1.

Clearly indicate or describe the function of

accessory gland of male and female insect?
INTRODUCTION

Accessory glands of both female and male insects. Accessory glands of reproductive systems produce
secretions that aid in sperm maintenance, transport, and fertilization. In addition, accessory glands in
females provide protective coatings for eggs. The interplay between male and female secretions from
accessory glands is a key element in the design of diverse mating systems. Accessory gland secretions
can have digestive functions important in sperm management. Sperm management by females involves
a wide range of processes, including liberation of sperm from a spermatophore, digestion of male
secretions and sperm, transport of sperm to and from the spermatheca, maintenance of stored sperm,
and fertilization. Further, the effects of male accessory gland secretions on the female are best known
for the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, in which the functions of several gene products have been
explored at the molecular level. Since insects have a diversity of mating systems, the specific functions
of accessory gland secretions are likely to reflect this variation.

Reproductive accessory glands of male insects facilitate transfer of sperm to the females. The
heterogeneous products of these glands include both the seminal fluids and paraseminal structures. The
secretions vary widely in physical properties, biochemical composition, and physiological function.
Secretions of low viscosity bathe the sperm. Within that fluid mixture are components which promote
sperm maturation, which provide nourishment for stored sperm, which contribute nutrients for
investment into egg yolk, or which modulate the behavior or the physiology of the female (Leopold,
1976). Secretions of higher viscosity solidify to become copulatory plugs (Bishop, 1920; Bairate and
Perotti, 1970) or complex spermatophores (Tuzet, 1977). These organized secretory masses are
composed of several distinct zones that form as the glandular products flow over one another in
extracellular space.

In the past few decades, most research on the reproductive physiology of insects has concentrated on the
phenomenology of reproductive maturation and the endocrine control of that maturation in the female sex
(e.g., Engelmann, 1970; Kafatos et at., 1977; Hagedorn and Kunkel, 1979; Telfer et at., 1982). Al- though
much less studied, male reproductive physiology is no less complex (e.g., Davey, 1965, 1967). At the
ultrastructural level, we have many stunning descriptions of insect spermatozoa (Baccetti, 1972). The
processes of spermio- genesis and spermatogenesis provide superb examples of the profound morpho-
logical changes that can occur during terminal differentiation of specialized cells (Phillips, 1974). This
differentiative sequence takes place in preadult GEORGE M. HAPP.

stages for most insects. Spermatogenesis is modulated by the rise and fall of the concentrations of juvenile
hormones and ecdysteroids that simultaneously regulate metamorphic growth (Dumser, 1980).
By the time an insect has reached the adult stage, there are so many sperma- tozoa present that numbers alone
rarely constitute limiting factors for popula- tion growth. Delivery is another matter. Delivery of sperm to the
female requires a vehicle which is produced by the accessory glands. The nature of that vehicle
and its elaboration from the glands are poorly understood in most insect species. For males which mate
repeatedly, the glands must go through recurrent secre- tory cycles to produce the charge of semen and
paraseminal material for each copulation. The maturation of accessory glands is regulated by endocrine and
neuroendocrine factors in almost all groups. These glands offer attractive models in which to study hormone
action and secretory kinetics.

Secretions of male accessory glands contain a variety of bioactive molecules. When transferred during
mating, these molecules exert wide-ranging effects on female reproductive activity and they improve
the male's chances of siring a significant proportion of the female's offspring. The accessory gland
secretions may affect virtually all aspects of the female's reproductive activity. The secretions may
render her unwilling or unable to remate for some time, facilitating sperm storage and ensuring that any
eggs laid will be fertilized by that male's sperm. They may stimulate an increase in the number and rate
of development of eggs and modulate ovulation and/or oviposition. Antimicrobial agents in the
secretions ensure that the female reproductive tract is a hospitable environment during sperm transfer.
In a few species the secretions include noxious chemicals. These are sequestered by developing eggs
that are thereby protected from predators and pathogens when laid.

