ona core by changing oe Parting line vA FIGURE 13-13 Elimination One, the location ofthe parting JASTINGS 13.6 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN C somest posible cost, it 8 important the th product atthe loweal process requirements and, if possi produce the best-quality 2 careful attention 10 s 15" and gS 23 Dthen r= 09 thon r= OP8 with @ the two parts FIGURE 13-17 Guidelines for section changes in castings, FIGURE 13-18 “Hot spot” at section fp caused by intersecting sections. ae or FIGURE 13-20 Method of eliminating metal at the center of heavy FIGURE 13-19 Hot spots Iti intersecting sections of various theknest. unsound sections in castings by using cored holes Figure 13-20, can be used to avoid hot 5 ‘Where heavy sections nae cet ir ot we fed te eon ig so nd ib 555 as signed properly, the shrinkage cavity will lie totally within the riser, ® ‘igure 13-21, and can be removed when the riser is cut off. special oe ____Intersecting ribs can cause shrinkage problems and should be sive SPP og ac¥> ation by the designer. Where sections intersect to form continuous Hs An in opposite directions as the various ribs contract. AS a conSHCTION 184 Desipn Considerations in Castings 367 Gas) &_) CI Shinn eny C)C).G) 7 OS0 @ > evic Bettor FIGURE 13.21 Use of a riser to keep : it r the | FIGURE 13-22 Method of using staggered Saar YOO 8 cating tbs to prevent cracking during cooling. WS A ‘occurs at the intersections, By staggering the ribs, as shown in Figure 13-22, there is oP Portunity for distortion to occur, providing relaxation to the high residual stresses ‘that __ would otherwise induce cracking. Large unsupported areas should be avoided in all types of casting, since these regions tend to warp during cooling. The warpage then disrupts the good, smooth surface appear ance that is so often desired, Another appearance consideration is the location of the part- jing line. Some small amount of fin, or flash, is often present at this Jocation. When the fash is removed, or if it is considered small enough to leave in place, a region of surface ‘imperfection will be present. If this is in the middle of a flat ‘surface, it will be clearly vis | “bles “However; if the parting line is placed to coincide with a comer, the “defect” fine will © go largely unnoticed. "When designing castings, minimum section thickness should also be considered. Specific values are rarely given, however, because they tend to vary with the shape and size of the casting, | ‘of metal, the method of casting, and the practice of the individual vrotaag panied, ‘Table 13-2 presents average values of the minimum and desirable section thick- Ce foundry materials and compatible casting processes 2 ie gion 30. 9h noting yen « 2 18 48 sana 9 ont fo see sus 1Skald gy ob) go Sand genirine 2 2h allSeCTION 134 The Solidification Process 353. Ura 828: oF liquid-tight product is desired, the castings can be impregnated (the pores filed ‘with a resinous material or lower-melting-temperature metal) in a subsequent operation. Castings wih dispersed porosiy tend to have poor duct, toughness, and fai ie After solidification is complete, a casting will contract further as it cools to room temperature. Compensation should be made for these dimensional changes when the mold cavity or patter is designed. Additional concem arises, however, when the casting is pro- duced in a rigid mold, such as the metal molds used in die casting. If the mold provides constraint during the time of contraction, tensile forces can be generated within the casting and racking can occur. 1 may be desirable o eject the casings as soon at solidification is complete. Risers and Riser Design Risers are added reservoirs designed to feed liquid metal to the solidifying casting as a ‘means of compensating for solidification shrinkage. To perform this function, the risers ‘must solidify after the casting. Ifthe reverse were true, liquid metal would flow from the casting into the solidifying riser and the casting shrinkage would be even greater, Hence : the casting should be designed to produce directional solidification which sweeps from the ‘extremities of the mold cavity toward the riser. In this way, the riser can feed molten metal Continuously and will compensate forthe solidification shrinkage of the entire mold cavity. If this type of solidification is not possible, multiple risers may be necessary with various sections Of the casting solidifying toward their respective risers. = "The risers should also be designed 10 conserve metal. If we define the yield of a casting asthe casting weight divided by the total weight of metal poured (sprue, gates, ris- es, and casting), it i clear that there is & motivation to make the risers as small as possi- _ ble, yer still able to perform their task. This is usually done through proper consideration | of site size, shape, and location, as well asthe type of connection between the riser and According to Chvorinov’s rule, a good shape for a riser would be one tht has a long (en a sinall surface area per unit volume). While a sphere would make the ‘this shape presents considerable difficulty to both the patternmaker and "who must remove the pattem from the mold. AS a result, the most popular where the height/diameter ratio is varied depending upon the tyig 80% gold, mn of alloy cont Position and relative amount ofthe phases Present ap Also give the chemical comy 1350°C and fil) Also draw the cooling curve of alloy containing 80% 8 4 linear graph sheet draw the x axis interms of % of ay in diagram : Usin, 2 a, sine ai y axis asthe temperature starting from 1000°C to 1800°C ang ‘he equilibrium diagram as shown in figure # Au and 20% py, 40% 50% 70%50° 100%Au Gq. 0% of Au in the Au-Pt alloy > ‘The phase diagram can be drawn from J Au (at which the temperature ig equal to ‘melting Point of platinum) and to 100% Au (at which the temperature is equal to ing point of gold) knowing the Points A and B where solidification starts at 40% Thus in the alloy containing 80% Bold, the initial solidification Starts at 1400°C and final, Solidification at 1300°C, ) At 1350°¢ draw a horizontal line Parallel to x axis and mark the Points P at which complete solid formation Starts and the point Rat which complete liquid formation ee Then identify the Point Q in that line PR where Composition of gold is 80% of ie alloy, By lever rule “ of solid phase of 80% gold at 1350°C = SB et00 = egat00Draw an equilibrium diagram for Au PY alloy andl indicate the initia sof temperanare wna fina solkification of alloy contanig 80% gold 1 Also give the chemical composition and relative amount ofthe ph 1350°C and me" Present f@) Also draw the cooting curve of alloy containing 80% Au and 20% Pr Phase diagram : Using & linear graph sheet draw the x axis interms of % of ay {Au-Pealloy and y axis as the temperature starting from 1000°C te, 1800°C and ‘the equilibrium diagram as shown in figure. raw 0% of Au in the Au-Ptalloy —y The phase diagram can be drawn from 0% Au (at which the temperature is equal to melting point of platinum) and to 100% Au (at which the temperature is equal to ‘melting point of gold) knowing the points A and B where solidification starts at 40% sold and 70% gold respectively and the points C (containing 40% gold but wath 15% 801d in solid state and 85% gold in liquid state) and D (containing 10% gold but with 2794 gold inthe solid state and 63% gold in liquid state) which determine the proper width of liquid + solid phase, ‘Thus in the alloy containing 80% gold, the intial solidification starts at 1400°C and final solidification at 1300°C. At 1350°C draw horizontal line parallel tox axis and mark the points P at which omplee sold formation starts and the pont R at which complete liquid formation the alg 2” Meni the point Q in that ine PR where composition of god is 80% of thealloy, By lever rule dels, % of solid phase of 80% gold at 1350°C = F100 omaBEHAVIOUR OF MATERIALS 42.924 1. The macroscopic properties of materials under applied forces or loads are classified as mechanical properties. They are a measure of the strength and lasting characteristics of a material in service. Creep is the gradual or slow plastic flow of a material induced by a combination of high temperature and a steady stress below that required o produce a permanent set. Fracture refers tothe failure of a solid body under load by breakage into two or more pieces. ‘The failure of a material under repeated pulsating or reversing stresses of a value lower than the tensile strength is called fatigue. Mechanical properties of materials are affected by grain size, heat treatment, ‘atmospheric exposure and temperature. Heat treatment is an operation or combination of operations involving heating and ‘cooling under the controlled conditions to obtain the desired properties inthe material. 7. Mechanical tests are employed to know the behaviour of materials and to evaluate the ‘mechanical properties and the design data under conditions of loading. 8. Casting is the pouring of molten metal into a fireproof container or mould where sail Pe:BEHAVIOUR OF MATERIALS. a a75-0 100 Tren ggof liquid phase of gold at 1350°C . a { n100 « Linton 1 1 PR 80-70 - +100 = Wen oe jp Cooling curve at 80% gold in Au Pt alloy Liquid” “Liquid + Solid Sond Phase —> SUMMARY 1, The macroscopic properties of materials under applied forces or loads a broadly Classified as mechanical properties. They are a measure of the strength and lasting characteristics of a material in service. 2, Creep is the gradual or slow plastic flow of a material induced by a combination of high temperature and a steady stress below that required to produce a permanent set. Fracture refers to the failure of asolid body under Joad by breakage into two or more |The failure of a material under repeated pulsating or reversing stresses of @ value Jower than the tensile strength is called fatigue. Mechanical properties of materials are affected by grain size, heat treatment, atmospheric exposure ‘and temperature. treatment is an operation OF combinati Seeger the cold ranain the desired properties intense Mechanical test ar under coins of ontBee 100 = 43% 87.5-70 Cy-Cy x100 = C100rT MOULDING AND CORE MAKING 115 3182. Design and Positioning of Risers (1) Shape and of riser, The most efficient shape of a riser of a certain size is that which gives a minimum of the heat loss, remains hot and keeps the metal in molten state as long as possible. ‘The condition is satisfied when the riser is spheri shape so that its surface area is minimum. For the same volume of the riset the next best shape is a cylinder and the third isa square. As moulding a spherical riser is ractically difficult, the best shape to be employed for the general tun of castings is a cylinder. As regards the height of the riser, the same should be tall enough so that any pipe formed in it’ may not penetrate the casting: The ratio of height to diameter usually varies from 1: 1 103: 2. As regards diameter of the riser, the same is largely a matter of experience. To find out suitable riser diameter for a given casting, the empirical formulae derived by (i) Chvorinov, (ii) Caine, are used: (a) Chvorinov’s Rule. It states that the freezing time of a casting, i.e., eco GVA where q=solidification constant, depending o1 position of cast metal and the positioning of the mould cavity, viz, alonga vertical ora horizontal axis. J eratio of volume of the casting to its surface area. Values ot (% and freezing time have been found out by actual iments for different metals and alloys and for different i jena and the same enlisted in the hand books of cast jing out suitable riser diameter for a given casting, is computed. A riser whose (-)*is tite target n that of the casting is chosen. This method of finding the size of riser zing time of the casting and the riser. It e to complete sol ee the casting ; surface areaFOUNDRY ENGINEERING, 176 same rate, the feeder should be infinitely large. Frem this it is significa hyperbolic relationship exists petween the relative ant t freezing time and Telative volume. 