"Man Hungry": Reconsidering Threats to Colonial and Patriarchal Order in Dryden and

Davenant's The Tempest

Author(s): Candy B. K. Schille
Source: Texas Studies in Literature and Language, Vol. 48, No. 4 (WINTER 2006), pp. 273-290
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 "Man Hungry":Reconsidering
Threatsto Colonial and Patriarchal
Orderin Drydenand Davenant's
The Tempest

CandyB. K. Schule

Why,in 1667,did JohnDrydenand WilliamDavenantchooseto revise

Shakespeare'sTheTempest, and whatdo theirrevisionssignifyforliter-
aryand culturalhistory?1 Theirplay is usuallydescribedas an attempt
to neutralizevarious threatsto contemporary patriarchalorders- an
attempt oftenseenas unsuccessful bymodernreaders.I willargueinstead
thatDrydenand Davenantaimtoproblematize thetooeasyattribution of
of and to the
qualities savagery ungovernability play'sgallery of"others"
who arethenominalthreats to Prospero's controland to directaudiences
toreconsider wheretherealthreats lie and whatordersareworthpreserv-
ing.Thisargument requiresan overviewoftheplay'sculturalcontext, a
summary of the ways in which theplay has been seen to assuagevarious
contemporary anxieties,
and,finally,a demonstration ofhow Drydenand
Davenantprompt réévaluationofpolitical,
domestic, andreligiousassump-
tionsunderlying theseanxieties.Shakespeare'splayis too wellknownto
requirea summary here,butanyanalysisofDrydenand Davenant'smust
beginwith a summary oftheirextraordinarily convolutedand innovative
tragicomic plot.
I. ThePlotin itsIdeologicalContext

The changesto Shakespeare'splay beginimmediately withthe cast of

characters:
Prosperois,in Dryden-Davenant,theDuke of Mantua,whose
kingdom was usurpedby his brother
Antoniowith thehelp ofAlonzo,
Duke ofSavoy,and whowas setadrifttoarriveon a supposedlydeserted
island.On theisland,Prosperohas raisedtwo daughters, Mirandaand
heryoungersisterDorinda,neitherofwhomhas seen anymanbuttheir
father.
Also on theisland are the monstrousorphanedoffspring of the
witchSycorax,whowas,likeProspero, maroonedon theisland.Theseare
Calibanandhissister,
also calledSycorax,
bothnowenslavedbyProspero.

TexasStudiesin Literature
and Language,Vol. 48, No. 4, Winter2006
© 2006 by the UniversityofTexas Press,P.O. Box 7819,Austin,TX 78713-7819

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274 CandyB. K. Schule

Prosperohas also raisedHippolito,properDuke ofMantua,who was set

adriftwithhim,and whosekingdomwas usurpedbyAlonzo.Prospero' s
astrological forecastshad indicatedthatthesightofa womanwould for
"sometime"(2.4.7)be fatalto Hippolito,so he has beenraisedin a cave,
ignorant ofthefemalesex.Withtheshipwreck on theislandofAlonzoand
Antonio(bothofwhomarealreadypenitent and havebeenon a crusade
in expiation), alongwithAlonzo's son Ferdinand, hiscounselorGonzalo,
and hissailors,Prosperoplansto avengehimself. WhenFerdinandmeets
Mirandaand HippolitomeetsDorinda,bothcouplesfallinlove.Butonce
HippolitolearnsfromFerdinandthatthereare otherwomen besides
Dorinda,he plansto possessall women- includingMiranda.Ferdinand,
reluctantly, "kills"Hippolitoin a duel,and is summarily condemnedto
deathbyProspero.ButAriel,actingwithoutProspero'sknowledgeor or-
ders,revivesHippolito,who decidesthatmonogamy is,in fact,desirable.
Antonioand Alonzorenouncetheirusurpedtitlesand all sail homehap-
pily.So muchforthe"high"plot.
In the "low" plot,Stephano,theship's master,believingthedukes
drowned,declareshimselfmasteroftheislandand his sailorsMustacho
andVentosoviceroys. BoatswainTrincalo, meanwhile, gainstheallegiance
ofCalibanand proposestodeclarehimself masteroftheislandby marry-
ingtheyoungerSycorax, thusaligninghimself withtheisland'shereditary
monarchy. After theiralcohol, the main instigator ofthepowerstruggles,
runsout,all thecomiccharacters renouncetheir"claims"to sovereignty
andjoininthegeneralreconciliation.
ThechangesDryden and Davenantmadein adaptingTheTempest for
theRestoration stageamount to some striking additions and subtractions
fromShakespeare'soriginal.Amongthesubtractions are,first, thereduc-
tionofProspero'spowersand ofthethreats to it(in thereadyrepentance
of theusurpersand theomissionof thelow characters' plotagainsthis
life);second, Gonzalo's speech on thevirtues of a "natural" or "anarchic"
and
state; finally, Prospero's renunciation of his magic and hisresolutionto
"thinkon death."Amongtheadditionsaretheisland'spopulationexplo-
sion- a peculiarlyfemaleone,in thatit includesDorinda,Sycorax,and,
problematically, Hippolito,sincethismale character is designatedto be
playedby a woman. Also added are Prospero'splan executeFerdinand
to
and Ariel'saverting thispotentialtragedy.
Forthelastthirty years,mostcriticshave accountedfortheserevi-
sionsbyplacingtheplayin thecontextoftheembattled statusofseveral
contemporary ideologies: faithin patriarchalism - both politicaland do-
mestic; faithin themore fundamental idea of anywhollystablemodelof
civilgovernment; and,finally,along with faith inmagic,faithinan active,
and
sentient, mystical Providence. Let me briefly reviewthebackgrounds
ofthesethreeissues.

