Ramon Pacheco Pardo

An Analysis of
Sun Tzu’s
The Art of War
Ramon Pacheco Pardo

Copyright © 2017 by Macat International Ltd
24:13 Coda Centre, 189 Munster Road, London SW6 6AW.
Macat International has asserted its right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act
1988 to be identified as the copyright holder of this work.
The print publication is protected by copyright. Prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in
a retrieval system, distribution or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, me-
chanical, recording or otherwise, permission should be obtained from the publisher or where
applicable a license permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom should be obtained
from the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Barnard’s Inn, 86 Fetter Lane, London EC4A 1EN, UK.
The ePublication is protected by copyright and must not be copied, reproduced, transferred,
distributed, leased, licensed or publicly performed or used in any way except as specifically
permitted in writing by the publishers, as allowed under the terms and conditions under which
it was purchased, or as strictly permitted by applicable copyright law. Any unauthorised distri-
bution or use of this text may be a direct infringement of the authors and the publishers’ rights
and those responsible may be liable in law accordingly.
www.macat.com
info@macat.com
Cover illustration: Etienne Gilfillan
Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data is available upon request.
ISBN 978-1-912303-47-2 (hardback)

ISBN 978-1-912127-53-5 (paperback)
ISBN 978-1-912282-35-7 (e-book)
Notice
The information in this book is designed to orientate readers of the work under analysis,
to elucidate and contextualise its key ideas and themes, and to aid in the development
of critical thinking skills. It is not meant to be used, nor should it be used, as a
substitute for original thinking or in place of original writing or research. References and
notes are provided for informational purposes and their presence does not constitute
endorsement of the information or opinions therein. This book is presented solely for
educational purposes. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged
to provide any scholarly advice. The publisher has made every effort to ensure that
this book is accurate and up-to-date, but makes no warranties or representations with
regard to the completeness or reliability of the information it contains. The information
and the opinions provided herein are not guaranteed or warranted to produce particular
results and may not be suitable for students of every ability. The publisher shall not be
liable for any loss, damage or disruption arising from any errors or omissions, or from
the use of this book, including, but not limited to, special, incidental, consequential or
other damages caused, or alleged to have been caused, directly or indirectly, by the
information contained within.
CONTENTS
WAYS IN TO THE TEXT

Who Was Sun Tzu? 9
What Does The Art of War Say? 10
Why Does The Art of War Matter? 11
SECTION 1: INFLUENCES
Module 1:The Author and the Historical Context 15
Module 2: Academic Context 20
Module 3:The Problem 24
Module 4:The Author’s Contribution 28
SECTION 2: IDEAS
Module 5: Main Ideas 32
Module 6: Secondary Ideas 36
Module 7: Achievement 40
Module 8: Place in the Author’s Work 44
SECTION 3: IMPACT
Module 9:The First Responses 48
Module 10:The Evolving Debate 52
Module 11: Impact and Influence Today 56
Module 12:Where Next? 59
Glossary of Terms 64
People Mentioned in the Text 67
Works Cited 71
THE MACAT LIBRARY
The Macat Library is a series of unique academic explorations of
seminal works in the humanities and social sciences – books and
papers that have had a significant and widely recognised impact on
their disciplines. It has been created to serve as much more than just a
summary of what lies between the covers of a great book. It illuminates
and explores the influences on, ideas of, and impact of that book. Our
goal is to offer a learning resource that encourages critical thinking and
fosters a better, deeper understanding of important ideas.
Each publication is divided into three Sections: Influences, Ideas, and
Impact. Each Section has four Modules. These explore every important
facet of the work, and the responses to it.
This Section-Module structure makes a Macat Library book easy to
use, but it has another important feature. Because each Macat book is
written to the same format, it is possible (and encouraged!) to cross-
reference multiple Macat books along the same lines of inquiry or
research. This allows the reader to open up interesting interdisciplinary
pathways.
To further aid your reading, lists of glossary terms and people
mentioned are included at the end of this book (these are indicated by
an asterisk [*] throughout) – as well as a list of works cited.
Macat has worked with the University of Cambridge to identify the

elements of critical thinking and understand the ways in which six
different skills combine to enable effective thinking.
Three allow us to fully understand a problem; three more give us
the tools to solve it. Together, these six skills make up the
PACIER model of critical thinking. They are:
ANALYSIS – understanding how an argument is built

EVALUATION – exploring the strengths and weaknesses of an argument
INTERPRETATION – understanding issues of meaning
CREATIVE THINKING – coming up with new ideas and fresh connections
PROBLEM-SOLVING – producing strong solutions
REASONING – creating strong arguments
To find out more, visit WWW.MACAT.COM.

CRITICAL THINKING AND THE ART OF WAR
Primary critical thinking skill: PROBLEM-SOLVING
Secondary critical thinking skill: ANALYSIS
Sun Tzu’s The Art of War is a series of lessons in the applied art of
problem solving.
Sun (544 b.c.e-496 b.c.e), an experienced general from the Warring
States period of Chinese history, saw war as an inevitable problem –
indeed, the ultimate problem confronting the state. The Art of War
summarises his lessons on how to solve the problems raised by conflict.
The work comprises a series of pithy discussions of the different
strategic situations that might arise, and the best responses for each. In
many ways it is a masterclass in the application of critical thinking to
practical affairs.
Aspiring generals are advised to ‘appraise the situation’ according to
five separate criteria, and to plan accordingly.‘The expert at battle seeks
his victory from strategic advantage’, Sun writes, so every general must
assess their situation from every angle, and establish not only the best
way to give themselves the strategic advantage – but also of preventing
the other side from giving itself the advantage.Throughout the text,
Sun epitomises the qualities of a good problem solver by focusing on
the nature of the problem; asking productive questions about it; and
making sound decisions.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR OF THE ORIGINAL WORK
Born in the sixth century b.c.e., Chinese general Sun Tzu was a
thoughtful, yet ruthless, military strategist. In a time of unrest and war, he
proved himself on the battlefield, but clearly understood all the
complexities of war—aware that tactics, profound knowledge, and rational
thinking were every bit as important in securing victory as raw courage.
Sun Tzu’s influence has lasted for more than 2,500 years, with military and
business leaders still reaching for his book to gain an advantage over their
opponents.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR OF THE ANALYSIS

Dr. Ramon Pacheco Pardo is Senior Lecturer in International
Relations at King’s College London. He holds a PhD in International
Relations form the London School of Economics and is a research
associate at the Lau China Institute and the Global Studies Institute in
Hong Kong. Dr Pacheco Pardo has held visiting positions at the Lee Kuan
Yew School of Public Policy and Korea University and sits on the editorial
board of Global Studies Journal.
ABOUT MACAT
GREAT WORKS FOR CRITICAL THINKING
Macat is focused on making the ideas of the world’s great thinkers
accessible and comprehensible to everybody, everywhere, in ways that
promote the development of enhanced critical thinking skills.
It works with leading academics from the world’s top universities to
produce new analyses that focus on the ideas and the impact of the most
influential works ever written across a wide variety of academic disciplines.
Each of the works that sit at the heart of its growing library is an enduring
example of great thinking. But by setting them in context – and looking
at the influences that shaped their authors, as well as the responses they
provoked – Macat encourages readers to look at these classics and
game-changers with fresh eyes. Readers learn to think, engage and
challenge their ideas, rather than simply accepting them.
‘Macat offers an amazing first-of-its-kind tool for
interdisciplinary learning and research. Its focus on works
that transformed their disciplines and its rigorous approach,
drawing on the world’s leading experts and educational institutions,
opens up a world-class education to anyone.’
Andreas Schleicher,
Director for Education and Skills, Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development
‘Macat is taking on some of the major challenges in university

education … They have drawn together a strong team of active
academics who are producing teaching materials that are
novel in the breadth of their approach.’
Prof Lord Broers,
former Vice-Chancellor of the University of Cambridge
‘The Macat vision is exceptionally exciting. It focuses

upon new modes of learning which analyse and explain seminal texts
which have profoundly influenced world thinking and so social and
economic development. It promotes the kind of critical thinking
which is essential for any society and economy.
This is the learning of the future.’
Rt Hon Charles Clarke, former UK Secretary of State for Education
‘The Macat analyses provide immediate access to the critical

conversation surrounding the books that have shaped their
respective discipline, which will make them an invaluable resource
to all of those, students and teachers, working in the field.’
Professor William Tronzo, University of California at San Diego
WAYS IN TO THE TEXT
KEY POINTS
• Sun Tzu was a Chinese general, military strategist, and
philosopher who lived in the sixth century b.c.e.
• The Art of War is a guide on how to prepare for and
conduct war in order to ensure victory.
• Although it was written more than 2,500 years ago,
military academies around the world still use The Art of
War when training officers and commanders.
Who was Sun Tzu?

Sun Tzu—sometimes referred to as Sun Wu and Sunzi—was a high-
ranking military general and tactician in ancient China. Little is
known about his life. It is believed he was born in 544 b.c.e. and died
in 496 b.c.e1 There is also debate over where he was born; some
scholars say it was in the ancient state of Wu,* on the mouth of the
Yangtze River in eastern China, others that it was in the ancient state
of Qi,* just to the north.
The fact that Sun was literate has led scholars to assume he was
born into an aristocratic family. He is believed to have fought many
battles, including victories over the bordering states of Chu,* Qi and
Qin.* These would have brought him fame as a military leader.2
The Art of War was written during China’s Spring and Autumn*
period, an era named for the ancient chronicles known as the Spring
9
Macat Analysis of Sun Tzu’s The Art of War
and Autumn Annals.* This period in ancient China, from 770 to 476
b.c.e, saw the transition from the long-lasting Zhou dynasty (a time
characterized by a feudal system similar to that of medieval Europe,
with political and economic power distributed throughout large areas
of territory in the hands of wealthy individuals) to a time in which
several states vied for power, leading to almost continuous wars.3
Sun wrote The Art of War about 20 years before the start of the
period known as the Age of the Warring States,* which lasted from
475 to 221 b.c.e. It is evident, then, that the book was an influential
guide to warfare during one of the most violent eras of China’s history.
Sun Tzu almost certainly had a lot of war experience and, as an able
general, his opinions were sought-after and listened to.
What Does The Art of War Say?

The Art of War offers a clear approach to military strategy. Sun Tzu
discusses the tactics, tools, and procedures necessary to win a war and
also considers the philosophy of military conflict. The work brings
together the moral and practical aspects of engaging in war and argues
that proper preparation is as important as the way in which warfare is
conducted. Indeed, the book’s two principal themes are the importance
of planning and the ways in which war is best waged. Since war is
always a possibility, Sun argues, the art of war is of vital importance for
the state;furthermore,the planning and conduct of warfare are interlinked.
To Sun, the best war is the war that is not fought; one which the
cleverest leader wins without fighting.4 If war is unavoidable, he says,
then losses should be kept to a minimum.
Secondary to these core ideas, Sun Tzu argues that failure to plan
properly will lead to defeat.To win a war, an army has to make use of
both its own strengths and its opponent’s weaknesses. He also says that
a war cannot be won without gathering information, which provides
knowledge and understanding; strategies need to be adapted
throughout a war, and tactics tailored to conditions.
10
Ways In to the Text
There are 13 chapters in the text, each is devoted to a single subject

and, between them, they examine a wide range of topics. These
include the importance of laying plans, identifying your own weak
and strong points as well as those of the enemy, maneuvering troops,
analyzing the terrain, using fire as a weapon, and making use of spies.
All told, these lessons give military commanders comprehensive
practical lessons and concise advice on how to secure victory.5
The Art of War is one of the oldest surviving books in Chinese
literary history. In the eleventh century, seven of the most important
military texts, including The Art of War, were collected in an anthology
called Seven Military Classics.* This volume has been required reading
for Chinese military officers ever since, and The Art of War is the
primary text to which most of the others refer. As such, it formed the
foundations of military theory in early China, and has been a leading
text in Chinese military thought throughout history. Sun’s work was
also widely read across East Asia, influencing military commanders in
Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.6
The book was translated into French in the eighteenth century
and into English in the early twentieth, after which it went on to
become popular in Western countries.7 Today, it is compulsory
reading in the US Marine Corps,8 and the English version alone has
been quoted in academic works more than 3,000 times, which
indicates that the work remains highly influential throughout the
world.
Why Does The Art of War Matter?