20 CASTING VOLUME | ! I 06 40. f4 + 16 CASTING AREA / CASTING VOLUME. RISER AREA / RISER VOLUME nd Casting Geometry for casting (After Caine). ° 22 26 Fig. 344. Relative Riser a! ‘obtaining sound steel Thus, relative freezing time X is given by a X=7-8 +c Volume of feeder ae ¥= Volume of casting B=Relative contraction on freezing Land C=Constants depending on the metal to be cast. ‘The values of the constants L and C, relative contraction B being even, fand by assuming a certain value of riser diameter, X can be found out. Then, the values of X and Yare plotted on the graph. The curve known as ‘Soundness Curve’ is drawn, ‘The value of riser size chosen above the soundness curve will be satisfactory and that below it will be unsatisfactory. (1D Location of Riser. The riser should be located keeping (a) the metal to be cast. (©) design ofthe casting, (c) feasibility of directional solidification.16 FOUNDRY ENGINEER Ne he feeder should be infinitely large. From this it is hat hyperbolic relationship exists petween the relative ‘and relative volume, 70 same rate, significant freezing time ‘CASTING VOLUME ° e ° 06 «1O hd CASTING AREA Lr RISER AREA / RISER VOLUME ry for Fig, 344, Relative Riser and Casting Geomeey obtaining sound stecl casting (After Caine). | Thus, relative freezing time X is given by Bo X=J-8 +c y— Volume of feeder aes. ‘= Volume of casting B=Relative contraction on freezing Land C—Constants depending on the metal to be cast. The values of the constants L and C, relative contraction B being given, and by assuming a certain. value, of riser diameter, ¥ pei be found out. Then, the values of X and Y are plotted on the graph. The curve known as ‘Soundness Curve’ is drawn. ‘The value of riser size chosen above the soundness curve will be satisfactory and that below it will be unsatisfactory. e ae Location of Riser. The riser should be located keeping (a) the metal to be cast. _ (b) design of the casting, (0) feasibility of directional solidification.CORE MAKING be i” yournNe Al .- may be located either at the top or at the side of the ‘The rise east isering i " ‘or light metals, top risering is extensivel, it * eaett Ef the metallostratic pressure in ie earn eet ee For most effective use, the number of risers has t stone: 12 ‘minimise the shrinkage, their spacing should te cane fully arrangeds Hyp jocating risers, it should be remembered that : (i Each casting should be carefully analysed for risering by a foundry engineer, and no _compromi compete ovirements because locati promise, shoals. Le mn rs eee ion of risers influences quality (ii) Directional solidification must be maintained because: Heavy sections cannot be fed through thi i ve ) finsulting or heating pads. sah thin seatione withont (p) There is a definite limit to the distance a riser can feed xen in a waiform Section. This distance is often called ‘Feeding nce" (i) Gating through risers not only improves thermal gradi also eliminates the need for cutting the gate and me nce area. iis) Risers attached to flat open sections can be easily removed than those attached to curved sections, (it) Type of Riser. Risers are classified as (a) Open Riser (b) Blind Riser. (a) Open Riser. In this, the upper surface is open to the ‘atmosphere ‘and is usually placed f the castings or at the tig plane. ‘The open riser seldom ‘extends downwards into the ing plane. It drives the. feeding pressure (2) from force of gravity on the metal the certain thickness of metal the atmospheric pressure becomes ineffective m the riser to the casting becomes difficult but Riser, It is surrounded by the moulding sand on i js in the form of a rounded cavity in the metal placed a of | jing, It may be located either in the cope is completely kept out , atmospheric P all sides. Due to the formation of ‘the pressure due to the force gravity isee | iB FOUNDRY ENGINEERING use of dry sand sore reduces the chilling effect and slows down the solidifications of riser, thus making it more effective Artifical pressure és sometimes created in blind riser by puttin some explosive substance in the cavity of riser, When the explosive comes in contact with the molten metal, it explodes and creates high pfessure over the riser metal, 3:18'3, Use of Padding, If the directional solidification ig not fully achieved with the method described above, padding used. Padding improves soundness of casting. When the casting ig thinnest at points distant from the riser, freezing is complete is these regions first. Such sections are made gradually thicker toward the riser so that freezing progress directionally, and each successive region to freeze is supplied with enough molten metal for feeding it properly. The paddings consist of extra metal added to the original uniform section of the casting. The extra metal so added may be removed later on by machining. or the casting can be designed with the tapered sections as integral, useful parts of the ultimate assembly. Usually padding is an extreme expedient, as engineers do not like the added weight. However, in the long run, much is saved by making tapered designs the rule, especially for steel castings. Padd. ing should be provided only after due consultation so as to determine how the casting is to be made, otherwise the taper may be placed. im the wrong direction. 3184, Use of Exothermic Riser Compounds, These days, the exothermic materials are used in risers for producing directional solidification by creating heat. They consist of oxides of metals like iron, chromium, nickel or copper and aluminium metal in powder form. Each cast metal requires exothermic material containing its own oxides, It may be added to the surface of the molten metal in the riser just after pouring. Or, it may be added to the sand of riser walls. Acchemical reaction takes place due to the contact with molten metal producing a large amount of heat. Thus, the metal in the riser gets superheated remaining molten for a longer time Also it forms a refractory insulating top on the riser conserving the heat. It may also be used as an insert inthe mould at the desired position to help control directional solidification. It may be moulded in the form of a core by mixing with water and baking it. Such exothermic core is inserted at the desired location. This core retains its shape after the reaction and provides heat insulation to the metal. .__ It may also be used by mixing it with facings and using this mixture around the desired portions of the casting. Exothermic riser c-mpounds not only prevent heat loss from the riser top, but also add some heat, and even add some molten178 FOUNDRY ENGINEERING use of dry sand sore reduces the chilling effect and slows down the solidifications of riser, thus making it more effective, Artificial pressure is sometimes created in blind riser by puttin some explosive substance in the cavity of riser, When the explosive comes in contact with the molten metal, it explodes and creates high pressure over the riser met e 3183, Use of Paddi If the directional solidification i not fully achieved with the method described above, Padding ig used. Padding improves soundness of casting. When the casting ig thinnest at points distant from the riser, freezing is complete in these regions first, Such sections are made gradually thicker toward the riser so that freezing progress directionally, und each sucseuiea region to freeze is supplied with enough molten metal for feeding it properly. The paddines consist of extra metal added to 1 eatiacai sotto of tiv’ canting ehdhoicrtte meintacraater cosa removed later on by machining. or the casting can be designed with the tapered sections as integral, useful parts of the ultimate assembly. Usually padding is an extreme expedient, as engineers like the added weight. However, in the long run, each is Ae as making tapered designs the rule, especially for steel castings. Padd- ing should be provided only after due consultation so as to determine how the casting is to be made, otherwise the taper may be placed. in the wrong direction. 3'18'4. Use of Exothermic Riser Compounds, These days, the exothermic materials are used in risers for producing directional solidification by creating heat. They consist of oxides of metals like iron, chromium, nickel or copper and aluminium metal in powder form. Each cast metal requires exothermic material containing its own oxides. It may be added to the surface of the molten metal in the riser just after pouring. Or, it may be added to the sand of riser walls. Achemical reaction takes place due to the contact with molten metal producing a large amount of heat. Thus, the metal in the riser gets superheated remaining molten for a longer time Also it forms a refractory insulating top on the riser conserving the heat, It may also be used as an insert inthe mould at the desired position to help control directiona! solidification, It may be moulded in the form of a core by mixing with water and baking it, Such exothermic core is inserted at the desired location, This core retains its shape after the reaction and provides heat insulation to the metal. ___ It may also be used by mixing it with facings and using this mixture around the desired portions of the casting. Exothermic riser ¢*mpounds not only prevent heat loss from the riser top, but also add some heat, and even add some moltenMOULDING AND CORE MAKING “s metal to the risee, They are essantially mixtures of a metal oxide and aluminiam. “These, when placid on the metal in an open risets the mixtures reac: to give molten matal, heit and a slag insulator. With iron oxide and aluminium, the redetion is AFej054+-8A1 441,054 SFe +2480" heat Oxides of other metals, ¢.¢, copper, nickel, cobalt and manganese react similarly. Use of exothermic riser compounds i feeding efficiene: fe 1 improves feeding efficiency by about 70%, and risers can be made about a third size of a normal riser. Short risers concentrate ths heat at the casting-tiser neck where ‘tis needed to (#) prolong feeding and (ii) develop desirable thermal gradients in the casting. 3185, Use of Insulation Pads and Sleeves for Risers. Plaster of Paris is an excellent insulator for non-ferrous castings made in sand moulds. Sometimes, sheet asbestos is used for insulting risers for magnesium castings. Plaster of Paris cannot be used with ferrous castings because sulphur of calcium sulphate reacts readily with iron at high temperatures. For ferrous casting, fireclay-sawdust sleeves are sometimes used ; raw sleeve is fired before use to burn out the saw-dust and leave air cells. For top insulation, loose cellulose materials e g., rice hulls are used. 3186, Use of Chills, The casting may consist of both thick and thin sections. The thin sections tend to solidify earlier than the thick ones. This difference in rate of cooling produces uneven shrinkage of part which in turn causes internal strains in the metal. Ii the cooling of thinner parts is also severe, it may even develop cracks. To solidify heavy sections more rapidly for compensating volumetric contraction, metal ‘chills’ may be embedded in the arca of larger sections. i aiid aE-yoUILDING AND CORE MAKING 163 ae ee Oe ie ot ao rie. In case a mould contains od a3 F +94 ' mon passage-way which the metal cary Gfoavitiesw cela nner’ and. the branches from the runner to the respective mould ca ate known as ‘ingates’. In large castings also, the molten metal is usually carried from the sprue base through a number all round the ee the casting and distributed to several gates for feeding to the main . The runner may be located either in the drag or in the cope depending on the shape of the casting, but it is generally preferred to have it in the drag. In order to avoid aspiration and turbulence, the runner should ‘be streamlined. The size of the runner is reduced in cross-section after each ingate by an amount equal to the ingate cross-section so ‘as to obtain a flow of approximately equal metal volumes through each ingate. 