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 Drydenand Davenant'sTheTempest 275

First,faithin thepatriarchal model of hereditary monarchy, which

would be bestarticulated in SirRobertFilmer'sPatriarchia in 1680,had,
ofcourse,beenerodedbytheCivilWar,theexecutionofCharlesI, theen-
suingCommonwealth, and thealteredtermsunderwhichthemonarchy
was established withtheRestoration- withmuchpompbuta realattenu-
ationofthemonarch'sautonomouspower.Moreover, CharlesIFs failure
to providean heir,and theimpeachment ofLordChancellorClarendon,
father-in-law oftheheirapparentJames, on October10,1667,wouldeven-
tually lead to theExclusion Crisisand the ultimateejectionoftheStuart
in
dynasty 1688, an outcome foreseen,at leastby SamuelPepys,as early
as 1667,theyearofDrydenand Da venant's play(Foster, 9).
Thedomesticanaloguetothepoliticalmodelwas thepatriarchal fam-
as
ily, Filmer and
outlines, that toowas a siteofcontention.As Susan Staves
has putit,"Ator aboutthesametimesubjectsassertedtheirrightto elect
a sovereignin the GloriousRevolution, womenacquiredan analogous
righttoelecthusbands"(189).Theshift, and domestically,
politically from
Filmerian patriarchalismto Lockeancontract was, of course,well under
waybefore1688,and anxietyresulting fromtheerosionofpatriarchal au-
thority inboththestateand thehomewas stagedintheplayhouse.
A broaderanxietyabouttheprospectsofanystablecivilordermay
be discernedin theexpansionoftraveland colonization, withtheaccom-
panyingfascination withwhatEarlMinercalls "TheWildMan Through
theLookingGlass."In theseventeenth century, travelnarratives included
"naturalistic descriptionsofsavages,whether abroadorathome:dirtand
darkness, bestialappearance,sexuality, and especiallycannibalism [. . .]";
and,"as ifviewinghimself inthelookingglassofart,a cultivated Europe-
an [. . .] saw inhimself thesavageryhe fearedtoencounter [. . .]" (189-90).
BridgetOrrhas amplified:

England'sexpansionintotheCaribbean,NorthAmerica,and theEast
Indiesbroughtwealthbut also a hostof constitutional
and cultural
problems[....] The externalthreatpresentedby exoticor savage
culturestoEnglishcoloniesbothlegallyand materiallywas matched
in metropolitaneyes by the colonials'tendencyto degenerate,far
fromthecentresofcivilityand in dangerousproximity to unbridled
savagery.(190)
Thetestimony oftravelnarrativesand colonialaccountswas theorizedfor
Englishmindsin theworkofwriters likeJohnCalvin,SirWalterRaleigh,
and,ofcourse,ThomasHobbes,whosketched a stateofbestiality
intowhich
humannaturecontinually threatened todevolve.Theinternational and do-
mesticspheresdovetailhere,as do postcolonialand feministtheory.David
Fausettin Writing
theNewWorld, forinstance,describeshow in colonial

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276 CandyB. K. Schule

narratives
the"natural"worldis oftenfiguredas female,thesocialrealm
as masculine.The encounterwithand claimingof the New Worldby
theOld or "civilized"worldmayoftenbe understoodas themasculine
"known"encountering and claimingthefeminine "unknown"or "other"
in muchcolonialand Utopianliterature
(177).Similarly, malewriters pro-
duce fantasiesof "pornotopias"or "dreamsof a sexualizedworld[. . .]
[thatannulsthe]separationfromthematernal body"(Orr,189).
Morebroadstillis theerosion,slowthoughitwas,oftheassumption
thata patriarchalkingwas analogousto a patriarchal Providence.When
bothsidesintheCivilWarhad claimedtobe on God's side,and whenone
anointedkinghad beenbeheadedin 1649and anotherwould be routed
in 1688,withall thecontroversiesand disastersin between(and TheTem-
pestsquarelyin themiddle ofthem), faithin a stabilizing
Providencewas,
ifgradually,irrevocablydamaged, and England was on itsway to "the
clockmaker God ofeighteenth centurynatural theology"(Bishop,65).
II. AssuagingAnxiety

It has beenarguedthatDrydenand Davenantrelievetheanxietiesinher-

entin thesesitesofcontention by a strictseparationofthehighand low
-
plots that, whereas tragicomedy traditionally addressesissuesofstatein
theactionoftherulingclassesintheupperplot,theRestoration playwrights
displacemostof thetalkof government and ruleto thelowerplot,and
so defusethepotencyofsuchissues.Orr'sanalysissuggeststhattheRes-
torationTempest effectivelyofferstwo different versionsof governmental
The
principle. first, involving"Prospero' s absolute gubernatorial rule,"of-
fersa "pleasurableroyalist of
projection unproblematic sway."The second
plot,involving Caliban,Sycorax, and the sailors(thelatter,modeled upon
thefarcicalcharacters ofcommedia dell'arte[Novak,334]),dramatizes a comi-
cally"squalidcompetition forpoweramongthoseconstitutionally unfitfor
itsexercise"(195).2Similarly, Bishopargues thatthe lower plot "stagfes]
whatamountsto a parodiehistory oftheInterregnum" and thatany"spe-
cificand unpleasantmemoriesofthesubversion ofsocialhierarchy" (61)
so stirredaresoothedby thealacrity withwhichthesubversion collapses
uponitself:"Usurpations andcommonwealths, theplotimplies, arebytheir
very nature and
self-limiting self-destroying, as
passingaway inevitably as
sobriety follows drunkenness once the last tumbler is emptied"(63).
To pursuethecase thatpotentially subversivedisruptiveforcesare
containedand neutralizedin thelow plot,let us focuson themariners.
As in Shakespeare'splay,themarinersduringthefirstscene,thestorm,
arenotimpressedby theauthority claimedbytheroyalparty.In Dryden
and Davenant's opening,TrincalosaysGonzalo's interference "help[s]the
storm":"[. . .] whatcaretheseroarersforthenameofDuke? To Cabin;