The Art of War is essential reading for those wishing to learn how to
engage an opponent and emerge victorious. However, it is not only
useful to the military and students of warfare. The text offers a wide
range of important lessons that can be applied to any situation that can
be won or lost. In recent years, The Art of War has gained popularity in
politics, law, business, management, and sports.9 Lessons such as the
11
importance of planning ahead are highly relevant to these fields.10

Sun Tzu wrote in such a clear and universal way that his advice
applies to a wide range of circumstances. These include the importance
of knowing your strengths and weaknesses and also those of your
opponent; of using deception to achieve objectives; of maintaining
close links between war preparations and their application; and the
benefits of keeping losses to a minimum.11 If you substitute “war” for
words such as “conflict,”“campaign,”“negotiation,” and “competition,”
Sun’s ideas work just as well. This continuing relevance has seen The
Art of War progress from being a text simply concerned with military
strategy to a work that is considered useful in many other areas of life.
Despite its title, Sun Tzu’s book is not narrowly focused on military
conflict. It addresses the subject of strategy broadly, touching upon
ways of running a successful state as well as how to plan and prepare
for battle. The text outlines theories of military engagement, but also
talks about the importance of diplomacy and establishing good
relationships with other nations. To Sun, these were as important as
waging war.
The Art of War is one of the best-known books on the strategy of
warfare in existence and is required reading at military colleges
throughout the world. More than 2,500 years after it was written,
Sun’s work owes its popularity to the practical advice it offers military
commanders, most of which is still applicable today. This arguably
makes The Art of War a masterpiece and Sun one of the most popular
military strategists of all time.
NOTES
1 Ralph Sawyer, The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China (New York: Basic
Books, 2007), 150-153.
2 Sun Tzu, The Art of Warfare, trans. Roger T. Ames (New York: Ballantine
Books, 1993), 34.
3 Cho-yun Hsu, “The Spring and Autumn Period,” in The Cambridge History
12
Ways In to the Text
of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 B.C. (Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1999), 545.
4 Sun Tzu, The Art of War, trans. Lionel Giles (El Paso: El Paso Norte Press,
2005), 11.
5 Sun Tzu, The Art of War, 1.
6 Mark McNeilly, Sun Tzu and the Art of Modern Warfare (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2001), 5–6.
7 McNeilly, Sun Tzu, 6–7.
8 US Marine Corps, Professional Reading List, 2013-2014, accessed
September 8, 2013, http://www.mccs-sc.com/lifelong/docs/readinglist.pdf.
9 Sun Tzu, The Art of War, v-vi.
10 Donald G. Krause, The Art of War for Executives: Ancient Knowledge for
Today’s Business Professional (London: Penguin Books, 2007), 32-33.
11 Sun Tzu, The Art of War, 5–11.
13
SECTION 1
INFLUENCES
MODULE 1
THE AUTHOR AND THE
HISTORICAL CONTEXT
KEY POINTS
• The Art of War is one of the most widely read, important,
and influential military essays in human history.
• Sun Tzu was a high-ranking general and a renowned
military strategist who wrote The Art of War more than
2,500 years ago.
• Sun lived during a period of frequent civil wars in China,
which gave him a rich experience of battle and influenced
his philosophy of war.
Why Read this Text?

Sun Tzu’s The Art of War is one of the world’s oldest military texts,
having survived since the sixth century b.c.e. A guide for military
commanders, it lays out a philosophy of war and also outlines the
practical problems commanders might face while engaged in warfare.
The most important lesson in The Art of War is that proper
preparation for war is as important as its conduct. Because it was
written as a guide, it does not explain battle plans in detail; instead, it
examines the factors that a commander needs to take into account to
ensure he defeats his opponent.
The text is divided into 13 chapters, each covering a different
topic.These include:
• Devising plans
• Alternating between different strategies
• Using the right tactics for any given situation
15
• Identifying the strengths and weaknesses of the enemy

• Maneuvering troops
• Adapting strategies and tactics to the terrain
• Making good use of spies
The fundamental concern that Sun Tzu tackled in The Art of

War—how to triumph in a conflict—has been a central human
preoccupation since pre-history; we can assume that war has been a
common means for societies and nations to increase their power for
an extremely long time.
Sun’s text has been a seminal guide for military commanders who
want to devise the best strategy and tactics to achieve victory. Although
it is antiquated in some aspects—the chapter on fire as a weapon, for
example—most of the lessons it teaches are still relevant and could be
applied today. In saying that “cleverness has never been associated
with long delays,”1 for example, Sun points out that long military
campaigns are expensive and lead to great strains on a society, so
commanders need to devise strategies and tactics for a rapid victory.
The Art of War continues to be relevant because Sun’s lessons are
simple and straightforward. They are easy to understand and can be
applied to a wide range of circumstances—not just to warfare.
Author’s Life
Since The Art of War was written more than 2,500 years ago, it is hard
to determine accurate details about its origins. Even its authorship has
been disputed. It is generally believed that Sun Tzu wrote The Art of
War, but there is no way to verify it, and there are scholars who do not
accept this view.2 The American military historian Ralph Sawyer,*
for example, has pointed out that Sun’s original text could have been
modified by his disciples. Others believe that it was not Sun Tzu who
wrote the book but his relative, the military leader Sun Bin*—
although this theory was discounted when Sun Bin’s own book was
16
Section 1: Influences; Module 1: The Author and the Historical Context
“andSunauthor
Tzu was an ancient Chinese military strategist
of The Art of War, which became the most
renowned and influential military classic in Chinese
history
”
Xiaobing Li, China at War: An Encyclopaedia
discovered in 1972.3
Sun Tzu lived during the Spring and Autumn* period of Chinese
history (771–476 b.c.e.) and is thought to have been born in 544 b.c.e.
He died in 496 b.c.e. ,4 about 20 years before the start of the Warring
States* period (475–221 b.c.e.). According to the British translator
Lionel Giles,* who made the first full and most frequently used
English translation of The Art of War in 1910, Sun Tzu was a native of
the state of Wu* on the east coast of the Yellow Sea, where the Yangtze
River drains into the ocean. It seems that The Art of War was written
for Helu,* the king of Wu, who fought a war with the state of Chu,*
to the west.5
Although little is known about Sun’s family and educational
background, the fact that he was literate suggests that he came from
the aristocracy.6 The Spring and Autumn period was an era in which
social mobility increased and intellectuals cemented their position as
rulers.This would have given Sun added incentives to write The Art of
War. As well as increasing his recognition as a military leader, the book
would have helped him to progress in his career and to make an impact
in a rapidly evolving society.
Author’s Background
The antiquity of the text means that there are doubts about the details
of Sun’s life and even the originality of his ideas. It is generally thought
that though Sun wrote the text in Chinese around 500 b.c.e.—the
description of warfare in the book is thought to reflect the known
17
details of battles fought during this period,7 such as the successful

campaigns waged by the state of Wu against the states of Chu, Qi* and
Qin.*
China was a hierarchical society during the time Sun is thought to
have lived. Powerful kings ruled over impoverished subjects while
seeking to maximize their power.War was a central feature of Chinese
society, notably so in the Warring States period that followed the
Spring and Autumn period.
Sun is believed to have worked for Helu, the king of Wu, as a
general and tactician. He advised on how to achieve victory over his
adversaries.8 It seems the socio-political environment of the time had
a profound impact on him when writing The Art of War.
Expectations for aristocrats, such as Sun, evolved throughout the
Spring and Autumn period.The aristocratic class had to be trained in
fields as diverse as archery, writing, and mathematics.9 So Sun’s
education is likely to have given him interests beyond warfare. He
would also have been expected to serve his ruler in an administrative
capacity. As a result, even though The Art of War is a book of military
theory, it can also be seen as a by-product of Sun’s education and
general interests.
Sun Tzu was a contemporary of the Chinese philosopher
Confucius,* whose teachings started to gain popularity during the
late Spring and Autumn period. Confucius’s ideas about the morality
of government and strict social relations would have spread first to the
literate class, to which Sun is believed to have belonged.10 That said, it
is thought that Sun Tzu and Confucius were contemporaries and lived
in neighboring states, it is not known if they had any influence on
each other.
18
Section 1: Influences; Module 1: The Author and the Historical Context
NOTES
2005), 120.
2 See Ralph Sawyer, The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China (New York:
Basic Books, 2007), 150-153.
3 Sun Tzu, The Art of War: A New Translation, trans. Jonathan Clements
(London: Constable & Robinson, 2012), 77-78.
4 Sawyer, The Seven Military Classics, 150–3.
9 Cho-yun Hsu, ‘The Spring and Autumn Period’, in The Cambridge History
of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 B.C. (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1999), 583.
10 Ge Zhaoguang, An Intellectual History of China, trans. Michael S. Duke and
Josephine Chiu-Duke (Leiden: Brill, 2014), 1:132–3.
19
MODULE 2
ACADEMIC CONTEXT
KEY POINTS
• The Art of War is an important and influential text in the
field of military science.
• Sun Tzu’s work and this field of study examine the conduct
of war at the state level and also look at the actions of
individual commanders on the battlefield.
• The Art of War is a text that is foundational to war studies.
It is essential reading for military commanders throughout
the world today.
The Work In Its Context

The Art of War by Sun Tzu is one of the oldest studies of war. Although
only a handful of texts written in ancient times have survived and it is
difficult to be sure of its originality, The Art of War is surely a
foundational text in the field of military science. Moreover, because it
studies war from both the perspective of the state and that of the
individual, its lessons have been referenced throughout history.
The text has had a huge influence on East Asian military
commanders for thousands of years. For example, Mao Zedong,* the
founder of the People’s Republic of China,* said that The Art of War
had been a major influence on his military campaigns.1 Even before
he had secured victory, Mao adapted Sun Tzu’s writings in his 1937
book On Guerrilla Warfare.2
The Art of War is considered the most important of the Seven
Military Classics—a group of leading military texts of ancient China
that were collected together in the eleventh century, during the Song
dynasty.* In fact, the other six Classics quote it directly.3 As the oldest
20
Section 1: Influences; Module 2: Academic Context
“TheAfter his retirement, Sun Tzu revised and improved

Art of War based on his war experience and tested
expertise … The Art of War is the first important work
on strategy and theory in world military history.
Xiaobing Li, China at War: An Encyclopedia
”
of these texts, The Art of War was a precursor to all later work in the
intellectual tradition of studying warfare.4
More recently, Sun Tzu has also had an influence on Western
military studies. The Art of War was first translated from Chinese into a
Western language—French—in 1792. It took until 1905 for it to be
translated (partially) into English, but in 1910 Lionel Giles* made a
full and scholarly translation of the text that took into account a wide
range of interpretations of Sun’s writings. Since the Giles translation,
the text has had a profound influence on the study of war in the West.5
Overview of the Field