3164, Gates, The opening from the runner to the mould cavity is called ‘gate’. The size and location of gates is so arranj that (i) the motilds may be filled in quickly, (ii) cutting of the mould surfaces by tie flowing metal is minimum, (iii) the cracks do not develop when the metal cools, (iv) they can be removed readily with- out damaging the castings. Gates are broadly classified according to the position in which they are located in the mould cavity : @ Top gates. (ii) Parting gates. * (iii) Bottom gates. ast In top gating, the molten metal is poured riser of the casting. The mould should be hard sh to resist erosion by the dropping metal. at the top and so, the Hence proper tem- Solidification towards is achieved.MOULDING AND CORE MAKING ie? cushion to the falling weight of metal and absorbs its kinetic Sit energy. 3163, Runner. In case a mould contains cavity, the common passage-way which supplies number of cavities is called a ‘runner’, and the branch runner to the respective mould cavities are known as ‘in In large castings also, the molten metal is usually carried from the sptue base through a number all round the periphery of the casting and distributed to several gates for feeding to the main mould. The runner may be locatéd either in the drag or in the cope depending on the shape of the casting, but it is geaerally preferred to have it in the drag. more than one the metal toa es from the gates’. In order to avoid aspiration and turbulence, the runner should reduced in cross-section be streamlined. The size of the runner is after each ingate by an amount equal to the ingate cross-section so stto obtain a flow of approximately equal metal volumes through ‘each ingate. 316-4, Gates. The opening from the runner to the mould cavity is calied ‘gate’. ‘The size and location of gates is so arranged fhat (/) the moblds may be filled in quickly, (ii) cutting of the mould surfaces by the flowing metal is minimum, (fii) the cracks do not develop when the metal cools, (iv) they can bs removed readily with- ‘out damaging the castings. Gates are broadly classified according to the position in which they are located in the mould cavity : ( Top gates. (ii) Parting gates. * (iii) Bottom gates. (i) Top Gates, In top gating, the molten metal is poured down the head or riser of the castin and strong Se is * The mould should be hard to resist erosion by the dropping metal.POUNDRY ENGINEERING (b) For still better results, a strainer core is filled in the pour. ‘ing basin,MOULDING AND CORR MAKING ing a ‘Ring gate’ uses a core, which fen metal and at the same time Application ___ Top gates are usually limited to relatively small moulds of pope oan or to larger castings made in inodias of erosion resis- ial. Disadvantages» (2) In the pouring of steel and cast iron, mould erosion is usually the most severe Problem caused from the turbulence of top gate pouring. (6) Top gating is not Tecommended for lighter, more oxidiza- ble metals like aluminium and magnesium because drossing and entrapment are caused from turbulent Pourings, (c) Even with top pencil gates, however, the metal tends to enter the mould in severely turbulent fashion, (i) Parting line Gates. In this gating system, the metal enters the mould cavity at the same level as the mould joint or Parting line. The molten metal entering through the sprue, reaches the parting surface, Here the sprue is connected to the casting through the gate ina horizontal direction. By providing gate at the parting line, devices can be used to trap any slag, dirt or sand effectively which pass with the metal down the ‘sprue. ‘A hollow recess in the cop: known as ‘skimbob’ is used to trap the'slag and foreign matter in the metal. The choke, which serves as a restriction to control the rate of flow, may be placed in the gate either close to the casting, or it mi bo further away sales to provest squirting of metal in cavity and erosion.qeanat: 2 ‘ota lbs ‘apING AND CORE MAKING Ls a ‘Another effective device to trap, the 4B caving gate with a whirlpoot 0 ane, te ae sshviipoo! action simp gomes tothe centre from where it rises upin the sii ee (ji) Bottom Gates. In this gatin etal satnepensie eater ee Be Se tit m of the casting. is ate mould and around the cores. Gi LY Bottom gates are usually employed for large sized steel castings ‘Advantages of Bottom Gates They keep the ‘ata ae cy keep the turbulence of metal to a minimum while (b) Mould erosion is prevented.FOUNDRY ENGINEERING pistdvantages of Bottom Gates _ (a AS the metal rises in the mould cavity, it continues to lose its heat 204 by the time it reaches the riser, it becomes much cooler ‘Thus, directional solidification is difficult to achieve. . ~ _@) Tt is difficult to place ths riser near the ‘the metal is hottest, the place being referred to Four Types of Bottom Gates are used {a) Horn type Bottom Gate enables the mould to be made in two boxes only and thus the necessity of check, i.e. the middle flask jseliminated. The pattern: for forming this gate is rammed in the drag and later drawn out by turning it out of the sand. (0) Bottom Gate using a dry sand core at the bottom end of the or down-gate. The passage through the dry sand core is cury- ite bottom end to form a dirt-trap for slag, dirt etc. Tt also enables the mould to be made in two boxes. (©) Bottom Gate with a skimbob as in case of parting line gate along with a choke near the gate entrance is used to prepare the in three boxes. (@) Bottom Gate with draw-in type of runner gate is also used to prepare the mould in three boxes. The taper in the gate is sloping towards the sprue. Thus, the pattern for the gate is also drawn into _ the mould cavity after the pattern for the casting has been drawn. The gate is generally placed tangential on the mould cavity to impart a spinning and whirling action to the incoming metal. EIt tends to move the slag and scum to the centre from where it may ascend into the riser. : Gating Ratio. It is a term used to describe the relative cross- "sectional areas of the components of a gating system. “ Gating ratio is defined as the ratio of sprue area to total _ funner area to total gate area. For example, a gating system having a ; of 6 sq cm cross-section*runner of 18 sq cm cross-section and ‘gates, each of 4,5 sq cm cross-section will have a gating ratio of 3:3. The gating ratios are classified as :p jyourntNa AND CORD MAKING 169 kept full of metal, The back pressure due to restriction er es tends to minimize danger of the metal pulling ey atthe fenould walls with consequent ait aspiration. If ao fom he utlent, even anlaperedsprs may be kept ful al. (ii) When multiple gates are used, flow from each of the gates a the gates are of equal area) is about equal. (iii) Pressurized systems are generally smaller in volume for jiven metal flow rate than unpressurized ones. Thus, Jess a siren the gating system and casting yield is higher. Disadvantages of pressurized gating system. (i) Severe turbulence may occur at junctions and corners unless careful ' Srreamlining is employed. (ii) High velocities, with which the metal enters the mould cavity. may result in additional severe turbulence there with SOnsequent entrapment, dross formation and mould erosion- Present foundry practice favours the use of mildly pressurized systems for ferrous metals, especially for cast iron. Brasset and Hronzes are gated with either pressurized or unpressurized systems, Gepending on the individual shop and the alloy poured. (b) Unpressurized system. In this system, the primary restric- tion to the fluid is at or very near to the sprue. The gating ratios like 1:3: 3, 1:21 2 will produce an unpressurized system. The system is adopted for light, oxidizable metals like alumi- nium and magnesium where the turbulence is to be minimi slowing down the rate of metal flow. Advantages of Unpressurized Gating Systems. (i) Lower metal velocity as compared with pressurized systems. (ii) Large cross sectional area of the runner and gates permits adequate flow rates at relatively low velocities, thus reducing (a) the turbulence in the gating system and (6) spurting of the metal into the mould cavity. Disadvantages of Unpressurized Gating Systems. (i) Careful design is required to ensure that unpressurized systems are kept filled during pouring. Drag runners and cope gates, aid in main- taining a full runner, but careful streamlining is essential to elimi- nate the separation effects and consequent air aspiration, reduction in runner size at Tapered sprues with sprue wells are often cmployed. Sram: x lining of the junction between runner and gates is als od ed, with ain a Sed ; ‘ 2‘ "| NORY ENGINEER IN, 3165, Elimination of slag and dross. ‘carefully gating tysterie thay have Even the dots, or in the metal owing through it for one of agiafty Ait hee Tori materials can originate in (1 fae i) the ladle and be carried into. the pating 1s etn furnace : ng system. | (ili) they can from Tully pouting oF (i) they can be produced in the To prevent foreign matetials in the flowing stream f fing the casting, various steps taken 10 clean the meno Pane sh the runner system are: a (i) By providing runner extension. The first metal ¢ ‘a runner peg is likely to be damaged by initial turbulence, hcosh Purpose of runner extension is to prevent this metal ff Teach: ing the mould cavity. a rat (ii) By placing the runner in the is arrangement, foreign materials flowing stream in the cope runner, ‘the bottom of the runner to the castin, cope and gates in the drag, float to the surface of the while clean metal is tapped off 2 Cope runners and drag gates are effective metal cleaners for Eictals (a) where dross (or slag) floats easily to the surface and (6) where a pressurized gating system is used. Application. This type of system is most widely used for ferrous metals and some copper-base alloys. It is not much used for light metals where dross does not readily float out and where Pressurized systems are usually undesirable. (ii) For complete metal cleaning, screens are addea to the Tunner system e.g., perforated tin-plated sheet is used for this Purpose. Such screens may be inserted in gating systems at the ‘spruc base, in the runner or gates, or at the juncture between runner and gates. (i) Strainer cores (disc-shaped sand and ceramic cores with ) are sometimes used in place of metal screens, especially metals other than aluminium and magnesium. 