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 Dryden and Da venant's TheTempest 277

silence,troubleus not" (1.1.19-22).Paul FranssencontendsthatShake-

spearehad linked"theanarchic[natural]elementsand thethemeofthe
limitsofpoliticalauthority" in a way thatsuggests"a concernwiththe
limitsofa ruler'ssovereignty overtheseas,whichhad becomequitetopi-
cal in recentyearsbecause ofJames[I]'s inconsistent policies"as James
movedfroma policyofopen seas inherited fromElizabethto a claimof
absolutepowerovertheseas. Bycontrast, Dryden/Davenant'sdemoting
AlonzofromShakespeare'skingofNaples to a mereduke is partofthe
Restoration "ideologicalpolicing"in which"potentially subversiveel-
ementsare eitherremovedaltogether or at leastmade less prominent"
(85-90).Similarly,GavinFostersuggeststhatthesailors'drunkenness and
insubordination reflectchargesagainst the its
Navy following disgrace
by theDutchinvasionof theMedway,chargeswhichcloselypreceded
Clarendon'sfalland itsultimateconsequencesforCharlesand James;but
here,too,such disquietingelementsare annulledby thereadinesswith
whichat theplay'send thesailorsacceptthe"monarchical" authority of
ProsperoandAlonzo,and,byextension, theStuartdynasty(8-9,17).
Similarly,Dryden and Davenant'shighplot has been describedas
assuaginganxietiesrelevantto genderissues and the domesticsphere,
particularlyin theirhandlingofthethree"female"characters - Miranda,
Dorinda,and,moreingeniously, Hippolito,playedbya woman.To begin
withHippolito,thename suggestsa set of allusionsthatlikelytheau-
dienceand certainly bothRestoration playwrights would have known.
In Euripides'splay (428 B.C.), Hippolytusis theson of Theseusby the
queen oftheAmazons.His Amazonianheritagemanifests itselfin chas-
titywhichbecomesmisogyny; he is rathera drystick.In Fletcherand
Massinger' s TheSea Voyage(1647),whichDryden regardsas an adapta-
tionofShakespeare'sTempest (Preface,3-4), thereis a femaleHippolita,
one oftheAmazonspopulatingone ofthetwoislandsin theplay.These
womenhavebeenjoinedby and arenow headedby a nouvelleAmazon,
Rosellia,actuallya Portuguesenoblewomanwho,withherdaughter, was
shipwrecked. Roselliais trying to restrain
her charges' desire for sex,and
thisdesire,according toMiner,is mostmemorably expressedbyHippolita
(102),who says,"We mustand will have men" (Fletcher, 316).3Dryden
and Davenant'sHippolito,then,is supposedlysituatedbetweena male
characterofextraordinary sexualrestraint anda femalecharacter ofextraor-
dinarysexualappetite;thecross-fertilization resultsin a male character
ofinsatiatesexuality.Commentators focuson Hippolito's"untrammeled
libidinality"(Orr,195)and "uncontained desires";he is "sexuallyindefati-
gable"(Rosenthal, 208),a "naturallibertine whodemandssexualaccessto
all women,who acceptsno restraints uponhis desire,and who sees even
hisfoster father,
Prospero, as a sexualrival"(Canfield,140).Further, since
Hippolitois playedbya woman,he is oftenreadas onemorewayDryden

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278 CandyB. K. Schule

and Davenantdisplayand chastiselibidinality specifically constructed

as female.Rosenthal, forinstance,suggeststhatsinceFerdinandstabsa
male character but a femaleperformer, Drydenand Davenantoffset the
audience'sanxietiesoverProspero'sinability to assertsexualcontrolover
his daughters(208).Thoughshe does notmentionFletcher and Massing-
er's version,one mightgo further and suggestthattheconquestoverthe
derivatively namedHippolitoassertsa defeatof an Amazonianqueen.
BarbaraMurrayholds thatsincetheherbalremedyby whichHippolito
is curedis knownforhealingproperties and for"procuring" menstrua-
tion,thecureshowsthat"howeverclosely[theactress]mayapproximate
manliness,she will remain,and can be medicinedto remain"a woman,
subjecttovolatileemotionalism and monthly bleeding(32).Moreover, one
mightargue that Hippolito is further subsumed the
by patriarchal order in
that,soon after having seen Moll Davis takethe role in Dry den-Da venant' s
play, Charles II gathered her into his stable of mistresses (Howe,34).
Thentherearethestraightforwardly femalerepresentatives ofdesire
in theplay:Miranda,Dorinda,and, in the "low" plot,Sycorax.Prospe-
ro's daughtershave been describedas "craving"(Rosenthal,208) and
"sexuallyeager" (Miner,102).The threattheypose to patriarchal mod-
els ofgovernment is supposedlyassuagedwiththeplay's resolution, in
whichbothdaughtersare safelyengagedin monogamousalliancesthat
will,ultimately, consolidateProspero'spower.As forSycorax, sheis indis-
putably "man hungry"; she offers to couple with all the sailors and does,
reportedly, couple with her own brother. She poses another sort ofthreat
to Prospero'spatriarchal and colonialcontrol, as Trincalo' s intention is to
asserthisclaimtotheislandbymarrying and havingchildren with Syco-
rax,thusresorting totheconceptofaboriginaltitleand Hobbes'sidea that
theoriginalformofsovereignty is matriarchal - passingthrough thebody
ofa woman(Orr,195).Ultimately, however, Sycoraxis lesssubsumedinto
thepatriarchal orderthanabandonedbyit.Attheplay'send,Trincalotells
hershemayswimafterhisdeparting ship,ifshecaresto try(5.2.250-53).
Canfield, arguingthatSycorax compositeofIrish,African,
is a and Indian
females,describesher as the "exotic other representing Europeanmale
wishfulfillment," a wishindulged, then conveniently putaside (141).
All theseviewsseemto me to have somevalidityand to indicateto
whatdegreeDrydenand Davenant's playmaybe seento do thecultural
workrequiredby embattledcivil,domestic,and (of whichmorelater)
metaphysical modelsof patriarchal control.But I would like to adjust
suchreadings,focusingnow on thewaysthattheRestoration collabora-
torskeepintactand insomecasesevenseemtoendorsethesecularforces
so disrupting thepatriarchal model,whileultimately asserting a visionof
authentic Providential intervention.