Because of its antiquity, there is no way to determine whether The Art
of War was influenced by earlier texts. When Sun wrote it, there were
no identifiable schools of intellectual thought in China about the
conduct of war. Sun Tzu would have been in contact with other
military intellectuals but it is not known if they influenced his ideas.
The most prominent scholar of war after Sun Tzu is the
nineteenth-century Prussian general and military theorist Carl von
Clausewitz,* whose seminal text On War argued that war was an
extension of politics.6 There is no way of knowing whether
Clausewitz had read The Art of War before writing his work. He wrote
it after Sun’s text had been translated into French, however, so it is
possible. Both texts serve as the intellectual basis for the field of war
studies, giving readers the possibility of both Western and Chinese
perspectives.
21
Academic Influences
Given that he was writing more than 2,500 years ago, it is virtually
impossible to determine Sun’s influences. However, even more than
his formal education, we can be certain that his occupation as a high-
ranking military official played an important part in the work’s formation.7
The text cannot be placed within an intellectual school since it is
not possible to know if there was an existing school of warfare when
Sun wrote The Art of War. It is also difficult to say whether Sun was
subject to restrictions or censorship when writing. Considering that
the text offers advice to rulers seeking to go to war against neighboring
states, it is highly likely that he had the freedom to develop his
argument and ideas without interference.
It is believed that the ancient philosophical and religious tradition
of Taoism* influenced the work. Tao means “way” or “path,” and
there are several references to “the way” in the book. For example,
writing of the necessity of caution and awareness if victory is to be
achieved, Sun says: “Hence the enlightened ruler is heedful, and the
good general full of caution. This is the way to keep a country at peace
and an army intact.”8
The Art of War was written in an era of political and social turmoil
when several Chinese feudal states were at war with each other.
Ancient China also had a rich intellectual and philosophical tradition
that reached a level of abstraction matched by few states at the time—
at least in terms of published works. This tradition is present in Sun’s
work, which seeks to analyze warfare beyond particular battles or
campaigns to look at the phenomenon as a whole.
22
Section 1: Influences; Module 2: Academic Context
NOTES
1 Sun Tzu, The Illustrated Art of War, trans. Samuel B. Griffith (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2005), 17.
2 Mao Zedong, On Guerrilla Warfare, trans. Samuel B. Griffith (Thousand
Oaks, California: BN Publishing, 2007).
Basic Books, 2007).
4 Ralph Sawyer, The Essence of War: Leadership and Strategy from the
Chinese Military Classics (Boulder: Westview, 2004), 8.
5 US Naval War College, “Academic Programs,” accessed March 21, 2015,
https://www.usnwc.edu/Departments---Colleges/International-Programs/
About-NWC.aspx; and US Marine Corps, “Professional Reading List 2013–
2014,” accessed September 9, 2013, http://www.mccs-sc.com/lifelong/
docs/readinglist.pdf.
6 Carl von Clausewitz, On War, trans. James John Graham (London: N.
Trubner, 1873).
7 Ralph Sawyer, Seven Military Classics, 150–3.
2005), 63.
23
MODULE 3
THE PROBLEM
KEY POINTS
• For more than 2,500 years, Sun Tzu’s The Art of War has
been essential reading for commanders wishing to learn
how to win a war.
• It attempts to answer the question “How do you gain
victory over your enemy?”—a question that every leader
throughout history has grappled with.
• The Art of War is a foundational text in the field of military
science. It has inspired Chinese scholars, military forces
across the world, and texts such as those by the Chinese
revolutionary leader Mao Zedong* and the influential
Prussian military theorist Carl von Clausewitz.*
Core Question
The core question in Sun Tzu’s The Art of War is how to achieve victory
in warfare. It is not possible to overstate the importance of this
question; leaders throughout history have had to consider how to gain
victory over those with whom they compete for resources, territory,
and power.
It is certain that there would have been discussion and debate on
this question prior to the late sixth century when Sun Tzu wrote his
text—meaning that The Art of War is unlikely to be entirely original,
even if it is the oldest known work on the subject.Why did The Art of
War survive and others fade into history?
The work’s most enduring quality is its plain language. Although it
deals with complex subject matter, it conveys itself in a universal way.
Rulers and warlords needed a simple guide to train military officers,
and this is why The Art of War was included in Seven Military
24
Section 1: Influences; Module 3: The Problem
“andThewereSevenmoreMilitary Classics garnered greater respect

widely studied than later dynastic
writers have implied. Ironically, their impact not only
continues unfinished but has surged phenomenally in
China, Japan, Korea, and even much of Southeast Asia.
”
Ralph D. Sawyer, The Essence of War: Leadership and Strategy from the
Chinese Military Classics
Classics*—a collection of the most important ancient Chinese texts

on war, compiled during the Song dynasty* in the eleventh century.
The topic Sun addresses is so important today that many
universities around the world offer advanced degrees in war studies or
military studies. Now days, a number of countries, among them the
United States, India, and Japan, have war colleges (universities devoted
to the study of war where senior military officers are trained).
The Participants
As the oldest of the Seven Military Classics, The Art of War led to the
development of an ancient debate about how to ensure victory in
battle. It is only known who wrote three of the other Seven Military
Classics—and even these are disputed. Six Secret Teachings is believed to
be by the eleventh-century general Jiang Ziya,* Wuxi by the general
Wu Qi* (440–381 b.c.e.) and Three Strategies of Huang Shigong by the
military leader Zhang Liang* (262–189 b.c.e.).1
Jiang,Wu and Zhang were all soldiers and strategists, like Sun Tzu,
and their work is similar to his, bringing together philosophical and
practical discussions on the conduct of war. They offer advice on how
to win by considering warfare as a field of study in its own right, rather
than examining any particular conflict.2
The first participant in the debate surrounding The Art of War was
one of Sun Tzu’s descendants, Sun Bin,* who died in 232 b.c.e.; he
25
too was an army officer and military strategist. Some scholars have
argued that Sun Bin was himself the author of The Art of War, a theory
discounted when the second-century b.c.e. tombs known as the
Yinqueshan Han Tombs were accidentally uncovered in 1972 by
builders in what is today Shandong Province. Inside was a collection of
ancient texts—including the original of a book by Sun Bin, a
combination of philosophical discussions and practical advice on war.3
Most of the participants in classical Chinese discussions about how
to win a war had practical experience. The Spring and Autumn* and
Warring States* periods, in the late sixth and early fifth centuries, were
both times of civil war with frequent military confrontations.
Consequently, military strategists had a lot of experience to draw on.
Furthermore, military officers were generally from relatively well-
off families and were in receipt of an education.This education is likely
to have included study of The Art of War.4
The Contemporary Debate

Sun Tzu wrote The Art of War long before the development of modern
academia. Because so few contemporary works have survived, it is
impossible to know whether his text was part of a larger intellectual
debate. At no point in the book does Sun refer to the work of other
scholars. Even so, we can be confident that the text inspired
generations of Chinese military thinkers.5 It was written to offer
military advice to rulers at a time of frequent conflict, before being
anthologized as one of the Seven Military Classics. The work is best
understood in the context of the six later texts, which borrowed ideas
first developed within The Art of War.
In consequence, The Art of War stands out as the intellectual origin
of war studies.This field has expanded far beyond the practical advice
offered by Sun. Some texts, such as Jiang Ziya’s Six Secret Teachings,
discuss practical civil and military strategies,6 while others, such as Carl
von Clausewitz’s* On War, focus on analyzing the philosophy of war.7
26
Section 1: Influences; Module 3: The Problem
Modern scholarship in the field of military science has undergone

a major shift in the last century, thanks largely to immense technological
advances such as the development of aircraft, nuclear weapons,
satellites, and the internet (cyber warfare), which have forever changed
the way war is conducted.
NOTES
Basic Books, 2007).
2 Sawyer, Seven Military Classics, 1–2, 16–17.
3 Sun Bin, The Art of Warfare, trans. D. C. Lau and Roger T. Ames (Albany:
State University of New York Press, 2003).
4 Ge Zhaoguang, An Intellectual History of China, trans. Michael S. Duke and
Josephine Chiu-Duke (Leiden: Brill, 2014).
5 Sawyer, Seven Military Classics, 16–17.
6 Sawyer, Seven Military Classics, 19–106.
Trubner, 1873).
27
MODULE 4
THE AUTHOR’S CONTRIBUTION
KEY POINTS
• The Art of War serves as a military manual for the
preparation and conduct of warfare.
• The book is concise, using the minimum amount of text
necessary.
• Because of the work’s antiquity, it is difficult to determine
the context in which Sun Tzu wrote it. However, over the
years, The Art of War has had a profound influence on the
field of military science.
Author’s Aims
Sun Tzu’s overall objective in The Art of War is clear from the opening
statement: “The art of war is of vital importance to the state.”1 The
implication is that a state has to be constantly prepared for war—a
factor that Sun addresses in every section of the book. Conflict has
existed for as long as humans have been forced to compete for scarce
resources and so the question of how to succeed in a battle must surely
have a long history. What is innovative about The Art of War is the way
it provides clear and practical advice on how that success might be
achieved and how war might be won.
A seminal text for war studies, The Art of War deals with the matters
that concern rulers and their generals in such clear language that it has
continued to be used as a military training manual for centuries. It has
provided the intellectual basis for a large number of studies on the
philosophy of war and the conduct of warfare, mostly in China, but
more recently in the West too. 2
28
Section 1: Influences; Module 4: The Author’s Contribution
“matter
The art of war is of vital importance to the State. It is a
of life and death, a road either to safety or to ruin.
Hence it is a subject of inquiry which can on no account
be neglected.
”
Sun Tzu, The Art of War
Approach
In order to convey his ideas clearly, Sun Tzu divided the text into 13
chapters, each dealing with a different aspect of warfare and examining
a wide range of relevant topics. In these he discusses how to make
preparations for war and outlines specific strategies. Each section
contains a philosophical discussion of warfare as well as practical
lessons on how to prepare for, and engage in, battle.
The first part of the text, which focuses on planning, includes a
detailed discussion of important strategies and tactics to be used when
waging war, such as identifying the strengths and weaknesses of an
adversary and using these to your advantage. The rest of the book
provides the reader with specific advice on how to maneuver troops,
take advantage of terrain, use fire as a weapon, and deploy spies. The
precision and detail of these instructions illustrates the author’s
considerable personal experience of battle.
Sun Tzu uses words sparingly to convey his meaning. Each chapter
is between 14 to 68 lines long and divided into short paragraphs.
Given that the subject matter is complex, it is remarkable how concise
Sun Tzu manages to be.
Contribution In Context
It is not possible to know whether the ideas conveyed in The Art of War
had been developed in previous books, because no other works by
Sun Tzu have survived. Without the discovery of an older book by
him, it cannot be known whether his core concept was original to
29
The Art ofWar or based on earlier works. However, there is no indication

that Sun wrote other texts. As an active soldier, it is quite possible that
his ideas were original to him, developed from his personal experience
of war and from discussions with fellow officers.
Sun Tzu considered that the best war is one in which no battle is
fought, and the cleverest leader the general who wins without
fighting.3 He is among a number of military strategists who believe
that war should be avoided and only used as a measure of last resort—
what is known as the “win without fighting” strategy. Although there
is no single school of thought that subscribes to this idea, many military
thinkers have shared this philosophy.
The Art of War is one of the earliest-known works in military
literature to discuss the planning and conduct of war from both a
philosophical and a practical viewpoint. It is considered a classic in the
field.
NOTES
2005), 1.
University Press, 2001), iv–v.
30
SECTION 2
IDEAS
MODULE 5
MAIN IDEAS
KEY POINTS
• The key themes of The Art of War are how best to prepare
for war and how to conduct war in order to ensure victory.
• Three main ideas underpin these themes: the art of war is
of vital importance for the state, the planning and conduct
of warfare are interlinked, and the most successful war is
one in which losses are kept to a minimum.
• Sun Tzu communicates his main ideas clearly and directly.
Key Themes
Sun Tzu’s The Art of War has two main themes: preparing for war and
engaging in warfare. Its three core arguments are that the art of war is
of vital importance for the state, that the planning and conduct of
warfare are interlinked, and that the best war is the one with the
fewest casualties.
Sun discusses the essential aspects behind the preparation for
warfare, such as the importance of calculating the possibilities of
victory according to different factors, being able to see when to take
advantage of strategic opportunities, and how to manage intelligence
services (that is, spies) to make them reliable.
The most important feature of the text is its teaching on how to
conduct war. Sun gives practical advice on strategies and tactics that
can ensure victory in battle, in a text filled with passages in which ideas
are conveyed in concise, but highly descriptive, phrases. For example,
he observes that “There is no instance of a country having benefited
from prolonged warfare”—showing that the economic cost of battle
can be more damaging than the war itself, and advising that it is wise
32
Section 2: Influences; Module 5: Main Ideas
“calculations
The general who wins a battle makes many
in his temple ere the battle is fought.The
general who loses a battle makes but few calculations
beforehand.Thus do many calculations lead to victory,
and few calculations to defeat: how much more no
calculation at all! It is by attention to this point that I
can foresee who is likely to win or lose.
”
not to prolong a war.1 In maintaining that the best victory is one
gained without actually waging war he writes that “the skillful leader
subdues the enemy’s troops without any fighting; he captures their
cities without laying siege to them; he overthrows their kingdom
without lengthy operations in the field.”2
Sun Tzu expertly differentiates between the most important
aspects of the planning and conduct of warfare. There are potential
overlaps, but he is good at analyzing these features separately. As a
result, the two main themes—planning for war, and engaging in
warfare—flow logically and are reinforced throughout the text.
Exploring The Ideas

