facts
and figures and important decisions, it can be stored for future use.
Parts of a Memo
Standard memos are divided into segments to organize the information and to help achieve
the writer's purpose.
Heading Segment
The heading segment follows this general format:
TO: (readers' names and job titles)
FROM: (your name and job title)
DATE: (complete and current date)
SUBJECT: (what the memo is about, highlighted in some way)
Make sure you address the reader by his or her correct name and job title. You might call the
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company president "Maxi" on the golf course or in an informal note, but "Rita Maxwell,
President" would be more appropriate for a formal memo. Be specific and concise in your
subject line. For example, "Clothes" as a subject line could mean anything from a dress code
update to a production issue. Instead use something like, "Fall Clothes Line Promotion."
Opening Segment
The purpose of a memo is usually found in the opening paragraph and includes: the purpose
of the memo, the context and problem, and the specific assignment or task. Before indulging
the reader with details and the context, give the reader a brief overview of what the memo
will be about. Choosing how specific your introduction will be depends on your memo plan
style. The more direct the memo plan, the more explicit the introduction should be. Including
the purpose of the memo will help clarify the reason the audience should read this document.
The introduction should be brief: approximately the length of a short paragraph.
Context
The context is the event, circumstance, or background of the problem you are solving. You
may use a paragraph or a few sentences to establish the background and state the problem.
Oftentimes it is sufficient to use the opening of a sentence to completely explain the context,
such as,
"Through market research and analysis..."
Include only what your reader needs, but be sure it is clear.
Task Segment
One essential portion of a memo is the task statement where you should describe what you
are doing to help solve the problem. If the action was requested, your task may be indicated
by a sentence opening like,
"You asked that I look at...."
If you want to explain your intentions, you might say,
"To determine the best method of promoting the new fall line, I will...."
Include only as much information as is needed by the decision-makers in the context, but be
convincing that a real problem exists. Do not ramble on with insignificant details. If you are
having trouble putting the task into words, consider whether you have clarified the situation.
You may need to do more planning before you're ready to write your memo. Make sure
your purpose-statement forecast divides your subject into the most important topics that the
decision-maker needs.
Summary Segment
If your memo is longer than a page, you may want to include a separate summary segment.
However, this section is not necessary for short memos and should not take up a significant
amount of space. This segment provides a brief statement of the key recommendations you
have reached. These will help your reader understand the key points of the memo
immediately. This segment may also include references to methods and sources you have
used in your research.
Discussion Segments
The discussion segments are the longest portions of the memo, and are the parts in which you
include all the details that support your ideas. Begin with the information that is most
important. This may mean that you will start with key findings or recommendations. Start
with your most general information and move to your specific or supporting facts. (Be sure to
use the same format when including details: strongest to weakest.) The discussion segments
include the supporting ideas, facts, and research that back up your argument in the memo.
Include strong points and evidence to persuade the reader to follow your recommended
actions. If this section is inadequate, the memo will not be as effective as it could be.
Closing Segment
After the reader has absorbed all of your information, you want to close with a courteous
ending that states what action you want your reader to take. Make sure you consider how the
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reader will benefit from the desired actions and how you can make those actions easier. For
example, you might say,
"I will be glad to discuss this recommendation with you during our Tuesday trip to the spa
and follow through on any decisions you make."
Necessary Attachments
Make sure you document your findings or provide detailed information whenever necessary.
You can do this by attaching lists, graphs, tables, etc. at the end of your memo. Be sure to
refer to your attachments in your memo and add a notation about what is attached below your
closing, like this:
Sample Memo: (1)
TO: Kelly Anderson, Marketing Executive
FROM: Jonathon Fitzgerald, Market Research Assistant
DATE: June 14, 2007
SUBJECT: Fall Clothes Line Promotion
Market research and analysis show that the proposed advertising media for the new fall lines
need to be reprioritized and changed. Findings from focus groups and surveys have made it
apparent that we need to update our advertising efforts to align them with the styles and
trends of young adults today. No longer are young adults interested in sitcoms as they watch
reality televisions shows. Also, it has become increasingly important to use the internet as a
tool to communicate with our target audience to show our dominance in the clothing industry.
Internet Advertising
XYZ Company needs to focus advertising on internet sites that appeal to young people.
According to surveys, 72% of our target market uses the internet for five hours or more per
week. The following list shows in order of popularity the most frequented sites:
 Google
 Facebook
 Myspace
 EBay
 iTunes
Shifting our efforts from our other media sources such as radio and magazine to these popular
internet sites will more effectively promote our product sales. Young adults are spending
more and more time on the internet downloading music, communicating and researching for
homework and less and less time reading paper magazines and listening to the radio. As the
trend for cultural icons to go digital, so must our marketing plans.
Television Advertising
It used to be common to advertise for our products on shows like Friends and Seinfeld for our
target audience, but even the face of television is changing. Young adults are tuning into
reality television shows for their entertainment. Results from the focus group show that our
target audience is most interested in shows like American Idol, The Apprentice,
and America's Next Top Model. The only non-reality television show to be ranked in the top
ten most commonly watched shows by males and females 18-25 is Desperate Housewives. At
Blue Incorporated, we need to focus our advertising budget on reality television shows and
reduce the amount of advertising spent on other programs.
By refocusing our advertising efforts of our new line of clothing we will be able to maximize
the exposure of our product to our target market and therefore increase our sales. Tapping
into the trends of young adults will help us gain market share and sales through effective
advertising.
Attachments: Focus Group Results, January- May 2007; Survey Findings, January - April
2007
This is a sample memo; facts and statistics used are fictional.
Ack: Purdue. Owl
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Sample Memo (2).
Bose Steel Company Limited
Interoffice Memorandum
To: The Manager Reference: SOT/P18
From: Purchase Officer Date: 16 June, 2019
Subject: Purchase of Office Chairs
As desired, the order for the supply of 300 office chairs has been placed with
Shinewell Furniture Mart, Lal Chowk. The chairs will be supplied in two lots of 150
each on 23rd and 30th June.
Z L Ahmed
Sample (3):
Best Institute of Management
Gemini Circle
Chennai
Interoffice
Memorandum

Date: 31 July 2019

To: All Wardens
From: Chief Warden
Subject: Water Conservation

To help save water in student hostels, the following conservation measures are to be
enforced with immediate effect.

 Washing more than four clothes per student will be prohibited

 All taps will be checked for leakage
 Float valves will be checked to avoid overflowing of water
 Wardens will have a meeting with all students to create awareness about conserving
water
I am confident that these measures will reduce the wastage of water and I will greatly
appreciate your efforts in enforcing them in your respective hostels.
Raman
Practice Exercise:
1. The general Manager of Comfort Home Appliances Ltd., Kolkata, is worried about the
wastage of stationery in almost all sections of the company. Draft a memo to be signed by
him and sent to all Sectional Heads, asking them to identify the reason behind such wastage
and also advise the employees under their control to restrain from such wastage.
2. The Clean Food Products Ltd., Kanpur has decided to provide Internet surfing facilities to
all its employees. As the MD of this company, draft a memo to be circulated among all the
Divisional Heads containing the following details:
The location, no. of computers, to be made available, timings, and procedure
for lodging complaints if any. Any relevant info may be added.
Emails
Basically an email is a message sent through the internet. The advantage over a printed letter
sent by post is that a single email can be sent a group of people simultaneously.
Though an email is not considered a legal record, its use has grown enormously. The main
reasons for popularity are:
 Being relatively informal, it is easy and less time consuming
 The transmission of the message is instant

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  Its delivery is confirmed immediately
 An attachment with n number of pages can be sent
 A message can be sent to a number of persons with the click of a button
 Cost is affordable, even small organisations can use the systems
 One can read or draft an email at one’s convenient time
Structure of an email
1. From: Email address o the sender
2. Date:
3. To: Email address of the receiver
4. CC: Email address of those to whom the copies can be mailed
5. Subject: A word or phrase reflecting the main content of the message
6. Salutation: Greeting before giving the message
7. Body: The message
8. Leave taking – generally the phrases like with best wishes, best regards are used.
Procedure:
1. Logon, connect yourself to the network.
2. Type the email address of the receiver.
3. Draft the message.
4. Read it carefully once again and revise, if necessary.
5. Click on send to transmit the message.
To check the emails received,
1. Log on
2. Look at the list of emails you have received
3. Choose the email you wish to read through.
4. Handle the message which may be important: replying, forwarding, storing, taking
a printout, or even deleting.
Email – style:
Even in an email, one can include different fonts, type sizes, colours, graphics and tables.
1. Emails are instant messages. So the degree of formality is less. But at times, the tone
of an email should be checked twice depending on the recipient and situation.
2. Specific Subject Line: Don’t ignore the subject line. Invest in the subject line and
give a smart heading to your mail through the subject line. Whether a professional
will read your mail or delete it without reading depends on two factors – your name
and the subject line. Build a reputation for sending good, interesting, brief, and useful
mail.
The subject line should be brief, clear and specific and to the point. Never include unrelated
items in a single mail, as it becomes difficult to give a suitable subject line. It is better to send
separate mails or include separate attachments.
The most common defect found in subject lines is that they are too broad and vague. For
example, if the mail is about `urgent need for a service engineer in the nitrogen plant’ all the
following subject lines expect the last one are too broad to attract the attention of the reader:
Nitrogen plant
Problems in the factory
Nitrogen plant maintenance
Breakdown
A request
Mail from branch office
Maintenance requirements
Urgent need for service engineer in nitrogen plant.
3. Important Information First: don’t give voluminous information. Put the most
important message in the beginning.
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 4. It is always advisable to start with a warm-up statement, referring to the previous
correspondence. Here are some examples for formal and informal emails:
 Thank you for calling me in the morning. It was a pleasure to hear the voice of
a person with whom I was so far been in touch only through emails
 It was very thoughtful of you to have invited me for dinner last night. I was
able to meet quite a few persons I wanted to meet.
 Your email has clarified the issue. I shall sign and send the agreement today
itself.
 Thank you for giving the details of the proposals. There are, however, just a
few points I on which I would like to seek clarifications.
 We greatly appreciate the efforts you are putting in to make the seminar a
spectacular success. The details you have asked for are given below
5. Don’t mix business with pleasure. Have a separate mailbox for personal mails.
6. Try to reply within 24 hours. Speed is the essence of the e-mail.
7. Don’t make your mail box a junkyard. Put it in order. The mails build up in your box
within no time. It is essential to manage them as per the requirement. Delete messages which
require no more attention from you.
 You may create subfolders in the inbox and outbox and save mails in them
which need future attention.
8. Keep your mail short: The reader wishes through browse many mails he might have
received. It is always be short and brief. Reading from a monitor is harder and slower than
reading a printout.
 Brief doesn’t mean being abrupt
9. Mind your language – the spelling and grammar: The problem of grammar and spelling is
more with e-mails than any other means of oral and written communication. Firstly, while
chatting with someone we tend to use conversational, informal English. The medium is so
quick and immediate that an informal style appropriate to a `speed’ conversation has emerged
for the purpose of e-mailing. So we don’t tend to check the spelling and grammatical
mistakes while sending a message. Secondly, we cannot check the mistakes instantly as we
can do with MS Word.
10. Hold back angry outbursts: strong emotions may spoil the relationship with the other
person, so never send a mail when you are disturbed psychologically or emotionally.
11. Don’t try to use the words like urgent, confidential or top priority too often.
12. Never use only the upper case while mailing someone. In the uppercase, all the letters of
same height and it becomes difficult to read.
NEVER USE ONLY THE UPPER CASE WHILE MAILING SOMEONE. IN THE
UPPERCASE, ALL THE LETTERS OF SAME HEIGHT AND IT BECOMES DIFFICULT
TO READ.
Never use only the upper case while mailing someone. In the uppercase, all the letters of
same height and it becomes difficult to read.
13. Abbreviations and acronyms are shortcuts that save everyone’s time. It is easy to
understand common acronyms like MBBS, USA, UK, etc., but the problem arises with the
acronyms which are not common. Never use abbreviations and acronyms unless you are sure
that the reader understands them.
Here are a few abbreviations one is likely to find in mails:
RGDS regards
ASAP as soon as possible
NLT no later than
TMRW tomorrow
THX thanks

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 PLS please
MSGS messages
IMHO in my humble opinion
PMFJI pardon me for jumping in
BTW by the way
FWIW for what it is worth
FYA for your amusement
FYEO for your eyes only
FYI for your information
OBTW oh, by the way
OTOH on the other hand
PTP pardon the pun
WRT with regard to
WEF with effect from
:- ) = happy 8- ) =happy face with glasses
:- ( = sad :-/ =skeptical
:-< = really upset :-II = angry
:- (o) = yelling :-D = laughing
:-) = winking :-o =
shocked o/o-)= happy, confusedo/o-(= sad, confused
14. Email ethics: don’t read others mails even if you happen to know the password or if you
find a mailbox of your colleague which is unattended for some time.
Email Etiquette
There are a few important points to remember when composing email, particularly when the
email's recipient is a superior and/or someone who does not know you.
 Be sure to include a meaningful subject line; this helps clarify what your message is
about and may also help the recipient prioritize reading your email
 Just like a written letter, be sure to open your email with a greeting like Dear Dr.
Jones, or Ms. Smith:
 Use standard spelling, punctuation, and capitalization. THERE'S NOTHING WORSE
THAN AN EMAIL SCREAMING A MESSAGE IN ALL CAPS. Do not use text
abbreviations (like u instead of you, for example).
 Write clear, short paragraphs and be direct and to the point; professionals and
academics alike see their email accounts as business. Don't write unnecessarily long
emails or otherwise waste the recipient's time
 Be friendly and cordial, but don't try to joke around (jokes and witty remarks may be
inappropriate and, more commonly, may not come off appropriately in email)
 Make sure to include a signature block that contains the necessary information for
someone to reach you should a reply be necessary and/or expected; typical closings
include a sign off phrase (e.g. best, thanks, sincerely) and the sender's name.
Additional information may be included when appropriate (e.g., department, office
location, position, etc).
Some guidelines for continuing email conversations
Once you have exchanged emails with a person on a given subject, it is probably acceptable
to leave greetings out of your follow-up emails. Here are some other points to consider about
continuing conversations over email:
 Try to respond within a reasonable time frame, though "reasonable" will depend on
the recipient's expectations and the subject being discussed
 Trim back the old messages: most email clients will keep copying older messages to
the bottom of an email. Delete older messages so as to keep your message size from