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 Drydenand Davenant'sTheTempest 279

III. Relocating
theThreats

I willbeginwiththesailors.Itis worthnotingthatthesailors'squabbling
overtheisland'sgovernment occurswhentheyare entirely ignorantof
anyauthority save thatwhich they construct.They believe theroyalpas-
sengersall drownedand areinitially unawareofthepresenceofProspero
and his little"family."Whatleads to theirpoliticalconflicts, then,is not
dissatisfactionwithexisting formsofdominionorevenpersonalambition
(Caliban'smotives),but fearofthewild man inside:As Mustaphasays,
"Our Ship is sunkand we can nevergethomeagen:we muste'en turn
Salvages,and thenextthatcatcheshis fellowmayeat him" (2.3.48-50).
Theyalso sensetheirown sexualdegeneration, as theyturnfromlament-
the
ing pain their wiveswill suffer athaving theirhusbandstolonging
lost
for"anyold dryWench"(2.3.23-40).
Thus,in Drydenand Davenant(as in manyadaptationsof Shake-
speare'sTempest) competition forpowershowsitself as itdoesintheanimal
in
kingdom, competition for sex and food.The "wild man"(and the"wild
woman"too) fascinatebecause theyexhibitthesedrivesin theirbasest
form.As Minerexplains,thetwo persistent motifsof literature concern-
ingsuchfigures arecannibalism and indiscriminate breeding.Combining
thesetwo motifsis a richstrategy, as Swiftillustrates in "A ModestPro-
posal,"and,as he knew,colonialism - whichincludesthedesireforand
practiceofconsumption - is based uponthem.One thinks, forinstance,of
ThomasDanckert's painting ofCharlesII receivingthefirst pineapple,orof
theexoticdelicacyofImoinda'ssexuality inBehn'sOroonoko. Inan epilogue
addedtotherevivalofhisplayA WildGallant inMay1667(inthesameyear
as TheTempest), Drydenhimself uses themetaphor, callinghisaudience

Salvages:
NothingbutHumanefleshyourtastecan please:
And as theirFeastswithslaughter'
d slavesbegan,
So you,at eachnewPlay,musthave a Man. (13-16)

Dryden's figureshowshisrecognition thatthewildmanis bothotherand

self;here,the"Salvages"arethecultivatedRestoration
viewersofhisplay.
One ofthemostprizedobjectsofconsumption forDryden'saudiencewas
thesightofwomen'sbodies;withtheadventoffemaleactorsin female
roles,thespecularizedfemalebodybecomesa delicacyforspectators -
spectatorsconstructed in thiscontextas heterosexual
males (Rosenthal,
202-04;Murray, 30-31).4
TheMockTempest (1674),Thomas Duffet'sparodyof Drydenand
Davenant's play, also makes clear the connectionbetween English

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280 CandyB. K. Schule

appetitesforfood,forsex,and forspectacle.In theepilogue,Mirandarep-

resentsherself
as potentially all three:
satisfying

[. . .] foroughtthatI know,
Myselfcouldserveyouall as wellas any,
ButmyFathersays,pray,
One Dish ofmeatcanneverserveso many;
Forthoughyouall agreein one design,
To feedlikeSchollerson thetenderLoyn;
In thisyoudiffer withthem,pray;
One littleChop,and one plainDish willdo
You musthaveSause,warmPlates,freshhau-gou'stoo;
ThelargePottageofglitt' ringshowand dress,
Mustcheatyoutothelittlebitofflesh,(qtd.in Rosenthal,
209)

InDryden's prologuetohisTempest, issuesofconsumption aremademore

complex sincetheactresswhom Drydenpoints to as theappe-
whetting
titesofhisaudienceis a womanplayinga man.Thisis crucial,as Dryden
stressesthat"Hippolito"is nota womanplayinga womanimpersonating
a man(a breechespart)butis actuallysupposedtobe representinga male
the
figurethroughout play; therewillbe no "unmasking'7:
We [. . .] byourdearthofYouthsareforc'dt'employ
One ofourWomentopresenta Boy.
Andthat'sa transformation youwillsay
in
Exceedingall theMagick thePlay.
Letnoneexpectin thelastActtofind,
HerSex transform' d frommantoWoman-kind.
Whate'reshewas beforethePlaybegan,
All youshallsee ofheris perfectman.
Or ifyourfancywillbe farther led,
To findherWoman,itmustbe abed. (28-38)

Thisannouncement is,ofcourse,a kindofunmasking, or ratherno real

masking has occurred to beginwith sinceno one in theaudience,even
withoutDryden's announcement, would have seriouslybelievedtheac-
tressplayingHippolitowas male. Further, thathavinga femaleplayer
and titillating
takea malerolewas itselfsupposedtobe an effective appeal
to consumerism be
may gleanedby the gimmick(in whichDrydenpar-
ticipated)ofstagingfamiliarplayswithall femalecasts(Wilson,73-86).
In otherwords,Drydenand Davenantarrangematters suchthatboththe
"savageness" oftheprimitive and the consumerism
exploitive ofthecolo-
nizerareattributedtoEuropeans,specificallythoseobserving theirplay.

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 Drydenand Davenant's TheTempest 281

