Journal of Ethnopharmacology 265 (2021) 113270

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Ethnopharmacology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jethpharm

Review

A review on phytochemistry and pharmacological uses of Tecoma stans (L.)

Juss. ex Kunth
Mukul Anand *, 1, R. Basavaraju 1
Department of Biosciences, Sri Sathya Sai Institute of Higher Learning, Prashanthi Nilayam, 515134, Dist. Anantapur, Andhra Pradesh, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Ethnopharmacological relevance: Tecoma stans (L.) Juss. ex Kunth (Bignoniaceae) is an attractive evergreen plant
Tecoma stans known as kusi urakame, koyawari, Palo amarillo, tronadora, yellow-elder, yellow trumpet bush, trumpet-flower, yellow-
Ethnopharmacological bells, trumpet bush, ginger-Thomas, esperanza, and timboco. It is widely used in traditional Mexican medicine, to
Constituents
treat hyperglycemia, gastrointestinal and urinary tract disorders, jaundice, toothaches, headaches, colds, skin
Therapeutic potential
infections, and scorpion, snake, and rat bites. Current research focusses on evaluating its bioactive components
Toxicity
and therapeutic potential.
Aim of the study: The current article reviewed the information available on Tecoma stans ethnopharmacology,
geographical distribution, chemical composition, phytochemistry, therapeutic effects, and toxicology.
Material and methods: Information of botanical description, distribution, traditional uses, chemical composition,
bioactive components, and therapeutic investigations was gathered from a comprehensive literature search of
electronic databases such as Science Direct, PubMed, Web of Science, Wiley, ACS, Springer, Taylor and Francis,
Google Scholar, and SCOPUS until 2020 for publications (peer-reviewed articles, eBooks, short communications,
reports from international organizations, and case letters). Information was also included from books, conference
proceedings, and thesis. Primary keywords for data collection were “Tecoma stans,” and “Ethnopharmacology,”
followed by secondary keywords such as “Constituents,” “Therapeutic effect,” and “Toxicity.”
Results: An exhaustive comparative study of the accessible sources of Tecoma stans confirmed its origin, ethno­
pharmacological and therapeutic uses. More than 120 chemical compounds have been isolated, and the main
active principles are alkaloids, phenolic acids, flavonoids, and fatty acids. The plant possesses vast therapeutic
benefits, such as lowering elevated blood sugar levels, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal,
anti-oxidant, hepatoprotective, and wound healing actions.
Conclusions: Comprehensive literature analysis exhibits that many populations have utilized Tecoma stans around
the globe with specific reference to different parts of Mexico. The above information shows that the plant holds
many hidden potentials and can, therefore, be studied extensively for its phytoconstituents and therapeutic ef­
fects. However, while going through the literature, it was observed that incomplete data is reported on in vivo
trials, especially concerning its dosage, positive and negative control groups, intervention time, and toxicity
studies. Additionally, there is a lack of information on its complete nutritional and phytochemical profiling. We
trust that this review will help lay the groundwork for encouraging pharmacological and pharmaceutical studies.
It will also direct us to understand the clinical relevance and applications of bioactive compounds from Tecoma
stans in the prevention and treatment of diseases.

trumpet bush, ginger-thomas, esperanza, timboco, is native in the high

altitude regions of South America and the drier habitats of North
1. Introduction
America. It has become naturalized in tropical and subtropical areas of
Africa, Asia, and Oceanica (https://www.cabi.org). It is grown as an
Tecoma stans (L.) Juss. ex Kunth (Bignoniaceae), also known as kusi
ornamental plant with attractive clusters of cup-shaped bright yellow
urakame, koyawari, Palo amarillo, tronadora (Irigoten-Rascon and Par­
faintly scented flowers, evergreen foliage, and abundance of fruits and
edes, 2015), yellow-elder, yellow trumpet bush, trumpet-flower, yellow-bells,

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: mukulanand@sssihl.edu.in (M. Anand), rbasavaraju@sssihl.edu.in (R. Basavaraju).
1
Both authors share same contribution towards the paper.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2020.113270
Received 11 July 2018; Received in revised form 1 August 2020; Accepted 9 August 2020
Available online 18 August 2020
0378-8741/© 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
M. Anand and R. Basavaraju Journal of Ethnopharmacology 265 (2021) 113270

Abbreviations IL Interleukin
LDL Low-Density Lipoprotein
AC Atherogenic Coefficient LD50 Lethal Dose
AI Atherogenic Index MCF-7 Michigan Cancer Foundation-7
ALP Alkaline Phosphatase MEF Mouse Embryonic Fibroblast
ALT Alanine Aminotransferase MCP-1 Monocyte Chemoattractant Protein-1
AMPK Adenosine Monophosphate-Activated Protein Kinase MDA Malondialdehyde
BAP 6-Benzylaminopurine MTT 3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium
BHT Butylated Hydroxyl Toluene bromide
bw body weight L-NAME NG-nitro-L-arginine Methyl Ester
CAE Catechin Equivalent 2-NBDG (2-[N-(nitrobenz-2oxa-1,3-diazol-4-yl)amino]-2-deoxy-D-
CCh Carbachol glucose)
CCl4 Carbon Tetrachloride PCM Paracetamol
DMSO Dimethyl sulfoxide PPAR-γ Peroxisome Proliferator Activated Receptor-γ
DPPH 2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl KCl Potassium Chloride
2,4,-D 2,4-Dichlorophenoxy acetic acid QE Quercetin Equivalent
dw dry weight basis SGPT Serum Glutamate Pyruvate Transaminase
EAC Ehrlich Ascites Carcinoma SGOT Serum Glutamate Oxaloacetate Transaminase
EC50 Half-Maximal Effective Concentration SOD Superoxide Dismutase
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization TAA Thioacetamide
5-FU 5-Fluorouracil TC Total Cholesterol
GAE Gallic Acid Equivalent TGL Triglycerides
GLUT Glucose Transporter TNF-α Tumor Necrosis Factor-α
HbA1c Glycated Hemoglobin TPTZ 2,4,6-Tri(2-pyridyl)-s-triazine
GSH Reduced Glutathione VDCCs Voltage-Dependent Calcium Channels
HDL High-Density Lipoprotein VLDL Very Low-Density Lipoprotein
HEP-2 Human Epithelial Type 2 VERO Verda Reno
IC50 Half-Maximal Inhibitory Concentration

seeds (White, 2003). The plant has been approved and listed in the Plant
List and the Medicinal Plant Names Services (https://www.theplantlist.
org; https://mpns.science.kew.org).
In 1570, Hernandez, a royal physician, first described this plant in his
work. Later, a few Mexican scientists gradually included this plant in
their work, studied its medicinal potential, and recommended its role in
treating hyperglycemia using leaf infusion. Indigenously the plant parts
find their use in the treatment of several diseases and conditions. Some
of them include hyperglycemia, intestinal disorders, kidney problems,
jaundice, skin infections, toothaches, headaches, joint pains, sore eyes,
and heart pain. Additionally, it is one of the commonly used antidotes
for snake, scorpion, and rat bites.
Pharmacological studies have reported hypoglycemic, hypolipi­
demic, anticancer, antioxidant, immunomodulatory, analgesic, antimi­
crobial, antispasmodic, wound healing, and hepatoprotective properties
(Pullaiah, 2002; Pullaiah and Naidu, 2003; Prajapati and Patel, 2010;
Rajamurugan et al., 2013; Verma, 2016; Anburaj et al., 2016a,b,c; Bakr
et al., 2019). Up to now, around 120 compounds have been identified
and isolated from the plant. Some of the major compounds include
monoterpene alkaloids, phenolic acids, flavonoids, carotenoids, terpe­
noids, glycosides, phytosterols, volatile oils, and unsaturated fatty acids
(Taha, 1954; Sbihi et al., 2015; Taher et al., 2016; Alade et al., 2019;
Mohammed et al., 2019). Among these, monoterpene alkaloids,
phenolic acids, flavonoids, and fatty acids are the main bioactive com­
ponents that contribute to its therapeutic benefits. Tecomine and
chlorogenic acid from plant leaves have exhibited glucose-lowering
ability (Rodriguez de Sotillo and Hadley, 2002; Constantino et al.,
2003a,b). Additionally, a potential pancreatic lipase enzyme inhibitory
drug consisting of chrysoeriol and apigenin isolated from leaves has
been researched by Ramirez et al. (2012). The plant is useful as a
lubricant, cosmetic, and flavoring component and in perfumery (Dr.
Dukes Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Database, Agricultural
Research Services, USDA). Recently, researchers have used plant leaf
and flower for synthesizing silver nanoparticles, showing its application
in the field of biomedicine, food packaging, and wound healing (Arun­
kumar et al., 2013). The purpose of this review is to display its ethno­
pharmacological uses, and gaps in phytochemistry, pharmacological
actions, and toxicity. As an essential traditional Mexican medicine,
further studies on Tecoma stans can lead to the development of new
drugs and therapeutics for various diseases.
2. Data collection
2.1. Method
A comprehensive data search on plant description, distribution,
traditional uses, chemical composition, and therapeutic effects was
gathered from peer-reviewed articles, eBooks, short communications,
reports from international organizations, and case letters. Multiple
recognized international electronic databases such as Science Direct,
PubMed, Web of Science, Wiley, ACS, Springer, Taylor and Francis,
Google Scholar, and SCOPUS were used to gather the information using
“Tecoma stans” and “Ethnopharmacology for the primary searches; and
then “Constituents,” “Therapeutic potential,” and “Toxicity” for the
secondary searches. Information was also included from books, confer­
ence proceedings, and thesis. Also, the plant taxonomy was confirmed
using certified databases such as the Plant List and the Medicinal Plant
Names Services.
2.2. Results
Information on ethnobotanical studies of the plant was obtained
using primary research papers. Table 1 gives data on plant’s traditional
medicinal uses, part(s) used, method of preparation, and its region of
use. Priority was given to those investigations which were carried out
using the right experimental design and correct methodology. Research
publications with inappropriate study designs and results were not
included in the review. Data published on chemical composition and in

2
M. Anand and R. Basavaraju
vitro therapeutic efficacy using a correct methodology (plant parts used
for extraction, medium and method of extraction, positive and negative
controls, and units of expression) was retained. Papers and research
work published with experimental evidence in one or more human and
animal models exhibiting plant’s therapeutic efficacy were also included
in the article. Studies with appropriate usage of controls, standard or
commercial drugs, a dose range of pharmacological relevance were
incorporated. This review is relatively exhaustive concerning its
ethnobotanical uses, chemical composition, therapeutic potential,
toxicity, and side effects studied by various researchers on this plant.
3. Morphological description
It is a medium-sized evergreen flowering perennial deciduous shrub;
the plant is 1.5–7.5 m tall and 1–2.6 m wide (Fig. 1 a). The basal stems
have a smooth bark, which turns light grey, is lepidote when young,
develops grooves, and furrows with age. The green leaves are compound
and saw-toothed (5–13), and the leaflets have an opposite arrangement
on the unwinged rachis except for a single terminal leaflet. They are
slightly hairy on the undersides near the midrib, and in the vein axils,
5–8 cm long and 4 cm wide with a short petiole, lanceolate (elliptic or
ovate), and the apex is acute with a narrow base (Fig. 1 b). The flowers of
the plant are showy, bright yellow, about 4–5 cm long with a short
petiole, tubular in shape, with faint orange to red strips running down
the throat, and have five rounded lobes. They occur in series on clus­
tered racemes, with up to 50 flowers in each, at branch tips bending the
twigs into arches and appearing like golden bells from far (Fig. 1 c). In
India, it blooms in abundance in the fall, with a shorter blooming period
in spring. The flowers have a fragrance that attracts bees, humming­
birds, butterflies, and other pollinators. The fruit is 10–25 cm long; it has
a bean-shaped capsule with two sections, each containing approxi­
mately 10–20 seeds in each locule (Fig. 1 d). Initially, it is green, but as it
ages, a change in pod color from olive green to pale brown occurs. Dried
fruits stay on the tree in untidy clusters for many months, slowly open
up, and release many papery and winged seeds (Fig. 1 e) that float away
to nearby areas by breeze (Verma, 2011; Dhanya et al., 2013; Labhane
and Dongarwar, 2014). Fig. 1 a to e shows the whole plant and its parts
photographed in the Puttaparthi region of Andhra Pradesh, India.
4. Geographical distribution, habitat, and propagation
4.1. Geographical distribution
The native distribution of the plant ranges from southern Texas, New
Mexico, and Arizona to Bolivia and northern Argentina and from Flor­
ida, The Bahamas, to The Caribbean. It has become naturalized in many
parts of tropical and subtropical countries, namely, Africa (Botswana,
Cabo Verde, Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Mauritania, Mauritius, Nigeria,
Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe), Asia
(India, Indonesia, Philippines), Oceania (American Samoa, Western
Australia, Queensland, Christmas Island, Cook Island, Federated States
of Micronesia, Fiji, French Polynesia, Guam, Kiribati, Marshall Islands,
New Caledonia, Niue, Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, Samoa, Solomon
Islands, Tonga) (FAO, 1986; https://www.cabi.org). In India, it is widely
distributed from the Shiwalik ranges in the Himalayas to the plains
extending to the tip of the southern part of India. It has been recorded in
different regional floras of the country, namely, Shimla in Himachal
Pradesh (Thakur et al., 2012); Nalgonda, Baptala, Tirumala hills, Put­
taparthi, Simhachalam, and Warangal in Andhra Pradesh (Prasanna
et al., 2013; Anand and Basavaraju, 2016); Bargarh and Cuttak in Orissa
(Das et al., 2010; Dash et al., 2011; Giri et al., 2012); Chennai, Hosur,
and Namakkal in Tamil Nadu (Ghandhi and Ramesh, 2010; Thirumal
et al., 2012; Kameshwaran et al., 2012; Rajendran et al., 2011; Raja­
murugan et al., 2013); Pune in Maharashtra (Torane et al., 2011);
Modasa in Gujarat (Prajapati and Patel, 2010); Karnataka and Western
Ghats (Shanmukha et al., 2013a,b).
3
Journal of Ethnopharmacology 265 (2021) 113270
4.2. Habitat
It is a light-demanding plant and requires nearly full sunlight for
survival. Roadsides and disturbed areas are the most common habitats.
The plant is found to be intolerant to heavy frost and wind, tolerant to
moderate salt concentrations, and has a high resistance to drought
conditions. It grows in most well-drained soils, receiving a mean rainfall
of 7001800 m. It prefers clay loams but stands most types of soils, and it
is particularly tolerant of alkaline soil conditions. It grows up to 10–20
years following disturbance (Tipton, 1994; Lohmann, 2006; Orwa et al.,
2009).
4.3. Propagation
The plant multiplies from seeds and can also be propagated from
green cuttings. Seedlings are easy to transplant, which bloom within two
years. The early growth of the plant is relatively rapid and can achieve
approximately 1 m height. They can grow at higher altitudes but with
less flowering. Young plants need frequent irrigation and protection
from livestock, but once established, they can survive well on irregular
watering and care. Annual pruning is necessary to keep them under
control. After massive bloom, some plants become partially deciduous
and often chlorotic. Thus, it is the best time to prune, as there is more
convenient access to the interior part of the plant. Many insects, para­
sitic plants, and disease organisms attack the species, but none of them
seems to pose a severe threat (White, 2003).
5. Traditional uses
All the parts of the plant have been used in traditional medicine to
treat many diseases and conditions. The plant is extensively used in
Mexican traditional medicine to lower elevated blood glucose levels,
treat disorders of the intestine, liver, and skin and relieve toothache,
headache, joint pain, and cold. Moreover, it is used as an effective
diuretic and an antidote against a scorpion, snake, and rat bite. Tara­
humaras are indigenous people of America with significant populations
living in Chihuahua, Durango, and Sonora of Mexico. They address
Tecoma as kusi urakame, koyawari, Palo amarillo, and tronadora, and it is
still used extensively as a home remedy by the group. Tea prepared from
flowers is used to relieve cold and is also used to rub chest during heart
pain. The plant also finds its use as a remedy for sore eyes among this
population (Irigoten-Rascon and Paredes, 2015). The plant leaf is used
by the rural community of Kyaing Tong Township, Mynamar, for healing
cracked bones, relieving joint pains due to rheumatoid, and treating
fevers, and snake bites (Moe and Hlaing, 2019). In India, the plant finds
its use as an antidiabetic agent and as an effective therapy against snake,
scorpion, and rat bite in the Satara and Salem districts of Maharashtra
and Tamil Nadu (Thangadurai, 1998; Mishra et al., 2008). Table 1 shows
the traditional uses of the different parts of the plant.
6. Chemical composition
6.1. Nutritional components
The total moisture content in leaf ranged from 5.90 to 11.75%
(Prajapati and Patel, 2010; Rao et al., 2010; Sunamola et al., 2012;
Abere and Enoghama, 2015). The moisture content of 7.7% in seed has
been reported by Vargas-Figueroa and Torres-Gonzalez (2018). Plant
callus induced from leaf showed the presence of sugars such as glucose,
fructose, sucrose, and xylose (Dohnal, 1976, 1977). Sunamola et al.
(2012) reported carbohydrate and crude fiber content of 46.27 and 9.25
g/100 g dw in leaf. Protein content of 20.24 and 26.24 g/100 g dw in
leaf has been reported by Sunamola et al. (2012) and Rodriguez et al.
(2015). The total ash content of leaf ranged between 5.02 and 13.00
g/100 g on dw (Prajapati and Patel, 2010; Rao et al., 2010; Sunamola
et al., 2012; Agarwal and Karthikeyan, 2014; Abere and Enoghama,
M. Anand and R. Basavaraju Journal of Ethnopharmacology 265 (2021) 113270