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 getting too large, and to keep your messages looking clean.
 If someone asks a lot of questions, it may be OK to embed your answers into the
sender's message copied at the bottom of your email. However, if you're going to do
this, be sure to say so at the top, and leave generous space, for example:
> How long are you staying?
Less than two weeks.
>Will you have time to visit with us?
I'm really hoping to, but my schedule will be pretty tight. Let me get back to you about that
after the weekend.
What information shouldn't be sent via email?
Most people do not realize that email is not as private as it may seem. Without additional
setup, email is not encrypted; meaning that your email is "open" and could possibly be read
by an unintended person as it is transmitted to your reader. With that in mind, never send the
following information over email:
 Usernames and passwords
 Credit card or other account information
Additionally, avoid sensitive or information that could be potentially damaging to someone's
career and/or reputation, including your own. Beyond email's general lack of security and
confidentiality, your recipient can always accidentally hit the Forward button, leave their
email account open on a computer, or print and forget that they've printed a copy of your
email
Some guidelines for sending attachments:
 Never send an attachment to someone you don't know the first time you contact them
(unless, of course, the contact has posted a job ad requesting a resume in a Word
document). They (or their computers) might think it is spam or a virus, and delete
your message.
 Avoid unnecessarily large file sizes, digital photos especially. Most digital photos
come off the camera much larger than can be viewed on screen. Learn how to resize
your digital photo files.
 When you must send a large file or set of files, do the recipient the courtesy of
sending an email telling them what you'll be sending and why.
 Be sure to have anti-virus software installed on your computer to scan all of your
outgoing and incoming messages for viruses.
Courtesy: https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/academic_writing/email_etiquette.html
SPAM: The word "Spam" as applied to Email means "Unsolicited Bulk Email".
Unsolicited means that the Recipient has not granted verifiable permission for the message to
be sent. Bulk means that the message is sent as part of a larger collection of messages, all
having substantively identical content.
Blogs Blog Writing
The Oxford Dictionary defines a blog as:
noun
verb
1. a regularly updated website or web page, typically one run by an individual or small
group, that is written in an informal or conversational style.
1.add new material to or regularly update a blog.
"it's about a week since I last blogged"
A blog, a truncation of "weblog" is a discussion or informational website published on
the World Wide Web consisting of discrete, often informal diary-style text entries (posts).
Posts are typically displayed in reverse chronological order, so that the most recent post
appears first, at the top of the web page. The term "weblog" was coined by Jorn Barger on
December 17, 1997. The short form, "blog", was coined by Peter Merholz.
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The purpose of Blogs:
Blogging can be seen as a form of social networking service. Indeed, bloggers not only
produce content to post on their blogs but also often build social relations with their readers
and other bloggers.
Many blogs provide commentary on a particular subject or topic, ranging from philosophy,
religion, and arts to science, politics, and sports. Others function as more personal online
diaries or online brand advertising of a particular individual or company.
A typical blog combines text, digital images, and links to other blogs, web pages, and other
media related to its topic. Most blogs are primarily textual, although some focus on art (art
blogs), photographs (photoblogs), videos (video blogs or "vlogs"), music (MP3 blogs), and
audio (podcasts).
In education, blogs can be used as instructional resources; these are referred to
as edublogs. Microblogging is another type of blogging, featuring very short posts.
'Blog' and 'blogging' are now loosely used for content creation and sharing on social media,
especially when the content is long-form and one creates and shares content on regular basis.
So, one could be maintaining a blog on Facebook or blogging on Instagram.
There are many different types of blogs, differing not only in the type of content, but also in
the way that content is delivered or written.
Edublogs
An education blog or edublog is a blog (weblog) created for educational purposes. Blogs
offer a huge instructional potential as an online resource.
Edublogs are categorized as :
 Instructor weblog: weblogs written by instructors are mainly used as an additional
communication channel to share information with students. Instructor weblogs usually
contain course content, course management information, general commentary to all
students about their learning progress, etc.
 Student weblog: weblogs written by students are basically learning weblogs or
project weblogs. A learning weblog is a learning diary that reports the learning
experience, both the learning content and the learning process. Besides, a weblog can
also be the result or the learning outcome of a subject. Finally, a project weblog, often
authored by a team of students, documents the project progress and findings.
Ways to use blogs in education
There are many ways to use blogs in education:
 Provide information for students.
 Facilitate discussions and sharing ideas.
 Replace email communication (newsletter).
 Post multimedia content, such as videos, podcasts and documents.
 Create a class publication.
 Share information and tips among other teachers.
 Keep in contact with parents.
Blogging comes in many forms, it addresses countless topics, and it can, without a doubt, be
divided by its quality. But when it comes to education, blogging can be an excellent tool for
improving a student’s involvement, excitement, and most importantly, writing skills.
The benefits of blogging are tremendous, especially for young people. They can develop
much improved writing skills which will stick with them forever, their thinking muscles will
be in continuous development, and they will also develop a better understanding of the world
that surrounds them. Some of the reasons for focusing on blogs:
1. Blogging Exercises Student Creativity
One of the best benefits that come as a result of blogging is that it allows people to
express and hone their creativity. This can turn a boring paper into a fun creative process.

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Bloggers always need to use their creativity and thinking to:
 Develop unique and original content
 Solve problems
 Express their perspective and personality visually trough custom
themes, headers, layouts, designs, and pictures.
 Respond to their follower’s feedback and comments.
 Besides, it’s also a fun and innovative process in which they can combine
much of what they have learned.
2. Regular Writing Sharpens the Brain's Performance
The development of a student’s thinking may be the most important benefit that comes with
blogging. Many specialists talk about the phenomenon of how daily writing (content,
thoughts, experiences, fantasies, or anything you want) improves and sharpens your brain’s
performance.
Blogging helps you connect the dots better and faster. You should encourage each of your
students to develop their personal blog and create a portfolio around it – it’ll help them big
time when they seek their first jobs!
3. Promotes Expression of Self
In the traditional classroom, the student’s audience is mainly the teacher and perhaps,
sometimes, parents and the classmates. If a student was to blog regularly, she’ll reach a
broader audience, and can receive constructive feedback.
4. Blogging Boosts Confidence
People that own blogs report critical changes in their lives. Many of them suggest that they
have “found themselves” or that they’ve “finally understood”. This may sound like a spiritual
breakthrough, but it is not.
In fact, what most people want to say is that their confidence levels have improved. They are
no longer afraid to speak what they hold in their minds, and they feel less pressure to conform
to the standards.
5. Improves Communication Skills
Writing, after all, is simply a type of communication that people use in order to exchange
thoughts and feelings. Let’s keep it simple: if your students write something for their
blog every day, they’ll express their thoughts and feelings on a consistent basis. The
more they practice through blogging, the better communicators they’ll become.
6. Earn Income!
Are your students aware of how much money can be made with blogging? Are you?
Indeed, writing is a skill that never goes away. Just like you learn how to drive once, your
writing skills will stick with you no matter what. Many bloggers find “side work” writing for
extra income. It can also help them to take their blog to the next level, they can start
monetizing it by doing affiliate marketing, e-commerce, consulting, and so on.
10 Top Tips To Use Blogs in the Classroom
Once you’ve chosen your platform and the web builder’s tutorials and training material, it’s
time to start blogging. But first, here are some 11 tips for blogging in today’s classroom.
Guidelines and Expectations
Before starting an outline of your blogging guidelines and expectations check with your
school for a written guideline. From here you can develop clear goals, guidelines, and
expectations for you and your students. For example, your school may or may not allow
photos of students on blog pages or they may require written permission from a parent to
participate in a blog. You and your students need to know the rules before blogging begins.
Guidelines can be published and updated right on your class blog for easy access by students
and parents.
Integrate Classroom Curriculum
Blogging can be used across the curriculum. From math and science to history and health,
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blogging is great way to take literacy across the curriculum.
English is for Everyone
Blogging not only requires subject knowledge, it also takes good writing skills. Even if
you’re using blogging in a math or science class, you should set some time aside to teach a
bit of writing and grammar. Just 5 or 10 minutes a class to go over one or two key points will
make you and your students better writers.
The How To of Commenting
The comment section of a blog post is where students can share thoughts and opinions and
have a discussion about the published content. Initially, it is a good idea to teach students the
dos and don’ts of commenting. Start off by writing the first two or three blog posts and have
students comment according to your set of criteria. For example, encourage students to
contribute quality comments while discouraging put downs and inappropriate language.
Monitor comments and provide feedback.
Be Realistic
Building a blog takes time so set your sights small. For example, start off with a class blog
focusing on one topic where students can contribute posts under your supervision. Choose
something they are passionate about or want to raise awareness about. For example, a
classroom blog could be about an endangered species such as the orangutan or about the
importance of eating healthy. Once a topic is exhausted, create a new classroom blog on
another topic. The old blogs remain static but available for readers. By starting with a
classroom blog, students build the skills they need to create their own blogs effortlessly.
Read other Blogs
Take the time to read other classroom and student blogs. This will give you and your students
concrete examples of the finished product and gives you ideas when creating your own blog.
Be Consistent
Blogging takes commitment. If posts are haphazardly published, reader base and student
interest will most likely decline. The idea is to keep building and expanding. In the
beginning, set a goal of a post every two weeks per student and gradually increase
submissions, as the students get more comfortable with blogging.
Plagiarism
Explain to students that plagiarism will not be tolerated. Student contributions must be their
own work. Don’t post copyrighted images. Do post copyright free images. Include a site here.
Network with other Bloggers
Encourage local and global collaboration by having students network with bloggers and
follow other student blogs. Although it is important to give students a choice when selecting a
blog they want to follow, it is best to provide them with a set of criteria to help with their
selection.
Dive into Social Media
If any of the blogs related to your classroom are made public, then you’ll want to get more
readership by connecting your blog with social media sites, such as Facebook, Twitter, and
Pinterest. Word of mouth is always the best advertising.
Personal blogs
The personal blog is an ongoing online diary or commentary written by an individual. While
the vast majority of personal blogs attract very few readers, other than the blogger's
immediate family and friends, a small number of personal blogs have become popular, to the
point that they have attracted lucrative advertising sponsorship. A tiny number of personal
bloggers have become famous, both in the online community and in the real world.
Collaborative blogs or group blogs
A type of weblog in which posts are written and published by more than one author. The
majority of high-profile collaborative blogs are organised according to a single uniting theme,
such as politics, technology or advocacy. In recent years, the blogosphere has seen the
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emergence and growing popularity of more collaborative efforts, often set up by already
established bloggers wishing to pool time and resources, both to reduce the pressure of
maintaining a popular website and to attract a larger readership.
Microblogging
Microblogging is the practice of posting small pieces of digital content—which could be text,
pictures, links, short videos, or other media—on the Internet. It has captured the public
imagination, in part because the short posts are easy to read on the go or when waiting.
Friends use it to keep in touch, business associates use it to coordinate meetings or share
useful resources, and celebrities and politicians (or their publicists) microblog about concert
dates, lectures, book releases, or tour schedules. A wide and growing range of add-on tools
enables sophisticated updates and interaction with other applications. Examples of these
include Twitter, Facebook, Tumblr and, by far the largest, WeiBo.
Corporate and organizational blogs
A blog can be private, as in most cases, or it can be for business or not-for-profit
organization or government purposes. Blogs used internally, and only available to employees
via an Intranet are called corporate blogs. Companies using internal corporate blogs enhance
the communication, culture and employee engagement in a corporation. Internal corporate
blogs can be used to communicate news about company policies or procedures, build
employee esprit de corps and improve morale. Companies and other organizations also use
external, publicly accessible blogs for marketing, branding, or public relations purposes.
Some organizations have a blog authored by their executive; in practice, many of these
executive blog posts are penned by a ghost-writer, who makes posts in the style of the
credited author. Similar blogs for clubs and societies are called club blogs, group blogs, or by
similar names; typical use is to inform members and other interested parties of club and
member activities.
Aggregated blogs
Individuals or organization may aggregate selected feeds on specific topic, product or service
and provide combined view for its readers. This allows readers to concentrate on reading
instead of searching for quality on-topic content and managing subscriptions. Many such
aggregation called planets from name of Planet (software) that perform such aggregation,
hosting sites usually have planet. subdomain in domain name (like http://planet.gnome.org/).
By genre
Some blogs focus on a particular subject, such as political blogs, journalism blogs, health
blogs, travel blogs (also known as travelogs), gardening blogs, house blogs, Book Blogs,
[33][34]
fashion blogs, beauty blogs, lifestyle blogs, party blogs, wedding blogs, photography
blogs, project blogs, psychology blogs, sociology blogs, education blogs, niche blogs,
classical music blogs, quizzing blogs, legal blogs (often referred to as a blawgs), or
dreamlogs. How-to/Tutorial blogs are becoming increasing popular. Two common types of
genre blogs are art blogs and music blogs. A blog featuring discussions especially about
home and family is not uncommonly called a mom blog and one made popular is
by Erica Diamond who created Womenonthefence.com which is syndicated to over two
million readers monthly. While not a legitimate type of blog, one used for the sole purpose of
spamming is known as a splog.
By media type
A blog comprising videos is called a vlog, one comprising links is called a linklog, a site
containing a portfolio of sketches is called a sketchblog or one comprising photos is called
a photoblog. Blogs with shorter posts and mixed media types are called tumblelogs. Blogs
that are written on typewriters and then scanned are called typecast or typecast blogs. A rare
type of blog hosted on the Gopher Protocol is known as a phlog.
By device
A blog can also be defined by which type of device is used to compose it. A blog written by
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a mobile device like a mobile phone or PDA could be called a moblog. One early blog was
Wearable Wireless Webcam, an online shared diary of a person's personal life combining
text, video, and pictures transmitted live from a wearable computer and EyeTap device to a
web site. This practice of semi-automated blogging with live video together with text was
referred to as sousveillance. Such journals have been used as evidence in legal matters.
Blogging and advertising
It is common for blogs to feature banner advertisements or promotional content, either to
financially benefit the blogger, support website hosting costs, or to promote the blogger's
favourite causes or products. The popularity of blogs has also given rise to "fake blogs" in
which a company will create a fictional blog as a marketing tool to promote a product.
As the popularity of blogging continues to rise, the commercialisation of blogging is rapidly
increasing. Many corporations and companies collaborate with bloggers to increase
advertising and engage online communities towards their products.
A few tips to ensure that your content marketing efforts are received well.
1. Know Your Audience
Before you start writing, it’s crucial that you know who your audience is, and what they are
looking for.
The easiest way to get information about your audience is by using the Monster Insights tool
as it has the following advantages:
 Turns complicated website data into simple reports that are easy for anyone to
understand
 Gives valuable insights into who your audience is and where they are coming
from
 Helps you understand what’s working and where you need to improve
 Dedicated reports for publishers that show top performing landing pages, exit
pages, and links
 Calculates average scroll depth so you’ll know how far visitors read your post
before they lose interest
 Shows which search terms get the most clicks and impressions
You’ll see reports that tell you how much traffic your site gets, how long your users stay on
your site, and how quickly they bounce. This will tell you if visitors find your content
interesting or not.