317. Solidification of Pure Metals metals, or nearly pure metals like low-carbon psig otis cavity, thea da so by forming a solid skin ward until the entire casting is solid. As theyourdins AND CORE MAKING 17 3171. Rate of Solidification of Castings Freezing rate has an important bearing on (i) the ability to inate solidification shrinkage in "casting fe. to produc? direc 1 solidification. (ii) Such metallurgical factors as segregation and elim! tional grain In a sand mould, the rate at which a casting freezes is deter~ ined primarily by the ability of the mould to accept heat from the ‘ag. If molten metal is poured ‘against a flat mould wall heated {> room temperature, heat will flow into the mould, a solid layer of metal will be deposited at the ‘mould-metal interface. f ‘as heat continues to flow, the thickness of this Jayer will increase with time. Heat flows from the hot portions to the colder portions of the system according to the following relation = 9 iss f= — Kati») where f= Rate of heat flow per unit area in keal/he m*. k = Thermal conductivity in kcal/hr m C 87 _ Thermal gradient in units of temperature T and distance x. Boundary temperature between liquid and solid metal is the freezing point of the metal, and heat. of solidification is being liber- ated at this boundary. Rate at which the boundary moves is Gaermined by how rapidly heat of fusion is being remo Useful conclusions from analytical treatment of the transient heat-flow : (ii) Solidification Rate. If metal freezes a large mould oie aie flow is normal to the mol surface, ae Oe deposited will be proportional to the square: ness x of solid Toot of time # ie, ii Siete St Sa aP Casting Core Pattern mold, indicating various racune 13-2 cross section of typical ‘WO-PSTt sand Frurcomponents and terminclOgy- w 13.4 THE SOLIDIFICATION PROCESS where the molten material is poured into a mold and Casting is a solidification process then allowed to freeze into the desired final shape. ‘Many of the structural features that ul- timately control product properties are set ‘during solidification. Furthermore, many casting imate nas gas porosity and solidification shrinkage. are solidification phenomena, and they can be redaced or eliminated by controlling the solidification proeces Sisdifeation occurs in two stages, nucleation’ and growth. and its is important o contre) bah of these processes. Nucleation occurs when a particle of a stable solid forms from within the molten liquid. As the material changes state, its internal energy is reduced om wr lower temperatures the solid phase is more stable than the liquid. At the same ce owever, interface surfaces are created between the new solid and the parent liquid. Formation of these surfaces requires a positive contribution of energy. AS 2 result, nucle- ston generally occurs at a temperature somewhat below the equilibrium melting point (the temperature where the internal energies of the liquid and solid are equal). The difference beter the meng pint she terme of matin Uno ase amt ling.SECTION 18.4 The Solidification Process 345, fons, the nucleation provess utilizes existing surfaces where ounding interface. ‘These sur oetlontcn nt the ee Wo ret al. iy present in the or io egg 8 camer wr iy cleat ari 7 res or pin fl eting Sine ie srined material thy small gins) possess enhanced mechan properties, fos 1 welaton fend be heel othe final prod I ot common oie tionally introduce y impurities into the liquid before pouring into the mold. ‘These small par: 4 promote formation of a uniform, Hck OF Sli provide mmr ses fr clean ; sai eae The practice ‘of intentionally introducing impurities is known as The second step in the solidiicathon process is growth, which occurs asthe evolved heat of fusion is pest of fasion i continually exacted fom the lui materi The directo, re, and {ape of arowh can be contol bythe way in which the het i extated Drecona Sedan. in which te sliditeation interface sees cominuously though the mat Fil, canbe wed to assure the production of «sound cating, The molen material on the lig side of te interface can flow ito the mold to continuously compensate fr the inkage that occurs as the material changes from liquid to solid. Faster rates of cooling generally produce products with finer grain size and superior mechanical properties. Cooling Curves Cooling curves, such as those introduced in Chapter 4, can provide one of the most useful tools for studying the solidification process. By inserting thermocouples into a casting and ‘monitoring the temperature versus time, one can obtain valuable insight into what is hap- tion material pening in the various regions. Figure 13-3 shows a typical cooling curve for a pure or eutectic-composi and is useful for depicting many of the principal features and terms. The pouring temper- ‘ature is the temperature of the liquid metal when it first enters the mold cavity. Superheat is the difference between the pouring temperature and the freezing temperature of the ma- terial. The higher the superheat, the more time allowed for the material to flow into the intricate details of the mold cavity before it begins to freeze. The cooling rate is the rate at which the liquid or solid is cooling. and can be viewed as the slope of the cooling curve at any given point. A thermal arrest is the plateau in the cooling curve that occurs during the solidification of a material with fixed melting point. At this temperature, the heat being removed from the mold comes from the latent heat of fusion being released during the s0- idifcation process and does not require a decrease in the materials temperature. The time from the start of pouring 10.the end of solidification is known as the tora solidification fine. The time from the start of solidification to the end of solidification i ealled the local used that does not have a distinet melting point, such as the one shown difference between the liquidus and solidus temperatures is known as ‘The onset and termination of solidification appear as slope changes in the cooling curve, If undercooling is required to induce the initial nucleation, the subsequent solidification may release enough heat to cause an increase in temperature back to the melting point. This increase in temperature, known as recalescence, is shown in Figure 13-5. “The specific form of a cooling curve depends on the type of material being poured, the nature of the nucleation process, and the rate and means of heat removal from the ‘mold. Analysis of experimental cooling curves can provide valuable insight into the proc- ess and the product. Fast cooling rates and short solidification times lead to finer structures and improved mechanical properties. jin Figure 13-4, the the freezing range.pouring temperature cuit, trenton ‘mon’ hermal arrest Mm iu J ty AT. cooling rate it Liquidus Solidus Time (1) Cooling curve ow Ni Ni Phase diagram FICURE 13-4 Cooling curve of an alloy that has a freezing range. Slope changes indicate the onset and termination of solidification. Prediction of Solidification Time: Chvorinov’s Rule perl st be aed om scl to in any i ih catego et spcotng nd the sisbuat bE meal foe oo oh pe ane Conversely the ability to remove heat from a casting is directly related tonne ung rag the? Se MON whichis heath Biles icant the ot - i een hel the mold and mold suouning). TH aoe nd eee ce an “= B(WiAya Where n= 1.5 192.0 ON PB : "ntsNOh2.0.229 (1836-1939,kx... secren 194 The sonditeston process 347 auitibrivm treating temperature Temperature (7) Undercooting Recalescence Time (7) FIGURE 13-5 Cooling curve depicting undercooling ‘and subsequent recalescence, ‘The total solidification time, fication; V is the volume of the casting; A is the surface ‘which incorporates the characteristics of the metal being cast (its hat of fusion), the mold material (its density thermal conductivity, and Peat capacity), the mold thickness, and the amount of superheat. ‘Tet specimens can be cast to determine B fora given mold material, wre mate rial, and condition of casting. This value can then i sae cor ether castings made under te same conditions. Since a riser and casting 9 both vvithin the same mold and fil withthe same metal under the same conditions ‘Chvorinov’s i cd to compare the slifation times ofeach and therchy asure he Casting will solidify before the riser. This condition is absolutely essential if the liquid caine rise is to effectively feed the casting and compensate for solidification shrink- age. Aspects of riser design are developed later in this chaptes Dincrent cooling rates and solidification times can produce substantia) variation © ‘properties of the resting casting. For instance, the die casting process ties metal molds, and the faster cooling produces higher-strength caste than sand cast- i In addition, the various types of sands extract heat faster ing, ‘can produce different cooling rates. than ones with low moisture, The Cast Structure The structure that results “ldify may have as many as , ‘of randomly oriented crystals. curs here due to the presence of the ‘when molten metals are poured into molds and permitted to so- three distinct regions or zones. The chill zone is a narrow band that forms on the surface of a casting. Rapid nucleation oc~ ‘mold walls and the relatively rapid surface cooling. ‘As additional heat is removed from the surfaces, the grains of the chill zone begin to grow inward, and the rate of heat extraction and solidification decreases. Since most crystals have directions of rapid growth, a selection process occurs. Those crystals whose rapid- _growth direction is perpendicular to the casting surface grow fast and shut off adjacent352 Curran 18, Fundamentnls of Cosine bert page cate en iia 07 beew od ae: tuna. Seren cea ites cn ao Be Inve 0 the pag " tem, % often ‘of w gating system offen depend on the ieaete dee erin eh EMS) en Atog, cay Foch at age ty nS trp ds. Torlennsense sys (HC a lc, an, hy . ‘vith a high melting point, generally USE short, opey ; soagr wig of the ‘mold cavity. PEM gating oe mw Solidification Shrinkage ‘Once they are in the mold cavity and begin 10 COO, MOS MEAs and atoyg tieable contraction. There ae thre principal stages of shrinkage (1) shying ean, id, 2) solidification shrinkage asthe liquid turns 1 solid, and (3) soi yg Fh 28 the solidified material cools to room temperature. The amount of jgui! ting tion depends on the coecent of thermal contraction (a property ofthe ya! con® and the amount of supereat. Liquid contraction, however, is rarely pre go Prodan case the metal inthe gating system Coniston ye aa -as the metal in the cavity cools and contracts. RU mold 'AS the metal cools between the liquidus and solidus temp he ity ‘from liquid to solid, significant amounts of shrinkage can o¢cur, aie res ches The 15-1. As indicated by this table, however, oot all metals conse eye ‘Some actually expand, such as gray cast iron, where the low-density graphie ai, ‘in the solid structure. fas rbLess floor space is enough Production rate is high Production cost is less, Oa anw . Castings are free from defects, Limitations: 1. Only small castings can be made, Itis only suitable for mass production. . Initial cast is more. Complicated shaped castings cannot be produced easily. ._ The removal of casting from the mould is difficult, yen | 4.14.8. Centrifugal Casting Centrifugal casting is primarily used for making hollow castings such as pipe without using core. In this process, a metal mould is made to rotate. The Totating mould is mounted ‘on a trolley as shown in Figure 1.77. The trolley moves over rails. The end of the mould is ‘closed by end cores to prevent the flow of metal out of the mould. ___ The metal is poured into the mould through a long spout. The mould is rotated by an ‘ecrie motor or mechanical means as well as it moves axially on the rails. Due to centrifugalforce, the molten metal is thrown to the walls of the mould. The outside of jhe water-cooled, So, the molten metal. immediately solidifies. ‘The centrifugal casting my used for producing cylindrical and symmetrical objects. i) Applications: Components such as water pipes, gears, bush bearings, fly wheels, piston ting, drums, gun barrels etc. can be made using this process. Mould au Pipe being cast ZL LER Water jacket 0 Side view of rotating parts Front view of casting process Figure 1.77 Centrifugal casting Advantages: 1. Core is not required to produce hollow components. 