The Art of War has three core arguments. First, Sun argues: “The art of
war is of vital importance to the state. It is a matter of life and death, a
road either to safety or to ruin. Hence it is a subject of inquiry which
can on no account be neglected.”3 A nation or state, whether it is in
ancient China or in the modern world, has to be prepared for war at
all times.To Sun Tzu, war is inevitable—so it would be foolhardy and
idealistic for a government to act as if war will never occur at any
point in the future. For example, Canada and the United States share
the longest unguarded border in the world—but that does not mean
that these countries are not constantly prepared for war (even if they
33
do not expect to fight each other). Once a government understands

that wars are inevitable, its only option is to prepare for all contingencies.
Second, Sun believes that planning for war and the conduct of
warfare are interlinked. Successful planning of a war is as important as
actions taken during battle. Sun Tzu said that there are five essentials
for victory (“the five advantages,” as he called them):
• Knowing when to fight and when not to fight

• Understanding how to handle both superior and inferior forces
• Motivating an army with the same spirit throughout its ranks
• Being prepared for any circumstances so as to catch the enemy
unprepared
• Ensuring that the military are free from interference from the
sovereign or central state.4
Without proper planning, emerging victorious from a war

becomes more complicated. To Sun Tzu, a skillful leader must plan
for war as if it is going to take place; only this will help him achieve
victory once war actually breaks out.
Third, the best victory is one in which losses are kept to a
minimum. Careful strategic planning and tactical implementation
help to reduce losses but it is even better to avoid them completely.
The most successful war is a war in which the enemy surrenders
without engaging in battle. “To fight and conquer in all your battles is
not supreme excellence; supreme excellence consists in breaking the
enemy’s resistance without fighting,”5 he says.
Combined, these three arguments are greater than the sum of their
parts. Together, they make a brilliant study of the philosophical and
practical aspects of planning and conducting a war.
Language And Expression

Sun Tzu explains his ideas and themes clearly throughout The Art of
34
Section 2: Ideas; Module 5: Main Ideas
War. We should not look to it for any overarching thesis but as a

realistic guide to warfare. The idea that war is of vital importance to
the state appears in the first line, so it is easy for readers to understand
that it is a topic of primary significance to the book. The other ideas
mentioned and developed in the text, however, can only be gleaned
from reading it in full.
Sun Tzu does not dress up his ideas; rather, he presents them in a
matter-of-fact manner that leaves no room for doubt. “All warfare is
based on deception. Hence, when able to attack, we must seem unable;
when using our forces, we must seem inactive; when we are near, we
must make the enemy believe we are far away; when far away, we must
make him believe we are near. Hold out baits to entice the enemy.
Feign disorder, and crush him.”6 This passage illustrates not only
Sun’s terse and direct style of writing, but also how easy it is to absorb his
ideas.
NOTES
2005), 121.
35
MODULE 6
SECONDARY IDEAS
KEY POINTS
• The Art of War presents several secondary ideas. Among
these are the conviction that lack of proper planning leads
to failure; that to be victorious an army must play on its
strengths and the opponent’s weaknesses; and that
information is essential to winning a war.
• These secondary ideas are clear and easy to understand.
• Sun Tzu’s text has been read widely since ancient times,
and almost every aspect of it has been absorbed into
military practice across the globe.
Other Ideas
Beyond the key themes and core arguments of Sun Tzu’s The Art of
War are several secondary arguments. For example:
• Information, knowledge and understanding are essential to the

successful campaign.
• Strategies need to be adapted throughout a war.
• Tactics need to be tailored to the specific conditions of the war.
These secondary ideas make it easy to see why Sun’s text has been
so successful. He has comprehensively and clearly identified a wide
range of topics central to the conduct of war.
These subordinate ideas help to underpin the central arguments of
the book:
• The art of war is of vital importance to the state.
36
Section 2: Ideas; Module 6: Secondary Ideas
“warSoofthevarying
student of war who is unversed in the art of
his plans, even though he be acquainted
with the Five Advantages, will fail to make the best use
of his men.
”
• The planning and the conduct of war are interlinked.

• The best victory in war is one in which either combat is not
necessary or losses are kept to a minimum.
When viewed together, it is plain to see why The Art of War has
been used as a training manual for military officers for centuries.
These secondary ideas must also be considered original because The
Art of War pre-dates all other works on the subject.
Exploring The Ideas

Sun Tzu’s secondary ideas are practical lessons that can be applied not
just to war, but to a variety of situations in fields such as politics,
management, business, and sport.
The first chapter focuses exclusively on the importance of
planning properly for a campaign. Sun argues that every general needs
to be able to answer seven questions before going to war.
• Which of the two leaders is [in harmony with his subjects]?

• Which of the two generals has [the] most ability?
• With whom lie the advantages derived from the weather, nature,
and geography?
• On which side is discipline the most rigorously enforced?
• Which army is stronger?
• On which side are officers and men more highly trained?
• In which army is there … greater [consistency] both in reward
and punishment?1
37
Sun believed that it was essential to address these questions and

then work out how to overcome any shortcomings in the answers
before going to war.
His second point is that to win a war, an army has to make use of its
own strengths and the opponent’s weaknesses: “Whoever is first in the
field and awaits the coming of the enemy, will be fresh for the fight;
whoever is second in the field and has to hasten to battle will arrive
exhausted.” Therefore, a “clever combatant imposes his will on the
enemy, but does not allow the enemy’s will to be imposed on him.”2
He also offers practical advice: a “general is skillful in attack [against
an] opponent [that] does not know what to defend; and he is [only]
skillful in defense [against an] opponent [that] does not know what to
attack.”
Sun emphasizes the importance of accurate intelligence of the
other side’s plans. “[What] enables the wise sovereign and the good
general to strike and conquer, and achieve things beyond the reach of
ordinary men, is foreknowledge … Knowledge of the enemy’s
dispositions can only be obtained from other men.”4 In other words, a
military leader is only as good as his spies.
Finally, Sun argues that victory can only be assured if strategies and
tactics are adapted to the circumstances that present themselves during
the fog of war*—the uncertainty and confusion that characterizes
battle, in which it becomes difficult to make effective decisions.
In the ancient China of Sun Tzu’s The Art of War, armies consisted
of ground forces and Sun understood the challenges this presented to
generals. These included the need to ensure discipline, to maneuver
troops, to maintain access to adequate supplies, and to assess the
distance an army could march and still be able to fight. As much as
commanders can hope for the best and plan for the worse, however,
they need to be able to adapt their strategy and tactics as circumstances
change and develop.
38
Section 2: Ideas; Module 6: Secondary Ideas
Overlooked
The Art of War is an accessible work that presents its argument in clear
language and in concise chapters that analyze different topics. This has
helped to make it popular across the centuries. As it is not a long
book, it is difficult to find any part of the text that has been overlooked.
For centuries The Art of War has been a staple of military training
and strategy in China and other East Asian countries, such as Japan,
Korea, and Vietnam. Since being translated into French in the
eighteenth century and into English in the early twentieth, the text
has also become popular in the West.5 It is widely applied to other
disciplines such as business studies, law, and management.6 This
suggests that the text has been examined in great detail, from a wide
variety of cultures and perspectives. Consequently it is hard to see how
the importance or significance of Sun’s text can be further developed
or change. The notion that war will cease to be relevant in international
relations is unrealistic. Governments have armies and war colleges to
train their officers, and it is likely they will continue to turn to history
and literature in their training.
NOTES
2005), 115–16.
6 See Donald G. Krause, The Art of War for Executives: Ancient Knowledge for
Today’s Business Professional (London: Penguin Books, 2007).
39
MODULE 7
ACHIEVEMENT
KEY POINTS
• The Art of War is the oldest known study of military
strategy.
• Written in an age when literacy was rare, the endurance of
Sun’s work suggests that it was popular from the moment
it was first published.
• The only thing that could potentially limit an understanding
of this text is its occasional use of archaic language.
Assessing The Argument

The fact that Sun Tzu’s The Art of War has been used as a guide for
military officers for more than 2,500 years suggests that he was
successful in his aim of giving advice on how to secure victory in war.
Sun’s text forms the basis of military strategy, which the American
Rear Admiral and strategic theorist J. C.Wylie* described as a “plan of
action designed to achieve some end; a purpose together with a system
of measures for its accomplishment.”1
The Art of War is a founding text in the field of military science. It
offers practical advice on how to maneuver forces during a battle and
how to use the terrain to advantage when preparing for war. Even
though technology has radically changed the face of warfare, these
examples remain relevant to forces engaged in ground combat, which
is still the most common type of warfare.
The Art of War is more than a military strategy book, however. As
the title suggests, Sun engages in a broader discussion of warfare,
including its philosophical aspects. This makes it hard to place within
the literature of military strategy. In addition, the text is written with
Section 2: Ideas; Module 7: Achievement
“thatWhen speaking of this subject, Sun Tzu recognized