You can also see where your visitors are coming from by country and source.

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So you’ll know whether visitors are finding your site through social media or other websites.
With this understanding, you can alter your content to match their interests.
Next, you can see which posts are performing well. You can then analyze these posts to see
what works with your audience.

2. Write Compelling Headlines

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If you don’t have a compelling headline, then there’s a very good chance that your blog post
will not be read or shared.
As humans, we’re shallow. We judge a book by its cover and a blog post by its title.
That’s why your blog post title is crucial for the success of that article.
3. Add Subheadings and Shorter Paragraphs to Break up the Page

Formatting is super important for blog posts. There’s nothing worse than reading a blog post
that’s just one giant paragraph.
Most of the time people skim through the content before they actually decide to read it, so we
always recommend breaking up your article with subheadings.
Anything you can do to make it easy on the user’s eyes is going to help them read your blog
post (and take the action that you want them to).
Another quick tip is to use shorter paragraphs to help your readers work their way through
your post. A sample :

Notice how small the blocks of text are. Usually, we stick to 2–3 lines of text, maybe 4 if
something really needs explanation.
We do this to help our readers absorb all the information coming their way in as short amount
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of time as possible.
As blog posts are different, they’re designed to give highly focused, quality information in a
short amount of time.
So, organize your ideas through subheadings and keep your paragraphs short to help your
reader absorb more information in less time.
4. Use Bullet Points
People tend to skim blog posts before they decide to read them. That means you need to make
sure to highlight your best information. That way, they can quickly see that your post is worth
their time.
Aside from subheadings, bullet lists are perfect because they’re very easy to skim through.
Here are some tips that we use to write bullet points that people will actually read:
 Express clear benefits. Think of bullets as mini-headlines.
 Keep your bullets symmetrical. 1-2 lines each.
 Avoid bullet clutter. Don’t write paragraphs in bullets.
 Remember bullets are not sentences. They’re just like headlines.
Again, people don’t come to blog posts for leisurely beach reading. They want specific
information and don’t want to work to get it.
Bullet points are an excellent way to spoon-feed your audience in a way that keeps them
coming back for more.
5. Add Images

The human brain processes visual content a lot faster than text-based content. That’s why
adding captivating images can help boost your engagement.
Shutterstock, a premium stock photo site, allows to create custom images for your post’s
featured image.
6. Optimize for Search Engine Optimization (SEO):

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In the blogging world, SEO can be tricky. On the one hand, you should never put SEO over
your user’s experience (UX). On the other hand, you shouldn’t ignore SEO, either.
The goal is to find the balance.
The truth is that organic searches on Google drives a huge chunk of the traffic for most
websites.
If you want to maximize your SEO ranking, then we highly recommend that you optimize
your blog post for important SEO ranking factors.
Now, a few years ago, this meant hiring an SEO analyst but now there are tools that make it
easy to do it yourself.
All in One SEO is the most powerful and easy to use WordPress SEO plugin. Here’s what
you get:
 Actionable checklist to optimize each page
 Detailed content and readability analysis
 Easily add SEO elements like meta title, description, and focused keywords
 Add XML sitemaps and schema markups to improve SEO rankings
 Competitor analysis to outrank the competition
 Integrate with other tools and social media platforms
It’s the most beginner-friendly SEO tool so anyone can use it and get their pages to rank.
7. Add a Clear Call-to-Action
In the spirit of saving the best for last, here’s our last tip for writing a blog post that
converts: add a clear call-to-action.
Whether it’s to ask your readers to leave a comment, share your blog post, follow you on
social media, or purchase your product, make sure you clearly state what you’d like them to
do.
A good call-to-action is something that’s easily distinguishable and stands out.
Usually, for your blog posts, the call to action will ask readers to share their content if they
liked what they read.
The call to action looks something like this:

If your content is stellar, most readers will be thrilled to share it. And if your product is
awesome, most people will be happy to buy it.
But in order to get them to do either, you need to ask!
8. Set Up Recent Activity Notifications
Another great way to increase conversions on your blog posts is by using social proof like
recent activity popups.

Social proof works in two ways. First, it uses the fear of missing out (FOMO) which is
basically wanting what others have.
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It also builds trust and confidence in visitors. This is because we are more likely to take an
action or buy something if we see others are doing the same.
It’s as simple as that!
9. Send Blog Post Web Notifications
Web push notifications let you engage with your readers long after their first visit to your
site.
So even if they didn’t convert the first time, you can use push notifications to get them to
come back to your site.

To create these notifications, you can use PushEngage. It’s the most powerful push
notification tool and it’s easy to use.
When you sign up, PushEngage will start displaying a subscribe option on your site.

Visitors simply have to click on the ‘Allow’ button to subscribe. There’s no need for an email
address or phone number, so it’s easier to get more subscribers.
PushEngage will also create a notification for every new blog post published and send it to
your subscribers. Or you can choose to create and send your own custom notification in under
5 minutes.