2. Rate of production is high. 3. Pattern, runner and riser are not required. 4, Impurities in the metal are driven out. Therefore, defects in castings are very less. 5. Thin castings can be made. ‘ 6. Castings have uniform physical properties. 1. Itis suitable only for cylindrical and symmetrical shaped castings. 2. The cost of equipment is high. 1.14.7. Continuous Casting Process In this process, molten metal is poured from a laddle continuously into a long ver® mould. The mould is made of copper, brass or graphite. The mould is water-cooled. He the molten metal is immediately solidified. This solidified casting comes down ‘continuous[Metal Casting Processes ———— Saw or oxy-acetylene flame is used to cut the casting of required length. X-ray unit controls the pouring rate of molten metal from the laddle, Since, the molten metal is flowing from the bottom surface, there will not be any impurities in castings. Lubricating oil is applied between casting and mould wall to reduce friction. The guide rolls at the bottom keep on pulling the casting to match with the cooling rate, Argon gas is supplied at the top of the mould to prevent atmospheric ren With the molten metal. By controlling the cooling rate, the grain size and structure of metal can be regulated, Cooling water o Solidific | metal casting Saw Push Tolls We ( Figure 1.78 Continuous casting Applications: Itis used to produce rods, pipes, slabs, ingots, bars etc. Advantages: 1. The rate of production is high. 2. Good surface finish can be obtained. 3. There are no impurities on the castings. Segregation on castings is reduced. 4. Grain size and structure can be regulated by controlling the cooling rate. 5. The process can be automated. Hence, the labour cost can be reduced.1, Hot chamber die-casting: In hot chamber die-casting, the melting furnace is an integral part of the + gooseneck vessel which is submerged in molten metal, There is a plunger a sooseneck vessel as shown in Figure 1.74. When the plunger is in the upwayg « molten metal will flow into the vessel through a port provided on the si Fined die Morabeg, Pie city Gooseneck _ {) Mieetion plunger vessel Filling port. Melting pot Bunigr Fumace Molten metal Figure 1.74 Hot chamber die-casting ‘When the plunger comes down, the molten metal is forced into the dies, Since immediately cooled by water and sufficient cooling is provided for solidificationrMetal Casting Processes Molten metal Fixed die Movable die Hydraulic plunger Injection cylinder Die Cavity Figure 1.75 Cold chamber die-casting Applications: Pressure die casting is used for making flowing equipment / components: 1. Household equipment such as washing machine parts, vacuum cleaner ‘body, fan case, store parts etc. 2. Automobile parts such as fuel pump, carburetor body, horn, wiper and crank case. 3. Components for telephones, television sets, speakers, microphones, record players and soon 4. Toys, such as pistols, electric trains, model aireraft’s etc. Advantages: 1. Very accurate castings of can be produced with the dimensional tolerance range of + 0.03 to 0.25 mm. Castings with very good surface finish can be made. Rate of production (700 castings per hour) is high, Castings with varying thickness wall can be made. There is no possibility of sand inclusions. Cored holes down to 0.75 mm diameter at accurate locations are possible. Casting defects are less. It can be stored and used for long time. . Die has long life. Approximately 75,000 castings can be produced using a single die in its life period. 10. The sprue, runners and gates can be remelted. Hence, the scrap loss is less. eer aywaynsolidification of molten metal. This type of mould casting method is mainly used forall materials using better ingredients in slurry. 4.44.4. Pressure Die Casting Inthe previous casting processes, disposable moulds are used where it must be broken in to obtain the castings. In the die casting process, the mould, called a die, is used for ing a casting which is permanent. In this process, the molten metal is forced into the ity under high pressure. The process is used for casting a low melting temperature ‘e.g. Aluminium and Zine alloys, brass ete. The die-casting is carried out as follows: molten metal is forced under pressure into the assembled die. water-cooled. So, the molten metal cools down and immediately the finished casting is ejected by pins. d i ick pentemwhichs oncith ieee te‘opened and the casting is remove Slush casting is suitable for small Production runs and is generally used for ornamental and decorati umental Ne objects (such as lamp bases and stems) and toys from melting-point metals such as zinc, tin, and lead alloys. 1.11 PRESSURE CASTING In the two permanent-mold processes described above, the molten metal flows i cavity by gravity. In the pressure-casting process, also called pressure pouring pressure casting (Fig. 11.22), the molten metal is forced upward by gas graphite or metal mold. The pressure is maintained until the metal has in the mold. The molten metal may also be forced upward by a vacuum, which dissolved gases and produces a casting with lower porosity. Pressure casting is generally used for high-quality castings—for e road-car wheels. These wheels may also be cast molds or made of graphite and sand (Fig. 11.22b).Section 11.12 / Die Casting — 303, oo) — Railroad wheel Pouring basin Gates aa — Graphite mold ‘and riser i | ~ Molten metal LE —r Ladle Refractory tube Wheel Hub Plate FIGURE 11.22 (2) The bottom-pressure casting process utilizes graphite molds for the Production of steel railroad wheels. Source: The Grifin Wheel Division of Amsted Industries [Reorporated, b) Gravity-pouring method of casing araltoad wheel. Note thatthe pouring basin also serves asa riser. Railroad wheels can also be manufactured by forging. DIE CASTING The die-casting process, developed in the early 1900s, is further example of permanent- mold casting, The molten metal is forced into the die cavity at pressures ranging from 0.7 MPa~700 MPa (0.1 ksi-100 ksi), The European term pressure-die casting, or simply die casting, which is described in ths section, is not to be coafused with the term pressure cave, ing (described in Section 11,11), ‘Typical parts made through die casting are motors, business-machine and appliance CEE rt maa be ei mont casings ngs rom em ha 90 _G 072) to about 25 kg (55 Ib). There are wo basic types of die-casting machines: hot-cham. ‘egg la ear aah isis ws840. chapter 297 the Metallmy of Welding? Welding Design and Proce séeiog "| 29.2 THE WELDED JOINT af eat aD ‘Three distinct zones an be denied in ay 1. base metal; a, | 2, heat-affected zone; 4 " ‘The maar te properties ofthe veong me Sere : "Sra, Reece (aor he srs ih 29.2.1 Solidification of the Weld Ne ) 3 te ie After the apticaton of het the introduct en ee. oe ra Jarto that in casting and begins with the formation of. aren Ty ey, ‘These grains are relatively long and form parallel to ene rane ‘much better heat conductors than the surrounding air, the feat foe the two components being welded (Fig. 29.28), The o eae tts ep me Figs. 29.2b and 29.3. i160) hee 1h shally vet Grain structure and size depend on the specific alloy, ig son With Neds ‘process is much narrower, (See Figs. 27.16 and 284) ‘The weld metal has, basically, cast structure and, because tha, coarse grains. cai this structure has ser ow 7 ey selection of iececuon 39.2/ tre welded int S44 19. Grain structure 17 ream ma, erento ae ae that the grains in the solicifed weld tre are perpencicula 10 Se Pine ee Taesernetal AF 6 gOS WOT the " solidification line at oy Sos ‘yan deep weld shown’ in (a) migration, which davelon® uniform strength in the weld bea ti eine FIGURE 29.3. (a) Weld bead (on a cold-rolled nickel strip) produced by 2 laser | beam. (b) Microhardness profile“across the weld bead. Note the lower hardness of the weld bead compared to the base metal. Source: IIT Research Institute. | important for metals having high thermal conductivity, such as afurninum and copper; with- ‘out it, the heat produced during welding dissipates rapidly. | 122 Heat-Affected Zone “The heat-affected zone (HAZ) is within the base metal itself, Ithas a microstructure differ nt from that of the base metal prior to welding, because it has been subjected to elevated temperatures fora period of time during welding. The portions ofthe base metal that are far tough avvay from the heat source do not undergo any’ structural changes during welding. “The properties and microstructure ofthe HAZ depend on (1) the rate of heat input and. cooling, and (2) the temperature to which this zone was raised. The HAZ: (and the corre sponding phase diagram) for 03% carbon stel are shown in Fig. 29.4, In addition to met- allurgical factors (euch as original grain size, goin rientation, and degree of prior cold svork). physical properties (such as te specific heat and thermal conductivity of the met- als) influence the size and characteristics of this zone, “The strength and hardness of the heataffeeted zone depend partly on how the origi- nal suenath nnd hardness ofthe base metal was developed prior to the welding: As was de- teribed in Chapters 2-and 4, they may have been developed (a) by cold working, (b) by solid-solution strengthening, (6) by precipitation hardening, or (@) by various heat treatments. |4 29/ The Matlin of Welding, Welding Design snd Proce Slay TP \ 020%Cxtee!N Weld 354 WW 2; FIGURE 29.4 Schematic illustration of various regi the corresponding phase diagram) for 0.30% carbs os 88 Welding Society. carbon steel. Sourcg The effects of these strengthening methods are com, a those in the base metal that has been cld- Worked aye ee, ‘The heat applied uring welding recrsalices the clongucd ent base metal (changes their preferred orientation) Grins that ae vay will reerytallize into fine equiaxed grains. Grains lose tothe neyo hand, have ben subjected to cleated temperatures fora longer pete they will grow. This growth will cause their region to be softer andio hein Such a joint will be weakest in its heat-affected zone. The grin stuns that is exposed to corrosion by chemical reaction is shown in Fig. 295 he line is where the two pieces meet. ‘The effects of heat on the HAZ for joints made from dissimilar metals lini strengthened by other methods, are so complex as to be beyond the scope ats) can be found in the more advanced texts listed in the bibliography atheist less-stee! welded tie! ofthe put FIGURE 29.5 Intergranular corrosion of a 310-stain! Rack Ale exposure to a caustic solution. The weld line is at the center Scanning electron micrograph at 20x. Source: Courtesy of 8. Ludlum Steel Corp. salenLiquid 199 1509 169 1100 9%») 70 4 $09 IRE 294 Schematic illustration of various e en errertele Bhhase diagram) for 0.30% carbon rs” So Welding Society. et of these strengthening methods ae compley, er iscnl that hasbeen old-worked sy, po mag Theheat applied during Welding recrystalices the congo fc tag base metal (changes