to take All-under-Heaven one needed to know
more than just how to win wars.Thus his viewpoint of
strategy went well beyond warfare and, despite its title,
The Art of War reflects this.
”
Mark McNeilly, Sun Tzu and the Art of Modern Warfare
such clarity that its lessons can be applied universally to many other
situations. For example, a legal team could easily use many of Sun’s
suggestions to win a case: by planning for trial, knowing the strengths
and weaknesses of an opponent, and gathering information about the
opposition’s case.
Even though The Art of War was conceived in ancient China 2,500
years ago, Sun’s teachings can still be put into play, regardless of time
and place.
Achievement In Context
When The Art of War was first published in the sixth century b.c.e.,
China had yet to be unified and was racked by civil war between
different kingdoms. Each kingdom or state was trying to expand its
territory at the expense of others in order to secure scarce resources.
So it seems likely that rulers and generals would be interested in a
treatise that dealt with the issue of how to win a war. After all, it is a
topic with a long history. Nevertheless, it seems miraculous that The
Art of War has survived for thousands of years. It is among a small
handful of texts on war that have been in existence since antiquity—
others include Thucydides’* History of the Peloponnesian War and
Herodotus’s* The Histories.2 The fact that we have these texts at all is
impressive in itself.
The inclusion of The Art of War in Seven Military Classics* shows
how important it was. And the fact that all of the other texts in the
41
Seven Military Classics3 were inspired by (and quote from) The Art of
War makes it the central, most important, work in the collection. Sadly,
there is no way to determine how the text was initially received
without the unlikely discovery of a 2,500-year-old book review.
Limitations
There are few impediments to understanding The Art of War. Its advice
aims to be general, so it could be applied to the preparation and
conduct of any war. The text was written at a time when few people
were fully literate, so the concepts described and the means of
expression employed had to be simple enough to reach a broad
audience with limited reading skills. Because the text is translated
from ancient Chinese, some of the language might seem antiquated
and a bit confusing. Fortunately, most translations—such as the version
by the British translator Lionel Giles*—include a line-by-line
explanation.
Another minor problem is that the text often makes reference to
ancient Chinese political and philosophical traditions. For example,
Sun refers to the Yellow Emperor,* one of a group of legendary rulers
in ancient China who were believed to have created civilization, and
to the Taoist* concept of Heaven and Earth.* These references are
stylistic devices common to ancient Chinese writers. The Giles
translation explains them (but in any case it is not necessary to
understand them to follow the text).
The message of The Art of War is universal; you do not have to be
from any particular, time, place or culture to appreciate it.
42
Section 2: Ideas; Module 7: Achievement
NOTES
1 J. C. Wylie, Military Strategy: A General Theory of Power Control (New
Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1967), 14.
2 Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, trans. Rex Warner (New York:
Penguin Classics, 1954); and Herodotus, The Histories, trans. Tom Holland
(New York: Viking Press, 2014).
Basic Books, 2007).
43
MODULE 8
PLACE IN THE AUTHOR’S WORK
KEY POINTS
• Because The Art of War was written more than 2,500 years
ago and no other texts have been attributed to Sun Tzu, it
is not possible to know whether he wrote more than one
book.
• As the oldest known text on war, The Art of War is the
literary genesis of the field of military studies.
• Thanks to The Art of War, the only book he is known to
have written, Sun Tzu is one of the most famous generals
of all time.
Positioning
Sun Tzu’s The Art of War is unique in that it was written in the sixth
century b.c.e. and remains popular to this day. Because the book is so
ancient, the amount of information about Sun Tzu and his work is
limited. No other texts have been attributed to him. If he did write
other works, they have either not been attributed to him, or they have
not survived the passage of time.
Although it is impossible to determine where this text is situated
within Sun Tzu’s life and his body of work, The Art of War does not
read as if it is the product of a youthful intellect. It seems to be the
work of a mature thinker with a deep knowledge of war.
The exact date of Sun Tzu’s birth is unknown, but it is believed
that he lived from around 544–536 b.c.e to 496 b.c.e.1 He was literate
and this makes it likely that he came from the aristocracy. He was a
high-ranking general and strategist, and is believed to have fought in
many battles, which explains his advanced knowledge of warfare.2
Section 2: Ideas; Module 8: Place in the Author’s Work
“thinking,
With extraordinarily profound and sophisticated
Sun Tzu’s great work, The Art of War, came
before Two Persian Wars and the birth of Themistocles,
the earliest great strategists of the classical West, and
that of Herodotus and Thucydides, the twin pioneers to
recount and analyze classical strategic thinking.
Shi Yinhong, “China at Arms”
”
According to Lionel Giles,* a British expert in Chinese history
and culture and the first translator of The Art of War, Sun Tzu wrote the
text for Helu,* the king of the ancient state of Wu,* and then helped
him win a war with a neighboring state.3 This supports the theory
that Sun Tzu wrote The Art of War toward the end of his career.
Integration
It is not possible to know whether the book led to any important later
developments in the author’s thought, because no later works have
survived him. This also makes it difficult to establish whether he
modified his thinking about the preparation and conduct of warfare
later in his career, having fought and won more battles.
Nevertheless, the text had a profound influence on future writings,
including that of Sun Tzu’s relative Sun Bin,* who wrote his own
essay on warfare.4 The fact that all the other works in the collection
known as Seven Military Classics* make reference to The Art of War
demonstrates that the text influenced Chinese military strategists.
Significance
The Art of War is Sun Tzu’s only known work, so it follows that it is his
most significant. It has influenced Chinese generals for thousands of
years and had a tremendous impact on the study of warfare. Indeed,
Chinese military officers were required to read Seven Military Classics
45
in order to secure promotions.5

The influence, success, and prominence of The Art of War is not
limited to China; other Asian countries such as Japan, Korea, and
Vietnam, also cite the work as having had an impact on the
development of their military strategies.6 Following translation of the
text into European languages, starting with French in the eighteenth
century, it has become an essential component of Western military
training, too.
Military officers in Western nations today commonly use the work
as a starting point for their training.7 Passed down through generations
and retaining its literary integrity, The Art of War has become one of the
most important military texts in history.8
NOTES
Books, 2007), 150–3.
2 Sawyer, Seven Military Classics,150–3.
2005), 75.
4 Sun Bin, The Art of Warfare, trans. D.C. Lau and Roger T. Ames (Albany:
State University of New York Press, 2003).
6 Gerard Chaliand, ed., The Art of War in World History: From Antiquity to the
Nuclear Age (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), 221.
7 McNeilly, Sun Tzu, iv–v.
8 Sawyer, Seven Military Classics, 149.
46
SECTION 3
IMPACT
MODULE 9
THE FIRST RESPONSES
KEY POINTS
• The main criticism of The Art of War is that it makes an
argument for what are now seen as immoral tactics, such
as using deception, targeting weaknesses, and starving
the enemy.
• Because the text is so old, there is no way of knowing if
Sun Tzu ever engaged in debate with his critics.
• The enduring relevance of Sun Tzu’s book suggests that it
has overcome the criticisms it received.
Criticism
The most important arguments against The Art of War have come from
within China. They are largely due to Sun Tzu’s advocacy of what
some now consider dishonorable tactics, such as engaging in deception,
espionage, targeting the weak, and starving the enemy.
Sun Tzu lived at the same time as the celebrated thinker
Confucius,* who developed the leading philosophical ideology in
China. The teaching of Confucianism, the main philosophical
tradition in China prior to the communist government* in 1949,
focuses on piety, respect, and being humane. So it is understandable
that a book dealing with waging war would ignore all of that in favor
of realistic, and often brutal, actions designed to secure victory.
Throughout history there has been a tension between traditional
Chinese thought and the conduct endorsed by Sun Tzu and other
authors of military texts. Some of Sun Tzu’s suggestions are viewed as
unethical or immoral.1
Criticism of The Art of War has concentrated both on Sun’s
48
Section 3: Impact; Module 9: The First Responses
“perceived
The advocacy of dishonest methods contradicted
Confucian values, making it a target of
Confucian literati throughout later Chinese history.
”
Ralph D. Sawyer, The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China
advocacy of warfare itself and on the brutal tactics he advocates. For

example, in chapter 12, on the use of fire in war, Sun Tzu exhorts
commanders to burn soldiers in their camps, to burn their supplies,
their supply lines, their weapon stores, and to hurl fire at advancing
troops.2 It is hardly fair to apply today’s standards to a text that was
written more than 2,500 years ago. Warfare was no more brutal then
than it is today—just less technologically advanced.
The second criticism leveled at Sun’s text is the way he argues the
case for deceit.3 As much as some consider deception to be unethical,
it is no less common a strategy today than it was in Sun Tzu’s day and
it continues to play a major role in warfare. In early 2015, for example,
the US military announced that it planned to launch an offensive in a
few months against Islamic militants in northern Iraq.4 The purpose
of this announcement, as it turned out, was to lull the enemy into
complacency; within two weeks, Iraqi forces had launched a major
military campaign against the militants.5
Deception also plays a role in fields such as law and business,
particularly in win-or-lose situations. A good lawyer, much like a
good general, is ruthless, deceptive, and will stop at nothing to ensure
victory. The same goes for business, where corporate espionage is
common as competitors try to find out trade secrets in order to
undermine their rivals. Deception is no less prevalent today than it was in
ancient China.
Responses
There is no way of knowing if The Art of War was criticized when it
49
was first written or how Sun Tzu might have reacted to any criticism,
because there is no record of a dialogue between Sun and his critics.
Even Confucian critiques of the text came well after Sun’s death.
Although Confucius and Sun lived at the same time, Confucianism
did not emerge as the dominant Chinese ideology while they were alive.
Most criticism of The Art of War emerged hundreds or even
thousands of years after the book was first published. The modern
debate about the value of his work, then, has been confined to other
writers. In general, those writing in support of Sun’s text point out
that he discusses warfare without engaging in debates about the
desirability of going to war or the morality of the tactics to be used
once war breaks out.6 In any case, the influence of the critics seems to
have been limited, given the ongoing popularity of Sun’s treatise.
Conflict And Consensus

For similar reasons, there is no way to determine whether Sun Tzu
modified The Art of War in response to criticism. All that is known
about Sun’s views on war are those that can be read in The Art of War
itself and any source that pretends to know otherwise is either based
on information that no one else has access to, is speculative, or is
fraudulent.
Within the field of military science there has been little debate
about the value of The Art of War. It is generally accepted that, while
the text has some outdated views, it offers valuable advice and lessons
on how to wage war. Military officials have used the book as a guide to
warfare since the sixth century b.c.e., which suggests that it has
retained its value, despite some of its more horrific elements, such as
advocating burning people alive.
Either way, these debates have not modified the consensus that The
Art of War is one of the most important military texts of all time.7 The
book remains required reading in military academies across the world,8
so it seems its value has not been diminished by its perceived moral
50
Section 3: Impact; Module 9: The First Responses
shortcomings. Similarly, the work remains popular reading among

business-studies majors and managers, which indicates that Sun Tzu
still has relevant advice for non-military readers.
NOTES
Books, 2007), 423.
2005),39–41.
3 Blaine McCormick, “Make Money, Not War: A Brief Critique of Sun Tzu’s The
Art of War,” Journal of Business Ethics 29, no. 3 (2001): 285–86.
4 Michael R. Gordon, “Iraqi Assault to Retake Mosul From Islamic State Is
Planned for Spring,” New York Times, February 19, 2015.
5 Omar Al-Jawoshy and Tim Arango, “Iraqi Offensive to Retake Tikrit From ISIS
Begins,” New York Times, March 2, 2015.
Books, 2007).
7 Sawyer, Seven Military Classics, 149.
8 US Marine Corps, “Professional Reading List 2013-2014,” accessed
September 8, 2013, http://www.mccs-sc.com/lifelong/docs/readinglist.pdf.
51
MODULE 10
THE EVOLVING DEBATE
KEY POINTS
• The Art of War has had a profound impact on the study of
warfare and is viewed as a seminal text in the field of war
science, as well as other academic disciplines, such as
business and law.
• Although Sun Tzu’s text is extremely influential, because
it is so old and some of its ideas are antiquated The Art
of War has not developed into an identifiable school of
thought.
• The Art of War is a foundational text on the philosophy
of war.
Uses And Problems