85
Push notifications are the best way to rekindle a visitor’s interest and bring them back to your
site.
Reports
Report writing is an essential skill for engineering students. Engineering reports analyse data,
present results and conclusions, and make recommendations in a logical, precise and
accessible manner. Report writing is both a requirement for completing an engineering
qualification at university and a central part of succeeding in future employment. Writing a
report is an art. It is a planned procedure requiring the logical presentation of ideas and
information .The word ‘report’ comes from the Latin word meaning “ to bring back”. It is a
serious written communication, the style is accurate, fluent and concise, with headings to
indicate the content of each section, every report must be totally adapted to the needs of its
reader. So. a report has been defined as a ‘piece of factual writing based on evidence,
containing organized information on a particular topic’.
The prime purpose of reports is to have accuracy of facts. The report is written for a specific
purpose, it is a functional document.
Features of a good report
• It is factual and not imaginative
• Concrete words are used.
• It is objective, without any personal bias.
• It is orderly and properly structured.
• It is comprehensive.
• It is logical
• It is coherent and clear.
• A Good Report has
• clarity of Thought
• is complete and Self-explanatory
• is Comprehensive but Compact
• is Accurate in all Aspects Purpose of a report
 It is written for a reader, so
 The information should be precise and short.
 It should be organised for the convenience of a report user.
 It should supply factual information in a precise manner.
 The writing should be accurate, concise and unobtrusive.
 It should organise information graphically, with appropriate labels.
 It should Summarise, giving the whole information , in miniature.
2  Reports should not have factual errors and inconsistencies.
 The report should look neat and attractive The information should be put into one of three
categories: 1. Obviously important information which must go into the report because it is
completely relevant to the objectives;
2. Borderline information which might be useful to some readers, or which might amplify or
substantiate other more important material
]3. Information which is interesting (or not) to the writer, but which is not relevant to the
objectives of the report.
Language
• The Language of the report is in passive voice.
• Reports are written in the past and past perfect tenses
• First person pronouns are avoided, such as, I, we you, his…
• Shorter sentences are preferred to longer sentences, a variation of both creates a good effect.
• The rules of punctuation have to be followed because it aids accuracy.
• There should be no spelling and typing errors.
Punctuation
Punctuation matters because it aids accurate reading and also because it may affect the
meaning. In the sentence: The rules of punctuation, unlike those of spelling, are easy to learn,
and the bibliography at the end of the Guide suggests helpful books Spelling When the
engineer has completed a section of the report, it should be checked for spelling and typing
errors. Basic structure of a report A report usually has these components: The full format of a
long report can be as follows:
 Cover page
 Title page
 Acknowledgements
 Summary
 Table of Contents
 Introduction/Terms of Reference/Scope
 Procedure
 Findings (the evidence)
 Conclusions
 Recommendations
 Appendices
 References
 Bibliography
 Glossary
Index
Cover page It should consist of essential information in an attractive way. It consists of
essential information. such as, i. report number ii. name of the organisation iii. title of report
iv. name of author and v. date.
Title page The title page is the first page of the report proper, it is the first right hand page of
the report. In addition to all the information on the cover page it contains i. project or
reference number ii. the title and iii.author’s name,iv. the report reference number and v. date,
vi. its classification (‘confidential’, etc) if appropriate,vii. the name and designation of
primary recepient, viii. the company’s name and logo if desired, a statement of copyright if
appropriate, and no more.
Acknowlewdgements Is a way of recording your sense of gratitude to people who helped
you with the study, a mention has to be made about any help assistance or guidance received
from different persons and organisations.
Table of Contents Its function is to help reader locate specific information, it helps the
reader to an overall picture of what the report contains. It is patterned after the final report is
drafted. For prop[er organisation it should follow the decimal numbering system in listing
topics and subtopics.
Table of Contents
1. Cover page i
2. Title page ii
3. Acknowledgements iii
4. Table of Contents iv
5. Abstract / Summary v
6. Introduction/ Terms of Reference/Scope 1
7. Procedure / Discussion 3
8. Findings (the evidence) 5
9. Conclusions 7
10.Recommendations 9
4 11.Appendices 10
12. References 11
13. Bibliography 12
14. Index
Decimal system of numbering
1. Heading First Main Section
1.1 Second order heading (sub-heading)
1.2 Second order heading (sub-heading)
1.2.1 Third order heading (sub-sub-heading)
1.2.2 Third order heading (sub-sub-heading)
2. Heading Second Main Section
2.1 Second order heading (sub-heading)
2.1.1 Third order heading (sub-sub-heading)
Summaries and abstracts are different from one another, and used in different ways,
although they are often confused. The summary is the last part of the text to be written, and it
is perhaps the most difficult. The use of summaries is widespread, and they serve several
purposes.
Abstracts are intended to bring together the report and prospective readers, and to guide
readers who might not necessarily consider that a particular report is relevant to their needs.
As summaries are usually best written by the report writer, abstracts are usually best written
by somebody else, perhaps a librarian with specialist knowledge and training in abstracting.
Difference between an abstract and a summary The summary gives the substance of the
report whereas the abstract tells us in concentrated form about the report. The summary is 5%
to 10% of the original size. An abstract is 2% -5 % of the original size of the report.
Introduction The Introduction gives the reader the necessary background information.
It can 5 include:
• a description of purpose(s) and objective(s)/topic(s)
• a statement of the problem(s)
• a survey of background information
• a review of previous work/research and the relationship to the current project
• the method(s) of approach
• an indication of the scope and limitations of study
• an outline of material presented in the rest of the report
It Prepares the reader for the content of the report and is a good starting point for one who is
not familiar with the subject, In writing the introduction the writer should keep in mind the
following: what the report is about?, why is it written?, who wanted it ? what problem will it
solve? what methods are used to arrive at the facts?.
Procedure followed in collecting and analyzing the data Scientific reports based on
experiments, the following areas, with appropriate headings, may be included:
• methods/procedures and materials used
• data collected/information presented
• findings or results/comparisons with previous work
• discussion or analysis of the material Gives the means through which the data was
collected on which the report is based.
The main function of this section is to describe the main part of the report. It contains the data
and organised discussion using visual aids, the analysis of the data which is arranged in a
logical order yields results and admits of certain inferences. They are then evaluated and
judgements are formed and they ultimately lead to the formation of conclusions. Discussion
or Findings of the Report This is a detailed discussion of the data which has been collected
and its analysis. Conclusion The conclusion(s) of a report must be related to, and resulting
from, the material which appears in the report. The content of the Conclusion will be linked
to the 6 Introduction.
The Conclusion places findings in perspective without introducing any new material, and it
may include:
• a clear and concise summary of the main points
• the context and significance of the information
• a reference to the original aim(s)/purpose(s) of the report
• the application(s) of the results
• the limitations and advantages of the findings
• the writer’s judgment/evaluation
It is of great value to a busy researcher or an executive, in fact it is the first thing that is read
in a report to arrive at a decision. It contains the findings that are arrived at through analysis
in the discussion, no new material is added at this stage.
All conclusions are logically arrived at from what has gone before they may be in the form of
series of numbered points or in paragraphs. Before giving a final shape to conclusion it has to
be correlated with what has been promised in the introduction.
Recommendations Not all reports include recommendations, but if they are required
recommendations should emerge from the conclusions of the report. This section is important
to those who must act on the findings. The writer may include a brief, persuasive statement
before presenting the recommendations clearly listed in numbered or bullet points. A series of
recommendations may be worded in instructional language; for example, each beginning with
a verb. There are styles of reports where the Recommendations follow the Introduction.
Recommendations may involve:
• strategies, procedures or techniques for solving the problem(s)
• an indication of further work which needs to be completed Are derived from conclusions
and indicate future action, these recommendations are the basis for decision making, they are
listed in descending order of importance accompanied by some explanation
Appendices
Contains material that needs to be in the report but is not an essential and integral part of the
main presentation. It supports the discussion and substatiates the findings. It relieves the main
body from voluminous details, it provides a place for essential details for record purposes,the
material in it is neatly organised and properly presented and reference should be made to it in
the main text.
Each appendix is a separate unit and should be numbered as A,B and C. These could be
questionnaires, charts, graphs, official letters from an organisation and other statistical data.
References If the report writer has quoted from either a published or unpublished source the
writer should give credit to the authors by citing them in the text and listing them at the end
of the report. The entries in the list should be made in a alphabetic order giving the full
bibliographical details
Bibliography Is a list of sources consulted, it is serially numbered and the entries are made
alphabetically. The details appear in the same sequence as in the list of references
Glossary Is a list of technical words or terms used by the report writer in a special sense
Index An index is given only in voluminous reports where a table of contents may not be
adequate for a reader to locate a topic or a sub topic or any other material easily.
Notation Headings within the organisation of the report be as specific as possible in order to
be useful.
The pattern is this:
1. MAIN HEADING
1.1 Lesser Heading
1.1.1 Small Heading and this will be maintained throughout the report: Conventions The
conventions that you follow while writing must be followed when writing a report.
conventions for diagrams must be followed.
Tables These are the most common forms of diagrams used in technical reports. Tables can
give a great deal of accurate information if they are effectively presented.
Graphs Graphs are used either to show trends or to give accurate technical information. All
graphs must be clearly labelled, and scales identified. If graphs are to be compared, the same
scale must be used for each. Diagram references Diagrams of all types must be numbered and
clearly referenced in the text.
Format of pages Paper and margins
• white A4 paper is appropriate, and printing on one side only is often preferred for
assessment purposes
• each major section of the report begins on a new page; this may be inappropriate for very
short sections or short reports
• wide margins are recommended; for example, allowing 2.5 cm on all sides
• bound reports have a left-hand margin of at least 3.5 cm, and 1.5 on the other three sides
Page numbering
• the cover to the abstract summary page should not be numbered roman numerals — i, ii, iii,
iv etc. — are usually used to number the preliminary pages (Abstract, Contents etc.)
• all other pages may be numbered either in the right-hand upper corner, or in the centre at the
bottom of the page
• arabic numerals — 1, 2, 3, 4 etc. — are used to number the text from the Introduction page
to the end of the Appendices
• alternatively, pages in the Appendices can be numbered internally, according to the letter of
the individual appendix and the number of pages within each appendix — A1, A2, B1, C1,
C2, C3 etc. Headers and footers
• headers or footers position page numbers automatically
•two different headers or footers must be created so that the preliminary pages are numbered
separately from the text of the report Font
• a font (such as Times New Roman or Arial is usually chosen for the text of a report, as
these fonts tend to be easier to read
• the same font should be used throughout the whole report, unless a second font is chosen for
headings and tables Size and style of type
• 12 point type is the normal size for the text of a report
• 10 point may be used for long, indented quotations, figures and tables
• italics can be used to emphasise text where necessary (but it should not be overused,
 particularly as there may be confusion with italicised titles)
• underlining or bold is avoided in emphasis of text as it is distracting
• the use of precise words may be sufficient to create the required emphasis
Unit 5
I. Time Management
Time Management skills
The ability to use one's time effectively or productively, especially at work, time management is
very important as
 You can’t buy time. You are only given 24 hours a day.
 You can’t stop time. Unless you are some kind of a mutant with superpowers.
 You can’t save time. Your free lost time yesterday can’t be added to your time today.
"Time management is the key to efficient working" we all get the same 24 hours, why is it that
some people achieve so much more with their time than others? The answer lies in good time
management. The highest achievers manage their time exceptionally well. By using the time-
management techniques. Good time management requires an important shift in focus from
activities to results: being busy isn’t the same as being effective. Good time management lets you
work smarter – not harder – so you get more done in less time.
“Time management” refers to the way that you organize and plan how long you spend on specific
activities. The major themes arising from the literature on time management include the following:
 Creating an environment conducive to effectiveness
 Setting of priorities
 Carrying out activity around prioritization.
 The related process of reduction of time spent on non-priorities
 Incentives to modify behavior to ensure compliance with time-related deadlines.
It may seem counter-intuitive to dedicate precious time to learning about time management,
instead of using it to get on with your work, but the benefits are enormous:
 Greater productivity and efficiency.
 A better professional reputation.
 Less stress.
 Increased opportunities for advancement.
 Greater opportunities to achieve important life and career goals.
 Failing to manage your time effectively can have some very undesirable consequences:
 Missed deadlines.
 Inefficient work flow.
 Poor work quality.
 A poor professional reputation and a stalled career.
 Higher stress levels.
Spending a little time learning about time-management techniques will have huge benefits now
– and throughout your career.
Time management strategies are often associated with the recommendation to set personal goals.
The literature stresses themes such as –
 "Work in Priority Order" - set goals and prioritize
 "Set gravitational goals" - that attract actions automatically
These goals are recorded and may be broken down into a project, an action plan, or a simple task
list. For individual tasks or for goals, an importance rating may be established, deadlines may be
set, and priorities assigned. This process results in a plan with a task list or a schedule or calendar
of activities. Authors may recommend a daily, weekly, monthly or other planning periods
associated with different scope of planning or review. This is done in various ways, as follows.
1. ABC analysis
A technique that has been used in business management for a long time is the categorization of
large data into groups. These groups are often marked A, B, and C—hence the name. Activities
are ranked by these general criteria:
 A – Tasks that are perceived as being urgent and important,
 B – Tasks that are important but not urgent,
 C – Tasks that are unimportant. (whether urgent or not)
Each group is then rank-ordered by priority. To further refine the prioritization, some individuals
choose to then force-rank all "B" items as either "A" or "C". ABC analysis can incorporate more
than three groups
Practice the following techniques to become the master of your own time:
Carry a schedule and record all your thoughts, conversations and activities for a week. This will
help you understand how much you can get done during the course of a day and where your
precious moments are going. You'll see how much time is actually spent producing results and
how much time is wasted on unproductive thoughts, conversations and actions.
Any activity or conversation that's important to your success should have a time assigned to it.
To- do lists get longer and longer to the point where they're unworkable. Appointment books
work. Schedule appointments with yourself and create time blocks for high-priority thoughts,
conversations, and actions. Schedule when they will begin and end. Have the discipline to keep
these appointments.
Plan to spend at least 50 percent of your time engaged in the thoughts, activities and
conversations that produce most of your results.
Schedule time for interruptions. Plan time to be pulled away from what you're doing. Take, for
instance, the concept of having "office hours." Isn't "office hours" another way of saying
"planned interruptions?"
Take the first 30 minutes of every day to plan your day. Don't start your day until you complete
your time plan. The most important time of your day is the time you schedule to schedule time.
Take five minutes before every call and task to decide what result you want to attain. This will
help you know what success looks like before you start. And it will also slow time down. Take
five minutes after each call and activity to determine whether your desired result was achieved. If
not, what was missing? How do you put what's missing in your next call or activity?
Put up a "Do not disturb" sign when you absolutely have to get work done.
Practice not answering the phone just because it's ringing and e-mails just because they show up.
Disconnect instant messaging. Don't instantly give people your attention unless it's absolutely
crucial in your business to offer an immediate human response. Instead, schedule a time to
answer email and return phone calls.
Block out other distractions like Facebook and other forms of social media unless you use these
tools to generate business.
Remember that it's impossible to get everything done. Also remember that odds are good that 20
percent of your thoughts, conversations and activities produce 80 percent of your results.
Pareto analysis
This is the idea 80% of tasks can be completed in 20% of the disposable time. The remaining
20% of tasks will take up 80% of the time. This principle is used to sort tasks into two parts.
According to this form of Pareto analysis it is recommended that tasks that fall into the first
category be assigned a higher priority.
The 80-20-rule can also be applied to increase productivity: it is assumed that 80% of the
productivity can be achieved by doing 20% of the tasks. Similarly, 80% of results can be
attributed to 20% of activity. If productivity is the aim of time management, then these tasks
should be prioritized higher.
It depends on the method adopted to complete the task. There is always a simpler and easier way
to complete the task. If one uses a complex way, it will be time consuming. So, one should
always try to find out alternative ways to complete each task.
The Eisenhower Method
A basic "Eisenhower box" to help evaluate urgency and importance. Items may be placed at more precise points w