tet prefered orientation. Grin tee atte be ze into fine equiaxed grain. Grains clove 1 Weld nn hand, have been subjected to elevated temperatures fora longer Petiod fun they wll grow. This growth wil cause their region wo be sence wohl Socha joint willbe weakest ints heat-affected zone. The gee Senet tins xno sorson chemical recon is sowain Py ne line is where the two pieces meet. The effects of heat on the HAZ for joints made fro ‘erg Fee recom dsinitrrt y stengihened by other methods aS complex a tobebeyondthe sy an be fund inthe more advanced texts listed inthe bibliography ae a FIGURE 29.5 Intergranular corrosion ofa 310-stanles-tecl wee i exposure to a caustic solution. The weld line is at the center ofthe ain Scanning electron micrograph at 20%. Source: Courtesy of 8.. jac Ludlum Stee! Corp.29.4 WELDABILITY i So TTeHes the Wel 1 Otter sp tivettom notches and dlscontinuiiy, witey ae TWUst bg ct In addition to being preheated for tres, fous other techniques in order to modity wis feet nealing, normalizing, quenching. and tempering of tS: These techy aging of various alloys (Chapter 4), eels and the ue hig ont The weldability of a metal is usually defined as its capaci rarsierechat has certain properties and characteristicg wing Nee requirements, Weldability involves a large numb, ct Variables, Sf ficult. As we have seen, the material characteristics (Such as the gg Purities, the inclusions, the grain structure, and the Processing hist, and the filler metal are important, Because of the effects of melting and Solidification and o crostructural changes, a thorough knowledge of the phase diagram and 1 the metal or allay to elevated temperatures over a period of time is essen fencing weldability are mechanical and physical properties, strength, tough notch sensitivity, elastic modulus, specific heat, melting point, them expan tension characteristics of the molten metal, and corrosion resistance Preparation of surfaces for welding is important; so are the natu ant Surface oxide films and of adsorbed gases, The particular welding proces nificantly affects the temperatures developed and their distribution in the wed factors are shielding gases, fluxes, the moisture content. eee as ing speed, welding position, cooling rate, and preheating, as well as such niques as stress relieving and heat treating. the cnwen Seo ay 849 wuts teat aay ae varie ec plenscarbon steel: Weldabil is excellent for low-carbon se a . ‘medinm-carbon stels, on Tr High cat Mal steels, ‘by Low-alloy steels: Weldability is similar to that of medium-carbon steels. ~ g High-alloy stels: Weldabilty is generally good under wel! a Stainless steels: These are weldable by various processes. ‘ -@ Aluminum alloys: These are weldable ata high rate of heat input. Aluminum alloys zine or copper generally are considered unweldable, (See Section 6.2.) ralloy's: Weldability is similar to that of aluminum afloys. alloys: These are weldable with the use of protective abeling fas alloys: Weldability is similar to that of stainless steels. “ im alloys: These are weldable with th pone Sel aeiea, - Weldability is similar to that of titanium, : This is weldable under well-controlled conditions. ‘conn nea age) ‘g =270 chapter 10,/Fordaren ‘sigh 10 accepted wives it along a chan. asts for Fluidity “sy idl: 2 to 10.4.1. Tests for Flui ez 5 quant ren fat i a0 vigifes and slop several tests have Det imal properties of mone such te ee tandal a m oom emer iy this lene useful and sim: nl tha its ity. jousty hs enor te ae ios well Oe degree sad the 0 * sing sete complete cycle from ing the ansfer dure at different locations to the cas, in casting thin s jid-metal interface is shown the mold wall and dary layers ds onthe thermal P presence of bout curve depent 10.5.1 Solidification Time Dring the early tages of solidification, a thin, solidi aaeae ey gtime passes, the skin thickens (Figs 10 10), With flat mold walls, this thi js proportional to the square root of time ‘Trerefore, doubling the time will make skin V2 = 41 times, or 41%, thicker. ib ‘The solidification time is a function of the (Chvorinov's nule); that: is, Solidification time =c( volume y mums surface area / * sshere C is a constant that reflects mold material, metal properties (including latent ing and temperature, volume of a casting and its surface™ om oe 4 Temperatut sure dbttion atthe interface of the mold wall and the 4 ne 05 2 syring soliciication of metals in casi": 4 cagee ot are of is diame rm ld wil cy ot272 Chapter 10 Fundamentals of Metal-Casting Example: Solidification Times for Various Shapes ‘Three metal pieces being cast have the same volume but different } ‘one a cube indecisive 0 ane solidify the fastest and which one the slowest? Solution: The volume is unity, so we have, from Eq. (10.7), heqs FIGURE 11.28 a) Schematic ustration ofthe semicentritugal casting process: Wheels with spokes can be cast by this process. (b) Schematic illus iC a sting } bby centrifuging, The molds are placed at the periphery of the machine, ‘molten metal is forced into the molds by centrifugal fore 11.14 “SQUEEZE CASTING AND SEMISOLID } METAL FORMING There are two casting processes that are basically combinations See ae ear os a gy gl yeaa “AM bi. SadieSeton 11.14 Squeeze Casting and Seid Metal Form Example: Front Steering Knuckle‘Metal Casting Processes 3. The process is quick and no noise, 4. Furnace atmosphere can be easily controlled 1.14, PRINCIPLE OF SPECIAL CASTING PROCESSES 4.14.1, Shell Mould Casting ‘The shell mould casting is a semi-precise method for producing small castings in large numbers. The process involves the use of a match plate pattern similar to cope and drag, patterns which are used in green sand mould casting. Initially, the patterns are machined from copper alloys, aluminium or cast iron depending upon the lift of the pattem, They are made with usual allowances and polished surfaces. Then, it is attached to the metal match plate, Dump box Shell Pattern — Flask Refractory materials Figure 1.70 Shell mould casting ‘The mould material contains 5 to 10% of phenolic resin mixed with fine dry silica. These are mixed with either dry oil or alcohol. It should be noted that there is no water used.= Manitectring The pattern is heated to 230-600" blown over its surface. Sometimes, to prevent the sticking of sand with pattern, q agent silicone is sprayed over the hot pattern, The heated pattern melts and hardens a ell around the pat It results in bonding the sand grains closely together and forms After a specified time of 20-30 sec, the pattern and sand are inverted ay Figure 1.70(b). The thickness of the shell ean be accurately controlled by the time of..." of the mixture with the heated pattern, In about 20-30 sec, a normal shell thickness of ¢ Ml is removed ofp oft Ny Weighty can be obtained. The extra sand which is not adhered to the thickness of the shell is depending on the required strength and rigidity to hold the the liquid metal to be poured into the mould. ‘Then, the mould is heated in an oven at 300°C for 15-60 sec. This curing MAES the g | rigid when it can be stripped off by means of ejector pins mounted on the patter. Thy «| formed shell constitutes one-half of the mould. Two such halves placed one over the a | make the complete mould as shown. is Figure 1.70 (c). While pouring the molten metal, the two halves are clamped down together by clamp, springs. After cooling and solidification, the shells are broken or shaken away from j, castings. Applications: It is used for making brake drums and bushings. Cams, cam shaft, piston and piston rings can be made. 1 2. 3, It is used for making small pulleys, motor housing, fan blades etc. 4. Air compressor reservoir and cylinders, crankcases, conveyor, rollers ee, ck made. Advantages: 1. Ahigh accuracy castings with tolerances of 0,002 to 0.005mm/nm is possibe 2. Good surface finish can be obtained. | 3. Complex parts can be made by this method. 4, Less sand is used compared to other methods. 5. Moulds can be stored for long time. 6 Permeability of thin shell moulds is high. Therefore, defects are les Led "quality castings can be made.Limitations: 1. The cost of mould and other equipment is high. -¢ of the equipment are costlier. 2. The operation and maintenanc 4.14.8, Carbon Dioxide (CO;) Process Carbon dioxide moulding is a sand casting Process that employs # moulding mi sand ond liquid silicate binder such as podium sileste (N#35:0;), 7s seniding ian then hardened by blowing carbon dioxide (CO;) gas through it. For this reason, the Preay | commonly known as CO: process. i in this process, CO; gas forms a weak acid which hydrolyzss he sodium lice, phous silica is formed and it becomes the bond: There is also a bonding acon 8 an amor se of CO» gives an almost instantaneous set. Moud i 5 the sodium silicate itself, The u ; hardened before the pattem is drawn from mould sections. It reduces the production time as well as the fuel cost. It also reduces the m ‘i ould boxes required for making moulds, This process also offers a great deal of secur. production. Figure 1.79 CO; process ‘Steps involved in CO: process: 1. Suitable proportions of silica sand and sodium silicate binder (3-5% based on sui weight) are mixed together to prepare the sand mixture. 2. Additives such as aluminium oxide, molasses etc., are added to impart the favor: propertics and improve the collapsibility of the sand. 3. The pattern is placed on a flat surface with the drag box enclosing it, Parting sand sprinkled on the pattern surface to avoid sand mixture sticking to the pattern.4 The drag box is filled with the sand mixture and rammed manually tll its top surface. Rest ofthe operations such as placing sprue, riser pin and ramming the cope box are similar to green sand moulding process. 1s shown in | | | 5. At this stage, the carbon dioxide gas is passed through the vent holes Figure 1.79 for a few seconds, 6. Sodium silicate reacts with carbon dioxide gas to form silica gel that binds the sand particles together. The chemical reaction is given by NaxSi03. + =CO, =} -NajCOs; + SiOz (Sodium Silicate) (silica gel) 7, The sprue, riser and the pattern are withdrawn from the mould and gates are cut in the usual manner. The mould cavity is finished and made ready for pouring. Applications: Itis ideally used for casting applications where the speed and flexibility are paramount. Advantages: 1. Good dimensional accuracy can be obtained through strong core and mould. 2. Excellent surface finish can be obtained. 3. Itis generally used for high-production runs. 4, Itaccommodates a wide range of core and mould sizes. 5. When used for making cores, CO> process can be automated for large production and speedy production runs. 6. All sands can be used as a base aggregate for silicate sand mixture. 7, Less gas evolution occurs during pouring of molten metal and hence, it leads to casting defects. 8. Itensure instantaneous strength development. The development of strength takes place immediately after carbon dioxide gassing is completed. Limitations: 1. Poor collapsibility of moulds is a major disadvantage of this process. 