The role of the female accessory reproductive glands has been investigated in relatively few insects.
Gland secretion has a number of potential functions, including lubrication during copula, involvement in
fertilization and protection of eggs. Female yellow dung flies (Scathophaga stercoraria) have large paired
accessory glands whose function(s) prior to this study were unknown. Our study indicated glands were
involved in copulation and egg laying. The volume of secretion remaining in glands was negatively
associated with copulation duration, and this effect was most pronounced in non-ovipositing females.
Gland volume and secretion volume remaining in the glands were significantly smaller in females which
were allowed to oviposit. In addition, there was a significant interaction between male size, female size
and whether or not females were allowed to oviposit which affected the volume of the secretion
remaining in the glands, with changes in secretion volume being greatest when males were large. Sperm
were found in the accessory glands of some females and this was apparently not related to age, mating
history of either sex, to female nutrition or male size. Our results indicate that either large males
stimulate greater secretory responses from females or that females alter their responses based on male
size.

Accessory reproductive glands of female include bartholin's gland, skene's gland and mammary
glands.

 Bartholin's gland or greater vestibular glands are two glands located at the left and right
of the opening of the vagina. It lubricates vagina and is homologous to the bulbourethral
glands of the male reproductive system.

 Skene's gland or lesser vestibular glands are located on the anterior wall of the vagina. It
is homologous to the prostate gland of the male reproductive system.
  Mammary glands are paired structures that contain glandular tissue. The glandular tissue
contains alveoli which secrete milk.

2. Does it have social implication between the male and female insects?
Sex allocation in colonies of eusocial Hymenoptera is one of the best studied social conflicts. We
outline a framework for analysing conflict outcome through power and the costs of
manipulation and suggest that the conflict will often be unresolved because both major parties
of interest, the queen and the workers, should manipulate allocation even at considerable costs
to the colony. We suggest future work for analysing power in the conflict between queen and
workers over sex allocation and discuss the extent of male power.
Non-clonal social groups are subject to reproductive conflict among group members (Ratnieks et
al. 2006). Sex allocation in eusocial Hymenoptera is a conflict where the selective basis and
behavioural mechanisms have been extensively studied. Haplodiploidy leads to sex allocation
conflicts between and within sexes and generations and within genomes of individuals (table 1).
We present a framework for analysing conflict outcome through comparative and experimental
work. The framework is based on power, i.e. the ability of different parties to act towards their
inclusive fitness interests, specifically the benefit of exerting power in terms of manipulating sex
allocation versus the cost on the reproductive performance of the colony. We also discuss
power in sex allocation conflicts between mating partners.

party of interest within colony optimum allocation to young queens (%)

queen (mother) 50

male (father) 100

daughter workers (female offspring) 75

male (male offspring of queen) 50

patrigenesa in female offspring 100

matrigenesb in female offspring 50

Patrigene = a gene inherited from the father.

a

b
Matrigene = a gene inherited from the mother.

POTENTIAL AND ACTUAL CONFLICT

Due to arrhenotoky, where males develop from haploid unfertilized eggs and females from
diploid fertilized ones, workers are related to full sisters by three-quarters but to brothers by one-
quarter. In an outbred population, where each colony has a single queen that has mated with one
male, this leads to a 3F : 1M worker optimum investment ratio. The queen, who is equally
related (one-half) to both sexes of offspring, favours a 1F : 1M ratio (Trivers & Hare 1976).
Multiple mating by the queen, worker production of males and polygyny reduce potential
conflict between queen and workers as these cause the worker optimum to converge on the
queen optimum of 1F : 1M (Ratnieks et al. 2006).

REFERENCES

 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12770293/
 https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4613-
2715-8_10
 https://www.toppr.com/ask/content/concept/accessory-
glands-of-female-reproductive-system-255037/
 https://experts.arizona.edu/en/publications/accessory-
glands
 https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/
annurev.ento.48.091801.112657
 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2781979/