The "Eisenhower Method" stems from a quote attributed to Dwight D. Eisenhower: "I have two
kinds of problems, the urgent and the important. The urgent are not important, and the important
are never urgent."
Using the Eisenhower Decision Principle, tasks are evaluated using the criteria
important/unimportant and urgent/not urgent, and then placed in according quadrants in an
Eisenhower Matrix also known as an "Eisenhower Box" or "Eisenhower Decision Matrix".
Tasks are then handled as follows:
Tasks in
1. Important/Urgent quadrant are done immediately and personally e.g. crises,
deadlines, problems.
2. Important/Not Urgent quadrant get an end date and are done personally]e.g. relationships,
planning, recreation.
3. Unimportant/Urgent quadrant are delegated e.g. interruptions, meetings, activities.
Unimportant/Not Urgent quadrant are dropped] e.g. time wasters, pleasant activities,
trivia.
This method is said to have been used by U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower.
POSEC is an acronym for Prioritize by Organizing, Streamlining, Economizing and
Contributing. The method dictates a template which emphasizes an average individual's
immediate sense of emotional and monetary security. It suggests that by attending to one's
personal responsibilities first, an individual is better positioned to shoulder collective
responsibilities.
Inherent in the acronym is a hierarchy of self-realization, which mirrors Abraham
Maslow's hierarchy of needs:
1. Prioritize - Your time and define your life by goals.
2. Organize - Things you have to accomplish regularly to be successful (family and
finances).
3. Streamline - Things you may not like to do, but must do (work and chores).
4. Economize - Things you should do or may even like to do, but they're not pressingly
urgent (pastimes and socializing).
5. Contribute - By paying attention to the few remaining things that make a
difference (social obligations).
Implementation of goals
A task list (also to-do list or things-to-do) is a list of tasks to be completed, such as chores or
steps toward completing a project. It is an inventory tool which serves as an alternative or
supplement to memory.
Task lists are used in self-management, grocery lists, business management, project
management, and software development.
 It may involve more than one list.
When one of the items on a task list is accomplished, the task is checked or crossedoff. The
traditional method is to write these on a piece of paper with a pen or pencil, usually on a note pad
or clip-board. Task lists can also have the form of paper or software checklists.
Writer Julie Morgenstern suggests "do's and don'ts" of time management that include:
 Map out everything that is important, by making a task list
 Create "an oasis of time" for one to control
 Say "No"
 Set priorities
 Don't drop everything
 Don't think a critical task will get done in one's spare time.
Numerous digital equivalents are now available, including Personal information
management (PIM) applications and most PDAs. There are also several web-based task list
applications, many of which are free.
The time management skills you should have
Before getting your hands dirty on learning time management, the first step is knowing the time
management skills everyone should possess in order to understand and properly practice time
management. These skills will act as the fundamentals or framework of the tips and strategies on
managing time we will discuss later.
According to Coaching Positive Performance they outlined 17 effective time management
skills that play a critical role on analyzing one’s productivity levels. Understanding these skills’
roles on how you practice time management is very important to becoming more productive at
all times. Discussed skills below are not only for those who have jobs, but also are essential
time management skills for students and teens.
1. Goal setting. Every time spent on taking actions should bring you closer to your goals. You
should have the ability to spend your time on things that are necessary to achieving your goals.
This is a fundamental time management skill that you should have.
2. Prioritization. Most of the people focus on getting MORE things done which is wrong,
and should not be the case. Instead of listing what should be done, eliminate the tasks that
should not be done. Only choose the valuable ones and focus your energy and time on it.
3. Self-awareness. Be aware of your own preferences. Others have a different style of
approaching work from you. Examine yourself deeply so that you can take the best advice of
managing the time that is suitable for you.
4. Self-motivation. It is hard to get going when you lack self-motivation. You should feel
motivated to take action with your tasks in mind. This is an essential time management skill
everyone should have.
5. Focus. No matter how well you do with your activities, you can’t move along if you allow
yourself to be distracted. Don’t let yourself be caught in unnecessary things. An individual with
a laser-focused mind is someone who gets great things done.
6. Decision-making. Every day is a constant battle of decision-making like what should be
done, what tasks should not be done, what tasks are completed and so on. If you don’t have a
sound decision-making skill, it can lead to serious trouble in every aspect of your life. This is a
great
time management skill since you will waste lots of time doing things that don’t really matter that
results to bad decision-making.
7. Planning. Panning will give you proper course of your action. What should be the first?
What’s next? Knowing these will make every action done in an orderly fashion. Since everything
is planned, every action will go out smoothly saving you tons of time in the process.
8. Communication Skills. There will be times when work can’t be done alone, in this case
you need to team-up with others – and working with others is not possible without proper
communication.
9. Questioning and challenging. Don’t always try to accept the task someone will to give you.
Challenge and question them if you think you are not the one that be should be doing the
task. This alone can reduce your workload that will allow you to focus on your own tasks.
10. Delegation/Outsourcing. One of the most important time management skill is learning how
to determine if your skill sets are suited to perform the job. If another person has the right skills
to do the task assigned to you, it is much better to delegate or outsource these tasks to him. Just
make sure to orient the person and provide all the information needed to finish the job.
11. Coping Skills/Flexibility. Be flexible. Learn how to conquer the ups and downs of your
work. Learn how to cope with all the things happening to you. With this, you are able to
think and plan rather than waste your time worrying.
12. Stress management. Stress management skills go hand in hand with time management.
When you experience stress, your body, mind and productivity become worse. Negative energies
start flowing in you resulting in poor performance and focus. As a result of poor performance,
your work will start to pile up affecting your time management skills. Proper stress management
can help you battle all of this.
13. Team-work. No man is an island. You can’t get all things done by yourself. If you are
nice and approachable, good relationships will start to build and working with others will be
easy. With this, tasks will be done quickly.
14. Writing vital information down. Don’t rely on memories. Write the necessary information
you get. You will be surprised at how much time you will be able to save up just because you
have the access to information every time you need it.
15. Organizations. When your things are organized, you know exactly where to get what you
need instead of blindly finding a piece of folder just because you left it somewhere.
16. Patience. Don’t rush things that shouldn’t be rushed or else you will do mistakes and find
yourself spending more time on correcting that task (wish that it’s even possible to correct),
when in fact you could have patiently worked on the task in the first place and not doing
mistakes at all.
17. Forgiveness. You will do mistakes and others may let you down. If you don’t know how to
forgive, becoming too emotional will distract you from getting your work done.
Summary- Effective Time Management Tips
1. Set goals correctly
Set goals that are achievable and measurable. Use the SMART method when setting goals. In
essence, make sure the goals you set are Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant, and Timely.
2. Prioritize wisely
Prioritize tasks based on importance and urgency. For example, look at your daily tasks and
determine which are:
Important and urgent: Do these tasks right away.
Important but not urgent: Decide when to do these tasks.
Urgent but not important: Delegate these tasks if possible.
Not urgent and not important: Set these aside to do later.
3. Set a time limit to complete a task
Setting time constraints for completing tasks helps you be more focused and efficient. Making
the small extra effort to decide on how much time you need to allot for each task can also help
you recognize potential problems before they arise. That way you can make plans for dealing
with them.
For example, assume you need to write up five reviews in time for a meeting. However, you
realize that you’ll only be able to get four of them done in the time remaining before the meeting.
If you become aware of this fact well in advance, you may be able to easily delegate writing up
one of the reviews to someone else. However, if you hadn’t bothered to do a time check on your
tasks beforehand, you might have ended up not realizing your time problem until just an hour
before the meeting. At that point, it might be considerably more difficult to find someone to
delegate one of the reviews to, and more difficult for them to fit the task into their day, too.
4. Take a break between tasks
When doing a lot of tasks without a break, it is harder to stay focused and motivated. Allow
some downtime between tasks to clear your head and refresh yourself. Consider grabbing a brief
nap, going for a short walk, or meditating.
5. Organize yourself
Utilize your calendar for more long-term time management. Write down the deadlines for
projects, or for tasks that are part of completing the overall project. Think about which days
might be best to dedicate to specific tasks. For example, you might need to plan a meeting to
discuss cash flow on a day when you know the company CFO is available.
6. Remove non-essential tasks/activities It is important to remove excess activities or tasks.
Determine what is significant and what deserves your time. Removing non-essential
tasks/activities frees up more of your time to be spent on genuinely important things.
7. Plan ahead Make sure you start every day with a clear idea of what you need to do –
what needs to get done THAT DAY. Consider making it a habit to, at the end of each
workday, go ahead and write out your “to-do” list for the next workday. That way you can
hit the ground running the next morning.
Implications of Poor Time Management
1. Poor workflow
The inability to plan ahead and stick to goals means poor efficiency. For example, if there are
several important tasks to complete, an effective plan would be to complete related tasks together
or sequentially. However, if you don’t plan ahead, you could end up having to jump back and
forth, or backtrack, in doing your work. That translates to reduced efficiency and lower
productivity.
2. Wasted time
Poor time management results in wasted time. For example, by talking to friends on social media
while doing an assignment, you are distracting yourself and wasting time.
3. Loss of control
By not knowing what the next task is, you suffer from loss of control of your life. That can
contribute to higher stress levels and anxiety.
4. Poor quality of work
Poor time management typically makes the quality of your work suffer. For example, having to
rush to complete tasks at the last minute usually compromises quality.
5. Poor reputation
If clients or your employer cannot rely on you to complete tasks in a timely manner, their
expectations and perceptions of you are adversely affected. If a client cannot rely on you to get
something done on time, they will likely take their business elsewhere.
II. Motivation & Goal Setting
Motivation is the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors.
Motivation is what explains why people or animals initiate, continue or terminate a certain
behavior at a particular time. Motivational states are commonly understood as forces acting
within the agent that create a disposition to engage in goal-directed behaviour(Wikipedia).
Motivation involves the biological, emotional, social, and cognitive forces that activate behavior.
In everyday usage, the term "motivation" is frequently used to describe why a person does
something.
Motivation can be both Extrinsic and Intrinsic. An example of intrinsic motivation is to have a
sense of achievement or accomplishment, if the activity is desired because it is inherently
interesting or enjoyable, When a student begins college and wants to get their degree as a sense
of accomplishment. An example of extrinsic motivation would involve an athlete / film star who
seeks the admiration of his or her fans. A person who is motivated extrinsically will work on a
task even though they may hate what they are doing because of the anticipated reward.
Extrinsic motivation has been called crude and rudimentary but it's still probably one of the most
effective types of motivation.
Motivation is closely related to practical rationality. A central idea in this field is that we should
be motivated to perform an action if we believe that we should perform it. Failing to fulfill this
requirement results in cases of irrationality, known as akrasia or weakness of the will, in which
there is a discrepancy between our beliefs about what we should do and our actions.
Theories of Motivation
Theories articulating the content of motivation: what kinds of things people find motivating are
among the earliest theories in motivation research history. Because content theories focus on
which categories of goal (needs) motivate people, content theories are related to need theories.
1. Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Maslow's hierarchy of needs (1943, 1954) is represented as a pyramid with the more basic needs
at the bottom
Content theory of human motivation includes both Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of
needs Maslow's theory is one of the most widely discussed theories of motivation. Abraham
Maslow believed that man is inherently good and argued that individuals possess a constantly
growing inner drive that has great potential. The needs hierarchy system is a commonly used
scheme for classifying human motives. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs emphasizes certain
characteristics like family and community that involve the needs to be met. The basic needs,
safety, love and belonging, and esteem have to be met first in order for the individual to actually
reach self-actualization.
The needs can overlap within the pyramid, but the lower needs have to be met first in order to
move up. Some basic needs can include food and shelter. The need of safety has to do with
receiving protection. For the individual to feel love/belonging they have to feel some type of
attachment by giving and receiving love. Having competence and control in personal life has to
do with meeting the need of esteem. Not being able to meet the lower and higher needs can have
a detrimental effect on mental health. This could lead to symptoms of depression, and lower self-
esteem during adolescent years. If safety needs are not met during adolescence, then the
individual will have less confidence. A study found that just having support from the community,
friends can
lead to decreased emotional challenges. It is important to satisfy these needs in order to reduce
emotional and mental challenges over time.
The American motivation psychologist Abraham H. Maslow (1954) developed the hierarchy of
needs consisting of five hierarchic classes. According to Maslow, people are motivated by
unsatisfied needs. The needs, listed from basic (lowest-earliest) to most complex (highest-latest),
are as follows:
Physiology (hunger, thirst, sleep, etc.)
Safety/Security/Shelter/Health
Social/Love/Friendship
Self-esteem/Recognition/Achievement
Self actualization/achievement of full potential
The basic requirements build upon the first step in the pyramid: physiology. If there are deficits
on this level, all behavior will be oriented to satisfy this deficit. Essentially, if someone hasn't
slept or eaten adequately, they won't be interested in your self-esteem desires. Subsequently,
people that have the second level, awakens a need for security and so on and so forth. After
securing those two levels, the motives shift to the social sphere, the third level. Psychological
requirements comprise the fourth level, while the top of the hierarchy consists of self-realization
and self- actualization.
2. Herzberg's two-factor theory