2. There is a significant loss in the strength and hardness of moulds which have been stored for extended period of time. 3. Over gassing and under gassing adversely affect the properties of cured sand. Rinne _. ff iSection 29.6 / Weld Design and Process Selection 853, destructive Techniques 3 % Welded structures often have to be tested nondestructively, particularly for critical applica. tions where weld failure can be catastrophic, such as pressure vessels, load-bearing struc. tural members, and power plants. Nondestructive testing techniques for welded joints usually consist of (a) visual, (b) radiographic, (c) magnetic-particle, (d) liquid-penetrant, and (©) ultrasonic testing methods. = | ‘The details of these tests are described in Section 36.9. Testing for hardness distribution x in the weld zone may also be a useful indicator of weld strength and microstructural changes, ELD DESIGN AND PROCESS SELECTION j In addition to the material characteristics described thus far, the selection of a weld joint and of a welding process involves the following considerations: ® the configuration of the components or structure to be welded, and their thickness and size; the methods used to manufacture the components; the service requirements, such as the type of loading and the stresses generated; the location, accessibility, and ease of welding; the effects of distortion and discoloratior the appearance; the costs involved in the edge preparation, the welding, and the post-processing of the weld, including those from machining and finishing operations. As in all manufacturing processes, the optimum choice is the one that meets all design and service requirements at minimum cost. Some examples of weld chiaracteristics are shown in Fig. 29.15; they emphasize the need for careful consideration of the factors just identified. FIOURE29.15~ Design guidelines for welding. Source: J. G. Bralla (ed.), Hendbook of Product Design for Manufacturing. Copyright © 1986, McGraw-Hill Publishing Company. Used with permission. Poor Good Poor Good Ka Burr Deburred U 4 Q edge square wo ? i & So po ape ©)854 a ‘Chapter 29 / the Metallny of Welding: Welding Design and Process Selectionry Example: Weld Design Selection nt types of weld design are shown in Fig. 29.17 ‘ ar be weld ele Ua Fig. 29.17. In illustration a, the wo vo welding will tke considerable Aine a ot aN Ot te aa ve desig, which consists of interment intemal wel Nae ee ‘eth, te appearance of the structure js improved and dion 8 oe we ustraion (b)itcan be shown that the design onthe i ail ee se moment Mf of the one on the left. Noe that bth design i oa a ae weld metal and welding time. igns require the same amount of In illustration (c), the weld on the left requires about twice serial than does the design onthe right. Note, also at, bees termined, the design on the left will equi more time for edge preparati ase metal will be wasted. Summary 855 rhree differen vertical joints .¢ the amount of weld ma- ise more materia! must be jon, and more Intermittent Ly Conon, UY a SF (©) Weld Base metal ae) Single V gr00Ve Double V groove URE 29.17 | ty ae nt a of all welding processes: Be- Jed jin Peet The welded joint consists ani © The metallurgy of the Waa saa it eae the strength and toutes bas ‘wide variation in of solidified me ij aheat-afected 797% ined and on the filler metals jes, depending ‘stortion, residual sres8e% ture and Pore wer gradients it zone, distort sev 5 © Beswoeking can bo nificant Problem variety of process TE ° wc te 9 eof welds onal 7 composition: iderations ine rol eae ae ran nr ve sore con the contre T eparali the prowelte Feed joins OF yan : - on, he Pre ngof welded ion of table ar | the weldSMAW-Shielded Meter SAW_Subrerged Are Welding GMAW.-Gas Metl-Are Welding W_Fiux-Cored Ate WeldingSection 29.5 Testing Welded joins 54 Welded joints may be tested either destructively or nondestructivel tions 36.9 and 36.10.) Each technique has certain capabilities and linitati ity reliability; and requirement for special equipment and operator skil ly. (See also Sec. ions and sensitiy. Techniques ictive gest f ‘The common methods of testing Welded joints destructively are reviewed in this section, Tension Test. Longitudinal and transverse tension tests are performed, on speci- mens removed from actual welded joints and from the weld-metal area. Stress-strain curves are then obtained by the procedures described in Section 2.2. These curves indicate the yield strength (Y), ultimate tensile strength (UTS), and ductility of the welded joint (elongation and reduction of area) in different locations and directions, Tension-Shear Test. The specimens in the tension-shear test Figs.29.12a and b) are spe- cially prepared to simulate actual welded joints and procedures, The specimens are subjected to tension, and the shear strength of the weld metal and the location of fracture are determined. Bend Test. Several bend tests have been developed to determine the ductility and strength of welded joints. In one test, the welded ‘specimen is bent around a fixture (wrap- around bend test; Fig. 29.13a), In another test, the specimens are tested in three-point trans- verse bending (Fig. 29.13b; also Fig. 2.11a). These tests help to determine the relative ductility and strength of welded joints, FIGURE 29.12 Two types of specimens for tension- shear testing of welded Longitudinal Transverse joints, FIGURE 29.13 (a) Wrap-around bend test method. (b) Three-point bending of welded specimens—see also Fig. 2.11. o) Root bend Face bend Side bend852 chapter 29/ The Metallurgy or rena Fracture Toughness Test. Fracture ough testing a pan in Section 2.9, then tested for toughness. Another tou Se opmled by efling Wibi testis the dy Ubi Corrosion and Creep Tests. In tested for resistance to corrosion and a) ion io ‘microstructure of the materials in the weld zone, it, (See Fig. 29.5.) Creep tests are ie elevated temperatures. bes Testing of Spot Welds, pucwased és using the following fests, ee, 29.14), mle FIGURE 29.14 (a Tenso (orTwist es) Pee ast; seeat certain temperature. and preheating operations ‘before it can ons shown in Fig 30 Standing laminar wave and prefluxed circuit boards are con exposed metal surfaces, but it does not sa Tees ated ireuits and it does not stick © the‘typical stencil (continued) — |Section 40.3 Soldering, 867 FIGURE 30.6 (continued) (c) Sem image of wave-soldered joint on surface-mount device. polymer-coated circuit boards, An aif knife (basically a high velocity jet of hot air) blows Bolas solder from the joint, to prevent bridging between adjacent leads. ‘When surface-mount packages ae tobe wave soldered, they mitt ‘be adhesively bond- ‘ed10 the circuit board before the soldering cam comments ‘This bonding is usually accom: plished by sereening or stenciling epoxy onto, the boards, placing the components in their Prope locations, cufing the epoxy, inverting ins ‘board and then performing wave soldering. PSEM photograph of a typical surface-mount joints shown in Figure 30.66 Example: Soldering of Components onto a Printed Circuit Board ndustries place extremely high demands on elec: et omponents Its expected thatthe integrated circuit md other electronic devices ‘will function reliably for extended periods of time, during which they can be subjected to significant temperature variation and to vibration, In recognition of this requirement, itis essential that the solder joints used to attach such devices to cire suit boards be sufficiently strong and reliable and also that the solder joints be applied extremely rapidly with auto- -The computer and consumer electronic mated equipment 4 eangnuing trend in ibe computer industry and i try is toward continual reduction of chip St ind inereasing compactness of circuit {integrated circuits into surface beards, Further space savings are achieved by mounts eee hallow tighter packing on. circuit board ses importantly. sh vides ofa circuit board, (See Figure 34-12.) i ined circuit board has both surfacesmount and i desired to solder all the joins via reliable ay Ke point shouldbe recognized lof he Line circuits shoutd be re- arr of the board. Lndoed, here sno pean EES at oo this restriction greatly simplifies manufaetaning Mwah aboard are as follows (Fig. 30.6): n the consumer electronics indus- mount packag the mounting of components on Po! ‘A challenging problem arises W in-line cireuits on the same board, 2 tomated process. A subt sirieted to insertion from on Which would dictate otherwise The basic steps in soldering the connections 1. Apply solder paste to one side ages onto the board al co, insert in-line packages through Place the surface-mount pack the primary side of the board. Reflow the solder board. Apply adhesive to the secondary side of the the secondary side using the adhesive Attach the surface mount devices on Cure the adhesive.~ Mme Lai a wavy interface, 7 nen et two surfaces (Figs, >, Ise ch 8 Place (see Section, 2%)? ‘also take atthe interface are yy) he Ims pre ngth from explosion, Welding? Pl cord, granulated, o, usually in the range of. 7 explosive, the thickness fe! notation Necessary fo, % WySection 28.7/ Difusion Bonding Welding) 833 thanical prop- SEE eee is essential the same physical and mete’ ror ts can be relaxed by . , by differ- onding, pressure may be applied ‘weights, by a press ; ressure or bythe thermal expan nae, saa at. ee otso wees in iso by electrical resistance, High.pressure autoclaves aT omer part jing technology, ough this process was developed inthe 19705 as a modem welding technology. cffusion bonding dates eck teat when goldsmiths Donde te cle ed gl, Fs, hin ayer of gold fis proce then the golds placed over copper, and a weight is placed om top oft Finally. placed in a furnace and eft until a strong bond is obtained. Vr Capabilities. “Diffusion bonding is generally most suitable for joining dssim- reactive metal, sh tn ei, | sat materials, Because diffusion imolves migration of the atoms the joint, this process is Slower than other welding processes. Although DFW is'used for tin arin low quant fr the aerospace nuclear, and electronics industries, ted to make it suitable and economical for moderste-volume production. the process is highly automated, ‘considerable operator training and skill is re- pment cost is related approximately to the difusion-bonded area and is in the ma to $6/mm* ($2000/in. to: '$4000/in2), Diffusion-Bonding Applications gis especially suitable for such metals as tanium and the superalloys used aircraft. Design possibilities allow the conservation of expensive strategic mate the reduction of manufacturing costs. The military sreaftillstrated in Fig. 28.16 100 diffusion-bonded parts, ‘Some of which are shown in the figure.2.43. ELECTRON BEAM WELDING (EBM) Electron Beam Welding (EBW) is « fusion velocity electrons is used for producing high temPe! welded, The electrons strike the workpiece and their energy by releasing heat. This heat is used to heat the Are fused and joined together forming a weld. welding process in which a ature and melting the wo kinetic energy is converted metal so that the edges of 2.43.4. Working Principle oe Ifa filament of tungsten of tantalum is heated to high temperature directly by means ofan electric curentor indirectly by means ofan adj ‘number of electrons are given off from the filament. These electrons carry Which is passed through the anode hole. The greater i the filament current, the temperature and greater will be the electron emission. Ifa metal dise with a central hole is placed near the filament an Positive potential relative to the filamer , the emitted electrons a ‘because of their kinetic energy pass through the hole as a d atOa f ae yelocities Lomparable with the velocity of light by using anode voltages (uP (© © Wy increases the beam energy. The smaller the spot into which the beam is jyand BE tl be the energy density. So, itis possible to weld holes. The beams are (0 | mm diameter and the power density is of 10 kW/m? Aluminium gl ee 9.25 mm ti cusing Feng of about 40 mm and tel has about 30mm shes J _- Filament — Cathode Focusing coil Electron beam === High vacuum (a) Vacuum (b) Atmosphere Figure 2,28 Electron beam welding Focusing coils can concentrate the beam on a spot ofa few micron in diameter. With this spot, a weld bead of narrow width relative to the plate thickness is formed. When the beam strikes a metal surface X-rays are generated, adequate precautions must ken for screening personnel from rays. Ifthe beam emerges into the atmosphere, energy ibys collision of electrons with atmospheric molecules and focus is impaired. Hence, s is carried out in vacuum. The vacuum may be created either in the gun chamber ‘parte steel component chamber fixed tothe gun chamber. Welding in non-vacuum erg nations requires much grater power than the vacuum method because of the he tmosphere on the beam and the greater distance from gun to work. A shielding ‘Suired around the weld area.1 sections are narrow with deep Welds made with this proces on EK wigs are performed iti minimum thermal aistbance: A’ TET, incon ‘aluminium alloys a tungsten, tantalum, beryllium, 1 mostly in the aero and space research industries: 2.13.2, Advantages, Limitations and Applications of EBW Advantages: : : High-quality welds, deep and naro™” profiles are produced, Clean and bright weld ean be obtained. : High speed operation ean be achieved: i Dimensional accuracy is go0d- 5. Very small part can be welded. 