Fig. 1. (a)–(e) Exhibits whole plant and parts of the plant photographed in Puttaparthi region of Andhra Pradesh, India. (a) Full image of the plant during
blooming period. (b) Saw-toothed leaves and aging bark of the plant. (c) Bell shape flower of the plant. (d) Bean-shaped fruit of the plant. (e) Seeds collected from the
dried fruits of the plant.

4
M. Anand and R. Basavaraju Journal of Ethnopharmacology 265 (2021) 113270

Table 1 Table 1 (continued )

Ethnobotanical uses of Tecoma stans. S. Medicinal use and Part(s) used Traditional Region of use
S. Medicinal use and Part(s) used Traditional Region of use No. reference preparation
No. reference preparation
Relieve menstrual Flower Infusion –
Treat Leaf and Infusion Central cramps and as an
hyperglycemiaa,b,j,m,n,o,t flowera,j,m,n,o America and emmenagoguee
Mexico Immunostimulatori Aerial parts – Mexico,
Leafb,t – Central Central
America, America, and
Mexico, and the
Salem, India Caribbean
Used as eupeptic Leafa Infusion – Treat sore eyesk Flower Infusion Mexico
(alcoholic gastritis) and Leafm – California Relive heart pain Flower Infusion Mexico
treat dysenterya,m (rubbed over chest)k
Mild tonica,t Leaf and Infusion – Treat Joint paink Leaf The smoke of –
roota 10–12 dried
Roott – Salem, India brunt leaves
Treat stomach ulcersq Leaf and root – Kyaing Tong is given to the
Township, patient twice
Mynamar a day for 7–10
Reduce stomach painb,c, Leafb – Mexico, and days
Kyaing Tong Heal cracked bones and Leaf The leaf is Kyaing Tong
Township, relive rheumatoid joint mixed with Township,
Mynamar painq other Mynamar
Flower and Decoction Veracruz medicinal
barkc plants and
Treat piles h,p
Seedh Roasted seeds – rice water to
(100 g) in 1 L form a paste
mustard oil and applied
for few hours as a poultice
and applied to the
on the affected area.
affected area Heals cracked
twice a day bone within a
for 15 days week for
Leafp Infusion Bangladesh young and
Appetite stimulantb Leaf – – within 15
Reduce toothachesb Leaf – – days for
Treat coldk, jaundicem, Leaf and – – adults above
headache, and kidney flowerd,e 25 years.
problemsd,e,k Flowerk Infusion Mexico The leaf is
Leafm – California mixed with
Antipyreticc,f Leaf, wood, – – Mimusops
and oil elengi L. leaf
Antisyphilitic actiona,j Roota Infusion – with half cup
Leafj – Mexico rice and little
Treat skin infections g
Leaf and Poultice Mexico alcohol. The
flower paste of this
Diuretic and for treat Root and Strong Mexico and pounded
urinary flowera,c,e decoction Central mixture is
disordersa,c,e,i,j,l,m,n,o,t America applied to
Aerial partsi – Mexico, heal the
Central cracked
America, and bones within
the a week. This
Caribbean mixture is
Leafj,m,n,o – Central also used to
America and relieve
Mexico rheumatic
Rootl,t – – joint pain.
Salem, India Treat malaria feverq Leaf Roasted Kyaing Tong
Vermifuge c,j,l,t
Leaf c
Strong – leaves Township,
decoction decoction Mynamar
Leafj – Mexico Measlesq Leaf A decoction Kyaing Tong
Rootl,t – – of the leaf Township,
Salem, India along with Mynamar
Smooth muscle relaxant, Bark – – Passiflora
mild cardiotonic, and edulis leaf is
chlorecticc used for
Antidote for scorpion Rootc,e Decoction Mexico and bathing
and rat bitec,e,r, and India during
snake venomc,e,q,r Leafq,r – Kyaing Tong measles
Township, Relieve feverq Leaf A paste of Kyaing Tong
Mynamar fresh leaf Township,
and with salt is Mynamar
Jharkhand, applied on
India the anus to
relieve fever
(continued on next page)

5
M. Anand and R. Basavaraju Journal of Ethnopharmacology 265 (2021) 113270

Table 1 (continued ) and sinapic acids; sitosterols; triterpenoids; and flavonoids, namely,
S. Medicinal use and Part(s) used Traditional Region of use flavonone, apigenin (Fig. 3 e), chrysoeriol (Fig. 3 f), kaempferol (Fig. 3
No. reference preparation g), luteolin (Fig. 3 h), quercetin (Fig. 3 i), rutin (Figs. 3 j), 7,8-dihy­
especially in
droxy-4,6-dimethoxy flavone, and verbascoside (Rastogi and Mehro­
children tra, 1993; Lins and Felicio, 1993; Srivastava, 1994; Marzouk et al., 2006;
Treat giddinesss Leaf A paste of 20 Assam, India Ramirez et al., 2016).
fresh leaves Bioactive components such as 2-(3,4-dihydroxy phenyl) ethyl – 2 – O
diluted in
- [6 – deoxy - α- L – mannopyranosyl 4 - (3, 4 - dihydroxy phenyl) -2-
water is
consumed to propenoate]-β-D-glucopyranose, 4-OE caffeoyl-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-
treat (1–3)-α/β-D-glucopyranose, E/Z acteoside, isoacteoside, 5-hydroxysky­
giddiness tanthine hydrochloride, rutin, luteolin 7-O-β-D-neohespridoside, and
Same paste is luteolin 7-O-β-D-glucopyranoside have been reported in pod. Plant
also applied
on the
flowers have shown the presence of compounds such as luteolin 7-O-β-D-
forehead to glucuronopyranoside, diosmetin 7-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, diosmetin
get relief from luteolin 7-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, diosmetin 7-O-β-D-glucuronopyr­
the same anoside methyl ester, and acteoside (Anburaj et al., 2016a,b,c).
a
FAO, 1986.
b
Aarland et al., 2015. 6.2.1. Leaves, branches, and bark
c
Kandakatla et al. (2010). Govindappa et al. (2011) determined the total phenolic compound
d
Alarcon-Aguilar and Román-Ramos (2006). content (mg GAE/g extract) of 216, 206, and 177 in methanolic, etha­
e
Argueta (2014). nolic, and aqueous extracts. Among the phytochemicals (mg/100 g dw)
f
Sharma et al. (2010). analyzed in the leaf, Hussain et al. (2011) observed the highest amount
g
Quattrocchi (2012). of alkaloids (51.5), followed by saponins (11), flavonoids (0.53), and
h
– Shah and Lone (2018).
i tannins (0.19), and least amount of phenols (0.031) expressed as a
Del Amo (1979).
j percent dw. However, Dash et al. (2011) reported 5.7 for flavonoids, 5.4
Pelton (1964).
k
Irigoten-Rascon and Paredes (2015). for alkaloids, 0.4 for tannins, 0.38 for saponins, and 0.1 for phenols.
l
Khare, 2006. A study conducted by Salem et al. (2013) showed that methanolic
m
Winkelman (1986). extract exhibited the highest amount of polyphenols and flavonoids in
n
Lozoya et al. (1987). leaf and branch samples of Tecoma stans as compared to other extracts,
o
Shapiro (2002). namely, ethanolic, aqueous, and n-butanol. However, the chloroform
p
Rahmatullah et al. (2010). extract did not show the presence of both phytochemicals. Total
q
Moe and Hlaing (2019). phenolic content (mg GAE/g extract) determined in methanolic extract
r
Jaipuriar, 2007. was 37.7 in branch and 50.3 in leaf, followed by 30.33 and 44.1 in
s
Baishya and Bora (2007).
t
ethanolic extracts, 20.67 and 24.3 in n-butanol extracts, and 23.66 and
Mishra et al. (2008).
25.33 in branch and leaf aqueous extracts, respectively. A similar trend
was observed for flavonoid (mg CAE/g extract) content in branch and
2015). The fat content of 15 g/100 g dw has been determined by Sbihi leaf samples with 30.66 and 40.66 in methanolic extract, followed by
et al. (2015) in plant seed, which contained 89% unsaturated fatty acids. 25.33 and 35 in ethanolic, 17, and 19.66 in butanol, and 15 and 17.66 in
However, a lower crude fat content of 2.57 g/100 g dw Sunamola et al. aqueous extracts, respectively.
(2012) has reported in plant leaf. Aarland et al. (2015) analyzed the methanolic leaf extract (dw) and
Maiti et al. (2016) studied the presence of certain minerals (mg/100 identified bioactive components, namely, total phenols (411 GAE
g dw), which include potassium (5722), phosphorus (136), magnesium mEq/g), flavonoids (5.76 QE mEq/g), and chlorogenic acid (34.6 ppm).
(31.0), iron (2.64), zinc (2.95), and copper (2.57). The authors also However, caffeic acid was not reported in the study.
analyzed the percentage of carbon (48.8) and nitrogen (3.28) in the leaf Taher et al. (2016) determined total phenolic and flavonoid content
samples. Sunamola et al. (2012) presented the calcium, iron, zinc, and in leaf crude methanolic, methylene chloride, ethyl acetate, butanol, and
copper content of 145.99, 8.147, 2.636, and 0.66 mg/100 g dw, crude flavonoid extracts. Ethyl acetate showed the highest presence of
respectively, in leaf. total phenols (279.41 mg GAE/g extract) and flavonoids (59.91 mg
QE/g extract), followed by crude flavonoid (264.7 and 55.55), crude
6.2. Phytochemical profile methanol (230.3 and 51.19), butanol (232 and 45.75), and methylene
chloride (102.49 and 39.21) extracts, respectively. HPLC analysis
On screening, the plant parts showed the presence of compounds detected a total number of 23 phenolic compounds (mg/100 g dw) in the
such as polyphenols, flavonoids, terpenoids, alkaloids, glycosides, phy­ methanolic extract. Among them, rutin (112.7) was the predominant
tosterols, saponins, tannins, and fatty acids. Among the various solvents phenolic derivative, followed by ferulic acid (31.38), pyrogallol (29),
used, methanol and ethyl acetate showed maximum extraction and rosmarinic acid (27.1), 3,4,5-trimethoxy cinnamic acid (21.56), nar­
presence of the phytochemicals (Raju et al., 2011; Taher et al., 2016). ingin (21.4), chlorogenic acid (17.04), quercitrin (16.6), quercetin (14),
Hammouda and Motawi (1959) identified the first alkaloid from leaf protocatechuic acid (11.01), catechin (10.74), ellagic acid (8.91), hes­
and named it as tecomine (Fig. 2 d). Later, in 1966, Hammouda and peretin (7.97), p-hydroxybenzoic acid (6.28), vanillic acid (5.87), iso­
Amer reported the next alkaloid called tecostanine (Fig. 2 e). Other re­ ferulic acid (5.02), apigenin (3.9), kaempferol (2.8), p-coumaric acid
ported leaf alkaloids include boschniakine (Fig. 2 a), 4-hydroxytecoma­ (1.49), caffeic acid (1.40), gallic acid (0.9), 7-hydroxy-flavone (0.9), and
nine (Fig. 2 b), N-normethylskytanthine (Fig. 2 c), 5-hydroskytanthine, cinnamic acid (0.31).
7-hydroskytanthine, γ-skytanthine, tecomanine, and 4-noractinidine. Studies have explained that different physiological stages of a plant
Gradually, the interest shifted towards the identification and determi­ have a specific need for nutrients and phytochemicals to support its
nation of other functional molecules in the leaf as well as other parts of growth and dry period. Anand and Basavaraju (2016) performed a
the plant. Other functional components reported in the leaf include comparative analysis in the leaf at two physiological stages of the
phenolic acids, namely, chlorogenic (Fig. 3 a), cinnamic acid (Fig. 3 b), Tecoma plant, namely, flowering and pre-flowering. On qualitative
ferulic acid (Fig. 3 c), gallic acid (Fig. 3 d), caffeic, vanillic, o-coumaric, screening of the phytochemicals, solvents such as aqueous, methanol,