The influence of The Art of War by Sun Tzu has been evident since its
inclusion in the collection of texts known as Seven Military Classics* in
the eleventh century; it has served as the intellectual basis for the
Chinese military ever since. The Art of War has also influenced the
military strategies and tactics of other East Asian countries such as
Japan, Korea, and Vietnam and, after it had been translated into a
European language in the eighteenth century, its influence spread
across Western nations, too.
The Art of War has had an impact on the discipline of military
studies, a field of study that focuses on how to plan for war and how to
conduct warfare. It was the first text to emphasize these two central
aspects. The book contains many key lessons that continue to be
relevant to military commanders today. These include the importance
of having adaptable strategies and tactics, avoiding combat when
52
Section 3: Impact; Module 10: The Evolving Debate
“WeWarsee,istherefore,
a mere continuation of policy by other means.
that War is not merely a political act,
but also a real political instrument, a continuation of
political commerce, a carrying out of the same by
other means.
”
Carl von Clausewitz, On War
necessary, and making use of espionage to determine the intentions of

an adversary. These ideas are all staples of war studies.
The influence of The Art of War extends far beyond war science,
however, and has been adapted to academic fields such as business
studies, law and management,1 and professional fields, such as politics,
management, and sports, which engage in win-or-lose competitions.2
There are three main teachings of The Art of War that have been
adapted to other disciplines.
First is the importance of planning and execution, without which
there cannot be success in political campaigns, business ventures,
sporting competitions, or legal trials.
Second, the best way to win any challenge is to employ different
strategies and tactics, adapting them to changing circumstances.
Third, the idea that the best possible victory in battle is one in
which no fighting takes place.
Sun’s theories have been used in other fields by focusing on these
teachings and applying them to specific case studies. Although they
have not advanced the understanding of The Art of War, they have
shown how the arguments it makes can apply to other spheres of life.
Schools Of Thought
There are three main philosophies of war: cataclysmic,* which sees war
as a burden on humanity; eschatological,* which holds that all wars have
some purpose; and political,* which maintains that war is a tool of the
53
state. Sun’s work is considered to be part of the political school, along

with other military classics such as Carl von Clausewitz’s* On War.3
The Art of War emphasizes the importance of war as a means of
obtaining political goals and successfully argues that war is necessary
for governments to remain in power.
Most military-studies scholars seem more interested in the legal or
social aspects of war than in its purposes.4 (The websites of some of the
best-known military training schools in the world show that the focus
of their staff is not on the purpose of war, but rather on other aspects
related to the conduct and impact of war.) Even though The Art of War
falls within an identifiable school of thought in the field of war studies,
it is impossible to say whether or not Sun Tzu intended to enter into a
debate with any other book.
Since the text predated most of the works in the field of military
science by thousands of years, bringing The Art of War into a debate
between schools of thought might be problematic. Sun’s original aim
was, apparently, to discuss the philosophy and the practical aspects
behind the preparation and conduct of warfare rather than to engage
in a debate on the actual reasons that a war might be started.
In Current Scholarship
To a great extent, an ancient work’s intellectual tradition is decided by
the person who translates it. Several academics have translated The Art
of War into English during the last century. Of these translations, the
most enduring and popular is that of Lionel Giles,* a British scholar of
Chinese culture and language. Although the Giles translation
dominates (perhaps because it is now out of copyright and therefore
cheaper for publishers to produce), this has not stopped other scholars
from reinterpreting Sun Tzu’s text. For example, American brigadier
general and military historian Samuel B. Griffith* published a new
translation in 1963; the Chinese American scholar R. L. Wing*
followed in 1988 (under the title The Art of Strategy); and in 1994 the
54
Section 3: Impact; Module 10: The Evolving Debate
American military historian Ralph Sawyer* published his translation

of the entire Seven Military Classics.* At the time of writing, the
Chinese business professor and strategist Wee Chow Hou* has
published the most recent translation, in 2003.5 It can be seen, then,
that scholars and translators continue to be interested in interpreting
the text and offering readers modern examples to help them better
understand it.
The original ideas of The Art of War were best used by the authors
of the other Seven Military Classics who, like Sun Tzu (and the Prussian
military theorist Carl von Clausewitz), subscribe to the idea that war is
an extension of politics. The authors of the other six of the Seven
Military Classics do not modify Sun Tzu’s core ideas.6 So scholars who
build their argument around any of the Seven Military Classics must be
considered to be drawing to some extent on The Art of War itself.
NOTES
1 See Google Scholar, JSTOR and other academic research engines.
2 Donald G. Krause, The Art of War for Executives: Ancient Knowledge for
Trubner, 1873).
4 For example, browse the websites of The United States Army War College,
accessed May 12, 2015,http://www.carlisle.army.mil/; Royal Military Academy
Sandhurst, accessed May 12, 2015, http://www.army.mod.uk/training_
education/24475.aspx?t=/sandhurst; or Les Écoles de Saint-Cyr Coëtquidan,
accessed May 12, 2105, http://www.st-cyr.terre.defense.gouv.fr/
5 Sun Tzu, The Art of War, trans. Samuel B. Griffith (Oxford, UK: Oxford
University Press, 1963); Sun Tzu, The Art of Strategy, trans. R. L. Wing
(New York: Main Street Books, 1988); Sun Tzu, The Art of War, trans. Ralph
Sawyer (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994); and Sun Tzu, The Art of War,
trans. Wee Chow Hou (New York: Pearson Education, 2003).
Basic Books, 2007).
55
MODULE 11
IMPACT AND INFLUENCE TODAY
KEY POINTS
• The Art of War is still widely read by students of many
disciplines who want to understand warfare, strategy, and
tactics.
• Sun Tzu’s book is a central work in the discipline of war
science.
• Most common criticisms of The Art of War come from
pacifists and those who accuse Sun of a lack of morals.
Position
As long as humanity continues to engage in warfare—or any form of
win-lose competition—Sun Tzu’s The Art of War will continue to be
relevant and influential. It includes lessons about being prepared for
conflict, knowing the strengths and weaknesses of your adversary, and
using whatever means you have available to ensure victory. These are
just as relevant today as they were in the sixth century b.c.e.
Warfare has a very long history and we are unlikely to solve the
crises that continue to provoke us to conflict; indeed, competition for
resources, for example, seems likely to increase. That The Art of War has
found unexpected relevance in fields outside of war studies proves that
it is not a narrowly focused military text, however. It may be
considered a book on the philosophy and practicalities of preparing
for and engaging in confrontations. Although Sun focused on the
planning and conduct of military engagement, his ideas are appropriate
to any situation that involves conflict between two or more parties.
Section 3: Impact; Module 11: Impact and Influence Today
“War—what
Yeah, yeah, I know you’ve heard all about The Art of
self-respecting business person hasn’t, right?
Chances are you are among millions around the world
who already own a copy, strategically positioned at eye
level on your bookshelf.
”
Karen McCreadie, Sun Tzu’s the Art of War: A 52 Brilliant Ideas Interpretation
Interaction
As an analysis of the conduct of warfare, The Art of War is considered to
fit into the political school* of thought in war studies. War studies,
however, is not a discipline in which theoretical discussion takes
precedence over matters of practical analysis, observation and
recommendation; debates about the purpose of war, in other words,
are secondary to questions of how a war is best won.
The Art of War is easy to understand in so far as its lessons for the
military on the planning and conduct of warfare are clearly
explained—and this clarity has undoubtedly contributed both to its
reputation as a masterpiece and to the longevity of its influence. As
there is no school of thought attacking the text’s usefulness, there is no
school of thought defending it. Moreoever, as we have seen, the work
has applications and influence in disciplines outside the field of war
studies.
The Continuing Debate

The debate about possible flaws of The Art of War, such as the moral
criticism of its emphasis on deception, has not affected its popularity
or usefulness over time; these criticisms are a product of the personal
ethics of the critics more than they are of Sun’s theories.
It might be thought that a pacifist who is part of an anti-war
movement would never be able to appreciate the value or importance
of Sun Tzu’s text since their personal beliefs would not allow it.
57
However, our imaginary activist could actually benefit from some of

the advice that Sun imparts on the importance of proper preparation
and knowing your enemy. Readers who recognize that the text is not
meant to be held to the moral standards of the current age will perhaps
benefit most from the lessons it imparts.
The Art of War remains significant in contemporary debates on
warfare because it emphasizes solid preparation and a variety of
strategies and tactics. Equally importantly, it advocates the avoidance
of warfare and the importance of minimizing the costs of confrontation
whenever possible.1 In this way, Sun’s work anticipates many of the
teachings of modern war science.
NOTES
2005).
58
MODULE 12
WHERE NEXT?
KEY POINTS
• The Art of War will probably continue to be widely read
by those training for the military and students of other
disciplines, such as politics, business, and law, for the
foreseeable future.
• So long as wars continue to be fought, the lessons Sun Tzu
offers will remain relevant.
• Sun Tzu was a pioneer—if not the founder—of the field of
military science, which is why The Art of War is considered
a seminal text today.
Potential
Sun Tzu’s The Art of War is already a classic. First published in the sixth
century b.c.e., the text continues to be highly influential in the field of
military science as well as in other disciplines. It has served as a military
guide in China and East Asian countries for more than two thousand
years, and in the West since the eighteenth century. It is used in military
academies and war colleges throughout the world today.1
Following its translation into English in the early twentieth
century, the popularity of the work has increased. Disciplines such as
business studies, law, and management have embraced Sun Tzu’s book
as a model for handling win-lose confrontations. Since it deals with
how to plan and behave in conflict situations, it has also found favor
with businessmen and athletes.2 As a result, The Art of War has never
been as influential on a global level as it is today. The book has been
translated into many languages, is used in different fields, and is widely
available for free on the Internet. It seems likely that it will continue to
59
“on[The Art or War] has had a tremendous influence

later military thought and practice in East Asia,
and today its lessons are studied by both soldiers and
civilians in all regions of the world.
”
Daniel Coetzee and Lee W. Eysturlid, The Evolution of History’s Greatest
Military Thinkers
be popular into the foreseeable future.

It is also possible that Sun Tzu’s ideas might become more widely
applied in other academic fields, such as the social sciences. Although
economics and sociology, for example, have not traditionally dealt
with the issues it discusses, The Art of War presents general arguments
about human behavior that would seem to be universally applicable,
such as the importance of planning and analyzing the strengths and
weaknesses of a rival. In addition, the general principles presented in
The Art of War are not constrained to a particular place or time, so these
principles could be used by other social sciences as a starting-point for
investigations into human and social behavior. The principle that the
most successful war is the one not fought, for example, could be
applied to the study of financial-crisis prevention and used in learning
how to avoid “fighting” a crisis.
Future Directions
The subject of military studies has developed significantly since Sun
Tzu wrote The Art of War. The text deals with military strategy, a field
that has constantly evolved. In the last century alone, military strategies
have been forced to adapt to extraordinary advances in technology,
such as the advent of the aircraft, submarines, nuclear weapons,
satellites, and the Internet, which have changed the way modern
warfare is conducted. Nevertheless, the advice Sun Tzu offers in The
Art of War remains relevant. Aircraft, submarines, satellites, and cyber
60
Section 3: Impact; Module 12: Where Next?
warfare, for example, all play a significant role in gathering intelligence.

The days of great military thinkers arriving at brilliant new
strategies on their own seem long gone; it is normal for strategy to be
arrived at through discussion. This does not detract from the fact that
for military commanders to win wars they need to abide by the central
lessons offered by The Art of War or similar military treatises. It is not
surprising that thinkers such as the French emperor and military leader
Napoleon Bonaparte,* Carl von Clausewitz,* and Mao Zedong,*
whose ideas recall those of Sun Tzu, continue to be among the most
popular military philosophers today.
Summary
Sun Tzu’s The Art of War is the oldest-known military text that discusses
the philosophy and practicalities of warfare. It owes its lasting impact
to its innovative ideas on waging war and its inclusion in the Seven
Military Classics,* which has been compulsory reading for every
Chinese military official since the eleventh century.
The Art of War inspired the military strategy of Chinese and East
Asian generals, before exerting influence in other countries too. Today,
The Art of War remains important within war studies, the military, and
other academic and professional fields. It is likely that it will retain its
significance.
The work’s ideas are notable for their universality, and of such
simplicity that they can be applied to many situations beyond those of
the author’s original focus.
In China, Sun Tzu is as popular as his book. This is true, to an
extent, in other parts of East Asia as well. Although he is not as well
known outside of this region, his life as a scholar, military general,
strategist, and aristocrat make him an interesting character. He was a
pioneer of military strategy whose ideas will endure and continue to
hold value in the future.
61
NOTES
University Press, 2001), iv–v.
2 See Donald G. Krause, The Art of War for Executives: Ancient Knowledge for
62
GLOSSARY
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Cataclysmic school: a school of thought that regards war as a curse

on humanity, serving little purpose but creating destruction and
suffering, disrupting societies in a negative way.
China’s Communist Government: the government that has ruled

the People’s Republic of China from 1949, when the country was
created, to the present.
Confucianism: a worldview, and ethical and philosophical tradition

propagated by the philosopher Confucius (551–479 b.c.e.). Its key
tenets are morality of the individual and governments in their social,
political, and judicial conduct, and respect for traditional social
relationships. Confucianism was central to the politics and society of
China and neighboring countries such as Japan, Korea, and Vietnam
for centuries.
Eschatological school: a school of thought that views war as part of

a greater series of wars culminating in a final conflict that will clear the
way for a society that will be free of war.
Fog of war: a military concept describing the difficulty of making

decisions in the uncertainty and confusion of conflict.
Heaven and Earth: is a representation of the dualistic nature and

complementary relationship that underpins the cosmology of Taoist
religion.
People’s Republic of China: a country established in 1949 as a

continuation of historical China.
64
Glossary of Terms
Political school: a school of thought that regards war as a state tool

and as an extension of politics.
Seven Military Classics: the seven most important military texts of

ancient China. Covering different aspects of warfare, the texts were
grouped together and given their collective name in the eleventh
century, during the Song dynasty.The Seven Military Classics were
compulsory reading for military officers seeking to advance their
career.
Song dynasty: One of China’s ruling dynasties, holding power from