Frederick Herzberg's two-factor theory concludes that certain factors in the workplace result in
job satisfaction (motivators), while others (hygiene factors), if absent, lead to dissatisfaction but
are not related to satisfaction. The name hygiene factors are used because, like hygiene, the
presence will not improve health, but absence can cause health deterioration.
The factors that motivate people can change over their lifetime. Some claimed motivating factors
(satisfiers) were: Achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, advancement, and
growth.
Some hygiene factors (dissatisfiers) were: company policy, supervision, working conditions,
interpersonal relations, salary, status, job security, and personal life.
3. Alderfer's ERG theory
Alderfer, building on Maslow's hierarchy of needs, posited that needs identified by Maslow exist
in three groups of core needs — existence, relatedness, and growth, hence the label: ERG theory.
The existence group is concerned with providing our basic material existence requirements. They
include the items that Maslow considered to be physiological and safety needs. The second group
of needs is relatedness- the desire we have to maintain important personal relationships. These
social and status desires require interaction with others if they are to be satisfied, and they align
with Maslow's social need and the external component of Maslow's esteem classification.
Finally, Alderfer isolates growth needs as an intrinsic desire for personal development. All these
needs should be fulfilled to greater wholeness as a human being
4. Self-Determination Theory
Self-Determination Theory is an approach to human motivation and personality that uses
traditional empirical methods while employing an organismic metatheory that highlights the
importance of humans evolved inner resources for personality development and behavioral self-
regulation (Ryan, Kuhn, & Deci, 1997). It takes a look into people’s psychological needs and
growth tendencies that reveal their personality and level of self-determination. Competence,
relatedness, autonomy are important conditions that play a huge part in one’s motivation and
engagement in activities, because it determines a persons well-being. The social environment,
with the correct amount of support, can help fulfill basic psychological needs. These basic
psychological needs are autonomy, competence and relatedness. These basic needs can create
behaviors that result from personal support which leads to being engaged in a certain
environment and provides relationships that are important.
Two types of motivation found in the self-determination theory are called amotivation and
autonomous motivation. These types of motivations can lead to intrinsic and extrinsic actions.
The amotivation can derive from feelings of inadequacy which leads to having a lack of
motivation. The person feels their environment is controlled through monitoring and rewards.
The person only feels motivation because of external rewards or to avoid punishment. On the
other hand, autonomous motivation comes from the person’s own lifestyle and engaging in a task
is done innately. Having a supportive social environment can help bring out behaviors from
autonomous motivations.
5. Behaviorist theories
While many theories on motivation have a mentalistic perspective, behaviorists focus only on
observable behaviour and theories founded on experimental evidence. In the view of
behaviorism, motivation is understood as a question about what factors cause, prevent, or
withhold various
behaviours, while the question of, for instance, conscious motives would be ignored. Where
others would speculate about such things as values, drives, or needs, that may not be observed
directly, behaviorists are interested in the observable variables that affect the type, intensity,
frequency, and duration of observable behaviour. Through the basic research of
such scientists as Pavlov, Watson and Skinner, several basic mechanisms that govern
behaviour have been identified. The most important of these are classical conditioning and
operant conditioning.
Classical and operant conditioning
In classical (or respondent) conditioning, behaviour is understood as responses triggered by
certain environmental or physical stimuli. They can be unconditioned, such as in-born reflexes,
or learned through the pairing of an unconditioned stimulus with a different stimulus, which then
becomes a conditioned stimulus. In relation to motivation, classical conditioning might be seen
as one explanation as to why an individual performs certain responses and behaviors in certain
situations. For instance, a dentist might wonder why a patient does not seem motivated to show
up for an appointment, with the explanation being that the patient has associated the dentist
(conditioned stimulus) with the pain (unconditioned stimulus) that elicits a fear response
(conditioned response), leading to the patient being reluctant to visit the dentist.
In operant conditioning, the type and frequency of behaviour are determined mainly by its
consequences. If a certain behaviour, in the presence of a certain stimulus, is followed by a
desirable consequence (a reinforcer), the emitted behaviour will increase in frequency in the
future, in the presence of the stimulus that preceded the behaviour (or a similar one). Conversely,
if the behaviour is followed by something undesirable (a punisher), the behaviour is less likely to
occur in the presence of the stimulus. In a similar manner, the removal of a stimulus directly
following the behaviour might either increase or decrease the frequency of that behaviour in the
future (negative reinforcement or punishment). For instance, a student that gained praise and a
good grade after turning in a paper, might seem more motivated in writing papers in the future
(positive reinforcement); if the same student put in a lot of work on a task without getting any
praise for it, he or she might seem less motivated to do school work in the future (negative
punishment). If a student starts to cause trouble in the class gets punished with something he or
she dislikes, such as detention (positive punishment), that behaviour would decrease in the
future. The student might seem more motivated to behave in class, presumably in order to avoid
further detention (negative reinforcement.
Importance of Motivation Finding ways to increase motivation is crucial because it allows us
to change behavior, develop competencies, be creative, set goals, grow interests, make plans,
develop talents, and boost engagement.
How to become and stay motivated
Set goals. When you set a goal, you make a decision to act in a way that will help you achieve
what you want. Goals give you a direction to focus on – one that’s measurable and has an
endpoint. This can help you to stay motivated.
Choose goals that interest you. You’re much more likely to stay motivated if you’re working
towards something that you genuinely want to do or achieve, rather than what other people want
for you.
Find things that interest you within goals that don’t. Sometimes other people set goals or
tasks for us that we don’t find interesting or want to do. So, try and find something within that
task that does motivate you. For example: ‘I find maths challenging, but it’s going to help me
become a builder, which I want more than anything.’
Make your goal public. If you tell someone – or write down – your goal, you’ve essentially made
a promise to keep your word.
Plot your progress. When you’re working towards something, it can be really motivating if you
can see evidence that you’re making progress. Draw or create a visual representation of how
you’re coming closer to achieving the goal you’ve set yourself.
Break up your goal. Start with easier tasks and work your way up to bigger challenges.
Breaking up a task in your mind into achievable chunks helps build confidence.
Use rewards. Promise yourself some sort of reward each time you complete a step/task.
Don’t do it alone. Join a class, or find a teacher or someone you can share the experience with.
Other people’s encouragement to keep going can be a big boost to your motivation, particularly
when you’re doing it tough.
Goal Setting
Goal setting is the process of identifying something you want to accomplish and establish
measurable objectives and timeframes to help you achieve it. Goal setting can help you in any
area of your life, from achieving financial freedom to adopting a healthy diet. When you learn
how to set goals in one area of your life, it becomes easier to set them in other areas. Setting
progressive goals allow small wins that help you move on to larger achievements. These small
goals lead to progress. Goal setting can look very different depending on an individual’s
lifestyle, values and definition of success. Your goals are unique to you and don’t need to look
like anyone else’s.
Why have Goals ? Effective goal setting is the fundamental key to success. Whether
it’s increasing your intelligence, taking up a new hobby or rekindling a relationship, setting goals
lets us create our future. It also helps us grow and expand, pushing ourselves to transform in
ways that we never imagined. In order to feel truly fulfilled, we need to know and feel like we’re
working
to achieve something. Tony Robbins says, “Progress equals happiness,” and setting goals is what
gets us there.
Importance of Goal Setting Goal setting is vital because it helps you decide and focus on
what’s really important to you. Effective goal setting also lets you measure progress, overcome
procrastination and visualize your dreams. If you don’t know what you want to accomplish, you
can’t create a plan to get there. Setting goals is the vehicle that will drive you to your desired
destination. Goal setting also keeps you accountable. Whether you’re learning how to set goals at
work or in your personal life, telling others about your goals makes you more likely to establish
the patterns that will accomplish them. Imagine yourself older and looking back. What’s the pain
from not achieving, and what is the pleasure from having achieved your goals? Effective goal
setting helps you stay focused, keeps you accountable and is the single most important aspect of
reaching your dreams.
Goal Setting Tips
1. Perform a brainstorming session. Give yourself six minutes to brainstorm a list of anything
you’d like to achieve, create, do, have, give and /or experience in the next 20 years. Write as
many things down as fast as you can in this time.
2. Refine your goals. Setting deadlines is crucial to the goal-setting process. Go back through
your list and write one, three, five, 10 or 20 years next to each goal to indicate how long it will
take to achieve them.
3. Review your list. Go over what you’ve written. Choose your top four one-year goals. These
are goals that truly excite you. Write a paragraph for each goal explaining why you will
absolutely achieve this goal within the next 12 months.
4. Evaluate your goals. Are your goals specific? Measurable? Achievable? Realistic? Do they
have a specific timeframe? These are the components of a SMART goal. You set SMART goals
with purpose and intention, making them more concrete and easier to achieve.
How to achieve your Goals
Learning how to set goals is worthless if you don’t learn how to achieve goals. Set yourself up
for success by following these tips.
1. Visualize accomplishing your goals. Visualization is a powerful activity. When you visualize
your goals on a daily basis as if you’ve already achieved them, you align your purpose and
values with your actions.
2. Share your goals. Find a friend, family member or another person you trust and share your list
of goals with them. You can also share the list with a mentor or life coach. Sharing your list will
make you more accountable and give you a partner who will work with you through frustrations
or roadblocks. The right partner can help you transform obstacles into opportunities and stay on
track.
3. Keep your goals visible. Where focus goes, energy flows, so it’s critical to focus on your
goals. Tape them on the mirror in your bathroom or pin them to the wall next to your computer.
If your goals involve adopting a healthy diet and losing weight, put them on the front of your
refrigerator or a kitchen cabinet.
4. Regularly review your goals. Have a set schedule to review both short- and long-term goals.
This helps you track progress as well as determine what activities are helping you and which are
hindering you. It’s important to know when alterations to your course are necessary: Stay
flexible and make changes where necessary.
Learning Styles & Strategies
* Broadly speaking, learning styles can be defined as general approaches to language
learning, while learning strategies are specific ways learners choose to cope with language
tasks in particular contexts.
* Learning strategies are the ways in which students learn, remember information and study for
tests. They refer to the actions and behaviors students use to learn but learning styles refer to
the general approaches that students use in acquiring a new language or in learning any other
subject.
* The strategies a student uses to learn depend greatly on his/her own learning style.
Learning styles:
Each student has his/her own style of learning. As a result we have different students with
different learning styles inside the classroom as shown below:
1. Visual or spatial learners:
They need to see things to fully understand them. They learn best from visual objects such as
diagrams, charts, etc. They prefer to write things down.
2. Auditory or musical learners:
They learn mainly through listening so they learn best through discussions and talking. They
benefit most from reading texts aloud and using a tape recorder.
3. Physical or kinesthetic or tactile learners:
They learn through using their body, hands and sense of touch. They tend to use their muscles so
they can be used well in playing, tidying, cleaning the board, collecting activity books, etc. They
learn best through using their hands making things, fitting things together or taking them apart
so hands-on activities are ideal to help those students learn best.
4. Social or interpersonal learners:
They prefer to learn in groups or with other people. They have the ability to understand others’
feelings and intentions.
5. Solitary or intrapersonal learners:
They prefer to work alone and use self-study. They have the ability to understand well their
feelings, strengths and weaknesses. They tend to write personal diary, achieve independent
projects, discuss feelings about certain topics, express likes and dislikes, etc.
6. Verbal or linguistic learners:
They prefer using words, both in speech and writing.
7. Logical or mathematical:
They prefer using logic, reasoning and systems.
Learning strategies:
Many students use learning strategies automatically without any awareness of them. The role of
teachers here is to:
 recognize their students’ learning strategies,
 make them explicit to students, bring them to their attention and talk about them.
 encourage students to use them in the classroom
 make them more effective to the learning process,
 base teaching process and techniques on these strategies.
Students use the following learning strategies most often when learning a language:
1. Cognitive strategies which enable the learner to manipulate the language material in direct
ways,
e.g. through reasoning, analysis, note-taking, and synthesizing
2. Metacognitive strategies which are used to manage the learning process overall, e.g.
identifying preferences and the need for planning, monitoring mistakes, and evaluating task
success.
3. Memory-related strategies which help learners link one item or concept with another but do
not necessarily involve deep understanding, e.g. using acronyms, sound similarities, images, key
words.
4. Compensatory strategies which help make up for missing knowledge, e.g. using gestures,
miming or guessing the meaning from the context.
5. Affective strategies which help learners manage their emotions, such as identifying one’s
mood and anxiety level, talking about feelings, rewarding oneself, and using deep breathing or
positive self-talk.
6. Social strategies which enable the learner to learn via interaction with others and understand
the target culture, e.g. asking questions, asking for clarification, asking for conversation help,
talking with a native-speaking partner, and exploring cultural and social norms.
To be able to use the suitable strategies for you, you should know first your learning
style. VARK Learning Styles
The acronym “VARK” is used to describe four modalities of student learning that were described
in a 1992 study by Neil D. Fleming and Coleen E. Mills.1 These different learning styles—
visual, auditory, reading/writing and kinesthetic—were identified after thousands of hours of
classroom observation. The authors also created an accompanying questionnaire for educators to
give to students to help them identify and understand their own learning preferences.
Visual Learners Students who best internalize and synthesize information when it is presented
to them in a graphic depiction of meaningful symbols are described as visual learners. They may
respond to arrows, charts, diagrams and other visualizations of information hierarchy, but not
necessarily to photographs or videos. Because visual learners tend to be holistic learners who
process information best when it is presented to them as a robust whole rather than piecemeal,
they tend to see positive educational outcomes when they are presented with summarizing charts
and diagrams rather than sequential slides of information.
Auditory Learners Auditory (or aural) learners are most successful when they are given the
opportunity to hear information presented to them vocally. Because students with this learning
style may sometimes opt not to take notes during class in order to maintain their unbroken
auditory attention, educators can erroneously conclude that they are less engaged than their
classmates. However, these students may simply have decided that note-taking is a distraction
and that their unbroken attention is a more valuable way for them to learn.
Auditory learning is a two-way street: Students who fall into this modality often find success in
group activities where they are asked to discuss course materials vocally with their classmates,
and they may benefit from reading their written work aloud to themselves to help them think it
through.2