In so locatingthreats to civil(ized)order,Drydenand Davenantmay

be following theirRenaissancepredecessors. In Fletcher and Massinger's
play,Hippolita and the other Amazons do intend to breed withthecap-
tiveEuropeans.However,theyare initiallyinterested in sex as a matter
ofgeneration, to preservethespecies(316-17).The womenprovidefood
to thestarvingmenin exchangefortheirsexualservices;themenare to
providesexualservicesinexchangeforfood.Theexchangeis anonymous
and temporary, based on necessityratherthanon eroticpleasure.While
thewomenmaynotbe chargedwiththeimpulsetoindiscriminate breed-
ing,however, the men be
may charged with their to
willingness engage
in thatother"savage" activity, cannibalism. Cannibalismis attributed to
thesupposedlycivilized(thoughunheroic)Frenchsecondarycharacters
who areshipwrecked on thebarrenislandneighboring theAmazons'.In
fact,they rationalize their intention to literallyconsume a woman- the
heroineAminta - bypointingoutthe"thousandexamples"of"civilized"
cannibalism (Fletcher,317).Further, in an expositionneartheplay'send,
Fletcherand Massingermakeclearthattherealbarbarity has been that
practicedby the French on the Portuguese,by which Rosellia and her
"Amazons"were"taughttobe cruel"(326-27).
In Drydenand Davenant's play,theobviouscolonizersarethesailors,
and itis interestingto see how theanalysisofpowerrelations shiftsfrom
an emphasison civildiscord(whenthesailorsbelievetheislandtobe de-
serted)to colonialexploitation (whentheyfindout thatit is inhabited).
Trincalosayshe meansto "turn[Caliban]civiland sober,as I am [. . .] for
thenthoushaltbe mysubject"(2.3.179-80).The pose of "civilizing"the
indigenous populationis,ofcourse,a front fortherealmotivesofcoloniza-
tion.Wereitpossible,Trincalowould marketCalibanas an exoticexhibit
(orspectacle)(2.3.161-64), butsinceitis notpossibletoreturn himtoEng-
land,Calibanwillbe a slave,madetractable byliquor,providing foodand
sex(inthepersonofSycorax)tohismaster. Trincalo also indicatesthecom-
moncolonialfearofexorbitant sexuality inthenativemale,as he intendsto
geldCaliban(3.3.7).As MonikaFludernik hasnoted,theDryden-Davenant
versioneliminates theplotinShakespearewhereby CalibanurgesTrincalo
and Stephanoto murderProspero, a directparalleltoAntonio,Prospero's
brother,who plannedhisbrother's murderso as to usurpthekingdomof
Milan.As sheputsit,

[. . .] Dryden/D'Avenant's versiontreatsCaliban more as an in-

competent slave tryingto runaway fromhis masterand tryingto
ousttheusurper(i.e.,Prospero)ofhis legitimatekingdom,whereas
Shakespeare's playforegroundstheheinousnessofCaliban'srebellion
in politicaltermsand with much less of a "colonial"emphasis.
(282-83)

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282 CandyB. K. Schule

In all, then,Caliban comes offas less culpablethanthe Europeansin

Dryden and Da venant's version.
Moreover, in regardto thesexualrapacityusuallyattributed to the
"savage"cultures, itis truethat,intheRestorationplay,as inShakespeare's
(therelevantdialogueis almostentirely thesame),Calibandid attempt
rape- here,upon not one but bothof Prospero'sdaughters.Fludernik
arguesthatin Shakespeare, sinceMirandais theonlywomanon theis-
land,theintendedrapemaybe seenas "simplythenaturalexpression of
Caliban'sinnatesexdrives"(281).ButintheRestoration version,withtwo
potentialvictims, and dependingupon thechronology and motivesone
constructs to
according Prospero's and Caliban's competingversionsof
theirhistory,sexforCalibanmaybe less"natural"(as a termlike"innate"
suggests)ormonstrous, as Prosperobelievesittobe,thanan exerciseofthe
powerprinciple. As Caliban saystoProspero:

[. . .] thisIsland'sminebySycoraxmyMother, whichthoutook'stfrom
me [. . .] forI am all theSubjectsthatthouhast[. . .] [and iftherape
had notbeen prevented]I had peopl'd else thisIsle withCalibans.
(1.2.251-69)

ThatCalibanseemsto recognizethatfemalesmaybe currency in power

negotiationsamongmen is madeclearwhen he pimpshissisterto Tríncalo,
who intendsto "lay claimto thisIslandby Alliance"(2.3.223).Caliban's
aspirationto powergoes no farther forhimthanaspirations to a limited
"freedom" fromProspero- he is morethaneagerto acceptTríncaloas his
newmaster:

farewel[. . .]
Farewel,old Master,farewel,
Ban,Ban,Cackaliban
Has a newMaster,geta newman.
Freedom,freedom!
Heigh-day, (2.3.210-15)

Moreimportantly, however,even ifCalibanhas notlearnedthestrategy

ofhomosocialexchangefromProspero,theplayplacesCaliban'sunsuc-
cessfulattempts at it againstProspero'ssuccessfulones,in ways which
obfuscatethedistinctions betweenthemuponwhichtheplay'ssupposed
patriarchalconservatism would depend.
As I notedabove, Prospero'splan depends not upon creatingre-
morsein his enemies,but ratherin promoting the alliances- whichhe
repeatedly claimshe has designed well in advance of theplay and pro-
ceed as he wishes(see, forinstance,2.4.86,3.1.32,3.1.144,3.5.13,3.5.86,
- betweenMirandaand Ferdinandon theonehandand Hippolito
3.5.106)
and Dorindaon theother.In bothcases,partofhisstrategy is toinculcate

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 Dryden and Da venant's TheTempest 283

intohis daughtersthe assumption - clearlybased in a sexistculture -

thatwomenare morevaluedby theirsuitors - and hencemorevaluable
to themanwho bartersthem - iftheyarehardwon.To Dorinda,he says
"[Hippolito]willdespiseyouifyougrowtookind"and"usehimillandhe'l
be yoursforever" (3.2.137,142).OfFerdinandand Miranda,he says"They
areineachotherspowers,butthisswift/Bus'nessI mustuneasiemake,lest
toolight/ Winning maketheprizelight[. . .]" (3.5.39-41).Caliban,on the
otherhand,counselsSycoraxthat"Youmustbe kindto [Tríncalo], and he
willloveyou"(3.3.27),butTríncalo suggests thatCaliban follow Prospero's
strategy:"Ev'rythinginitsseason,Brother Monster; butyoumustcounsel
her;fairMaidsmustnotbe tooforward" (3.3.49-50).Tríncalo, ofcourse,is
to
desperate delay close playwith his "dear Blobber-lips" (3.3.12),butthe
of
points similarity between thelow and highplots do not enhance Prospe-
ro'sauthority.It,likeCaliban's"authority," is challengedbythefemaleshe
intendstomanipulate tohisownends.In Caliban'scase,Sycorax, anxious
to bed everyoneincludingCaliban and her supposed"husband,"finally
rebelsagainstbothofthem,"flying" atTríncalo andbeatingCalibanoffthe
stage(4.2.141-159). In Prospero'scase,hisinability tocontrol hisdaughters
ultimately resultsin thesupposeddeathofone ofhis daughters'suitors
(Hippolito)and thesentence ofdeath,imposedbyProsperohimself, on the
other(Ferdinand), bothofwhichwould reduceMiranda'sand Dorinda's
value to theirfather, in termsofhomosocialcurrency, to zero.In his rage
at havinghad hisdesignsthwarted, Prospero, declaringhimself Heaven's
agentofjustice,also claimsforhimself theagencyofexecution, by which
logic,Mirandapointsout,humanity wouldbe reducedtoa stateofnature:

Mir.Have younotsaid youarehisJudge?