6
M. Anand and R. Basavaraju
Fig. 2. (a)–(e) Alkaloids identified in the plant leaf. (a) Boschniakine. (b) 4-hydroxytecomine. (c) N-normethylskytanthine. (d) Tecomine. (e) Tecostanine.
and ethyl acetate, showed a higher presence of polyphenols, flavonoids,
and tannins during the flowering phase than the vegetative phase.
Chloroform and hexane extracts did not show phenolic components.
Alkaloids were slightly high in the pre-flowering stage with the highest
extractability in methanol and chloroform extracts. Saponins and ter­
penoids did not show any variation based on changes in the physio­
logical stages and showed higher extraction in the methanolic extract.
However, alkaloids and terpenoids were absent in the aqueous extract
during both plant stages. Phenolic compounds play a significant role in
the development, regulation, and structuring of plants. In line with this,
higher accumulation of these phytochemicals (mg/100 g dw), namely,
3984.2 for polyphenols, 199.2 for flavonoids, and 14.8 for tannins, was
observed during the flowering stage than during the vegetative phase,
which exhibited comparatively lower levels of 2236.8, 118.4, and 11.5
for polyphenols, flavonoids, and tannins, respectively. Alkaloids are
known to vary between vegetative and generative stages of a plant and
are at their peak during the budding phase. The levels tend to increase
significantly during the seed bearing period, followed by a decline in the
levels as the seed ripens. The authors of the study also reported high
alkaloid content of 2450 mg/100 g dw during the pre-flowering stage
than during the flowering stage (1783). Thus, both stages showed
different levels of phytochemicals in the leaves, which majorly depends
on the physiological stage of the plant, followed by the type of extraction
medium, and extractability. However, plants resistance towards envi­
ronmental stress, namely, hot temperature, drought, high solar expo­
sure, and soil salinity, can also be the stimulating factor that allows
biosynthesis and accumulation of these substances during different
phases of their growth.
7
Journal of Ethnopharmacology 265 (2021) 113270
6.2.2. Flowers
Taha (1954) isolated two carotenoids from yellow bell flowers,
namely, β-carotene and zeaxanthin. The total carotenoid content was
12.6 mg/100 g fw, of which 1.8 mg was β-carotene from the epiphasic
fraction, and the remaining 10.8 mg was zeaxanthin from the hypo­
phasic fraction. Ranjit et al. (2015) observed flavonoid (mg QE/g
extract) content of 195 and 160.5 in aqueous and chloroform extract.
6.2.3. Seeds
Various fatty acids determined in the plant seed oil include octadeca-
trans-3, cis-9,12,15-tetraeonic, palmitic, stearic, octadecadienoic, octa­
decatrienoic, and octadecatetraenoic (Hopkins and Chisholm, 1965;
Yoganarasimhan, 1996; Khare, 2007). Recently, Sbihi et al. (2015)
studied the fatty acid composition of seed oil by gas chromatography,
where UFAs accounted for 89.43% of the total fat content. Among the
fatty acids identified, linoleic acid (45.47) was the highest, followed by
oleic (23.56), (11.48), palmitic (6.09), stearidonic acid (6.65), stearic
acid (4.12), and γ-linolenic acid (1.04). Fig. 4 (a and b) shows linoleic
acid and oleic acid. The extracted oil sample was further investigated for
its vitamin E, polyphenol, and flavonoid contents. On HPLC analysis, the
total vitamin E content observed was 266.06 mg/100 g oil, of which
γ-tocopherol (78.93%) was the highest followed by δ-tocotrienol
(18.63%) levels. The extracted oil showed a polyphenol and flavonoid
content of 168.69 mg GAE/100 g oil and 5.54 mg CAE/g oil, respec­
tively. The iodine value of 180.4 g/100 g oil supports high unsaturation
of the extracted seed oil. Also, pigments (mg/kg) such as chlorophyll
(1.84) and carotenoids (2.49), were also observed in the seed oil. The
antioxidant components of the oil, namely, carotenoids, vitamin E,
M. Anand and R. Basavaraju Journal of Ethnopharmacology 265 (2021) 113270

Fig. 3. 3 (a) to 3 (j) Phenolic acids and flavonoids identified in the plant leaf. (a) Chlorogenic acid. (b) Cinnamic acid. (c) Ferulic acid. (d) Gallic acid. (e)
Apigenin. (f) Chryseriol. (g) Kaempferol. (h) Luteolin. (i) Quercetin. (j) Rutin.

Fig. 4. 4 (a) and (b) Major unsaturated fatty acids of the plant seed oil. (a) Linoleic acid. (b) Oleic acid.