960 to 1279.This dynasty promoted cultural and scientific
innovations, including movable-type printing, paper money and the
widespread use of gunpowder.The Song dynasty’s time in power
finished with the Yuan dynasty.
Spring and Autumn Annals: a chronicle (historical account) recording

the history of the state of Lu between 722 and 479 b.c.e.
Spring and Autumn period: an era in China’s history from

771–476 b.c.e. It was marked by the existence of feudal states
struggling for power and territorial expansion.The era ended with the
start of the Warring States period.
State of Chu: a feudal state of the Zhou period. One of the states
that survived the Warring States period, it was founded in the eleventh
century b.c.e. and dissolved in 221 b.c.e.
State of Qi: a vassal state of the Zhou Dynasty that reached the peak
of its power late in the Spring and Autumn period and early in the
Warring States period. Founded in the eleventh century b.c.e. and
dissolved in 221 b.c.e.
65
State of Qin: a feudal state of the Zhou period. It reached the peak of
its power during the Spring and Autumn period and again during the
Warring States period. Founded in the ninth century b.c.e. and dissolved
in 221 b.c.e.
State of Wu: a vassal state of the Western Zhou Dynasty that had its
heyday during the Spring and Autumn Period. Founded in the eleventh
century b.c.e. and dissolved in 473 b.c.e.
Taoism: a philosophical and religious belief rooted in Chinese custom

and based on the idea that the world is underpinned by opposing yet
complementary forces.The belief emerged in China some 3,000 years
ago.
Warring States period: a period in China’s history from 475–221

b.c.e. It was marked by recurrent wars between seven warring states.The
period finished with the unification of China by the Qin dynasty.
Yellow Emperor: also known as Huangdi. One of China’s Three

Sovereigns and Five Emperors, a group of legendary rulers who were
believed to have created mankind from c. 2852 to c. 2070 b.c.e. Huangdi
is believed to have ruled from 2697 to 2597 b.c.e. and to have been the
creator of Chinese civilization.
66
PEOPLE MENTIONED IN THE TEXT
Sun Bin (d. 232 b.c.e.) was a Chinese general and military strategist
who lived during the Warring States period. He is thought to have
been a disciple or descendant of Sun Tzu. He also wrote a book
entitled Art of War.
Napoleon Bonaparte (1769–1821) was a French general and head

of state. He proclaimed himself emperor of France in 1804 and held
the throne until 1814. He is considered to be one of the most
important military thinkers and leaders in history.
Carl von Clausewitz (1780–1831) was a Prussian major general and

military theorist. He was the author of the (unfinished) On War, one of
the most important military treatises in history. He is best known for
arguing that war is the continuation of politics by other means.
Confucius (551–479 b.c.e.) was a Chinese philosopher who lived

during the Spring and Autumn period. He developed a philosophy
based primarily on an ethical government and strict social relations.
Lionel Giles (1875–1958) was a British sinologist—an expert on

Chinese culture and language—and translator of several Chinese texts,
most notably The Art of War. He worked at the British Museum for
almost his entire career. His father, Herbert Giles, was also a sinologist.
Samuel B. Griffith (1906–83) was a high-ranking officer in the US

Marine Corps who translated The Art of War into English.
Helu (514–496 b.c.e.) was king of the state of Wu during the late
Spring and Autumn Period, who led his state in wars against many
other Chinese states.
67
Herodotus (484–425 b.c.e.) was a Greek historian. He is considered

to be one of the first modern historians with his work on the history
of the Greco-Persian wars.
Wee Chow Hou is a professor at the Nanyang Business School in

Singapore. He translated The Art of War into English in 2003.
Zhang Liang (262–189 b.c.e.) was a Chinese military strategist and

politician who served during the Han dynasty. He wrote Three
Strategies of Huang Shigong, one of the Seven Military Classics.
Wu Qi (440–381 b.c.e.) was a Chinese general and military strategist

who lived during the Warring States period. He wrote Wuzi, one of
the Seven Military Classics.
Ralph Sawyer is an American military historian, author and

translator. He has published English translations of The Art of War
(1994) and The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China (2007).
Thucydides (c. 460–404 b.c.e.) was a Greek historian. His book

History of the Peloponnesian War is the oldest recorded analysis of war
policy.
R. L.Wing is a translator who translated The Art of War into English

under the title The Art of Strategy (1988).
J. C.Wylie (1911–93) was a rear admiral in the US Navy best known

for his work on military strategy. He published Military Strategy:A
General Theory of Power Control (1967), in which he sought to develop a
general theory of strategy.
68
People Mentioned in the Text
Mao Zedong (1893–1976) was a Chinese revolutionary leader and

politician. He ruled China as Chairman of the Communist Party from
1949 to 1976. He was also a hero of China’s war of independence
against Japan, as well as one of the leaders of the non-aligned
movement during the Cold War.
Jiang Ziya (eleventh century b.c.e.) was a Chinese general and

military strategist. He wrote Six Secret Thinkings, one of the Seven
Military Classics.
69
WORKS CITED
WORKS CITED
Al-Jawoshy, Omar and Tim Arango. “Iraqi Offensive to Retake Tikirit From ISIS
Begins.” New York Times, March 2, 2015.
Bin, Sun. The Art of Warfare. Translated by D. C. Lau and Roger T. Ames. Albany:
State University of New York Press, 2003.
Chaliand, Gerard, ed. The Art of War in World History: From Antiquity to the
Nuclear Age. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994.
Clausewitz, Carl Von. On War. Translated by James John Graham. London: N.
Trubner, 1873.
Gordon, Michael R. “Iraqi Assault to Retake Mosul From Islamic State Is Planned
for Spring.” New York Times, February 19, 2015.
Herodotus. The Histories. Translated by Tom Holland. New York: Viking Press,
2014.
Hsu, Cho-yun. “The Spring and Autumn Period.” In The Cambridge History of
Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 B.C, 545–586. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1999.
Krause, Donald G. The Art of War for Executives: Ancient Knowledge for Today’s
Business Professional. London: Penguin Books, 2007.
McCormick, Blaine. “Make Money, Not War: A Brief Critique of Sun Tzu’s The Art
of War.” Journal of Business Ethics 29, no. 3 (2001): 285–86.
McNeilly, Mark. Sun Tzu and the Art of Modern Warfare. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2001.
Sawyer, Ralph. The Essence of War: Leadership and Strategy from the Chinese
Military Classics. Boulder: Westview, 2004.
The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China. New York: Basic Books, 2007.
Thucydides. History of the Peloponnesian War. Translated by Rex Warner. New
York: Penguin Classics, 1954.
Tzu, Sun. The Art of Strategy. Translated by R. L. Wing. New York: Main Street
Books, 1988.
The Art of War: A New Translation. Translated by Jonathan Clements. London:
Constable & Robinson, 2012.
The Art of War. Translated by Lionel Giles. El Paso: El Paso Norte Press, 2005.
71
The Art of War. Translated by Samuel B. Griffith. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1963.
The Art of War. Translated by Wee Chow Hou. New York: Pearson Education,
2003.
The Art of War. Translated by Ralph Sawyer. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994.
The Art of War. Translated by Roger T. Ames. New York: Ballantine Books, 1993.
The Illustrated Art of War.Translated by Samuel B. Griffith. Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2005.
US Marine Corps. “Professional Reading List 2013-2014.” Accessed September
9, 2013. http://www.mccs-sc.com/lifelong/docs/readinglist.pdf.
US Naval War College, “Academic Programs.” Accessed March 21, 2015.
https://www.usnwc.edu/Departments---Colleges/International-Programs/About-
NWC.aspx
Wylie, J. C. Military Strategy: A General Theory of Power Control. New Brunswick:
Rutgers University Press, 1967.
Zedong, Mao. On Guerrilla Warfare. Translated by Samuel B. Griffith. Thousand
Oaks, California: BN Publishing, 2007.
Zhaoguang, Ge. An Intellectual History of China, Vol. 1. Translated by Michael S.
Duke and Josephine Ch
72
THE MACAT LIBRARY
BY DISCIPLINE
The Macat Library By Discipline
AFRICANA STUDIES
Chinua Achebe’s An Image of Africa: Racism in Conrad’s Heart of Darkness
W. E. B. Du Bois’s The Souls of Black Folk
Zora Neale Huston’s Characteristics of Negro Expression
Martin Luther King Jr’s Why We Can’t Wait
Toni Morrison’s Playing in the Dark: Whiteness in the American Literary Imagination
ANTHROPOLOGY
Arjun Appadurai’s Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalisation
Philippe Ariès’s Centuries of Childhood
Franz Boas’s Race, Language and Culture
Kim Chan & Renée Mauborgne’s Blue Ocean Strategy
Jared Diamond’s Guns, Germs & Steel: the Fate of Human Societies
Jared Diamond’s Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Survive
E. E. Evans-Pritchard’s Witchcraft, Oracles and Magic Among the Azande
James Ferguson’s The Anti-Politics Machine
Clifford Geertz’s The Interpretation of Cultures
David Graeber’s Debt: the First 5000 Years
Karen Ho’s Liquidated: An Ethnography of Wall Street
Geert Hofstede’s Culture’s Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutes and
Organizations across Nations
Claude Lévi-Strauss’s Structural Anthropology
Jay Macleod’s Ain’t No Makin’ It: Aspirations and Attainment in a Low-Income Neighborhood
Saba Mahmood’s The Politics of Piety: The Islamic Revival and the Feminist Subject
Marcel Mauss’s The Gift
BUSINESS
Jean Lave & Etienne Wenger’s Situated Learning
Theodore Levitt’s Marketing Myopia
Burton G. Malkiel’s A Random Walk Down Wall Street
Douglas McGregor’s The Human Side of Enterprise
Michael Porter’s Competitive Strategy: Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance
John Kotter’s Leading Change
C. K. Prahalad & Gary Hamel’s The Core Competence of the Corporation
CRIMINOLOGY
Michelle Alexander’s The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness
Michael R. Gottfredson & Travis Hirschi’s A General Theory of Crime
Richard Herrnstein & Charles A. Murray’s The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in
American Life
Elizabeth Loftus’s Eyewitness Testimony
Jay Macleod’s Ain’t No Makin’ It: Aspirations and Attainment in a Low-Income Neighborhood
Philip Zimbardo’s The Lucifer Effect
ECONOMICS
Janet Abu-Lughod’s Before European Hegemony
Ha-Joon Chang’s Kicking Away the Ladder
David Brion Davis’s The Problem of Slavery in the Age of Revolution
Milton Friedman’s The Role of Monetary Policy
Milton Friedman’s Capitalism and Freedom
Friedrich Hayek’s The Road to Serfdom
Karen Ho’s Liquidated: An Ethnography of Wall Street
John Maynard Keynes’s The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money
Charles P. Kindleberger’s Manias, Panics and Crashes
Robert Lucas’s Why Doesn’t Capital Flow from Rich to Poor Countries?
Burton G. Malkiel’s A Random Walk Down Wall Street
Thomas Robert Malthus’s An Essay on the Principle of Population
Karl Marx’s Capital
Thomas Piketty’s Capital in the Twenty-First Century
Amartya Sen’s Development as Freedom
Adam Smith’s The Wealth of Nations
Nassim Nicholas Taleb’s The Black Swan: The Impact of the Highly Improbable
Amos Tversky’s & Daniel Kahneman’s Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases
Mahbub Ul Haq’s Reflections on Human Development
Max Weber’s The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism
FEMINISM AND GENDER STUDIES