Reading/Writing Learners
Students who work best in the reading/writing modality demonstrate a strong learning preference
for the written word. This includes both written information presented in class in the form of
handouts and PowerPoint slide presentations as well as the opportunity to synthesize course
content in the completion of written assignments. This modality also lends itself to conducting
research online, as many information-rich sources on the internet are relatively text-heavy.
Reading/writing-oriented students should be encouraged to take copious notes during classroom
lectures to help them both process information and have an easier time recalling it later.
Kinesthetic Learners are hands-on, participatory learners who need to take a physically active
role in the learning process in order to achieve their best educational outcomes. They are
sometimes referred to as “tactile learners,” but this can be a bit of a misnomer; rather than simply
utilizing touch, kinesthetic learners tend to engage all of their senses equally in the process of
learning. Because of their active nature, kinesthetic learners often have the most difficult time
succeeding in conventional classroom settings. Some educators have found success encouraging
kinesthetic learners to utilize flashcards for subjects like math and English to make rote
memorization into an interactive experience. These students also often thrive in scientific
subjects with lab components, as the skills-based, instructional training that occurs in these
settings engages them in productive ways.
Can One Student Have Several Different Learning Styles? Few things in life fall into easily
delineated schema, and learning preferences are no exception. In fact, studies estimate that
somewhere between 50 and 70 percent of the population have affinities to several different styles
of learning. These people are called “multimodal learners” and tend to succeed in classroom
settings that engage them with multiple learning styles alternately or in concert with one another.
Just because students can succeed with different learning styles does not necessarily mean that
they should be engaged with more than one on most occasions, however. While today’s media-
rich environment has made multimodal learning easier than ever before, recent studies
recommend some caution and care when introducing multimedia instructional design into the
classroom. Generally speaking, multimedia should be treated thoughtfully as a means to a
specific educational goal rather than an end itself, and multimodal, interactive instruction should
be reserved for more complex topics than for basic memorization and skill-building.
III. Stress Management
Stress can be defined as any type of change that causes physical, emotional, or psychological
strain. Stress is your body's response to anything that requires attention or action. Stress is a
feeling of emotional or physical tension. It can come from any event or thought that makes you
feel frustrated, angry, or nervous. Stress is your body's reaction to a challenge or demand. In
short bursts, stress can be positive, such as when it helps you avoid danger or meet a deadline. If
you're constantly under stress, you can have physical symptoms, such as headaches, an upset
stomach, high blood pressure, chest pain, and problems with sex and sleep. Stress can also lead
to emotional problems, depression, panic attacks, or other forms of anxiety and worry.
Stress is the body’s response to a challenge or demand. Everyone experiences stress, which can
be triggered by a range of events, from small daily hassles to major changes like a divorce or job
loss. The stress response includes physical components such an elevated heart rate and blood
pressure, thoughts and personal beliefs about the stressful event, and emotions, including fear
and anger. Although we often think of it as being negative, stress can also come from positive
changes in your life, like getting a promotion at work or having a new baby.Example of Stress-
Chronic illness or
injury. Emotional problems (depression, anxiety, anger, grief, guilt, low self-esteem) Taking care
of an elderly or sick family member. Traumatic event, such as a natural disaster, theft, rape, or
violence against you or a loved one
Stress management is: “set of techniques and programs intended to help people deal more
effectively with stress in their lives by analysing the specific stressors and taking positive actions
to minimize their effects” as per Gale Encyclopaedia of Medicine, 2008. Stress-
management techniques include relaxation techniques, time-management skills, counselling or
group therapy, exercise, and maintaining an overall healthy lifestyle.
Importance of Stress Management Effective stress management helps you break the
hold stress has on your life, so you can be happier, healthier, and more productive. The ultimate
goal is a balanced life, with time for work, relationships, relaxation, and fun—and the resilience
to hold up under pressure and meet challenges head on.
Stress serves an important purpose—it enables us to respond quickly to threats and avoid danger.
However, lengthy exposure to stress may lead to mental health difficulties (for example, anxiety
and depression) or increased physical health problems. A large body of research suggests that
increased stress levels interfere with your ability to deal with physical illness. While no one can
avoid all stress, you can work to handle it in healthy ways that increase your potential to recover.
Tips of Stress Management
1. Eat and drink to optimize your health. Some people try to reduce stress by drinking alcohol or
eating too much. These actions may seem to help in the moment, but actually may add to stress
in the long run. Caffeine also can compound the effects of stress. Consuming a healthy, balanced
diet can help to combat stress.
2. Exercise regularly. In addition to having physical health benefits, exercise has been shown to
be a powerful stress reliever. Consider non-competitive aerobic exercise, strengthening with
weights, or movement activities like yoga or Tai Chi, and set reasonable goals for yourself.
Aerobic exercise has been shown to release endorphins—natural substances that help you feel
better and maintain a positive attitude.
3. Stop using tobacco and nicotine products. People who use nicotine often refer to it as a stress
reliever. However, nicotine actually places more stress on the body by increasing physical
arousal and reducing blood flow and breathing.
4. Study and practice relaxation techniques. Taking the time to relax every day helps to manage
stress and to protect the body from the effects of stress. You can choose from a variety of
techniques, such as deep breathing, imagery, progressive muscle relaxation, and mindfulness
meditation. There are many online and smart phone apps that provide guidance on these
techniques; although some entail purchase costs, many are available free of charge.
5. Reduce triggers of stress. If you are like most people, your life may be filled with too many
demands and too little time. For the most part, these demands are ones we have chosen. You can
free up time by practicing time-management skills like asking for help when it’s appropriate,
setting priorities, pacing yourself, and reserving time to take care of yourself.
6. Examine your values and live by them. The more your actions reflect your beliefs, the better
you will feel, no matter how busy your life is. Use your values when choosing your activities.
7. Assert yourself. It’s okay to say “No” to demands on your time and energy that will place too
much stress on you. You don’t have always have to meet the expectations of others.
8. Set realistic goals and expectations. It's okay—and healthy—to realize you cannot be 100%
successful at everything all at once. Be mindful of the things you can control and work on
accepting the things that you can’t control.
9. Sell yourself to yourself. When you’re feeling overwhelmed, remind yourself of what you do
well. Have a healthy sense of self-esteem.
There are several other methods you can use to relax or reduce stress, including:
 Deep breathing exercises.
 Meditation.
 Mindfulness meditation.
 Progressive muscle relaxation.
 Mental imagery relaxation.
 Relaxation to music.
 Biofeedback helps a person learn stress reduction skills by providing information about
muscle tension, heart rate, and other vital signs as a person attempts to relax. It is used
to gain control over certain bodily functions that cause tension and physical pain.
 Counselling, to help you recognize and release stress.
Techniques of Stress Management
While stress may appear daunting and frightening, with the right kind of help, it can be
managed easily. The will to reduce and remove stress is the foremost thing that is needed.
As the famous saying goes, “Where there is a will, there is a way”.
Similarly, if you want to and have the patience and determination, you can surely curb your
stress levels down to a manageable extent.
Stress management is not a single technique, but, it rather encompasses a variety of methods an
individual can adopt to lower the level of stress. Here are some of the ways you can cope with
stress.
1) Healthy lifestyle
Summary Stress can either affect you positively or negatively, so make sure that it doesn’t affect
you adversely. If it does, take preventive measures rather than ignoring it.
Culminating stress can be a burden to both your body and mind. Take care of yourself and live
life, stress-free!
According to Daniel Jay Millman, an American author and lecturer in the
personal development field-
“Resistance creates suffering. Stress happens when your mind resists what is. The only problem
in your life is your mind’s resistance to life as it unfolds.”
So, incorporating the power of acceptance and understanding different possible perceptions in
any particular situation will always empower you in controlling your resistances to different
situations in your life.
With the help of the steps mentioned above, you will, for sure, be able to manage stress in the
most effective and equally productive manner possible.
Self-love: It is the best thing that you can do for yourself. Sometimes, loving yourself is
hard, and feelings of hatred and loathing arise. Squash them and enjoy yourself. Remember,
if you don’t love yourself, chances are others won’t either.
Sleep: Insomnia is a significant side effect of stress. Try to sleep at least 8 hours a day. A good
night’s sleep will keep you fresh and healthy.
Balanced diet: Eat healthy and nutritious foods. Take these meals at regular intervals. Overeating
or keeping yourself hungry does nothing but, damage to your body.
Exercise: Exercise regularly. There doesn’t have to be a fixed schedule or time. Do how much
you can, whenever you can. It takes your mind off stress and keeps your body fit.
Priorities: Set your priorities. Remember, you are only human and cannot take on everybody’s
wishes and problems. Prioritize things in your life and plan it accordingly.
Buy pets: Pets are an integral part of our life. We love to have a companion that would never
judge us. Buy pets according to your wish and preference. Spend some time and play with them.
Quit alcohol, drugs, and smoking: Tobacco and drug consumption is fatal to health. Avoid these
as much as possible. They may seem euphoric for some time, but in the long run, they are bound
to gift you diseases and death.
2) Avoidance Situation: Avoid situations that might hike your level of stress. Remove
yourself from the zone when you feel overwhelmed and agitated.
People: Avoid people that pile your stress. Eliminate yourself from conversations and remove
toxic people from your life. Doing this does reduce stress to a whole new level.
No: The word “NO” contains power like no other. Complying with everyone’s whims will only
leave you stressed. Learn to say no to people.
3) Finding a stress reliever
Music: Music can be a stress reliever to many. Find some spare time to listen to some music.
It will not only make you feel alive but also lower your stress.
Dance: Dance is a passion for many people. Dancing also provides exercise to the body—dance
in your free time to reduce stress.
Yoga: Meditation is a way to relieve stress. Yoga helps in keeping a balance between our
mind and body. Join a yoga class and reduce your stress levels.
Others: Find your stress buster. It can be anything simple, like taking a walk or reading a book.
Gardening is a form of stress relief or some people. Some people prefer a cozy space with
some caffeine.
4) Positive outlook
Positivity: Approach life with positivity. Look on the bright sides and think of ideas to turn a
grim situation into a positive one.
Control: Take control of your life. Don’t let others run your life. This only causes misery and
long term emotional insecurities.
Attitude: Try making changes to attitude. Sometimes, half of our problems arise from attitude
issues. Make the necessary changes, and you will find yourself a lot more free from stress.
Journal: Keep a journal detailing your life. There are some kinds of stuff that you can’t share
with anyone else. Speak your heart out in the journals and reduce your stress.
5) Acceptance
Accept: It’s essential to accept that there are just some things that you cannot control, despite
your best efforts. Stressing over these is not only futile but, also irrelevant.
Forgive: Several people wrong us in various ways. Holding a grudge or wanting revenge only
causes pain and stress in our life. Forgive and let go. They didn’t deserve to be in your life
anyway.
Express: Accumulating pent up feelings only causes the stress levels to rise. Don’t hold them in.
Express what you feel. Communication is the key to reducing those stress levels.
Compromise: Don’t be rigid on stances that can be avoided by being a little flexible. It is
wrong to assume that things will always go your way. Learn to bend a little. A little
compromise helps reduce your stress to a great extent.
6) Time management
This is an important criterion that affects each of us.
Managing time paves a long way in making life happy for us. Plan your schedule; add details
when you are already swamped and drowning in work. This will lower your stress levels.
While discussing the time management, Thomas Edison once said-
“Time is the only capital that any human being has, and the only thing he can’t afford to lose.”
So, when you work with proper time management, you don’t face problems like procrastination,
delays, overthinking, wayward scheduling, etc. Not being able to complete the task on time is
one of the prime reasons behind the stress nowadays.
With time management, you will be able to remove such stressful situations from your life.
7) Family and support
Family: Family binds us in ways more than one. Spend time with your family. Take them to
places, have fun with them. Their love and care will undoubtedly reduce your stress.
Friends and loved ones: Spend time with your friends. Go out for movies or dine out. Surprise
your partner, take them on dates. Sharing some laugh and gaining some happiness will reduce
your stress levels.
7) Medical treatment and help
Treatment: Some types of stress are serious and required medical attention. Don’t ignore them in
hopes that they will go away. They won’t. Visit a doctor and take appropriate medications.
Help: If you are feeling overwhelmed or lost, seek out help. There’s no shame in admitting that
you need help. Several support groups help people overcome stress. Join one and learn how to
reduce stress.
Psychologist: Mental stress is daunting and takes a turn for the worse very soon. Feelings of
depression tend to lead to suicide. Consult a psychologist and share your problems. They
are there to help you reduce your stress and help you breathe a little easier.
IV. Learning Styles & Strategies
Broadly speaking, learning styles can be defined as general approaches to language learning,
while learning strategies are specific ways learners choose to cope with language tasks in
particular contexts.
Learning strategies are the ways in which students learn, remember information and study for
tests. They refer to the actions and behaviors students use to learn but learning styles refer to the
general approaches that students use in acquiring a new language or in learning any other
subject.
The strategies a student uses to learn depend greatly on his/her own learning style.
Learning styles:
Each student has his/her own style of learning. As a result we have different students with
different learning styles inside the classroom as shown below:
1. Visual or spatial learners:
They need to see things to fully understand them. They learn best from visual objects such as
diagrams, charts, etc. They prefer to write things down.
2. Auditory or musical learners:
They learn mainly through listening so they learn best through discussions and talking. They
benefit most from reading texts aloud and using a tape recorder.
3. Physical or kinesthetic or tactile learners:
They learn through using their body, hands and sense of touch. They tend to use their muscles so
they can be used well in playing, tidying, cleaning the board, collecting activity books, etc. They
learn best through using their hands making things, fitting things together or taking them apart
so hands-on activities are ideal to help those students learn best.
4. Social or interpersonal learners:
They prefer to learn in groups or with other people. They have the ability to understand others’
feelings and intentions.
5. Solitary or intrapersonal learners:
They prefer to work alone and use self-study. They have the ability to understand well their
feelings, strengths and weaknesses. They tend to write personal diary, achieve independent
projects, discuss feelings about certain topics, express likes and dislikes, etc.
6. Verbal or linguistic learners:
They prefer using words, both in speech and writing.
7. Logical or mathematical:
They prefer using logic, reasoning and systems.
Learning strategies:
Many students use learning strategies automatically without any awareness of them. The role of
teachers here is to:
 recognize their students’ learning strategies,
 make them explicit to students, bring them to their attention and talk about them.
 encourage students to use them in the classroom
  make them more effective to the learning process,
 base teaching process and techniques on these strategies.
Students use the following learning strategies most often when learning a language:
1. Cognitive strategies which enable the learner to manipulate the language material in
direct ways, e.g. through reasoning, analysis, note-taking, and synthesizing
2. Metacognitive strategies which are used to manage the learning process overall, e.g.
identifying preferences and the need for planning, monitoring mistakes, and evaluating task
success.
3. Memory-related strategies which help learners link one item or concept with another but do
not necessarily involve deep understanding, e.g. using acronyms, sound similarities, images, key
words.
4. Compensatory strategies which help make up for missing knowledge, e.g. using gestures,
miming or guessing the meaning from the context.
5. Affective strategies which help learners manage their emotions, such as identifying one’s
mood and anxiety level, talking about feelings, rewarding oneself, and using deep breathing or
positive self-talk.
6. Social strategies which enable the learner to learn via interaction with others and
understand the target culture, e.g. asking questions, asking for clarification, asking for
conversation help, talking with a native-speaking partner, and exploring cultural and social
norms.
To be able to use the suitable strategies for you, you should know first your learning style.
VARK Learning Styles
The acronym “VARK” is used to describe four modalities of student learning that were described
in a 1992 study by Neil D. Fleming and Coleen E. Mills.1 These different learning styles—
visual, auditory, reading/writing and kinesthetic—were identified after thousands of hours of
classroom observation. The authors also created an accompanying questionnaire for educators to
give to students to help them identify and understand their own learning preferences.
Visual Learners Students who best internalize and synthesize information when it is presented
to them in a graphic depiction of meaningful symbols are described as visual learners. They may
respond to arrows, charts, diagrams and other visualizations of information hierarchy, but not
necessarily to photographs or videos. Because visual learners tend to be holistic learners who
process information best when it is presented to them as a robust whole rather than piecemeal,
they tend to see positive educational outcomes when they are presented with summarizing charts
and diagrams rather than sequential slides of information.
Auditory Learners Auditory (or aural) learners are most successful when they are given the
opportunity to hear information presented to them vocally. Because students with this learning
style may sometimes opt not to take notes during class in order to maintain their unbroken
auditory attention, educators can erroneously conclude that they are less engaged than their
classmates. However, these students may simply have decided that note-taking is a distraction
and that their unbroken attention is a more valuable way for them to learn.
Auditory learning is a two-way street: Students who fall into this modality often find success in
group activities where they are asked to discuss course materials vocally with their classmates,
and they may benefit from reading their written work aloud to themselves to help them think it
through.2
Reading/Writing Learners
Students who work best in the reading/writing modality demonstrate a strong learning preference
for the written word. This includes both written information presented in class in the form of
handouts and PowerPoint slide presentations as well as the opportunity to synthesize course
content in the completion of written assignments. This modality also lends itself to conducting
research online, as many information-rich sources on the internet are relatively text-heavy.
Reading/writing-oriented students should be encouraged to take copious notes during classroom
lectures to help them both process information and have an easier time recalling it later.
Kinesthetic Learners are hands-on, participatory learners who need to take a physically active
role in the learning process in order to achieve their best educational outcomes. They are
sometimes referred to as “tactile learners,” but this can be a bit of a misnomer; rather than simply
utilizing touch, kinesthetic learners tend to engage all of their senses equally in the process of
learning. Because of their active nature, kinesthetic learners often have the most difficult time
succeeding in conventional classroom settings. Some educators have found success encouraging
kinesthetic learners to utilize flashcards for subjects like math and English to make rote
memorization into an interactive experience. These students also often thrive in scientific
subjects with lab components, as the skills-based, instructional training that occurs in these
settings engages them in productive ways.
Can One Student Have Several Different Learning Styles? Few things in life fall into easily
delineated schema, and learning preferences are no exception. In fact, studies estimate that
somewhere between 50 and 70 percent of the population have affinities to several different styles
of learning. These people are called “multimodal learners” and tend to succeed in classroom
settings that engage them with multiple learning styles alternately or in concert with one another.
Just because students can succeed with different learning styles does not necessarily mean that
they should be engaged with more than one on most occasions, however. While today’s media-
rich environment has made multimodal learning easier than ever before, recent studies
recommend some caution and care when introducing multimedia instructional design into the
classroom. Generally speaking, multimedia should be treated thoughtfully as a means to a
specific educational goal rather than an end itself, and multimodal, interactive instruction should
be reserved for more complex topics than for basic memorization and skill-building.
V. Emotional Intelligence
The word intelligence derives from the Latin nouns intelligentia or intellēctus, which in turn
stems from the verb intelligere, means to comprehend or perceive.
In the Middle Ages, the word intellectus became the scholarly technical term for understanding,
and a translation for the Greek philosophical term nous. This term, however, was strongly linked
to the metaphysical and cosmological theories of teleological scholasticism, including theories of
the immortality of the soul, and the concept of the active intellect (also known as the active
intelligence). This approach to the study of nature was strongly rejected by the early modern
philosophers such as Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and David Hume, all of
whom preferred "understanding" (in place of "intellectus" or "intelligence") in their English
philosophical works.[3][4] Hobbes for example, in his Latin De Corpore, used "intellectus
intelligit", translated in the English version as "the understanding understandeth", as a typical
example of a logical absurdity. "Intelligence" has therefore become less common in English
language philosophy, but it has later been taken up (with the scholastic theories which it now
implies) in more contemporary psychology.
Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence (EI) refers to the ability to perceive, control, and evaluate emotions. Some
researchers suggest that emotional intelligence can be learned and strengthened, while others
claim it's an inborn characteristic.
The ability to express and control emotions is essential, but so is the ability to understand,
interpret, and respond to the emotions of others. Imagine a world in which you could not
understand when a friend was feeling sad or when a co-worker was angry. Psychologists refer to
this ability as emotional intelligence, and some experts even suggest that it can be more
important than IQ in your overall success in life.
History of Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence as a term didn't come into our vernacular until around 1990. Despite
being a relatively new term, interest in the concept has grown tremendously since then.
Early Growth
As early as the 1930s, the psychologist Edward Thorndike described the concept of "social
intelligence" as the ability to get along with other people. During the 1940s, psychologist David
Wechsler proposed that different effective components of intelligence could play an important
role in how successful people are in life.
Later Developments
The 1950s saw the rise of the school of thought known as humanistic psychology, and thinkers
such as Abraham Maslow focused greater attention on the different ways that people could build
emotional strength.
Another important concept to emerge in the development of emotional intelligence was the
notion of multiple intelligences. This concept was put forth in the mid-1970s by Howard
Gardner, introducing the idea that intelligence was more than just a single, general ability.