8
M. Anand and R. Basavaraju
polyphenols, and flavonoids, not only benefits the health but also keep
the oil stable and provides good shelf life. Moreover, the UFAs identified
from the oil are of importance to food and pharmaceutical industries and
can be used in designing food supplements for general and therapeutic
health. Therefore, concerning its excellent fatty acid composition and
presence of antioxidants, the seed oil can be valorized as a new source of
vegetable oil. However, studies need to be undertaken concerning its
safety before consumption.
7. Pharmacological properties
7.1. Hypoglycemic
Mexican traditional medicine system has been using this plant for
more than 100 years extensively for treating type 2 diabetes, which
leads to scientific interest in identifying principal components respon­
sible for this property. Initially, bigonine, a bitter alkaloid, and teco­
manine, a volatile alkaloid, were isolated, which did not yield promising
results in controlling elevated glucose levels. Later, it was explained that
the intake of plant leaf infusion attenuated sensations of hunger and
thirst by decreasing the excretion of glucose in patients with diabetes
(FAO, 1986). Studies carried out in Mexico created ripples all over
among the scientific community of other countries and led to a
considerable interest among them to further analyze this underutilized
medicinal plant. Later, a few in vitro and in vivo models demonstrated the
glucose lowering action of this therapeutic plant, and the reported
bioactive components include monoterpene alkaloids (tecomine and
tecostanine) and chlorogenic acid (Perez et al., 1984; Lozoya et al.,
1987).
Feeding healthy and alloxan treated fasting rabbits with extracted
alkaloids, namely, tecomine and tecostanine, at doses of 20 and 50 mg/
kg bw confirmed the hypoglycemic potential of the plant (Hammouda
et al., 1964; Hammouda and Amer, 1966). Besides, the authors did not
observe hypoglycemic action when similar doses of studied alkaloids
were given to fasting rabbits in the absence of pancreas.
Lozoya-Meckes and Mellado-Campos (1985) studied the effect of
intravenous administration of leaf infusion in healthy dogs, which pro­
duced early hyperglycemia and arterial hypotension, followed by a
slight decrease in blood glucose levels along with an increase in TGL and
no change in insulin levels. Also, the authors observed a gradual increase
in the heart rate after 1 h of administration, which persisted for several
hours. Overall, early hyperglycemia observed in the experimental group
is related to hepatic glycogen metabolism involving activation of
glycogenolysis, followed by blood glucose lowering action of the infu­
sion in dogs.
Chlorogenic acid is another hypoglycemic component isolated from
the plant which produces its action by attenuating the intestinal index of
glucose absorption and postprandial hyperglycemia peak. The phenolic
compound also decreased cholesterol TGL levels in the animals (Rodri­
guez de Sotillo and Hadley, 2002).
Constantino et al. (2003a) did not report the hypoglycemic action of
tecostanine when fed to normoglycemic and hypoglycemic rats. Despite
the above results, Constantino et al. (2003b), used in vivo and in vitro
models and studied the hypoglycemic potential of the other significant
alkaloid fractions isolated from the plant. For in vivo model, feeding
purified alkaloid fractions, namely, tecomine hydrochloride and
boschniakine oxalate hemihydrate twice a day at a dose of 50 mg/kg bw
and 5β hydroxyskytanthine oxalate at 63.4 mg/kg bw to 8 week old male
db/db mice for seven days did not reduce plasma glucose or insulin
levels. However, reference standard rosiglitazone at a dose of 5 mg/kg
bw produced a marked reduction of 373 mg/dl in the plasma glucose
levels compared to the control (621 mg/dl). Surprisingly, tecomine
hydrochloride fraction produced significant (p < 0.02) reduction (73) in
plasma cholesterol levels (mg/dl) as compared to the control group (95),
yet there was no significant change observed in the body weight, free
fatty acids, TGL, urea, food and water intake of the experimental
9
Journal of Ethnopharmacology 265 (2021) 113270
animals. For the in vitro model, the isolated alkaloid fractions, namely,
tecomine, boschniakine, and 5β hydroxyskytanthine, were studied for
their stimulating effect on the basal glucose uptake rate in normogly­
cemic rat white adipocytes at a concentration of 1 mM prepared in
DMSO. Among the extracts, tecomine produced a potent stimulating
effect on the basal glucose uptake rate with an EC50 value of 0.007 μM.
However, the other two extracts were inactive even at a concentration of
100 μM.
Similar results were observed by Aguilar-Santamaria et al. (2009)
where acute, and sub-chronic administration of Tecoma leaf aqueous
extract for 21 days at doses ranging between 125 and 1000 mg/kg and
500 mg/kg, respectively did not modify fasting blood glucose levels in
healthy and streptozotocin induced diabetic Sprague-Dawley rats.
Additionally, the extract doses did not exhibit any change in the glucose
tolerance test. However, sub-chronic administration of 500 mg/kg
bw/day extract showed a significant (p < 0.05) decrease in cholesterol
(75–70 mg/dl) and triglyceride (296–251 mg/dl) levels in streptozoto­
cin induced diabetic rats. Dose-dependent inhibition of glucose from the
starch was observed in the starch tolerance curve where the leaf extract
at 250 and 500 mg/kg dose exhibited a decrease in the postprandial
glucose peak in both healthy and streptozotocin induced diabetic rats
with the same magnitude as that of standard drug acarbose (50 mg/kg
bw). The results revealed by the starch tolerance test and in vitro inhi­
bition of intestinal α-glucosidase at EC50 < 1 mg/ml, propose that the
primary anti-diabetic mechanism of the plant leaf could be due to its
inhibitory action against the intestinal enzyme.
Alonso-Castro et al. (2010) observed the efficiency of leaf plant
extract to stimulate 2-NBDG uptake by insulin-sensitive and
insulin-resistant mature murine 3T3-F442A and human subcutaneous
adipocytes in a concentration dependent manner. Extract concentrations
ranging from 1 to 70 μg/ml stimulated the uptake of glucose by
insulin-sensitive human and murine adipocytes, ranging from 65 to
193% and 56–115%, respectively. Following the same concentrations of
the extract, the authors further studied the uptake of glucose by the
adipocytes, which were made resistant to insulin using human TNF-α.
Both insulin-resistant human and mature murine adipocytes stimulated
glucose uptake ranging from 15 to 70% and 31–94%, respectively, with
lower potency than observed for insulin sensitive adipocytes. The
extract also produced minimum or null proadipogenic effects on murine
and human preadipocytes. The authors propose that the stimulation of
glucose uptake by insulin tissues is one of the anti-diabetic mechanisms
of the leaf extract. They also suggested that the extract could stimulate
the uptake of glucose by activating the insulin signaling pathway and
also partially reverses the resistance induced by TNF-α. in fat cells.
However, studies to confirm its action via the insulin signaling pathway
are underway.
Rao et al. (2010) undertook a comparative study on the ethanolic
and aqueous leaf extracts of two Indian variants of the plant against
α-glucosidase enzyme isolated from the small intestine of the goat. The
authors named the new cultivars as Tecoma stans (L.) Kunth cv. Nal­
gonda 1 and Tecoma stans (L.) Kunth cv. Warangal 1 for variants 1 and 2,
respectively. Both the cultivars differed slightly from each other
morphologically. Cultivar 1 had simple leaves, whereas cultivar 2 had
both simple and compound leaves. The transverse section of cultivar 1
showed that the leaves had unicellular and sessile glandular trichomes.
Cultivar 2 with simple leaf did not have trichomes; however, compound
leaves had sessile glandular trichomes present. The quantitative
microscopic study of cultivar 1 revealed epidermis having an actinocytic
type of stomata, with a stomatal number and index of 2 and 16.66,
respectively. However, cultivar 2 exhibited the presence of anomocytic
stomata with a stomatal number of 3 and an index of 25. Among the
extracts and plant cultivars studied, aqueous extract and cultivar 2
exhibited a slightly higher percent inhibition against the enzyme. At 1
mg/ml concentration, cultivars 1 and 2 revealed percent inhibition of
18.4 and 20.4 for aqueous and 13.2 and 17.6 for ethanolic extracts,
respectively. At the same concentration, commercial hypoglycemic drug
M. Anand and R. Basavaraju
acarbose exhibited higher percent inhibition of 30.6 with ethanolic and
45.8 with aqueous preparations. Overall, both the extracts could sup­
press the postprandial blood glucose levels by reducing the breakdown
of carbohydrates to simpler sugars, which could be due to the presence
of phenolic components such as tannins and proanthocyanidins as
glucosidase inhibitors. These inhibitors form precipitates of the intesti­
nal enzyme maltase and thereby decrease its action of breaking down
the carbohydrates to monosaccharides. However, differences in plant
cultivar’s morphology did not profoundly affect the in vitro anti-diabetic
evaluation of the plant extracts.
Interestingly, Dhaked et al. (2011) reported significant glucose
lowering potential of plant flower extracts fed to alloxan induced Wistar
albino rats weighing 150 to 200 gm for seven days. Group 1, 2, and 3
served as normal, diabetic, and standard control, which received saline
(2 ml/kg bw/day), alloxan monohydrate (150 mg/kg bw), and com­
mercial drug glibenclamide (2.5 mg/kg bw/day), respectively. Group 4
and 5 animals received flower extracts at a dose of 200 mg/kg bw/day.
The oral administration of the alcoholic and aqueous flower extracts
produced a significant (p < 0.01) decrease in fasting blood glucose
(mg/dl) levels from 265.3 to 114.8 and 248.6 to 129.6, respectively. The
results obtained were found comparable to commercial hypoglycemic
drug glibenclamide, which decreased blood glucose levels from 262.3 to
104.26 mg/dl. However, groups 1 and 2 that acted as normal and dia­
betic controls did not exhibit change in the blood glucose levels when
compared to the groups that received commercial and sample extracts.
Ramirez et al. (2012) studied the inhibitory effect of 23 Mexican
medicinal plants on glucosidase and lipase enzymes. One of the studied
plants was Tecoma stans, which displayed 27.2 and 32.3 percent inhib­
itory effect toward lipase and glucosidase enzymes among the other
selected hypoglycemic medicinal plants. In addition to the above
finding, Ramirez et al. (2016)isolated four flavonoids (chrysoeriol,
apigenin, luteolin, and verbascoside) from leaf and studied their inhib­
itory action against pancreatic lipase. They developed the most active
flavone mix of chrysoeriol (96%) and apigenin (4%), which exhibited
84% inhibition against the enzyme at 0.25 mg/ml concentration and
therefore promising its use in developing a potential plant based drug for
patients with type 2 diabetes.
Taher et al. (2016) studied the hypoglycemic potential of the leaf
methanolic extract and its fractions using in vitro and in vivo models.
Among the fractions studied, crude flavonoid and ethyl acetate showed
maximum α-amylase inhibitory action with IC50 values of 0.801 and
0.804, respectively. The crude methanolic extract, and butanol and
methylene chloride fractions exhibited IC50 values of 0.853, 1.04, and
1.21, respectively. For the carbohydrate tolerance curve, the healthy
adapted animals were fed with the oral dose of water, acarbose, leaf
methanolic extract and fractions at 250 mg/kg dose followed by starch
(2 g/kg bw). At 240 min of oral administration, maximum reduction
(percent) of the glycemic peak was exhibited by crude flavonoid
(rutin-rich) fraction (30.87), followed by butanol (18.86), ethyl acetate
(16.77), methylene chloride (12.08), and crude methanolic extract
(11.78). However, the commercial hypoglycemic drug acarbose showed
a postprandial reduction of 25.68, which was lower than the reduction
obtained with the rutin-rich fraction. The normal control group did not
show any reduction in glucose levels. The extracts or fractions and
standard drug were further studied for their long-term hypoglycemic
action by feeding (250 mg/kg bw) streptozotocin-induced diabetic al­
bino rats for 28 days, which produced a significant (p < 0.05) reduction
in blood glucose, lipid profile, creatinine, uric acid, ALT, and hepatic
MDA levels. An increase in hepatic GSH and HDL levels was another
important observation in the study. After 28 days of feeding, percent
reduction observed in blood glucose levels of the diabetic animals was
62.6 with crude methanolic extract, 60.4 with methylene chloride
fraction, 56.89 with butanol fraction, 52.9 with ethyl acetate fraction,
46.9 with crude flavonoid fraction, and least with the reference drug
metformin hydrochloride (36.27). Diabetic and normal rats had serum
creatinine levels of 3.14 and 1.20 (mg/dl), uric acid levels of 4.65 and
10
Journal of Ethnopharmacology 265 (2021) 113270
0.95 (mg/dl), ALT levels of 66.5 and 36.63 (U/L), and hepatic MDA
levels of 42.14 and 18.77 (nmol/g tissue), respectively. Though met­
formin hydrochloride was fed at a higher dose of 500 mg/kg bw than the
extracts and fractions, it could not produce a significant decrease in the
levels of these biochemical parameters. Among the samples, feeding of
ethyl acetate fraction resulted in lower levels of creatinine (1.54), uric
acid (1.25), and ALT (39.37) in comparison to diabetic rats who received
standard reference drug. MDA is a biomarker of high lipid peroxidation,
which was evident in diabetic control rats groups due to impaired
glucose metabolism. Lowest levels of MDA were observed in diabetic
animals when fed with crude methanol extract (25.11 nmol/g tissue)
among the other fractions and crude flavonoid extract. The hepatic GSH
levels (μmol/g tissue) depleted significantly in diabetic control rats
(22.42) in comparison to healthy rats (50.50). A significant improve­
ment of 46.22 was observed in animals treated with crude methanol
extract followed by ethyl acetate (45.54), crude flavonoid fraction
(41.11), methylene chloride fraction (38.22), and least with metformin
hydrochloride (28.65). Overall, alkaloid fraction (crude methanol) and
flavonoids (crude flavonoid and ethyl acetate) exhibited better hypo­
glycemic action than other extracts.fraction and crude flavonoid extract.
Several isolated hypoglycemic components from different plants are
underuse as potential hypoglycemic drugs either as commercial or as
folk medicine. Inhibition of the intestinal enzyme α-glucosidase is one of
the critical targets, as it delays the absorption of glucose, and therefore,
it is one of the primary and effective treatments for controlling diabetes.
Phenolic acids and flavonoids are well-known to act as regulators of
carbohydrate metabolism at the intestinal level by inhibiting glucosi­
dase enzyme activity and decreasing absorption of glucose into the
bloodstream (Ueda et al., 2004), thus explaining the hypoglycemic role
of phenolic acids and flavonoids identified in Tecoma.
PPARs are standard molecular targets for treating type 2 diabetes
and cardiovascular diseases. Thiazolidinediones are commercial phar­
macological insulin-sensitizing agents that act either by systemic insulin
sensitization or by the direct action of PPAR-γ. There are three human
isoforms of PPAR, namely, α, δ, and γ. Among these isoforms, PPAR-γ
plays a crucial role in adipogenesis and thereby regulates lipid and
glucose homeostasis. Phytonutrients such as flavonoids (luteolin, quer­
cetin, catechin, kaempferol) and β-sitosterol bind to human PPAR-γ,
activate PPAR-γ-dependent reporter gene expression, induce adipo­
genesis, improve glucose uptake in adipocytes, improve translocation of
GLUT 2 and 4, and decrease insulin resistance (Kim and Ahn, 2004;
Wang et al., 2014; Bharti et al., 2018). Additionally, luteolin is also
known to decrease circulating levels of inflammatory molecules, MCP-1,
and resistin and elevate adiponectin and improve insulin secretion (Ding
et al., 2010). Kaempferol and quercetin induce insulin-dependent
glucose uptake but not adipogenesis. However, catechin modulates the
expression of PPAR-γ target genes and promotes adipocyte differentia­
tion of human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (Wang et al.,
2014). These bioactive compounds are also identified from the plant
under review confirming plants hypoglycemic action.
Other hypoglycemic mechanisms of polyphenols and flavonoids
include enhancing insulin receptor kinase activity, promoting insulin
signaling pathway, translocation of GLUT 4, inhibiting aldose reductase
enzyme activity, increasing glycogen phosphorylase and glucose-6-
phosphatase enzyme activity, stimulating insulin secretion, activating
AMPK and acetyl-CoA, restoring energy balance, regenerating β-cell
function, preserving β-cells from further damage, reducing caspase-3
activity in β-cells, and reducing IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α levels (Hakki­
nen et al., 1999; Zhou et al., 2001; Panda and Kar, 2007; An et al., 2011;
Nirmala and Ramanathan, 2011; Abo-Salem, 2014; Li and Gong, 2015).
Therefore, the hypoglycemic action of the plant could be due to the
synergistic action of bioactive components identified in the plant.
However, studies should be undertaken using human models, followed
by charting down the pathway of action for developing efficient hypo­