Prosp.'Tistrue,I am;whatthen?
Mir.And can yoube hisExecutioner?
Ifthatbe so,thenall menmaydeclaretheir
Enemiesin fault;and Pow'rwithouttheSword
OfJustice, willpresumetopunishwhate're
Itcallsa crime.
Prosp.I cannotforceGonzaloormyBrother, much
Less theFather, to destroytheSon;itmust
Be thentheMonsterCaliban[. . .] (5.1.24-33)

Prospero'squibblingrevealsthathis self-proclaimed with

identification
law revealslaw tobe notjustice,butan exerciseofavailablepower;signifi-
itsenactment
cantly, mustbe allottedtothe"Monster"orbruteCaliban.In
thisplay,then,Calibanis identified as Prospero'sarm,and law partakes
ofwhatWilliamBlakewouldcall- ina phraseparticularly resonant
given
ourglancesat cannibalism - the"Devouring"aspectofnature.Likewise,

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284 CandyB. K. Schule

divinerightis damagedwithProspero'
patriarchal s identifying himself
withHeaven,thenmakingthebestialCalibanhisagent.Here,too,distinc-
tionsuponwhichconservative ideologiesdependareseento dissolve.
Wehave alreadyseenthatreadingsofTheTempest in itsvariousver-
sionstypically law and civilorderwithProsperoand
associatepatriarchal
themasculine,disruptiveenergiesand civilchaos withthefeminine - a
commonplace incritical
theoryofvarioussorts,particularlyfeministread-
ings.MarilynFrench offersa versionofthiscommonplace:
The masculineprinciple[. . .] is associatedwithprowessand owner-
ship,withphysicalcourage,assertiveness, independence,
authority,
and theright,
rights, and legitimacy. Itclaimstobe abletodefineand
administerjustice;and itsupportslaw and orderas an arrangement
imposed and maintainedby force[. . .] Its ultimategoal is thetran-
scendenceofnature[. . .]
Nature[associatedwiththefemale]has twoaspects[. . .]: a benevo-
lent(nutritive,
generative, supportive) and a malevolent(destructive,
subversiveofhumanconstructions .
[. .]) (13-14)
"
Frenchgoeson to dividethefeminine principleintoits"inlaw"and out-
law" aspects.Theoutlawaspect"is associatedwithdarkness, chaos,flesh,
thesinister, magic,and above all sexuality"(14). The "inlaw"principle
"includesqualitieslikenutritiveness, compassion,mercy, and theability
to createfelicity .
[. .], connected to, and supportiveof, qualityin the
a
masculineprinciple, butalways[. . .] subordinate" (16-17).
Notablehere,especiallyinthecontext ofTheTempest, is theassociation
ofmagicwiththefeminine, whichwilllead me to considerAriel,perhaps
playedinDrydenand Davenant'splaybya woman.First, however, I wish
toindicateanotherwayinwhichProspero' s designsareself-defeating and
the
muddy categories (notDryhe den and Davenant) means to assert.His
to his
attempt script daughters' encounters with theirlovers leads to a
kindofrhetorical contamination. In an attemptto delaybothdaughters'
encounterwithHippolitoand to inculcateappropriatemasculinist(or
Miltonic)principles, Prosperohas persuadedthemthat"WeWomenwere
madefor[men]."The "madefor"promptsDorindatoask,"What,thathe
shouldeat us, Sister?"(1.2.320-21).This,and theactualencounterwith
Hippolito,rhetorically figures himas a cannibalinsuchlinesas Miranda's
.
"[. .] sure he can / Devour but one ofus at once" (2.4.121-22)and her
.
"[. .] but go back and he shall eat me first:Fye,are you not asham'd
to be so muchinquisitive?" (2.5.20-21).Boththesuitorsand thegirlsare
contaminated by Prospero' instruction.
s In seeking,forinstance,to limit
Hippolito' s desire to herself, Dorinda represents Mirandaas a monster
and, forthe same reason,Hippolitorepresents Ferdinand as a monster:

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 Dryden and Da venant's TheTempest 285

Hip.[. . .] he's a terrible,

huge,monstrous
creature,
I am buta Womantohim.

Dor.But[Mirandais] a terrible,
hugeCreaturetoo;ifI werenot
HerSistershewouldeat me;therefore takeheed.
Hip.I heardthatshe was and
fair, likeyou.
Dor.No, indeed,she'slikemyFather[. . .] (4.1.224-32)

In thelastline,evenProsperois contaminated.
Justas we aredirected toreconsider theassignment ofthelabel"mon-
strous,"so we are directedto reassesstherelationbetweenthe"savage"
and the"natural."AreMirandaand Dorinda"natural"?In a sense,there
is too muchof a sheenof Restoration comedy(in the tradition, say,of
Margery in The Country to
Wife) say without reservationthat theyare,but
withinthecontext ofthisplay,theyarenatural.Initially,
theirdesireis,un-
likeProspero' s desiresforthem,freefrommotivesofpowerorprofit, and
thelasciviousnessoftheirdialogueis entirely unconscious. They manifest
thatqualityof innocencein theirignoranceof actualsexualpractice,of
reproduction, and evenoftheprohibition againstincest(see,forinstance,
1.2.323-37and 5.1.181-85).However,as Prospero'sfloundering attempts
tolimitthemto"inlaw"activities and attitudes
takeeffect,bothgirlsbegin
tomanifest themasculinedrivetowardexclusionary possessiveness- both
wishingtheirsuitorsdead beforeinconstant (5.2.92-102).Possessiveness,
likelaw,is seento function as a deathprinciple,and thesistersfalloutof
a fellowshipwhichhas been expressedphysically, by sharinga bed- a
fallingoutthatArielcalls"unkind"(4.3.260).
Tragedyis averted,of course,notby Prospero,butby Ariel,whom
Katherine Maus considersthe"realhero"oftheDryden-Davenant Tempest
(206).As in Shakespeare, ArielpromptsProsperoto show mercyto his
enemiesAntonioand Alonzo:

Prosp.How do theybeartheirsorrows?
Ariel.ThetwoDukes appearlikemendistracted, their
Attendance brim-full
ofsorrowmourning over'em;
Butchiefly,he youtermedthegoodGonzalo:
His tearsrundownhisBeard,likeWinter-drops
FromEaves ofReeds;yourVisiondid so work'em,
Thatifyounowbeheld'em,youraffections
Wouldbecometender.
Prosp.Dost thouthinkso,Sprit?
Ariel.Minewould,Sir,wereI humane.
Prosp.And mineshall:
Hast thou,who artbutair,a touch,a feelingoftheirAfflictions,
and

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286 CandyB. K. Schule

shallnotI (a man likethem,one Who as sharplyrelishpassionsas

they)be kindlierMov'd thanthouart?Thoughtheyhavepierc'dMe
tothequickwithinjuries, yetwithmynoblerReason'gainstmyfury
I willtakepart;
Therareractionis in virtuethanin vengeance.(3.1.162-79)

Dryden and Da venantnearlyreproduceShakespeare'slinesin thisex-

change,butin theoriginalProspero' s shifttowardcharity is emphasized
inhiscontinuing "theybeingpenitent, / The sole drift
of mypurposedoth
extend/ Nota frownfurther" (5.1.28-30).Thus, Shakespearestressesthat
thesuffering imposed has been intended to reform thevictims - theybe-
ingreformed, is
punishment readily ceased. In Dry den and Davenant,we
mayrecall, and as Prospero must know (since Ariel has been watching his
old enemiesand reporting on theiractionsand words),Alonzoand Anto-
niohaverepented andpracticed expiationlongbeforetheplayopens.This
makesProspero' s speechsomething ofa display.Notabletoo is thatthis
exchange occurs in Shakespeare's final act,but in themiddleofDryden
and Davenant'splay.The difference betweenProspero'ssomewhatself-
aggrandizing displayofmercyandAriel'sreadycompassionis playedup
by the Restoration playwrights in theirfourthand fifth acts,concerning
thesupposeddeathof Hippolitoand thesentenceof executionlaid on
Ferdinand, inwhichProspero'sturntowardmercyis replacedbyextreme,
evenbrutishimplacability; as he says "[. . .] all mydesignsare ruin'd/
And unravel'dby thisblow. / No pleasurenow is leftme butRevenge"
(4.3.36-38).
One consequenceof thisis a stateof discordunprecedented in the
"highplot,"describedinAriel'ssoliloquy:
Harshdiscordreignsthroughout thisfatalIsle,
AtwhichgoodAngelsmourn,illSpiritssmile;
Old Prospero,byhisDaughtersrob'd ofrest,
Has in displeasureleft'embothunblest.
Unkindly theyabjureeachothersbed,
To save thelivingand revengethedead.
Alonzoand hisSon arePris'nermade,
And good Gonzalodoes theircrimesupbraid.
Antonio and Gonzalodisagree,
Andwou'd,thoughin one Cave,at distancebe.
TheSeamenall thatcursedWinehavespent,
Whichstillrenew'dtheirthirst ofGovernment;
And, wantingsubjectsforthefoodofVow'r
Eachwou'd torulealonetherestdevour.
TheMonstersSycorax and Caliban

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 Dryden and Da venant's TheTempest 287

More monstrousgrow by passions learn'd fromman. (4.3.256-71, my

emphasis.)
The lastsix lineshereare important.Thoughostensibly theyreferto the
charactersofthe"low"plot,themariners and monsters,
theimagesofcan-
nibalismand monstrousness accrue,as theyhavethroughout thecourseof
theplay,to thehighcharacters as well and particularly,
as I have argued,
toProspero.
Ariel'ssoliloquycontinues:

EvenI notfram'dofwarringElements,
Partakeand suffer fromthesediscontents.
Why shou'd a mortal byEnchantmentshold
In chainsa spiritofaetherialmould?
AccursedMagickwe ourselveshavetaught,
And ourownpow'rhas oursubjection wrought!(273-78)
Theselinesinvitea comparison betweenArielandProspero. Prospero, here
as in Shakespeare, butperhapsmorein Dryden/Davenant's finalacts,is
"fram'dbywarring elements"- thoseelements beingthedrivefora neces-
and
sary civilizing order
patriarchal onthe one hand anda sheer, savagewill
topoweron theother. Arielis notso "fram'd," butinhiscursing"Magick"
he recallsseveralscenesinwhichthemortalwhoholdshim"inchains"ab-
juresmagic.Justbeforedeclaring thathisonlypleasureis now in revenge,
Prosperosays:"Alas!How muchin vaindothfeebleArtendeavour/ To
ResistthewillofHeaven!"(4.3.33-34). WhenAlonzointervenes tosavehis
son Ferdinand, Prosperodeclares"HereI am plac'dby Heav'n,hereI am
Prince[....]/ And I inbitterness have sentforyou / To havethesudden
joyofseeinghimalive,/ And thenthegreater griefto see himdye"(148-
53),thencallson "Guards"- in thestagedirections, "manySpirits" - and
says"I thought no moreto / Use theiraids;(I'm cursedbecauseI us'd it) /
ButtheyarenowtheMinisters ofHeaven,/ WhilstI revengethismurder"
(159-62).Fludernik offers
thisglossonAriel'sspeech:

AccordingtoAriel,itis themagiche himself(orCaliban)has taught

Prosperothathas enabledProsperoto conquertheindigenouspopu-
lation[. . .] Onlybyarriving
ontheislandandbeinghelpedbyCaliban
andArielis Prosperoabletosurviveandestablishhimself intheplace
whichhe dulyturnsintoa penalcolonyinveryfact,condemning both
CalibanandArielto servitude[. . .] (284-85)