6. There is no need of using eleetiodes- 7. Accurate control over welding | conditions i emission el beam focus. Benperecesses cpl : Ea potions: cs 1, isimilar metals can be welgey 3, Refractor 4, Itis used missile, nue : * Nuclear compan 1, lis suitable for large scale penent Bears and shafts s, Itis used in cams, 414. LASER BEAM WELDING (Lay) The word Jaser stands for Light Amplifics : ation by the Stimul asi®) It is a strong coherent monochroy i lated Emission of Radiation _ncenrated With Very small beam divergenc, matic beam of light which can be highly e. vithout diverging and it can be concentrated toa precise spot. The coherent light emitted by the laser can be focused and reflected in the same way as a choice of lenses and the distance from it heat treating, Laser welding is suitable for weldin; ig deep narrow joints with depth-to-width sioranging from 4 to 10. Laser beam welding (LBW) is a welding process which produces coalescence of ‘uteials with the heat obtained from the application of a concentrated coherent light beam ‘npinging upon the surfaces to be joined. It is a non-contact Process that requires access to te weld zone from one side of the parts being welded. It is also a thermoelectric process ‘Scomplished by material evaporation and melting. Laser-beam welding (LBW) utilizes a laser beam as the heat source, Light energy is Sverted into heat energy. Here, the light energy is produced from the laser source such 8 odin the form of monochromatic light Ifthe beam can be focused onto small ae, it figh energy for deep penetrating capability. posi fosssing: is achieved by: various lens ents because this focusing ensures high density. LBW does not require a vacuum “'tbs, So, Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) is smal and thermal damage to the adjacent partis "Bible,2.44.1, Working Principle The working principle © is made to fall on a special m chromium oxide, When ruby atoms of crystal is excited and Pl Bach excited atoms emits rd reaching the critical intensity, the chalt a taser weld i yan-mnade a burst of re light. The red light The parallel ends of the forth within the rod The mirror atthe the burst of ight to escape through i rod are mirro! front of themii sed in Welding f Oe na eta ¢ i 1, Liquid laser X ‘ir Nien iy nan 0 te so man ie ieee pS TG noon: la ie WP SS tuna pig nt6. Maintenance cost 7. Rapid cooling Applications: fk foils, stents, sensor diaP cakes ananiar ol titanium and columbium. This very much useful in electronic componentsnat ovek 08 SHOWN in Figure 2.31, During welding, j conocted with the rotating component under pressure of ot surfaces. This heat is used to weld the the stationary chuck is ‘The heat is produced eon OT erate sufficient heat t0 reach a bondi ae vrigg welding Varies between 49 ap, uri components under pressure. Pressure '8 temperature within a few seconds. The 'a to 450 MPa, je ve interface. Grain structure is refined by hot ye «interface. During this period, the rotation i ics complete the weld. Then, th “ef 1002 spt: For topping the relative oe The heat is concentrated and work and there is little diffusion S stopped and pressure is retained or ne metal is slowly extruded from the weld region to motion, the brake system is used, Stationary chuck Rotating chuck6. Stainless steel 7, Tungsten 8. Vanadium 9. Aluminium and aluminium alloys 10, Magnesium alloys. 2.18.4, Sequence of Operation in Friction Welding ‘The sequence of operation in the friction welding process (Figure ‘Step 1: Component fitted to rotating chuck is rotated at high ‘Step 2: Component fitted to stationary chuck is brought force. :os of Friction Welding are are three t7PES of friction Welding as follows () Gontinuous-drive or spin fiction welding (ji) Inertia friction welding (iii) Linear friction welding, 3. Advantages, Limitations and Applications of Friction Welding ut aot 825° 1, Power consumption is low, 2, ‘The operation is easy and it uses simple equipment. Parameters are easily determined. Less time is required. It is smooth and clean process. Heat is quickly dissipate. ‘There is no need of using flux and filler metal. Iteasily joins dissimilar metals. ‘The full surface of the cross section is made up of both metals, airtight and absent of voids. 10. Friction welds have higher strength than other means of joining. Friction welds often cost less, 12. Friction welds minimize the Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) as compared to conventional flash welding, 13. ‘There is no distortion and warping, ‘M4. Itis environmentally friendly process i.e. no fumes, gases or smoke generated. 15. Wtreduces machining labor thereby reducing tooling costs. 16. Reactive materials can be welded. Ttis used only for joining small parts. Heavy components are not possible to weld, Thete js a possibility of heavy flash out. Heavy rigid machines are required due to high thrust pressure,Testricted to flat and angular butt welds, 5. Only limited shapes of joints ean be welded. § Equipment cost ig high, “ 7. Incase of tube welding process, the process becomes. complicated, ¥ Wetoe ot high eutn ely it ictal to red Applications: 1. Because of high quality of the weld obtained, the process is “Serospace and automobile industry for critical parts, 2. In aerospace industry, turbine blade joining, seamless. using friction welding, i 3. In automobile industry, bimetallic engine valve, ‘gear hub ete. are produced using friction welding.Constant pressure ensures process stability HN | Rotation, o— shoulder generates spotional heat + pressure weld Workpiece Pin stirs material Figure 2.33 Principle of friction stir welding reheat is produced by the combination of friction and mixing. During the process, the el wll not melt but it softens, The softening of metal takes place up to a highly plastic ‘odin. When the tool moves forward along the joint, the leading surface of the rotating seis forcing the metal around it. Then, the developed force forges the metal into a weld sea So,the shoulder helps to limit the plasticized metal flowing around the probe. Since workpiece does not melt, problems such as porosity, solidification cracks and ‘femal distortion are non-existent. Itis extremely important to identify appropriate combinations of tool geometry, tool nitonal speed and welding speed to ensure a proper material flow. The harder is the ‘wrlpiece material, the stronger has to be the tool material because the tool ‘experiences “reeatmosphere of stress and temperature, The commercial use of FSW for hard alloys still ais intangible, x "Advantages, Limitations and Applications of Friction Stir Welding rng {ensures the good mechanical properties of the weld joint, Tavoids toxic fumes, warping, shielding issues and other problems associated with a Welding,ae ee . High quality wel joints: It permits less distortion oF shrinkage o” Itprovides good weld appearance ‘There is no use of ‘consumables Itcan be easily automated on si less training. Ieean be operated in all positions there is 10 weld pool. Itcan be used for thinner materials with same joint strength simplicity of operation and Sime equipment are bia It requires less time to perfor™ welding. Heat affected zone is small as Dissimilar metals ean be joined 1d can be obtained. —“a ou th crospace: Turbine blade inn iiss, “AMleSs joining ete 8 and tools, 8 OF containers ‘ industrial machines: Spindles, tape Medical: Stainless steet joj Mining/Drill itis used in rolling stock fey railways, Twist dritts, Beneral Sometimes, steel, copper ang titanium joined by using FSW, fabrication, robotics and computers. 48 Well as Polymers and composites are also ULTRASONIC WELDING wt ulrasonie welding is a Solid-state Welding process Pieces are bonded af PeSSHU eieted to Welded Parts: combi sss ina closer contact between two surf, tion causes. friction eS Wit set lteratomie bonds formed under these th simultaneous local tions provide strong jo between parts which heating of the contact int, condit The components to be joined are held sibrtions, usually at a frequency of 15 KHz to 6 sonotrode or sonometer or horn are used to soften or melt the thermoplastic material at the jpint line. Welding time is less than 3 seconds. The welding can proceed with or without the ‘plato of extemal heat. Thickness of the welded parts is li limited by the power of the together under pressure and subjected to 0 KHz. The vibrations produced by a welding fer, sonotrode or horn and component sup) Port tooling. A schematic of an ‘machine is shown in Figure 2.34, clectrical power from the single-phase mains to the correct for the transducer to convert into mechanical vibrations. The : the welding eycle and feeds back the key welding information to ‘The user interface also allows the operator to enter the — 7 Iae contol system ang terface (can be stmn the sac! ta made of r oy f zucer is also Known as converter which converts the electrical ener BY Wl ansd jucers are sre 7, mechanical vibrations used for the welding process. Transducers 0 ato" materials. etre" Fee jectric. material increases its length when curren Tn pie ¢ device. Examples of such materials are quartz, tourmaline and nin ao! coil t flows through # Rochelle salt iched between nsists of a number of piezo-electric ceramic dises sandwi : 7 in metal plate piocks, usually titanium. Between each of the dises, there is thi a ~ 1¢ electrode. As the sinusoidal electrical signal is fed to the transducer vie 0 ens th it p for" "ses expand and contract, anvt produce an axial and peak-to-peak movement wie® jes, the dl vi 20 ym we section of the welding stack serves two purposes. It is primarily to amplify nee vibrations produced at the tip of the transducer and transfer them to the hom. Its secondary purpose is to provide a location for mounting the stack on the gs. The booster expands and contracts as the transducer apply ultrasonic eneray- she mee yelding welding Pre 9 Welding hort : ‘The welding hom is the element of the welding stack that supplies energy to the component being welded. The tip of the welding horn delivers the ultrasonic energy to i

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