glycemic drugs for patients with type 2 diabetes.
M. Anand and R. Basavaraju
7.2. Cardioprotection
Aqueous leaf extract produced excellent anti-aggregant potential
with an IC50 value of 1.21 in thrombin induced aggregated human
platelets at 0.075 U/ml concentration (Villar et al., 1997). Feeding of
flower hydroalcoholic extract significantly (p < 0.001) controlled
elevated lipid levels in triton and high fat diet induced hypercholester­
olemic Wistar albino rats. Intraperitoneal injection of Triton WR 1339
(200 mg/kg bw) increased the hepatic production of cholesterol
(Rothwell et al., 1983 b), measured after 24 h of triton shot. Extract
treated rats at 125 and 250 mg/kg dose decreased (percent) elevated
serum TGL levels by 17.1 and 41.5 and cholesterol levels by 19.3 and 32.
The author and coworkers confirmed the results obtained by testing the
lipid controlling potential of the extract in the diet induced hyper­
lipidemic rats, where animals were first fed on 1% cholesterol for four
weeks. One week of extract administration attenuated higher serum TC
and TGL levels (mg/dl) from 75.6 to 63.4 and 134.8 to 111.3 at 125
mg/kg dose and 76.3 to 55.2 and 136.2 to 95.3 at 250 mg/kg dose,
respectively. HDL levels increased in the extract and standard treated
groups, which could be due to the fast conversion of LDL to HDL and
clearance of circulating lipids. Positive controls, namely, atorvastatin (1
mg/kg) and gemfibrozil (50 mg/kg), exhibited slightly better activity in
terms of controlling the increased hepatic production of cholesterol in
triton and high fat diet induced hyperlipidemic rats than the flower
extract treated animal group. There is always a higher risk of developing
cardiovascular diseases when AC > 4.5 (Al-Qaicy, 2015), while AC < 3.5
is considered a healthy ratio. On the 7th day of hyperlipidemia induc­
tion, the control group showed the highest AC value of 5.28, followed by
3.02 for the experimental group at 125 mg/kg dose, 2.75 for the com­
mercial standard gemfibrozil group and least by 2.46 for the experi­
mental group at 250 mg/kg dose. Therefore, this significant reduction in
serum TC, TGL, and AC proves the protective efficacy of the flower
extract against cardiac health problems (Giri et al., 2012).
Kameshwaran et al. (2013) studied the effect of feeding methanolic
flower extract at doses of 100 and 200 mg/kg bw in atherogenic diet
induced female albino Wistar rats for 42 days. The administration
significantly (p < 0.01) abridged the increase in body weight as well as
corrected disturbed levels of lipids, enzymes (SGOT and SGPT), total
protein, urea, and blood glucose. The abnormal profile of lipids (mg/dl)
decreased to normal from 294.6 to 150, 188.5 to 130, 83 to 42.5, 59.9 to
32.6, 45 to 55 for TGL, TC, LDL, VLDL, and HDL, respectively, when
treated with a higher dose of extract. The same dose produced a sig­
nificant (p < 0.01) decline from 230.8 to 168.4 and 127.4 to 70.1 in
SGPT and SGOT levels. Animals fed with atherogenic diet alone showed
reduced hepatic production of urea as well as uptake of amino acids; this
condition reversed significantly (p < 0.01) in animals when fed with
sample extracts. Also, the intake of an atherogenic diet increased blood
glucose levels from 82.8 to 91.4 mg/dl. Administration of the flower
extract at 100 and 200 mg/kg doses decreased glucose levels to 88.4 and
82.36 mg/dl, respectively. Another important observation made in the
experimental animals was concerning their inner organ weights. The
introduction of flower extracts resulted in a decrease in the weight (g) of
the liver from 8.62 to 5.25, which represents the protective effect of
flower extracts in decreasing hepatic damage from fatty liver. Similarly,
a decrease in the animals heart and kidney weights were observed when
treated with the plant extract.
Taher et al. (2016) studied the effect of feeding leaf extract and its
fractions on streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats for 28 days. Oral
administration at a dose of 250 mg/kg bw produced a significant (p <
0.05) decline in the abnormal lipid profile of the experimental rats.
Decline in lipid levels with the ethyl acetate fraction (quercetin-rich,
59.91 mg as QE/g) was closer to the levels of normal rats. Diabetic rats
had a total cholesterol level (mg/dl) of 103.37. With isolated fraction
feeding, the decrease in elevated cholesterol levels ranged from 70.68
for the methylene chloride fraction to 86.78 for the crude flavonoid
fraction. Similarly, the authors observed a significant (p < 0.05)
11
Journal of Ethnopharmacology 265 (2021) 113270
decrease in triglycerides, LDL, VLDL, and AI levels. The ethyl acetate
fraction exhibited a maximum decline of 60.91 for TGL, 12.8 for VLDL,
and 0.83 for AI. However, the methylene chloride fraction (alkaloid
abundant) reduced LDL levels up to 15.88 mg/dl. In addition, the crude
flavonoid fraction (rutin rich) increased HDL levels up to 42.13 mg/dl.
Among the fractions studied, quercetin, alkaloid, and rutin-rich frac­
tions alone could regulate the lipid profile of the diabetic rats. Role of
quercetin in lowering plasma lipid and hepatic cholesterol levels by
decreasing the rate-limiting HMG-CoA reductase activity, inhibiting
aggregation of platelets, decreasing blood pressure, preventing cardiac
hypertrophy, and increasing the health of endothelium by inhibiting the
production of oxidized LDL is well-known (Chopra et al., 2000; Egert
et al., 2009). In the present study, among all fractions, quercetin alone
could significantly decrease the levels of LDL, VLDL, and AI.
Rutin is known to lower nitrotyrosine immune reactivity, prevent
oxidative damage of aortic endothelial cells, restore impaired baroreflex
sensitivity and vascular reactivity, augment NO production in human
endothelial cells and inhibit platelet activating factor (Kim et al., 2009;
Mendes-Junior et al., 2013). However, a few in vivo reports have proved
that supplementation of rutin to animals resulted in a decrease in TGL
and LDL and an increase in HDL levels. In addition, similar results were
not observed when fed to human subjects. Most of the subjects with
diabetes reported an increase in TGL levels, which clearly states that the
administration of rutin in humans as a pharmacological agent should not
be recommended. Short-term consumption of rutin as a dietary sup­
plement keeps the individual healthy by reducing bad cholesterol and
increasing good cholesterol (da Silva et al., 2001). Sattanathan et al.
(2010) research is in agreement with the above findings. In the study,
diabetic patients were fed rutin supplement orally at 500 mg/day dose
for 60 days, which increased TC, TGL, HDL, and VLDL but decreased LDL
levels which was followed by no supplementation period, however, their
blood lipid profile was checked after 60 days. At the end of 120 days, an
increase in TC, TGL, LDL, and VLDL and decrease in HDL levels was
observed in patients which clearly states rutin’s drawback for its use as a
long-term therapeutic agent in humans. The alkaloid-rich fraction alone
could reduce LDL levels. The results of the present study are in line with
the reported results of Constantino et al. (2003a), who explained the
cholesterol reducing action of tecomine hydrochloride from Tecoma
plant leaf. Other antihyperlipidemic agents screened from the plant
include rosmarinic acid, hesperetin, α-linolenic acid, 3,4-dihydroxyben­
zoic acid, catechins, ferulic acid, saponins, tannins, β-carotene, vitamin
E. These agents act by binding to cholesterol-binding sites, interfering in
hepatic cholesterol biosynthesis by inhibiting the rate-limiting enzyme
HMG CoA reductase activity, inhibiting angiotensin-converting enzyme
activity, decreasing TGL levels, slowing the growth of atherosclerotic
plaque, improving vascular endothelial function, reducing or inhibiting
acyl-coenzyme A: cholesterol acyltransferase genes activity, inhibiting
microsomal TGL transfer protein activity, and upregulating LDL re­
ceptors, which help in decreasing the release of apoB-containing lipo­
proteins and thereby enhance their reuptake and lower cholesterol
levels (Milgate and Roberts, 1995; Pengelly, 2004).
7.3. Cytotoxic and anticancer
The traditional use of this plant as an anticancer agent has not been
mentioned in the past. However, a few researchers have investigated this
potential of the plant flower, bark, and leaves using in vitro and in vivo
models. Thirumal et al. (2012) evaluated the in vitro antiproliferative
activity of ethanolic leaf extract (7.8–1000 μg/ml) on MCF-7 using the
MTT assay. The extract showed significant antiproliferative action in a
dose-dependent manner with a percent increase in cell death and a
decrease in viability from 14.6 to 95.9 and 85.4 to 4.1, respectively, with
an IC50 value of 64.5 μg/ml. On a similar line, Thirumal et al. (2013)
undertook another study where they tested the anticancer potential of
ethanolic root, bark, and flower extracts on the MCF-7 cell line. The
group observed a dose-dependent (7.8–1000 μg/ml) decrease in cell
M. Anand and R. Basavaraju
viability (percent) from 81.2 to 6.2, 89.5 to 10.4, and 91.6 to 12.5 for
ethanolic extracts of root, stem bark, and flower, respectively. In addi­
tion, cell death (percent) increased from 1.8 to 93.8 for root extract, 10.5
to 89.6 for stem bark extract, and 8.4 to 87.5 for flower extract. The stem
bark extract exhibited a maximum percent inhibition with an IC50
(μg/ml) value of 42, followed by 46 and 70 for root and flower extracts,
respectively. The extracts exhibited a significant anticancer action, but
the results obtained were not compared with those of positive control.
Kameshwaran et al. (2012) investigated the anticancer effect of
methanolic flower extract (250–1000 μg/ml) using in vitro and in vivo
methods. The extract showed a significant decrease in cell viability
(percent) from 42.8 to 18.2 and 53.5 to 23.5 and an increase in cytotoxic
action (percent) from 57.1 to 82.0 and 46.4 to 76.5 in VERO and HEP-2
pretreated cell lines in a dose-dependent manner, respectively. The re­
sults obtained with the highest concentration of the extract were found
comparable with those of the standard anticancer drug 5-FU. The in vivo
model used EAC-induced Swiss albino mice for the study. The group of
animals that received methanolic extract at doses of 200 and 400
mg/kg/day and 5-FU at 20 mg/kg/day for 14 days showed higher mean
survival time, increased lifespan, and the number of nonviable cells than
those of the EAC control group. Change in body weight and food intake,
decrease in tumor volume and weight, and packed cell volume of the
treated animals exhibited the therapeutic effect of flower extract as an
anticancer agent. In addition, significant alterations observed in the
hematological and biochemical parameters of the treated groups include
improvement in hemoglobin, red blood cells, white blood cells, and total
serum protein and a decrease in SGOT, SGPT, SOD, catalase, and lipid
peroxidation as compared to the results of the healthy control group.
However, the results of the group treated with 400 mg/kg flower extract
were comparable with those of the 5-FU group, exhibiting its potential to
kill tumor cells.
Al-Azzawi (2012) studied the genotoxic and cytotoxic effect of
ethanolic and aqueous leaf extracts (0.25–250 mg/ml) in BALB/c male
albino mice. The selected animals were pretreated with the extracts for
15 days. The control group received phosphate-buffered saline (1
ml/100 g bw), while the positive control group received doxorubicin at
10 mg/kg. The highest concentration of the extract did not produce a
genotoxic effect on animal bone marrow cells, as there were no signif­
icant alterations observed in the mitotic index as well as in the total
number of chromosomal aberrations. In addition, the positive control
induced 16 chromosomal aberrations per 100 cells along with many
chromosomal breaks as compared to those of the treated and control
groups (2.83–3.80 aberrations/100 cells), exhibiting higher side effects
of the commercial chemotherapeutic drug. However, the authors sug­
gested that maybe the extracts would have undergone biotransformation
in the liver, causing their inactivation or rapid excretion of the metab­
olite, resulting in no effect on bone marrow cells, as the control and
treated groups have exhibited a similar range of aberrations produced
per 100 cells. The extracts were also studied for their cytotoxic action on
the MEF cell line. At 12 mg/ml, maximum cell growth inhibition (%) of
78.6 for aqueous and 85.6 for ethanolic was observed. The commercially
used antineoplastic agent etoposide (positive control) produced cell
growth inhibition ranging from 80% to 86%, which was comparable to
that of both leaf extracts. Also, changes in the morphology of the treated
and untreated cultured cells were observed. The leaf extracts produced
specific structural changes in the treated cells, which include an
increased number of vacuoles, condensation of nuclear chromatin,
changes in the membrane, disintegration of cells, and reduced number of
cells as compared to untreated cultured cells that appeared morpho­
logically normal.
Ranjit et al. (2015) evaluated the cytotoxic potential of aqueous and
chloroform flower extracts against MCF-7 cell lines using the MTT assay.
Significant dose-dependent (12.5–200 μg/ml) percent inhibitions
ranged from 13.3 to 79.6 for aqueous extract and 10.7 to 53.9 for
chloroform extract, with IC50 values of 49.8 and 173, respectively. Re­
sults of aqueous extract compared well to the standards (tamoxifen and
12
Journal of Ethnopharmacology 265 (2021) 113270
quercetin) used in the study. However, tamoxifen showed a slightly
higher percent inhibition than quercetin, with IC50 values of 34.5 and
37.4, respectively. Another study carried out by Anburaj et al. (2016a,b,
c) using ethanolic bark extract (12.5–400 μg/ml) showed
dose-dependent apoptosis of the human breast cancer MCF-7 cell line,
with cytotoxicity and cell viability ranging from 6.05%–80.9% and
93.5%–19.1%, respectively, with an IC50 value of 196.6 μg/ml.
To date, there are no in vitro or in vivo anticancer studies undertaken
with pure isolated components from the plant. However, the studies
mentioned above show that the plant has significant potential for its use
as a natural alternative agent in treating cancer. The role of polyphenols
and flavonoids as potent anticancer agents through animal and human
models has already been established. The presence of some of these
functional molecules, namely, quercetin, rutin, ellagic acid, kaempferol,
luteolin, apigenin, hydroxycinnamic acids, and its derivatives (ferulic
acid, and coumaric acids) in plant leaf and flower could have resulted in
such remarkable reduction of cancer cell growth. Some of the anticancer
mechanisms of these phytomolecules include disturbing cell division,
decreasing the amount of cellular protein and thereby controlling the
proliferation of unhealthy cells, activating xenobiotic-metabolizing en­
zymes and inhibiting angiogenesis, inducting caspase-mediated
apoptosis, affecting signal transduction in cell proliferation and angio­
genesis, reducing the formation of carcinogenic nitrosamines, inhibiting
p53 gene destruction by cancer cells, inhibiting mutagenesis and
carcinogenesis by forming DNA adducts, reducing the effect of estrogen
in promoting the growth of breast cancer cells, and helping the liver in
breaking down or removing some cancer-causing substances from the
blood (Middleton and Kandaswami, 1994; Harborne and Williams,
2000; Owen et al., 2000; Le Marchand, 2002; Nandi et al., 2007;
El-Sayed et al., 2011).
7.4. Hepatoprotection
Winkelman (1986) has reported the ethnic use of plant leaf to treat
jaundice. Recently, its yellow bell-shaped flowers have also exhibited
significant liver protection role. Pretreated Wistar rats with ethanolic
flower extract at doses of 250 and 500 mg/kg bw for 9 days showed
decreased levels of serum markers, namely, SGOT, SGPT, ALP, and
serum bilirubin, against acute liver injury induced on the 9th day using
TAA, CCl4, and PCM (Kameshwaran et al., 2013a,b). The authors
observed a marked increase in serum enzyme and bilirubin levels after
48 h of administration of toxins at 1 ml/kg bw to the animals. In general,
all three groups showed a significant (p < 0.001) reduction in the
enzyme as well as bilirubin levels at 500 mg/kg dose and were found
comparable to positive control silymarin administered at 100 mg dos­
e/kg bw. All the three toxins used in the study commonly produced some
side effects on the liver. A common observation made during the study
was a significant weight loss of the animals, along with an increase in
liver weight due to TGL accumulation and its blocked secretion from the
liver. A higher dose of the extract could slightly prevent the increase in
liver weight (2.89 g/100 g) as compared to that in the vehicle (3.29) and
control (3.59) groups. Reduction in liver weight could have resulted due
to reduced TGL accumulation. However, CCl4-induced increase in liver
weight could not be averted either with standard or with a lower dose of
flower extract (250 mg/kg). Hepatic tissue examination revealed that
use of PCM resulted in severe congestion of blood vessels, mild hydropic
degeneration, pyknosis of nucleus and occasional necrosis; CCl4-induced
toxicity resulted in inflammation and congestion, especially in the si­
nusoids, hydropic degeneration, and steatosis in the peripheral region;
and TAA-induced perilobular hepatocyte necrosis, inflammation, and