Thus, thereis thisdifference

betweenProspero'sand Ariel's abjuring
magic- Ariel'smagichas been turnedagainsthim so as to negatehis

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288 CandyB. K. Schule

abilityto controlhisown destiny,

and Prospero'
s magic,Prosperofeels,is
notadequateforthecontroloverotherstowhichhe aspires.Thelatterhas
beenmadeclearina speechthatoccursintheplay'scentralact.WhenHip-
politohas notbeendestroyed uponseeinga woman,Prosperosaysthis:

True,he has seena woman,yethe lives;perhapsI took

themomentofhisbirthamiss,perhapsmyArtitselfis false:on
whatstrangegroundswe buildourhopesand fears;manslifeis
all a mist,and in thedark,ourfortunes
meetus.
IfFatebe not,thenwhatcan we foresee,
Or how can we avoid it,ifitbe?
Ifbyfree-will in ourownpathswe move,
How arewe boundedbyDecreesabove?
Whether we drive,orwhetherwe aredriven,
Ifill'tisours,ifgood theactofHeaven.(3.5.153-62)

Novakcomments:

Althoughthelastlinemustbe readas a statement ofresignation,itis

difficult
to tellwhetherProsperoresignshimselfto faithin theabso-
lutegoodnessofGod and thewickednessofman- itis noteasytosee
how a benevolent deitywould drivemanto "ill"- or to a somewhat
ironicstatement of theunsatisfactory
way menusuallyresolvethe
problem.(369n.154-55)
As opposed to "resigned"or "ironic,"however,thetoneof the speech
seemsto me peevish,and,I would argue,it is predictable thatProspero
would resortto identifying himselfwithHeavenin Actsfourand fivein
orderto recoverat leasttheillusionofcontrolor ofagency,and so, very
nearly,precipitatefataltragedy.
As I said,itis Arielwho avertsthetragedybyproviding a "cure"for
Hippolito'swound, and itis notable
thatthis curehas itsbasis inwhathas
becomeso problematized the
throughout play - "Nature" and "Heaven."
Arielhasgathered Moly,Ironwart, "All-heal,"and other natural "Simples,"
whileHippolito's"good Angel"has increasedtheir"pow'r"by a visitto
"Each Planetwhicho're-ruled thoseHerbs"(5.1.51-65).It is appropriate,
then,that in
Prospero, vacatingtheisland,cedes controlofitsdestinyto
thosetwo powersthathave repeatedlyfoiledhis efforts at governance.
As he saysin theplay'slastlines,"On myretreat letHeavenand Nature
smile/And everflourish theEnchanted Isle"(265-66).The powersofthe
former have been inappropriately vilified;thepowersof thelatterhave
beenunsuccessfully conscripted.

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 Drydenand Davenant's TheTempest 289

Overall,Drydenand Davenantdo notso muchquash or underplay

thosethreatstovariousideologiesofpatriarchal orderas theyredirect eval-
uationtowardwhatsortsoforderareauthentic and worthpreserving, and
whicharenot.Both,forinstance, areroyalist,
butnotmindlessly so. Evenin
Abalsom andAchitophel, a staunchdefenseofan embattled kingand father,
Dryden couldwarn the
against "arbitrary of
power" "Kingsunquestioned,"
and in TheTempest,as inthatpoem,justauthority dependsuponthe"Con-
sent"oftheAlmighty. YetDrydenrecognizes thatsucha licenseto power
maybe claimedbymisguidedormalicioushumanagentsas wellas sancti-
fiedones.WhileDryden's and Davenant'srevisionof TheTempest reifies
faithinProvidence,itdoesnotoffer a "holdtheline"orientation towardthe
embattled socialandpoliticalideologiesofitstime.Instead,itsuggestshow
co-optingProvidential authoritymaybeused,perversely, toavoidnecessary
scrutinyof thepatriarchal and colonial and
assumptions representations of
thosewhowouldgetorholdpower.Suchself-examination is crucialtothe
causeoffairdealingwithpeoplesand individuals - now,as itwas in 1667.

GeorgiaSouthernUniversity
S tatesboro,Georgia

NOTES
1. All citationsto lines,scenes,or acts fromDrydenand Davenant's Tempest
refer toNovak'sedition.Drydenand Davenantuse bothverseand prose;forease
ofreference, I havereproduced Novak'slinebreaksand capitalization intheprose
passagesas well as in theversepassages.Citationsto Dryden's prefaceand to
Novak'scommentary and notesarepage numbersin thesameedition.
2. In fact,Orr'sanalysisfocusesmorespecifically on issuesof government in
colonies,and as shewrites,"Thelackofintegration betweenthetwoplotsand the
eventualdeparture fromtheislandofall theEuropeanssuggeststheimpossibility
ofresolving thetensionsinvokedbytherehearsalofconstitutional argument in a
colonialsetting." (195).Katherine EisamanMaus offers anotherreadingofthe"cu-
riouslyexclusive"highandlow plots.Shearguesthatthe"detachment" ofthelow
characters constitutes a threattoProsperonotinhispersonbutinhisrole,suggest-
ing"thepossibility thatthepatriarchal conceptionofmonarchy is bankrupt."She
concludes, however, thatDrydenand Davenantare"notin theleastsubversive of
themonarchical but
principle," thatcreativeagencyis relocatedfrom Shakespeare's
king/father /artist/magician to "theloyalresourceful - thatis,Ariel,and
subject"
ultimately Drydenhimself - celebrating hissovereign (203-09).
3.Allcitations toFletcher's
Sea Voyage refertopagenumbers inDarley'sedition.
4. Paynetakesqualifiedissue withthis"all too familiartale of oppression,"
arguingthaton stage"perfectly ordinarywomenbecomesimultaneously theob-
jectofcollectiveattention and thepractitioners ofan 'art/a doublypowerfulyet
circumscribed position"(13-38).

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290 CandyB. K. Schule

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