The Emergence of Emotional Intelligence

It was not until 1985 that the term "emotional intelligence" was first used by in a doctoral
dissertation by Wayne Payne. In 1987, an article published in Mensa Magazine, Keith Beasley
uses the term "emotional quotient."
In 1990, psychologists Peter Salovey and John Mayer published their landmark article,
"Emotional Intelligence," in the journal Imagination, Cognition, and Personality. They defined
emotional intelligence as "the ability to monitor one's own and others' feelings and emotions, to
discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide one's thinking and actions."
In 1995, the concept of emotional intelligence was popularized after the publication of Daniel
Goleman’s book "Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ."
The topic of emotional intelligence has continued to capture the public interest since and has
become important in fields outside of psychology including education and business
Components Researchers suggest that there are four different levels of emotional intelligence
including emotional perception, the ability to reason using emotions, the ability to understand
emotions, and the ability to manage emotions.
Perceiving emotions: The first step in understanding emotions is to perceive them accurately. In
many cases, this might involve understanding nonverbal signals such as body language and facial
expressions.
Reasoning with emotions: The next step involves using emotions to promote thinking and
cognitive activity. Emotions help prioritize what we pay attention and react to; we respond
emotionally to things that garner our attention.
Understanding emotions: The emotions that we perceive can carry a wide variety of meanings.
If someone is expressing angry emotions, the observer must interpret the cause of the person's
anger and what it could mean. For example, if your boss is acting angry, it might mean that they
are dissatisfied with your work, or it could be because they got a speeding ticket on their way to
work that morning or that they've been fighting with their partner.
Managing emotions: The ability to manage emotions effectively is a crucial part of emotional
intelligence and the highest level. Regulating emotions and responding appropriately as well as
responding to the emotions of others are all important aspects of emotional management.
The four branches of this model are arranged by complexity with the more basic processes at the
lower levels and the more advanced processes at the higher levels. For example, the lowest levels
involve perceiving and expressing emotion, while higher levels require greater conscious
involvement and involve regulating emotions.
According to Daniel Goleman , an American psychologist who helped to popularise EI , there
are five key elements
Self-awareness.
Self-regulation.
Motivation.
Empathy.
Social skills.
Impact of Emotional Intelligence
Interest in teaching and learning social and emotional intelligence has grown in recent years.
Social and emotional learning (SEL) programs have become a standard part of the curriculum for
many schools.
The goal of these initiatives is not only to improve health and well-being but also to help
students succeed academically and prevent bullying. There are many examples of how emotional
intelligence can play a role in daily life.
Thinking Before Reacting
Emotionally intelligent people know that emotions can be powerful, but also temporary. When a
highly charged emotional event happens, such as becoming angry with a co-worker, the
emotionally intelligent response would be to take some time before responding. This allows
everyone to calm their emotions and think more rationally about all the factors surrounding the
argument.
Greater Self-Awareness
Emotionally intelligent people are not only good at thinking about how other people might feel
but they are also adept at understanding their own feelings. Self-awareness allows people to
consider the many different factors that contribute to their emotions.
Empathy for Others
A large part of emotional intelligence is being able to think about and empathize with how other
people are feeling. This often involves considering how you would respond if you were in the
same situation.
People who have strong emotional intelligence are able to consider the perspectives, experiences,
and emotions of other people and use this information to explain why people behave the way that
they do.
How to Use
Emotional intelligence can be used in many different ways in your daily life. Some different
ways to practice emotional intelligence include:
 Being able to accept criticism and
responsibility
 Being able to move on after making a mistake
 Being able to say no when you need to
 Being able to share your feelings with others
 Being able to solve problems in ways that work for everyone Having empathy
for other people
 Having great listening skills
 Knowing why you do the things you do Not being judgemental of others
Emotional intelligence is essential for good interpersonal communication. Some experts believe
that this ability is more important in determining life success than IQ alone. Fortunately, there
are things that you can do to strengthen your own social and emotional intelligence.
Understanding emotions can be the key to better relationships, improved well-being, and
stronger communication skills.
Tips for Improving EI
Being emotionally intelligent is important, but what steps can you take to improve your own
social and emotional skills? Here are some tips.
Listen
If you want to understand what other people are feeling, the first step is to pay attention. Take the
time to listen to what people are trying to tell you, both verbally and non-verbally. Body
language can carry a great deal of meaning. When you sense that someone is feeling a certain
way, consider the different factors that might be contributing to that emotion.
Empathize
Picking up on emotions is critical, but you also need to be able to put yourself into someone
else's shoes in order to truly understand their point of view. Practice empathizing with other
people. Imagine how you would feel in their situation. Such activities can help you build an
emotional understanding of a specific situation as well as develop stronger emotional skills in the
long-term.
Reflect
The ability to reason with emotions is an important part of emotional intelligence. Consider how
your own emotions influence your decisions and behaviors. When you are thinking about how
other people respond, assess the role that their emotions play.
Why is this person feeling this way? Are there any unseen factors that might be contributing to
these feelings? How to your emotions differ from theirs? As you explore such questions, you
may find that it becomes easier to understand the role that emotions play in how people think and
behave.

Measuring Emotional Intelligence

A number of different assessments have emerged to measure levels of emotional intelligence.
Such tests generally fall into one of two types: self-report tests and ability tests.
Self-report tests are the most common because they are the easiest to administer and score. On
such tests, respondents respond to questions or statements by rating their own behaviors. For
example, on a statement such as "I often feel that I understand how others are feeling," a test-taker
might describe the statement as disagree, somewhat disagree, agree, or strongly agree.
Ability tests, on the other hand, involve having people respond to situations and then assessing
their skills. Such tests often require people to demonstrate their abilities, which are then rated by
a third party.
If you are taking an emotional intelligence test administered by a mental health professional,
here are two measures that might be used:
Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) is an ability-based test that
measures the four branches of Mayer and Salovey's EI model. Test-takers perform tasks designed
to assess their ability to perceive, identify, understand, and manage emotions.
Emotional and Social Competence Inventory (ESCI) is based on an older instrument known as
the Self-Assessment Questionnaire and involves having people who know the individual offer
ratings of that person’s abilities in several different emotional competencies. The test is designed
to evaluate the social and emotional abilities that help distinguish people as strong leaders.
There are also plenty of more informal online resources, many of them free, to investigate your
emotional intelligence.
Potential Pitfalls
Having lower emotional intelligence skills can lead to a number of potential pitfalls that can
affect multiple areas of life including work and relationships.
People who have fewer emotional skills tend to get in more arguments, have lower quality
relationships, and have poor emotional coping skills.
Being low on emotional intelligence can have a number of drawbacks, but having a very high
level of emotional skills can also come with challenges. For example:
Research suggests that people with high emotional intelligence may actually be less creative and
innovative.
Highly emotionally intelligent people may have a hard time delivering negative feedback for
fear of hurting other people's feelings.
Research has found that high EQ can sometimes be used for manipulative and deceptive
purposes.
Difference between IQ, EQ
IQ – Intelligence quotient is an attempt to gauge human intelligence. While people have different
cognitive strengths and weaknesses, psychologists have found that there is a common component
called ‘general intelligence’ or ‘G’. General intelligence has been defined in various ways. But I
personally prefer this definition of Robert Feldman: ‘the capacity to understand the world, think
rationally, and use resources effectively when faced with challenges’.
EQ – Emotional quotient is your way of managing your own emotion in positive ways so
you could effectively deal with the vicissitudes of life. It was developed by Daniel Goleman in
the mid- 1990s. Studies reveal that those with EQ scores find it easier to create interpersonal
relationships and to fit into group situations. People with higher emotional intelligence are also
better at understanding their own psychological state, which can include managing stress
effectively and being less likely to suffer from depression.
VI Creative & Critical thinking
Critical thinking is the active, persistent and careful consideration of a belief or form of
knowledge. It includes analysis and judgments about the ideas and conditions that support beliefs
and the conclusions that follow. Critical thinking involves analyzing and evaluating one’s own
thinking and that of others. It is subject to intellectual standards, including clarity, accuracy,
precision, relevance, significance, depth, breadth, logic, and fairness.
Creative thinking is the generation of new ideas within or across disciplines. It draws upon or
breaks rules and procedures in those disciplines and actively engages students in bringing
together existing ideas into new configuration; developing new properties or possibilities for
something that already exists; and discovering or imagining something entirely new. Standards
for judging creative thinking include originality, appropriateness, flexibility, and contribution to
the domain.
Historical study lends itself to this combination of thinking approaches. It requires critical
evaluation of sources and close attention to detail (quoting primary sources faithfully, accurately
citing sources). It also requires "big picture" conceptualizing to give specific events context and
meaning. Historical analysis is always a creative process, striving to offer new insights into
events of the past.
More elaboration, excerpted from Preparing Creative and Critical Thinkers by Donald J.
Treffinger
"Creative thinking involves searching for meaningful new connections by generating many
unusual, original, and varied possibilities, as well as details that expand or enrich possibilities.
Critical thinking, on the other hand, involves examining possibilities carefully, fairly, and
constructively focusing your thoughts and actions by organizing and analyzing possibilities,
refining and developing the most promising possibilities, ranking or prioritizing options, and
choosing certain options.
Generating many possibilities is not enough by itself to help you solve a problem. Similarly, if
you rely on focusing alone, you may have too few possibilities from which to choose.
Effective
problem solvers must think both creatively and critically, generating options and focusing their
thinking.
Both generating and focusing involve learning and applying certain guidelines (attitudes and
habits of mind that support effective thinking) and tools. Let's first look at the guidelines for
generating and focusing, and then consider a number of specific tools."
Here's another version of the same concepts: "Creative thinking is making and communicating
connections to: think of many possibilities; think and experience in various ways and use
different points of view; think of new and unusual possibilities; and guide in generating and
selecting alternatives."

"Critical thinking is analyzing and developing possibilities to: compare and contrast many ideas;
improve and refine ideas; make effective decisions and judgments; and provide a sound
foundation for effective action."