congestion with cytoplasmic vacuolation. Animal groups pretreated
with the flower extract reduced degeneration, steatosis, and periportal
necrosis but produced mild inflammation. Treatment with the positive
control produced mild toxic effects when compared with control groups.
The authors also studied the hepatoprotective action of extract in
CCl4-induced chronic liver damage in Wistar rats. Silymarin and extract
M. Anand and R. Basavaraju
at a dose of 500 mg/kg bw exhibited a decrease in enzyme marker levels,
prevented an increase in liver weight as compared to 250 mg/kg dose,
which did not prevent the increase in liver weight and enzyme levels. On
histological observation, the liver sections of the control group showed
mild congestion, changes in fatty and connective tissues, proliferation,
and cirrhosis. However, the standard-treated group showed a reduction
in all the symptoms observed in CCl4 control group animals. Extract at
250 mg/kg dose produced similar symptoms as those of the CCl4 control
group other than the proliferation of cells. However, a higher extract
dose decreased the degeneration changes in the treated group than in
the control group.
Shanmukha et al. (2013) reported that feeding 70% ethanolic leaf
extracts at doses of 250 and 500 mg/kg bw and standard silymarin at
100 mg/kg bw for 9 days exhibited dose-dependent significant hep­
atoprotective effects against TAA- and CCl4-induced toxicity in healthy
male and female albino Wistar rats. The animals were induced with TAA
hepatotoxicity on the 9th day of extract and commercial drug admin­
istration. After 48 h, the animals were sacrificed, followed by mea­
surement of liver weight and volume; tissue GSH levels; serum lipid
peroxidation; serum enzymes, namely, SGOT, SGPT, and ALP; total and
direct bilirubin. For the histopathological study, the liver samples were
examined for extensive fat accumulation, ballooning of hepatocytes.
However, induction of CCl4 toxicity was done on the 2nd and 3rd day at
2 ml/kg bw dose after standard and sample extract administration,
followed by their sacrifice on the 8th day after the treatment. Rats
treated with the toxins exhibited a significant increase in liver weight,
volume, lipid, and serum biochemical parameters, as well as a decrease
in tissue GSH levels. Both extract doses and the commercial drug pro­
duced a marked decline in the biochemical levels of animals induced
with TAA toxicity. Pretreatment with silymarin and extract at 500
mg/kg dose produced a significant (p < 0.001) fall in toxicity produced
by TAA from 125.7 to 26.8 U/L and 30.4 in SGOT, 129.9 to 32.65 and
41.8 U/L in SGPT, 196.7 to 94 and 90.2 IU/L in ALP, 1.78 to 0.86 and
0.9 mg/dl in total bilirubin, and 0.45 to 0.36 mg/dl indirect bilirubin
levels, respectively. In addition, the percent decrease in lipid peroxi­
dation levels was 41.02, 44.5, and 53.8 for extracts at 500 and 250
mg/kg and silymarin. Treatment with plant extract produced significant
(p < 00.01) increase in tissue GSH levels. A decrease in liver weight with
the higher extract dose was another important observation made in the
study. However, there was no decline observed in the liver volume with
the treatment. On the other hand, CCl4-induced hepatotoxicity had
resulted in extremely higher levels of hepatic and serum biochemical
markers along with liver weight and its volume in than TAA-induced
toxicity. However, pre-treatment with standard and sample extracts
resulted in a significant (p < 0.01) reduction in the parameters as
mentioned above. The liver weight (g/100 g) and volume (ml/100 g)
reduced from 8.69 to 6.4 and 8.3 to 6.08 with 500 mg/kg extract
administration, respectively. Silymarin and same-dose levels of the
extract reduced toxicity produced by CCl4 from 328.68 to 141.2 and
281.05 U/L for SGOT, 166.22 to 90.1 and 108.8 U/L for SGPT, 324.8 to
215.3 and 190.36 IU/L for ALP, 2.36 to 0.92 and 1.18 mg/dl for total
bilirubin and 1.5 to 0.31 and 0.56 mg/dl for direct bilirubin, respec­
tively. Pre-treatment with standard and extracts at 250 and 500 mg/kg
dose produced a marked increase in GSH levels (%) by 17, 10.52, and
7.89 along with a significant decline in the lipid peroxidation levels by
77, 27, and 17.5%, respectively. Histopathological examination showed
that both toxicants had produced fatty liver and swelling in liver cells,
especially around the central vein. Pretreatment with standard and plant
leaf extracts exhibited a marked improvement by decreasing the fat
accumulation accompanied by no congestion in the liver. The results
obtained could be due to the presence of functional components present
in the leaf and flowers having a liver-protective effect. Some of the
identified components with this potential include phenolic acids, nar­
ingin, quercetin, kaempferol, apigenin, carotenoids, and condensed and
hydrolyzable tannins. They act by decreasing hepatic lipid accumula­
tion, modification of lipid profiles by antioxidant action, improving
13
Journal of Ethnopharmacology 265 (2021) 113270
cellular immune, hepatic function, the proliferation of lymphocytes,
modulation of T-cell functioning, improving hepatic cell growth, pro­
tecting against hepatic mitochondrial damage, preventing hepatic
fibrosis, enhancing hepatocyte protein synthesis, providing membrane
stability, and suppressing toxin penetration into hepatic cells (Madri­
gal-Santillan et al., 2014).
7.5. Antimicrobial
The research community at a large scale has investigated and iden­
tified antimicrobial agents for their effectiveness against various fungi,
bacteria, and viruses. However, recently, organisms have developed
multiple drug resistance due to the overuse of various commercial
antimicrobial drugs. Hence, there is a pressing need to discover and use
natural sources as active antimicrobial agents without causing any side
effects to the host, such as hypersensitivity, suppressing the immune
system, and allergies. Tecoma leaf, root, and flower have been used to
treat syphilis and other infectious diseases traditionally, but very few
studies have explored this benefit of the plant. They have inhibition
potential against gram positive and negative bacteria, fungi, and viruses,
which could be due to the presence of diverse bioactive compounds in
the plant. Methanolic extracts of leaves and bark of the plant showed
remarkable antimicrobial activity against a wide range of gram positive
and negative bacteria and fungi (Binutu and Lajubutu, 1994). In another
study by Govindappa et al. (2011), the methanolic, ethanolic, and
aqueous extracts of the plant were found effective against Pseudomonas
fluorescens, Xanthomonas sp., Klebsiella pneumoniae, Aspergillus sp., and
Alternaria sp.
Hussain et al. (2011) recorded the antimicrobial activity of water and
chloroform leaf extracts against bacteria and fungi. Chloroform extract
showed a slightly higher zone of inhibition (mm) than that of the water
extract against 2 g-positive bacteria, namely, 15 and 10 against Bacillus
subtilis and 14 and 12 against Staphylococcus aureus. Chloroform extracts
proved themselves better against negative strains of bacteria, namely,
Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. However, aqueous extract
proved itself as a promising antibacterial agent by inhibiting the growth
of the harmful gram-negative bacteria Salmonella typhimurium by 6 mm
with no zone of inhibition shown by chloroform extract, which could be
due to the extraction of specific potential antibacterial water-soluble
components such as polyphenols, flavonoids, and saponins. The
aqueous extract also exhibited a one-point higher zone of inhibition (8)
against Proteus vulgaris. Among the two fungal species studied, the
chloroform extract showed slightly higher inhibition of 4 against
Candida albicans than that of 2 with the water extract. However, both
extracts showed a similar zone of inhibition of 2 against Aspergillus niger.
Besides, flower extract of the plant exhibited vigorous antibacterial ac­
tivity against the bacterial strains, namely, Escherichia coli, Bacillus
subtilis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Staphylococcus aureus, with the zone
of inhibition ranging from 15 to 23 mm (Rajamurugan et al., 2013).
7.6. Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory
Prasanna et al. (2013) investigated the antinociceptive effect of
alcoholic and aqueous leaf extracts by oral administration of 250 and
500 mg/kg bw doses in albino mice using three different models,
namely, hot plate, acetic acid-induced writhing, and formalin-induced
paw licking method. The alcoholic leaf extracts produced higher activ­
ity than the aqueous extract, which was found comparable to the stan­
dards (pentazocine for the hot plate and formalin-induced paw licking
models and diclofenac sodium for the acetic acid-induced writhing
model) used in the study at 10 mg/kg bw. The author and his co-workers
also studied the anti-inflammatory potential of the leaf alcoholic and
aqueous extracts by evaluating the percent inhibition of inflammation in
animal paw produced using carrageenan at a dose of 10 mg/kg. Aqueous
extracts produced slightly higher percent inhibition against paw edema
after 3 and 24 h of carrageenan administration than alcoholic extracts.
M. Anand and R. Basavaraju
The result of the alcoholic extract at 500 mg/kg dose was found to be
comparable to that of commercial anti-inflammatory standard diclofe­
nac sodium.
Another recent study carried out by Kameshwaran et al. (2012)
investigated the antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory potential of
methanolic flower extract, which was orally administered to Swiss al­
bino mice at 100 and 200 mg/kg bw dose. The vehicle group received
2% saline, whereas the standard group was given indomethacin (10
mg/kg bw). Both extract doses produced significant action against
acetic-induced writhing in mice and anti-inflammatory action by
reducing paw edema. The results were found comparable to the standard
used in the study. Flavonoids are known to be effective analgesics and
work against inflammations by targeting prostaglandins involved in
inflammation and pain perception. They inhibit prostaglandin synthe­
tase enzyme and thereby decrease the synthesis of prostaglandins or
inhibit cyclooxygenase enzyme activity and its synthesis. Significant
amounts of polyphenols and flavonoids are present in plant leaves and
flowers, explaining their active role in controlling pain and
inflammation.
7.7. Antiarthritic
Prajapati and Patel (2015) studied the role of Tecoma leaf as an
antiarthritic agent using in vitro models, namely, inhibition of protein
denaturation and red blood cell stability. Among the extracts studied,
the aqueous extract exhibited maximum and significant (p < 0.01)
dose-dependent (100–250 μg/ml) inhibition (percent) of protein dena­
turation ranging from 35.2 to 64.1, followed by ethanol (25.4–60.2),
successive methanol (27.5–59.2), successive chloroform (12.4–33.7),
and least by successive petroleum ether (4.5–9.2). However, the suc­
cessive aqueous extract did not show inhibition even with the least
concentration of the extract used in the study. Diclofenac sodium
(standard) exhibited the highest inhibition (%) against protein dena­
turation ranging from 69.12–94.01 among the plant extracts deter­
mined. The authors also studied the same extracts for their effect on
membrane stability of the red blood cells. The extracts exhibited this
potential in a significant (p < 0.01) and dose-dependent manner
(250–1000 μg/ml). Concerning membrane stability, the ethanolic
extract showed a maximum percent stabilization of 80.7 against lysis
followed by successive methanol (75.3), aqueous (61.2), successive
chloroform (45.3), and least by successive petroleum ether (19.2).
However, the standard showed the highest membrane lysis stability of
92.4 at 1000 μg/ml. Therefore, the above observations prove its bene­
ficial effect as an anti-inflammatory agent for better bone health, espe­
cially for arthritis.
7.8. Wound healing
Few Indian medicinal plants, namely, Moringa oleifera, Kalanchoe
pinnata, Ipomoea carnea, Buddleja globosa, and Tephrosia purpurea have
been studied as well as extensively used as natural wound healing agents
(Mensah et al., 2001; Lodhi et al., 2006; Nagori and Solanki, 2011;
Muhammad et al., 2013). However, the healing potential of the plant
and its parts under review has not been reported. A few years ago, Das
et al. (2010) studied the wound healing potential of plant stem bark
methanolic, chloroform, and petroleum ether extracts in Wistar albino
excision and incision in rat models. For the excision wound model, an­
imals’ skin on the dorsal thoracic region was impressed and excised to
full-thickness to get an area of about 50 mm2. The control group
received an external application of vaseline alone, whereas experi­
mental groups received the extract dissolved in a simple ointment base
(5% w/w) once a day for 18 days. The methanolic extract showed sig­
nificant (p < 0.005) re-epithelization concerning wound contraction in
comparison to other extracts. The extract could produce incredible
wound healing potential by decreasing the wound size from 50 mm2 to 8
mm2on the 4th and the 18th day of the study. Similarly, the methanolic
14
Journal of Ethnopharmacology 265 (2021) 113270
extract exhibited a maximum percent wound closure of 82.6, followed
by chloroform (76.3), petroleum ether (70.3), and least with the control
group (65.4). For the incision wound model, the control and experi­
mental groups received 2% gum acacia suspension and 250 mg of ex­
tracts per kg body weight, respectively, for ten days. Two paravertebral
straight incisions of 6 cm each were made on either side of the vertebral
column, followed by removal of sutures on the 8th post-wounding day.
Among the extracts, methanolic stem bark extract (436.88) produced
significant (p < 0.05) increase in the breaking strength of the incised
wound in comparison to chloroform (345.25), petroleum ether
(319.22), and the control group (268.16). Overall, the methanolic stem
bark extract of the plant exhibited significant wound healing property in
both the models than the other two extracts and control drugs. However,
there was no reference drug used in the study to compare the healing
effect of the plant extract. This significant potential could be due to
flavonoids, namely, quercetin-3-O-glucoside and kaempferol, found as
bioactive components in the plant and its parts. These compounds are
well known for their beneficial role in treating and healing wounds
(Ambiga et al., 2007; Muhammad et al., 2013) and may serve as a lead in
discovering and developing natural wound healing agents. These com­
pounds are also known to exhibit significant antioxidant,
anti-inflammatory, and anti-microbial potentials, which are also crucial
for healthy wound healing.
7.9. Antispasmodic
Gharib-Naseri et al. (2007) investigated the antispasmodic action of
70% hydroalcoholic leaf extract on rat ileum contractions induced by
spasmogens, namely, KCl (60 mM) and CCh (10 μM). Application of the
extract (0.125–2 mg/ml) on isolated rat ileum tissues significantly (p <
0.001) attenuated contractions in a dose-dependent manner. To study
the role of few receptors in the contractions induced by KCl, the tissues
were washed and then treated with propranolol (1 μM) as the β-adre­
noreceptor antagonist, naloxone (1 μM) as a nonselective opioid re­
ceptor antagonist, and L-NAME (100 μM) as a nitric oxide synthetase
inhibitor. None of the components could alter the spasmolytic effect of
the leaf extract. However, naloxone alone slightly increased (p < 0.05)
the spasmolytic effect of the extract at 0.5 mg/ml. Therefore, their
ineffectiveness indicates that they were not involved in enhancing or
improving the spasmolytic action of the extract. Similarly, the effect of
glibenclamide (10 μM) as an ATP-dependent potassium channel blocker
and tetraethylammonium (1 μM) as a calcium-operated potassium
channel blocker were also tested on the washed ileums of the rats. The
treatment did not reduce instead increased the activity of the leaf extract
on CCh-induced ileal contractions; therefore, this confirms their role
again as not involved in the action. However, a significant (p < 0.001)
spasmolytic action of the extract was observed in rat ileal contractions
induced through calcium chloride in a dose-dependent manner by
VDCCs.
7.10. Antidiarrheal
Kameshwaran et al. (2013) scientifically proved the traditionally
promised anti-diarrheal action of the plant by feeding 70% ethanolic
flower extract to castor oil-induced diarrheal Wistar albino rats at doses
of 150, 300 and 500 mg/kg bw. A significant (p < 0.05) dose-dependent
antidiarrheal action was observed, with the frequency of wet fecal
dropping decreasing up to 78.23% with the highest dose as compared to
other low doses and control groups. However, commercial drug loper­
amide given at a dose of 1 mg/kg bw was able to control diarrhea
completely.
7.11. Antiulcer
Oral administration of 70% methanolic leaf extract at doses of 250
and 500 mg/kg bw produced a significant protective effect in aspirin-
M. Anand and R. Basavaraju
induced and pylorus-ligated gastric ulcers in Wistar albino rats. Dose
dependent protection of 50.6 and 59.1% was observed in aspirin
induced gastric ulcers at 250 and 500 mg/kg dose, respectively. How­
ever, lansoprazole exhibited maximum inhibition of 70.7 at 8 mg/kg bw
dose. Similar observations were made with the pylorus-ligated model,
where standard showed 80% protection against the ulcer followed by
74% and 20% for higher and lower doses of the extract, respectively.
Pylorus ligation was found to induce more damage to the gastrointes­
tinal tract as the mean ulcer index was found to be maximum (5.98) in
comparison to the aspirin induced ulcer (2.99). The pressor receptor
mediated vasovagal reflex would have resulted in a sudden increase in
the levels of acetylcholine, gastric acid, and pepsin and results in indi­
gestion and degradation of gastric mucosal lining along with the higher
generation of radicals resulting in decreased GSH and higher lipid per­
oxidation levels (Shanmukha et al., 2013b). Flavonoids are known for
their antiulcerogenic property, and phytochemical screening of the leaf
has shown the presence of higher amounts of flavonoids, namely, rutin,
chlorogenic acid, ferulic acid, pyrogallol, rosmarinic acid, naringin,
quercetin, and catechin which could have resulted in significant pro­
tection against gastric ulcers.
8. Side effects on health
Mathur et al. (2010) studied the impact of 50% ethanolic plant
extract on the reproductive system of male rats when fed at a dose of
500 mg/kg bw for 60 days. The results revealed that intake of plant
extract caused fertility problems in treated animals by significant weight
loss in testes and accessory organs due to low levels of androgens,
reduced conversion of cholesterol to testosterone, decreased sperm
count, and motility, and reduced diameter of seminiferous tubule and
Leydig cell nuclei.
A case letter by Lakshmi (2015) discussed the ill effect of Tecoma
flowers, which resulted in hyperkeratotic fingertip eczema in a 46-year-­
old Indian woman along with painful fissures of thumbs. Patch and prick
test revealed the side effect of the plant flower on women’s skin. This
plant has medicinal uses and is popularly used for its faintly scented
yellow bright bell flowers as an offering in temples of Tamil Nadu. No
allergies have been stated or discussed to date. Daily picking would have
resulted in developing sensitivity in the patient. However, the specific
allergens need in-depth study.
9. Toxicity studies
Earlier studies have discussed this plant as nontoxic, although honey
from its flower is toxic; however, milking animals remain unaffected
with it. In Mexico, cattle and goats consume up to 20% of the leaves, and
100% of the available flowers with no toxicity reported (Susano Her­
nandez, 1981; Jimenez-Ferrer et al., 2007). Low consumption of leaves
as fodder is due to the high content of alkaloids, which makes the leaf
slightly unpalatable. Kameshwaran et al. (2013a,b) evaluated the
toxicity of 70% ethanolic flower extract in Wistar albino rats when fed at
different doses ranging from 5000 to 20,000 mg/kg bw. The lowest dose
killed one animal and produced minimum toxic effects, namely, hypo­
activity and labored breathing. However, the highest dose of flower
extract killed all animals within 3 h of administration, exhibiting
symptoms of ataxia, convulsions, labored breathing, and paralysis of the
hind limb. The calculated LD50 value reported by the authors was 10,
715 mg/kg bw. Aarland et al. (2015) explored the methanolic extract of
10 Mexican medicinal plants for their toxicity using the Artemia salina
model. None of the medicinal plants exhibited LD50 less than 200
mg/ml, whereas Tecoma leaf showed a higher value of 1550 mg/ml.
10. Conclusions
The review aimed to highlight the investigations undertaken on the
plant along with the scientific gaps. Very few studies have been
15
Journal of Ethnopharmacology 265 (2021) 113270
undertaken on the nutritional and bioactive profiling of the plant part
(s). Recently, plant seeds have been evaluated for their promising fatty
acid composition, which is beneficial for human health. Since seed oil is
a good source of essential fatty acids, further studies need to be carried
out for establishing and utilizing it as a new source of healthy vegetable
oil. Several bioactive components identified from leaves, fruits, and
flowers need further extensive studies to trace their mechanism of action
in treating disease conditions. According to current eye health statistics,
many people over the globe are being identified with eye health issues,
primarily age-related macular degeneration (AMD). The bright yellow
bunchy flowers, which are a good source of zeaxanthins, could be taken
further for developing drugs for better eye health, especially for pre­
venting AMD. With the help of in vitro and in vivo models, the plant has
shown several therapeutic properties. One of the known and vital
ethnobotanical uses of the plant leaf is lowering elevated blood glucose
levels in humans. Various in vivo models were implied to study the effect
of monoterpene alkaloids as hypoglycemic agents. Among the identified
alkaloids, tecomine alone exhibited glucose lowering action, which
clarifies that the plant could exhibit this action due to the synergistic
effect of other phytochemicals present in the leaf. After thorough liter­
ature, screening it was observed that a dose of 500 mg/kg bw for flower
and leaf samples could be considered safe having therapeutic relevance
since at this dose the plant extracts have shown a significant increase
and decrease of the appropriate biochemical parameters for elevated
blood glucose and lipid profiles, liver health, and inflammation.
Nevertheless, a study showed that feeding male rats with ethanolic plant
extract at the same dose on a long term basis harms their reproductive
system by causing fertility problems. Therefore, in-depth and detailed
toxicity studies need to be carried out to develop a therapeutic window
for Tecoma stans plant parts and thus their efficient usage in pharma­
ceutical and herbal industries to develop effective drugs to treat diseases
without side effects.
Declaration of competing interest
None.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to Sri Sathya Sai Institute of Higher Learning
for providing all the facilities for research work. We express our grati­
tude to the Institute for providing an online digital library facility that
enabled exhaustive data collection on the research sample. We also
thank the University Grants Commission, Government of India, for the
award of BSR (Basic Scientific Research) sponsored Ph.D. scholarship.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jep.2020.113270.
References
Aarland, R.C., Peralta-Gomez, S., Sanchez, C.M., Parra-Bustamante, F., Villa-
Hernandez, J.M., de Leon-Sanchez, F.D., Perez-Flores, L.J., Rivera-Cabrera, F.,
Mendoza-Espinoza, J.A., 2015. A pharmacological and phytochemical study of
medicinal plants used in Mexican folk medicine. Ind. J. Trad. Know. 14 (4),
550–557.
Abere, T.A., Enoghama, C.O., 2015. Pharmacognostic standardization and insecticidal
activity of the leaves of Tecoma stans Juss (Bignoniaceae). J. Sci. Practice Pharmacy 2
(1), 39–45.
Abo-Salem, O.M., 2014. Kaempferol attenuates the development of diabetic neuropathic
pain in mice: possible anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant mechanisms. Open Access
Macedonian J. Med. Sci. 2 (3), 424–430. https://doi.org/10.3889/
oamjms.2014.073.
Agarwal, S.K., Karthikeyan, V., 2014. Quality assessment profile of the leaves of Tecoma
stans L. Int. J. Pharmaceutical Res. 6 (2), 94–99.
Aguilar-Santamaria, L., Ramirez, G., Nicasio, P., Alegria-Reyes, C., Herrera-Arellano, A.,
2009. Antidiabetic activities of Tecoma stans (L.) Juss. ex Kunth. J. Ethnopharmacol.
124 (2), 284–288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2009.04.033.
M. Anand and R. Basavaraju
Al-Qaicy, A.G.S., 2015. Lipid profile alteration and atherogenic indices in patients with
DM II. Int. J. Multidiscip. Cur. Res. 3, 1003–1006.
Alade, A., Ekundayo, O., Aboaba, S., Flamini, G., 2019. Chemical characterization of
Tecoma stans (L.) Juss. ex Kunth volatile oils. Am. J. Ess. Oils Nat. Prod. 7 (3), 11–16.
Alarcon-Aguilar, F.J., Roman-Ramos, R., 2006. Antidiabetic plants in Mexico and Central
America, chapter 9. In: Soumyanath, A. (Ed.), Traditional Medicines for Modern
Times: Antidiabetic Plants. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton, Florida,
pp. 179–194.
Alonso-Castro, A.J., Zapata-Bustos, R., Romo-Yanez, J., Camarillo-Ledesma, P., Gomez-
Sanchez, M., Salazar-Olivo, L.A., 2010. The antidiabetic plants Tecoma stans (L.)
Juss. ex Kunth (Bignoniaceae) and Teucrium cubense Jacq (Lamiaceae) induce the
incorporation of glucose in insulin-sensitive and insulin-resistant murine and human
adipocytes. J. Ethnopharmacol. 127 (1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jep.2009.09.060.
Al-Azzawi, A.M., 2012. Genotoxic and cytotoxic study of Tecoma stans Bignoniaceae.
Pakistan J. Biol. Sci. 15 (2), 92–97. https://doi.org/10.3923/pjbs.2012.92.97.
Ambiga, S., Narayanan, R., Gowri, D., Sukumar, D., Madhavan, S., 2007. Evaluation of
wound healing activity of flavonoids from Ipomoea carnea jacq. Anc. Sci. Life 26 (3),
45–51.
An, G., Gallegos, J., Morris, M.E., 2011. The bioflavonoid kaempferol is an Abcg2
substrate and inhibits Abcg2-mediated quercetin efflux. Drug Metab. Dispos. 39 (3),
426–432. https://doi.org/10.1124/dmd.110.035212.
Anand, M., Basavaraju, R., 2016. Phytochemical analysis of Tecoma stans (L.) Juss ex
Kunth leaves from Puttaparthi, Andhra Pradesh, India. Int. J. Cur. Res. 8 (7),
34632–34635.
Anburaj, G., Marimuthu, M., Rajasudha, V., Manikandan, Dr. R., 2016. In vitro anti-
cancer activity Tecoma stans against human breast cancer yellow elder (Tecoma
stans). J. Pharmacog. Phytochem. 5 (5), 331–334.
Anburaj, G., Marimuthu, M., Rajasudha, V., Manikandan, Dr. R., 2016. Phytochemical
screening and GC-MS analysis of ethanolic extract of Tecoma stans (Family:
bignoniaceae) yellow bell flowers. J. Pharmacog. Phytochem. 5 (4), 172–175.
Anburaj, G., Marimuthu, M., Sobiyana, P., Manikandan, Dr. R., 2016. A review on
Tecoma stans. Int. J. Eng. Res. Modern Edu. 1 (1), 43–49.
Argueta, A., 2014. Plantas medicinales de uso tradicional en la ciudad de Mexico. UNAM,
Mexico, pp. 122–123.
Arunkumar, C., Nima, P., Astalakshmi, A., Ganesan, V., 2013. Green synthesis and
characterization of silver nanoparticles using leaves of Tecoma stans (L.) Kunth. Int.
J. Nanotechnol. App. 3 (4), 1–10.
Baishya, A.K., Bora, P.J., 2007. Cross community ethno-medico botany of Dibru-
Saikhowa biosphere reserve, Assam. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 49 (1–4), 121–154.
Bakr, R.O., Fayed, M.M.A., Salem, M.A., Hussein, A.S., 2019. Tecoma stans: Alkaloid
profile and antimicrobial activity. J. Pharm. Bioall. Sci. 11 (4), 341–347. https://doi.
org/10.4103/jpbs.JPBS_79_19.
Bharti, S.K., Krishnan, S., Kumar, A., Kumar, A., 2018. Antidiabetic phytoconstituents
and their mode of action on metabolic pathways. Ther. Adv. Endocrinol. Metab. 9
(3), 81–100. https://doi.org/10.1177/2042018818755019.
Binutu, O.A., Lajubutu, B.A., 1994. Antimicrobial potentials of some plant species of
Bignoniaceae family. Afr. J. Med. Med. Sci. 23 (3), 269–273.
Chopra, M., Fitzsimons, P.E., Strain, J.J., Thurnham, D.I., Howard, A.N., 2000.
Nonalcoholic red wine extract and quercetin inhibit LDL oxidation without affecting
plasma antioxidant vitamin and carotenoid concentrations. Clin. Chem. 46 (8 Pt 1),
1162–1170.
Das, C., Dash, S., Sahoo, D.C., Mohanty, A., 2010. Evaluation of methanolic bark extract
of Tecoma stans Linn, for wound healing in albino rats. Int. J. Pharm. Technol. 2 (3),
735–742.
Dash, S., Das, C., Sahoo, D.C., Sahoo, A.C., 2011. Phytochemical composition, anti-
inflammatory and analgesic activities of Tecoma stans Linn. (Bignoniaceae). Nat.
Pharm. Technol. 1 (2), 5–8.
Constantino, L., Lins, A.P., Barlocco, D., Celotti, F., el-Abady, S.A., Brunetti, T.,
Maggi, R., Antolini, L., 2003. Characterization and pharmacological actions of
tecostanine, an alkaloid from Tecoma stans. Pharmazie 58 (2), 140–142. https://doi.
org/10.1002/chin.200324180.
Constantino, L., Raimondi, L., Pirisino, R., Brunetti, T., Pessotto, P., Giannessi, F., Lins, A.
P., Barlocco, D., Antolini, L., El-Abady, S.A., 2003. Isolation and pharmacological
activities of the Tecoma stans alkaloids. II Farmaco 58, 781–785. https://doi.org/
10.1002/chin.200404170.
da Silva, R.R., de Oliveira, T.T., Nagem, T.J., Pinto, A.S., Albino, L.F., de Almeida, M.R.,
de Moraes, G.H., Pinto, J.G., 2001. Hypocholesterolemic effect of naringin and rutin
flavonoids. Arch. Latinoam. Nutr. 51 (3), 258–264.
Del Amo, S.R., 1979. Plantas Medicinales del Estado de Veracruz. Insti-tuto Nacional de
Investigacion en Recursos Bioticos, INIREB, Xalapa, Mexico.
Dhaked, U., Gupta, V., Singh, D.P., Nama, G., 2011. Antidiabetic activity of Tecoma stans
flower. Pharmacologyonline 1, 553–558.
Dhanya, R., Azeez, P.A., Das, K.S.A., 2013. Floral visits and floral damages by avian
nectar robbers on an exotic shrub, Tecoma stans (L.) Kunth, in the Western Ghats,
India. Trop. Nat. His. 13 (1), 49–52.
Ding, L., Jin, D., Chen, X., 2010. Luteolin enhances insulin sensitivity via activation of
PPARγ transcriptional activity in adipocytes. J. Nutr. Biochem. 21 (10), 941–947.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnutbio.2009.07.009.
Dohnal, B., 1976. Investigations on some metabolites of Tecoma stans Juss. callus tissue.
Part II. Chromatographic analysis of alkaloid and quinone compounds. Acta Soc. Bot.
Pol. 45, 369–379.
Dohnal, B., 1977. Investigations on some metabolites of Tecoma stans Juss. Callus tissue.
Part III. Chromatographic search for iridoids, phenolic acids, terpenoids and sugars.
Acta Soc. Bot. Pol. 46 (2), 187–199.
16
Journal of Ethnopharmacology 265 (2021) 113270
Dr Dukes Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Database, Agricultural Research Services,
USDA.
El-Sayed, A.M., Ezzat, S.M., Salama M., M., Sleem, A.A., 2011. Hepatoprotective and
cytotoxic activities of Delonix regia flower extracts. Phcog. J. 3 (19), 49–56. https://
doi.org/10.5530/pj.2011.19.10.
Egert, S., Bosy-Westphal, A., Seiberl, J., Kürbitz, C., Settler, U., Plachta-Danielzik, S.,
Wagner, A.E., Frank, J., Schrezenmeir, J., Rimbach, G., Wolffram, S., Muller, M.J.,
2009. Quercetin reduces systolic blood pressure and plasma oxidised low-density
lipoprotein concentrations in overweight subjects with a high-cardiovascular disease
risk phenotype: a double-blinded, placebo-controlled cross-over study. Br. J. Nutr.
102 (7), 1065–1074. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114509359127.
FAO, 1986. Some Medicinal Forest Plants of Africa and Latin America. Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, Rome,
Italy, pp. 217–220.
Gandhi, M.I., Ramesh, S., 2010. Antifungal and hemolytic activities of organic extracts of
Tecoma stans (Bignoniaceae). J. Ecobiotechnol. 2 (2), 26–32.
Gharib-Naseri, M.K., Asadi-Moghaddam, M., Bahadoram, S., 2007. Antispasmodic effect
of Tecoma stans (L.) Juss leaf extract on rat ileum. DARU 15, 123–128.
Giri, R.K., Kanungo, S.K., Tripathi, N.K., 2012. Lipid lowering activity of the hydro-
alcoholic extract of Tecoma stans L. flowers in hyperlipidemic models of wistar albino
rats. Der Pharm. Lett. 4 (5), 1386–1389.
Govindappa, M., Sadananda, T.S., Channabasava, R., Jeevitha, M.K., Pooja, K.S.,
Raghavendra, V.B., 2011. Antimicrobial, antioxidant activity and phytochemical
screening of Tecoma stans (L.) Juss. ex Kunth. J. Phytol. 3 (3), 68–76.
Hakkinen, S.H., Karenlampi, S.O., Heinonen, I.M., Mykkanen, H.M., Torronen, A.R.,
1999. Content of the flavonols quercetin, myricetin, and kaempferol in 25 edible
berries. J. Agric. Food Chem. 47 (6), 2274–2279. https://doi.org/10.1021/
jf9811065, 7.
Hammouda, Y., Amer, M.S., 1966. Antidiabetic effect of tecomine and tecostanine.
J. Pharm. Sci. 55 (12), 1452–1454. https://doi.org/10.1002/jps.2600551228.
Hammouda, Y., Rashid, A.K., Amer, M.S., 1964. Hypoglycaemic properties of tecomine
and tecostanine. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 16 (12), 833–835. https://doi.org/10.1111/
j.2042-7158.1964.tb07420.x.
Hammouda, Y., Motawi, M.M., 1959. Alkaloids and triterpenes of Tecoma stans. Proc.
Pharma. Soc. Egypt 16, 73–179.
Harbone, J.B., Williams, C.A., 2000. Advances in flavonoid research since 1992.
Phytochem. 55 (6), 481–504. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9422(00)00235-1.
Hopkins, C.Y., Chisholm, M.J., 1965. The tetraenoic acid of Tecoma stans seed oil.
J. Chem. Soc. 907–910.
Hussain, I., Khattak, M.U.R., Ullah, R., Muhammed, Z., Khan, N., Khan, F.A., Ullah, Z.,
Haider, S., 2011. Phytochemicals screening and antimicrobial activities of some
medicinal plants of Khyberpakhtunkhwa Pakistan. Afr. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 5 (6),
746–750. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJPP11.175.
Irigoten-Rascon, F., Paredes, A., 2015. Raramuri healers, chapter 8. In: Tarahumara
Medicine: Ethnobotany and Healing Among the Raramuri of Mexico. University of
Oklahoma Press, Norman, Publishing Division of the University, Mexico. ISBN: 978-
0-0861-5270-7(epub).
Jimenez-Ferrer, G., Perez-Lopez, H., Soto-Pinto, L., Nahed-Toral, J., Hernandez-
Lopez, L., Carmona, J., 2007. Livestock, nutritive value and local knowledge of
fodder trees in fragment landscapes in Chiapas, Mexico. Interciencia 32 (4),
274–280.
Kameshwaran, S., Suresh, V., Arunachalam, G., Frank, P.R., Manikandan, V., 2012.
Evaluation of antinociceptive and antiinflammatory potential of flower extract
Tecoma stans. Indian J. Pharmacol. 44 (4), 543–544. https://doi.org/10.4103/0253-
7613.99352.
Kameshwaran, S., Suresh, V., Arunachalam, G., Kanthlal, S.K., Mohanraj, M., 2012. In
vitro and in vivo anti-cancer activity of methanolic extract of Tecoma stans flowers.
Int. Res. J. Pharm. 3 (3), 246–251.
Kameshwaran, S., Jothimanivannan, C., Senthilkumar, R., Thenmozhi, S.,
Sundaraganapathy, R., Dhanalakshmi, M., 2013. Acute toxicity study and fecal
dropping capability of ethanolic extract of Tecoma stans in albino rats.
Pharmacologia 4 (7), 464–468. https://doi.org/10.5567/
pharmacologia.2013.464.468.
Kameshwaran, S., Kothai, A.R., Jothimanivannan, C., Senthilkumar, R., 2013. Evaluation
of hepatoprotective activity of Tecoma stans flowers. Pharmacologia 4 (3), 236–242.
https://doi.org/10.5567/pharmacologia.2013.236.242.
Kandakatla, S., Rao, K.N.V., Banji, D., 2010. Ethnomedicinal review on “pachagotla”
(Tecoma stans– (L.) Juss. Ex Kunth). Herbal Tech. Indus. 10, 1–2.
Khare, C.P. (Ed.), 2007. Indian Medicinal Plants: an Illustrated Dictionary, 1st. Springer-
Verlag, New York. ISBN: 978-0-387-70640-5.
Kim, D.W., Hwang, I.K., Lim, S.S., Yoo, K.Y., Li, H., Kim, Y.S., Kwon, D.Y., Moon, W.K.,
Kim, D.W., Won, M.H., 2009. Germinated Buckwheat extract decreases blood
pressure and nitrotyrosine immunereactivity in aortic endothelial cells in
spontaneously hypertensive rats. Phytother Res. 23 (7), 993–998. https://doi.org/
10.1002/ptr.2739.
Kim, H.I., Ahn, Y.H., 2004. Role of peroxisome proliferator–activated receptor- gamma in
the glucose-sensing apparatus of liver and beta-cells. Diabetes 53 (Suppl. 1),
S60–S65. https://doi.org/10.2337/diabetes.53.2007.s60.
Labhane, N.M., Dongarwar, N.M., 2014. Study of fruit, seed and embryo in Tecoma stans
(Linn.) H.B. & K. Nov. Gen. Int. J. Life Sci. Special issue A2 135–138.
Lakshmi, C., 2015. Fingertip eczema to pooja flowers: allergic contact dermatitis to
Tabernaemontana divaricata and Tecoma stans. Indian J. Dermatol. Venereol. Leprol.
81 (5), 514–516. https://doi.org/10.4103/0378-6323.162337.
Le Marchand, L., 2002. Cancer preventive effects of flavonoids-a review. Biomed.
Pharmacother. 56 (6), 296–301. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0753-3322(02)00186-5.
M. Anand and R. Basavaraju
Li, K.K., Gong, X.J., 2015. A review on the medicinal potential of Panax ginseng saponins
in diabetes mellitus. RSC Adv. 5, 47353–47366. https://doi.org/10.1039/
C5RA05864C.
Lins, A.P., Felicio, J.D., 1993. Monoterpene alkaloids from Tecoma stans. Phytochemistry
(Oxf.) 34 (3), 876–878. https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-9422(93)85381-z.
Lodhi, S., Pawar, R.S., Jain, A.P., Singhai, A.K., 2006. Wound healing potential of
Tephrosia purpurea (Linn.) Pers. in rats. J. Ethnopharmacol. 108 (2), 204–210.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2006.05.011.
Lohmann, L.G., 2006. Untangling the phylogeny of neotropical lianas (Bignonieae,
Bignoniaceae). Am. J. Bot. 93 (2), 304–318. https://doi.org/10.3732/ajb.93.2.304.
Lozoya, J., Aguilar, A., Camacho, J.R., 1987. Encuesta sobre el uso actual de plantas en la
medicina tradicional mexicana. Rev. Med. Inst. Mex. Seguro Soc. 25 (4), 283–291.
Lozoya-Meckes, M., Mellado-Campos, V., 1985. Is the tecoma stans infusion: an
antidiabetic remedy? J. Ethnopharmacol. 14 (1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/
0378-8741(85)90022-4.
Madrigal-Santillan, E., Madrigal-Bujaidar, E., Alvarez-Gonzalez, I., Sumaya-Martinez, M.
T., Gutierrez-Salinas, J., Bautista, M., Morales-Gonzalez, A., García-Luna y Gonzalez-
Rubio, M., Aguilar-Faisal, J.L., Morales-Gonzalez, J.A., 2014. Review of natural
products with hepatoprotective effects. World J. Gastroenterol. 20 (4),
14787–14804. https://doi.org/10.3748/wjg.v20.i40.14787.
Maiti, R., Rodriguez, H.G., Kumari, A., 2016. Nutrient profile of native woody spices and
medicinal plants in northeastern Mexico: a synthesis. J. Bioprocess. Biotech. 6 (5),
283. https://doi.org/10.4172/2155-9821.1000283.
Marzouk, M., Gamal-Eldeen, A., Mohamed, M., El-Sayed, M., 2006. Anti-proliferative,
and antioxidant constituents from Tecoma stans. Z. Naturforsch. C. J. Biosci. 61
(11–12), 783–791.
Mathur, N., Jain, G.C., Pandey, G., 2010. Effect of Tecoma stans leaves on the
reproductive system of male albino rats. Int. J. Pharmacol. 6 (2), 152–156. https://
doi.org/10.3923/ijp.2010.152.156, 2.
Mendes-Junior, L.D., Monteiro, M.M., Carvalho Andos, S., de Queiroz, T.M., Braga
Vde, A., 2013. Oral supplementation with the rutin improves cardiovagal baroreflex
sensitivity and vascular reactivity in hypertensive rats. Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metabol.
38 (11), 1099–1106. https://doi.org/10.1139/apnm-2013-0091.
Mensah, A.Y., Sampson, J., Houghton, P.J., Westbrook, J., Dunn, M., Hughes, M.A.,
Cherry, G.W., 2001. Effects of Buddleja globosa leaf and its constituents relevant to
wound healing. J. Ethnopharmacol. 77 (2–3), 219–226. https://doi.org/10.1016/
S0378-8741(01)00297-5.
Middleton, E., Kandaswami, C., 1994. The impact of plant flavonoids on mammalian
biology: implications for immunity, inflammation and cancer. Chapter 15. In:
Harbone, J.B. (Ed.), The flavonoids advances in research since 1986, 1st (Ed.).
Chapman and Hall, London, pp. 619–652.
Milgate, J., Roberts, D.C.K., 1995. The nutritional and biological significance of
saponins. Nutr. Res. 15 (8), 1223–1249. https://doi.org/10.1016/0271-5317(95)
00081-S.
Mishra, S.B., Dwivedi, S., Shashi, A., Prajapati, K., 2008. Ethnomedicinal uses of some
plant species by ethnic and rural peoples of the Salem district of Tamilnadu with
special reference to the conservation of vanishing specie. Ethnobot. Leaflets 12,
873–887.
Moe, T.M., Hlaing, A.T., 2019. Some useful plants as traditional medicine in Kyaing Tong
Township, 2nd Myanmar-Korea. 2nd Myanmar-Korea Conf. Res. J. 1, 406–413.
Mohammed, H.A., Abdel-Aziz, M.M, Hegazy, M.M., 2019. Anti-oral pathogens of Tecoma
stans (L.) and Cassia javanica (L.) flower volatile oils in comparison with
chlorhexidine in accordance with their folk medicinal uses. Medicina 55 (6), 301.
https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina55060301.
Muhammad, A.A., Pauzi, N.A.S., Arulselvan, P., Abas, F., Fakurazi, S., 2013. In vitro
wound healing potential and identification of bioactive compounds from Moringa
oleifera Lam. BioMed Res. Int. 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/974580.
Nagori, B.P., Solanki, R., 2011. Role of medicinal plants in wound healing. Res. J. Med.
Plants 5 (4), 392–405. https://doi.org/10.3923/rjmp.2011.392.405.
Nandi, S., Vracko, M., Bagchi, M.C., 2007. Anticancer activity of selected phenolic
compounds: QSAR studies using ridge regression and neural networks. Chem. Biol.
Drug Des. 70 (5), 424–436. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-0285.2007.00575.x.
Nirmala, P., Ramanathan, M., 2011. Effect of kaempferol on lipid peroxidation and
antioxidant status in 1,2-dimethyl hydrazine induced colorectal carcinoma in rats.
Eur. J. Pharmacol. 654 (1), 75–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejphar.2010.11.034.
Orwa, C., Mutua, A., Kindt, R., Jamnadas, R., 2009. Database on Tecoma Stans, Argo
Forestry Data Base: A Tree Reference and Selection Guide Version, vol. 40, pp. 1–5.
Owen, R.W., Giacosa, A., Hull, W.E., Haubner, R., Spiegelhalder, B., Bartsch, H., 2000.
The antioxidant and anticancer potential of phenolic compounds isolated from olive
oil. Eur. J. Canc. 36 (10), 1235–1247. https://doi.org/10.1211/jpp.59.11.0012.
Panda, S., Kar, A., 2007. Apigenin (4’,5,7-trihydroxyflavone) regulates hyperglycaemia,
thyroid dysfunction and lipid peroxidation in alloxan-induced diabetic mice.
J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 59 (11), 1543–1548. https://doi.org/10.1211/
jpp.59.11.0012.
Pelton, J., 1964. A survey of the ecology of Tecoma stans. Butler Univ. Bot. Stud. 14,
53–58.
Pengelly, A., 2004. Triterpenoids and saponins. In: The constituents of medicinal plants:
an introduction to the chemistry and therapeutics of herbal medicine, 2nd (Ed.).
CABI publishing, Wallingford, U.K, p. 74.
Perez, R.M.G., Ooegueda, A.Z., Munoz, J.L.L., Avila, A.J.G., Morrow, W.W., 1984.
A study of the hypoglucemic effect of some Mexican plants. J. Ethnopharmacol. 12
(3), 253–262. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-8741(84)90054-0.
Prajapati, D.K., Patel, N.M., 2010. Pharmacognostic and phytochemical investigations of
the leaves of Tecoma stans Linn. Int. J. Pharmaceut. Sci. Rev. Res. 3 (1), 70–72.
Prajapati, D.K., Patel, N.M., 2015. In vitro anti-arthritic activity of Tecoma stans (Linn.)
leaves. Algerian J. Nat. Pro 3 (2), 153–158.
17
Journal of Ethnopharmacology 265 (2021) 113270
Prasanna, V.L., Lakshman, K., Hedge, M.M., Bhat, V., 2013. Antinociceptive and anti-
inflammatory activity of Tecoma stans leaf extracts. Indian J. Res. Pharm. Biotechnol.
1 (2), 156–160.
Pullaiah, T., 2002. Medicinal Plants in India, II. Regency Publications, Old Market, New
Delhi, India.
Pullaiah, T., Naidu, K.C., 2003. Anti-diabetic Plants in India and Herbal Based Anti-
diabetic Research. Regency Publications, Old Market, New Delhi, India.
Quattrocchi, U., 2012. CRC world dictionary of medicinal and poisonous plants: common
names, scientific names, eponyms, synonyms, and etymology (5 Volume Set), 1 st
(Ed.). CRC Press, Oxfordshire, UK.
Rahmatullah, M., Samarrai, W., Jahan, R., Rahman, S., Sharmin, N., Miajee, Z.U.M.E.U.,
Chowdhury, M., Bari, S., Jamal, F., Bashar, A.B.M.A, Azad, A.K., Ahsan, S., 2010. An
ethnomedicinal, pharmacological and phytochemical review of some bignoniaceae
family plants and a description of bignoniaceae plants in folk medicinal uses in
Bangladesh. Adv. Nat. Appl. Sci. 4 (3), 236–253.
Rajamurugan, R., Thirunavukkarasu, C., Sakthivel, V., Sivashanmugam, M.,
Raghavan, C.M., 2013. Phytochemical screening, antioxidant and antimicrobial
activities of ethanolic extract of Tecoma stans flowers. Int. J. Pharm. Biol. Sci. 4 (2),
P124–P130.
Raju, S., Kavimani, S., Rao, U.M.V., Sreenath, R.K., 2011. Tecoma stans (L.) ex. Kunth
(bignoniaceae): ethnobotany, phytochemistry and pharmacology. J. Pharmaceut.
Biomed. Sci. 8 (8), 1–5.
Ramirez, G., Zamilpa, A., Zavala, M., Perez, J., Morales, D., Jaime, T., 2016. Chrysoeriol
and other polyphenols from Tecoma stans with lipase inhibitory activity.
J. Ethnopharmacol. 185, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.03.014.
Ramirez, G., Zavala, M., Perez, J., Zamilpa, A., 2012. In vitro screening of medicinal
plants used in Mexico as antidiabetics with glucosidase and lipase inhibitory
activities. Evd. Based Comp. Alter. Med. 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/
701261.
Ranjit, P.M., Nagarani, T., Swathi, V., Pahni Kumar, K., Chowdary, Y.A., Siva Reddy, C.
H., Girijasankar, G., 2015. Evaluation of phytochemical content and in vitro cytotoxic
activity of various ornamental plant flower extracts against MCF-7 cell lines. Int. J.
Cur. Res. Life Sci. 4 (3), 172–176.
Rao, K.N.V., Swarna, K., Banji, D., Sandhya, S., 2010. Establishment of two varieties in
Tecoma stans of Indian origin pharmacognostically and pharmacologically. J. Phytol.
2 (8), 92–102.
Rastogi, R.P., Mehrotra, B.N., 1993. Compendium of Indian Medicinal Plants, vol. II.
Central Drug Research Institute and Publications & Information Directorate,
Lucknow and New Delhi, pp. 1970–1976.
Rodriguez de Sotillo, D.V., Hadley, M., 2002. Chlorogenic acid modifies plasma and liver
concentrations of: cholesterol, triacylglycerol, and minerals in (fa/fa) Zucker rats.
J. Nutr. Biochem. 13 (12), 717–726. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0955-2863(02)
00231-0.
Rodriguez, H.G., Maiti, R., Narvaez, R.I.V., Sarkar, N.C., 2015. Carbon and nitrogen
content in leaf tissue of different plant species, north eastern Mexico. Int. J. Bio-res.
Stress Management 6 (1), 113–116. https://doi.org/10.5958/0976-
4038.2015.00010.X.
Rothwell, N.J., Stock, M.J., Trayhurn, P., 1983. Reduced lipogenesis in cafeteria-fed rats
exhibiting diet-induced thermogenesis. Biosci. Rep. 3, 217–224.
Salem, M.Z.M., Gohar, Y.M., Camacho, L.M., El-Shanhorey, N.A., Salem, A.Z.M., 2013.
Antioxidant and antibacterial activities of leaves and branches extracts of Tecoma
stans (L.) Juss. ex Kunth against nine species of pathogenic bacteria. Afr. J.
Microbiol. Res. 7 (5), 418–426. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJMR12.2274.
Sattanathan, K., Dhanapal, C.K., Manavalan, R., 2010. LDL lowering properties of rutin
in diabetic patients. Int. J. Pharma Bio Sci. 1 (4), 467–473.
Sbihi, H.M., Mokbli, S., Nehdi, I.A., Al-Resayes, S.I., 2015. Physico-chemical properties
of Tecoma stans Linn. seed oil: a new crop for vegetable oil. Nat. Prod. Res. 29 (13),
1249–1255. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419. 2015.1024118.
Shah, T.I., Lone, Z.A., 2018. Medicinal values of herbs, chapter 2. In: Herbs in Medicine:
the Reward from Mother Nature. Inkart Publishing, Chhattisgarh, India,
pp. 110–111.
Shanmukha, I., Vijaykumar, M., Ramachandra Setty, S., 2013a. Effect of Tecoma stans
leaves for its preventive role on experimentally induced liver toxicity. Int. J. Pharm.
Tech. Res. 5 (3), 915–923.
Shanmukha, I., Vijaykumar, M., Ramachandra Setty, S., 2013b. Protective effect of
Tecoma stans leaf extract on experimentally induced gastric ulcers in rats. Int. J. Drug
Dev. Res. 5 (3), 231–236.
Sharma, J.P., Srivastava, A., Thakur, S.P., Barpete, P.K., Singh, S., 2010. Herbal medicine
as antipyretic: a comprehensive review. Int. J. Pharm. Life Sci. 1 (1), 18–22.
Shapiro, K., Gong, W.C., 2002. Natural products used for diabetes. J. Am. Pharmaceut.
Assoc. 42, 217–226.
Srivastava, B.K., Reddy, M.R.K., 1994. A new flavanone from the flowers of Tecoma stans.
Orient. J. Chem. 10 (1), 81–84.
Sunamola, A.I., Ngozi, A.O., Vivian, F.D., Christiana, F.T., 2012. Comparative evaluation
of the nutritional benefits of some underutilized plant leaves. J. Nat. Prod. Plant
Resour. 2 (2), 261–266.
Susano Hernandez, R., 1981. Especies arbóreas forestales susceptibles de aprovecharse
como forraje. Ciencia Forestal 6 (29), 31–39.
Taha, M.M., 1954. The carotenoids of the petals of two species of Tecoma. Biochem. J. 58
(3), 413–415.
Taher, M.A., Dawood, D.H., Sanad, M.I., Hassan, R.A., 2016. Searching for anti-
hyperglycaemic phytomolecules of Tecoma stans. Eur. J. Chem. 7 (4), 397–404.
https://doi.org/10.5155/eurjchem.7.4.397-404.1478.
Thakur, L., Sitapara, N., Sheth, N., 2012. Identification and standardization of Tecoma
stans Linn through transverse section, photochemical investigation and powder
M. Anand and R. Basavaraju
characteristics determination of roots. Int. J. Pharm. Pharmaceut. Sci. 4 (Suppl. 3),
484–486.
Thangadurai, D., 1998. Ethnobotanical plants used as antidote for poisonous bites among
the tribal’s, South-Western ghats, India. In: National Conference on Recent Trends in
Spice and Medicinal Plant Research, Calcutta, West Bengal, India.
Thirumal, M., Kishore, G., Prithika, R., Das, S., Nithya, G., 2012. In vitro anti-cancer
activity of Tecoma stans (L.) ethanolic leaf extract on human breast cancer cell line
(MCF-7). Int. J. Pharmaceut. Chem. Biol. Sci. 2 (4), 488–493.
Thirumal, M.M., Kishore, G., Srimanthula, S., 2013. Antiproliferative activity of various
parts of Tecoma stans (L.) against human breast cancer cells in vitro. Res. J.
Pharmaceut. Biol. Chem. Sci. 4 (2), 305–313.
Tipton, J.L., 1994. Relative drought resistance among selected south western landscape
plants. J. Arboric. 20 (3), 150–155.
Torane, R.C., Lavate, S.M., Jadhav, R.B., Kamble, G.S., Deshpande, N.R., 2011.
Evaluation of phenol and flavonoid content from aerial parts of Tecoma stans. Int. J.
Pharm. Pharmaceut. Sci. 3 (Suppl. 4), 126–127.
Ueda, H., Kawanishi, K., Moriyasu, M., 2004. Effects of ellagic acid and 2-(2,3,6-
trihydroxy 4-carboxyphenyl) ellagic acid on sorbitol accumulation in vitro and in
vivo. Biol. Pharm. Bull. 27 (10), 1584–1587.
Vargas-Figueroa, J.A., Torres-Gonzalez, A.M., 2018. Germination and seed conservation
of a pioneer species, Tecoma stans (Bignoniaceae), from tropical dry forest of
Colombia. Revista de Biologia Tropic. 66 (2), 918–936.
Verma, B.K., 2011. Introduction to Taxonomy of Angiosperms. PHI Learning Private
Limited, New Delhi. India.
18
Journal of Ethnopharmacology 265 (2021) 113270
Verma, S., 2016. Phytochemical and pharmacological review study on Tecoma stans Linn.
J. Med. Plants Stu. 4 (5), 162–164.
Villar, R., Calleja, J.M., Morates, C., Caceres, A., 1997. Screening of 17 Guatemalan
medicinal plants for platelet anti-aggregant activity. Phytother Res. 11, 441–445.
Wang, L., Waltenberger, B., Pferschy-Wenzig, E.M., Blunder, M., Liu, X., Malainer, C.,
Blazevic, T., Schwaiger, S., Rollinger, J.M., Heiss, E.K., Schuster, D., Kopp, B.,
Bauer, R., Stuppner, H., Dirsch, V.M., Atanas, G., Atanasov, A., 2014. Natural
product agonists of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPAR-ϒ): a
review. Biochem. Pharmacol. 92 (1), 73–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
bcp.2014.07.018.
Winkelman, M., 1986. Frequently used medicinal plants in Baja California Norte.
J. Ethnopharmacol. 18, pp. 109–131.
White, R., 2003. Elsevier’s Dictionary of Plant Names of North America, Including
Mexico, Amsterdam, vol. 1. Elsevier Science, p. 193.
Yoganarasimhan, S.N., 1996. Medicinal Plants of India, Karnataka, vol. 1. Interline
Publishing Pvt. Ltd., Bangalore, India, pp. 462–463.
Zhou, G., Myers, R., Li, Y., Chen, Y., Shen, X., Fenyk-Melody, J., Wu, M., Ventre, J.,
Doebber, T., Fujii, N., Musi, N., Hirshman, M.F., Goodyear, L.J., Moller, D.E., 2001.
Role of AMP-activated protein kinase in mechanism of metformin action. J. Clin.
Invest. 108 (8), 1167–1174. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI13505.
https://www.cabi.org. Accessed date: 25 August 2020.
https://www.theplantlist.org. Accessed date: 24 August 2020.
https://mpns.science.kew.org. Accessed date: 24 August 2020.