Judith Butler’s Gender Trouble
Simone De Beauvoir’s The Second Sex
Michel Foucault’s History of Sexuality
Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique
Joan Wallach Scott’s Gender and the Politics of History
Mary Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication of the Rights of Woman
Virginia Woolf’s A Room of One’s Own
GEOGRAPHY
The Brundtland Report’s Our Common Future
Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring
Charles Darwin’s On the Origin of Species
Jane Jacobs’s The Death and Life of Great American Cities
James Lovelock’s Gaia: A New Look at Life on Earth
Amartya Sen’s Development as Freedom
Mathis Wackernagel & William Rees’s Our Ecological Footprint
HISTORY
Janet Abu-Lughod’s Before European Hegemony
Benedict Anderson’s Imagined Communities
Bernard Bailyn’s The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution
Hanna Batatu’s The Old Social Classes And The Revolutionary Movements Of Iraq
Christopher Browning’s Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Batallion 101 and the Final Solution in
Poland
Edmund Burke’s Reflections on the Revolution in France
William Cronon’s Nature’s Metropolis: Chicago And The Great West
Alfred W. Crosby’s The Columbian Exchange
Hamid Dabashi’s Iran: A People Interrupted
Nathalie Zemon Davis’s The Return of Martin Guerre
Jared Diamond’s Guns, Germs & Steel: the Fate of Human Societies
Frank Dikotter’s Mao’s Great Famine
John W Dower’s War Without Mercy: Race And Power In The Pacific War
Richard J. Evans’s In Defence of History
Lucien Febvre’s The Problem of Unbelief in the 16th Century
Sheila Fitzpatrick’s Everyday Stalinism
Eric Foner’s Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863-1877

Michel Foucault’s Discipline and Punish
Michel Foucault’s History of Sexuality
Francis Fukuyama’s The End of History and the Last Man
John Lewis Gaddis’s We Now Know: Rethinking Cold War History
Ernest Gellner’s Nations and Nationalism
Eugene Genovese’s Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made
Carlo Ginzburg’s The Night Battles
Daniel Goldhagen’s Hitler’s Willing Executioners
Jack Goldstone’s Revolution and Rebellion in the Early Modern World
Antonio Gramsci’s The Prison Notebooks
Alexander Hamilton, John Jay & James Madison’s The Federalist Papers
Christopher Hill’s The World Turned Upside Down
Carole Hillenbrand’s The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives
Thomas Hobbes’s Leviathan
Eric Hobsbawm’s The Age Of Revolution
John A. Hobson’s Imperialism: A Study
Albert Hourani’s History of the Arab Peoples
Samuel P. Huntington’s The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order
C. L. R. James’s The Black Jacobins
Tony Judt’s Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945
Ernst Kantorowicz’s The King’s Two Bodies: A Study in Medieval Political Theology
Paul Kennedy’s The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers
Ian Kershaw’s The “Hitler Myth”: Image and Reality in the Third Reich
John Maynard Keynes’s The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money
Charles P. Kindleberger’s Manias, Panics and Crashes
Martin Luther King Jr’s Why We Can’t Wait
Henry Kissinger’s World Order: Reflections on the Character of Nations and the Course of History
Thomas Kuhn’s The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
Georges Lefebvre’s The Coming of the French Revolution
John Locke’s Two Treatises of Government
Niccolò Machiavelli’s The Prince
Mahmood Mamdani’s Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa And The Legacy Of Late
Colonialism
Stanley Milgram’s Obedience to Authority
John Stuart Mill’s On Liberty
Thomas Paine’s Common Sense
Thomas Paine’s Rights of Man
Geoffrey Parker’s Global Crisis: War, Climate Change and Catastrophe in the Seventeenth
Century
Jonathan Riley-Smith’s The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading
Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s The Social Contract
Theda Skocpol’s States and Social Revolutions
Timothy Snyder’s Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin
Sun Tzu’s The Art of War
Keith Thomas’s Religion and the Decline of Magic
Thucydides’s The History of the Peloponnesian War
Frederick Jackson Turner’s The Significance of the Frontier in American History
Odd Arne Westad’s The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions And The Making Of Our Times
LITERATURE
Chinua Achebe’s An Image of Africa: Racism in Conrad’s Heart of Darkness
Roland Barthes’s Mythologies
Homi K. Bhabha’s The Location of Culture
Judith Butler’s Gender Trouble
Simone De Beauvoir’s The Second Sex
Ferdinand De Saussure’s Course in General Linguistics
T. S. Eliot’s The Sacred Wood: Essays on Poetry and Criticism
Zora Neale Huston’s Characteristics of Negro Expression
Toni Morrison’s Playing in the Dark: Whiteness in the American Literary Imagination
Edward Said’s Orientalism
Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak’s Can the Subaltern Speak?
Mary Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication of the Rights of Women
Virginia Woolf’s A Room of One’s Own
PHILOSOPHY
Elizabeth Anscombe’s Modern Moral Philosophy
Hannah Arendt’s The Human Condition
Aristotle’s Metaphysics
Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics
Edmund Gettier’s Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel’s Phenomenology of Spirit
David Hume’s Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion
David Hume’s The Enquiry for Human Understanding
Immanuel Kant’s Religion within the Boundaries of Mere Reason
Immanuel Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason
Søren Kierkegaard’s The Sickness Unto Death
Søren Kierkegaard’s Fear and Trembling
C. S. Lewis’s The Abolition of Man
Alasdair MacIntyre’s After Virtue
Marcus Aurelius’s Meditations
Friedrich Nietzsche’s On the Genealogy of Morality
Friedrich Nietzsche’s Beyond Good and Evil
Plato’s Republic
Plato’s Symposium
Gilbert Ryle’s The Concept of Mind
Baruch Spinoza’s Ethics
Ludwig Wittgenstein’s Philosophical Investigations
POLITICS
Benedict Anderson’s Imagined Communities
Aristotle’s Politics
Bernard Bailyn’s The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution
Edmund Burke’s Reflections on the Revolution in France
John C. Calhoun’s A Disquisition on Government
Hamid Dabashi’s Iran: A People Interrupted
Hamid Dabashi’s Theology of Discontent: The Ideological Foundation of the Islamic Revolution
in Iran
Robert Dahl’s Democracy and its Critics
Robert Dahl’s Who Governs?
Alexis De Tocqueville’s Democracy in America

Frank Dikotter’s Mao’s Great Famine
Sheila Fitzpatrick’s Everyday Stalinism
Milton Friedman’s Capitalism and Freedom
Francis Fukuyama’s The End of History and the Last Man
John Lewis Gaddis’s We Now Know: Rethinking Cold War History
Ernest Gellner’s Nations and Nationalism
Alexander Hamilton, John Jay & James Madison’s The Federalist Papers
Friedrich Hayek’s The Road to Serfdom
Christopher Hill’s The World Turned Upside Down
Thomas Hobbes’s Leviathan
John A. Hobson’s Imperialism: A Study
Samuel P. Huntington’s The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order
Tony Judt’s Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945
David C. Kang’s China Rising: Peace, Power and Order in East Asia
Paul Kennedy’s The Rise and Fall of Great Powers
Robert Keohane’s After Hegemony
Martin Luther King Jr.’s Why We Can’t Wait
Henry Kissinger’s World Order: Reflections on the Character of Nations and the Course of History
John Locke’s Two Treatises of Government
Niccolò Machiavelli’s The Prince
Mahmood Mamdani’s Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa And The Legacy Of
Late Colonialism
John Stuart Mill’s On Liberty
John Stuart Mill’s Utilitarianism
Hans Morgenthau’s Politics Among Nations
Thomas Paine’s Common Sense
Thomas Paine’s Rights of Man
Robert D. Putman’s Bowling Alone
John Rawls’s Theory of Justice
Henry David Thoreau’s Civil Disobedience
Thucydides’s The History of the Peloponnesian War
Kenneth Waltz’s Theory of International Politics
Max Weber’s Politics as a Vocation
Odd Arne Westad’s The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions And The Making Of Our Times
POSTCOLONIAL STUDIES
Frantz Fanon’s Black Skin, White Masks
Gustavo Gutiérrez’s A Theology of Liberation
PSYCHOLOGY
Gordon Allport’s The Nature of Prejudice
Alan Baddeley & Graham Hitch’s Aggression: A Social Learning Analysis
Albert Bandura’s Aggression: A Social Learning Analysis
Leon Festinger’s A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance
Sigmund Freud’s The Interpretation of Dreams
Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique
Michael R. Gottfredson & Travis Hirschi’s A General Theory of Crime
Eric Hoffer’s The True Believer: Thoughts on the Nature of Mass Movements
William James’s Principles of Psychology
Elizabeth Loftus’s Eyewitness Testimony
A. H. Maslow’s A Theory of Human Motivation
Stanley Milgram’s Obedience to Authority
Steven Pinker’s The Better Angels of Our Nature
Oliver Sacks’s The Man Who Mistook His Wife For a Hat
Richard Thaler & Cass Sunstein’s Nudge: Improving Decisions About Health, Wealth and
Happiness
Amos Tversky’s Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases
Philip Zimbardo’s The Lucifer Effect
SCIENCE
Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring
William Cronon’s Nature’s Metropolis: Chicago And The Great West
Alfred W. Crosby’s The Columbian Exchange
Charles Darwin’s On the Origin of Species
Richard Dawkin’s The Selfish Gene
Thomas Kuhn’s The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
Geoffrey Parker’s Global Crisis: War, Climate Change and Catastrophe in the Seventeenth
Century
Mathis Wackernagel & William Rees’s Our Ecological Footprint
SOCIOLOGY
Michelle Alexander’s The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness
Gordon Allport’s The Nature of Prejudice
Albert Bandura’s Aggression: A Social Learning Analysis
Hanna Batatu’s The Old Social Classes And The Revolutionary Movements Of Iraq
Émile Durkheim’s On Suicide
Frantz Fanon’s The Wretched of the Earth
Eugene Genovese’s Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made
Jack Goldstone’s Revolution and Rebellion in the Early Modern World
Richard Herrnstein & Charles A Murray’s The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in
American Life
Eric Hoffer’s The True Believer: Thoughts on the Nature of Mass Movements
Jane Jacobs’s The Death and Life of Great American Cities
Robert Lucas’s Why Doesn’t Capital Flow from Rich to Poor Countries?
Jay Macleod’s Ain’t No Makin’ It: Aspirations and Attainment in a Low Income Neighborhood
Elaine May’s Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era
Douglas McGregor’s The Human Side of Enterprise
C. Wright Mills’s The Sociological Imagination

Robert D. Putman’s Bowling Alone
David Riesman’s The Lonely Crowd: A Study of the Changing American Character
Max Weber’s The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism
THEOLOGY
Augustine’s Confessions
Benedict’s Rule of St Benedict
Carole Hillenbrand’s The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives
David Hume’s Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion
Immanuel Kant’s Religion within the Boundaries of Mere Reason
Ernst Kantorowicz’s The King’s Two Bodies: A Study in Medieval Political Theology
Søren Kierkegaard’s The Sickness Unto Death
C. S. Lewis’s The Abolition of Man
Baruch Spinoza’s Ethics
Keith Thomas’s Religion and the Decline of Magic
COMING SOON
Chris Argyris’s The Individual and the Organisation
Seyla Benhabib’s The Rights of Others
Walter Benjamin’s The Work Of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction
John Berger’s Ways of Seeing
Pierre Bourdieu’s Outline of a Theory of Practice
Mary Douglas’s Purity and Danger
Roland Dworkin’s Taking Rights Seriously
James G. March’s Exploration and Exploitation in Organisational Learning
Ikujiro Nonaka’s A Dynamic Theory of Organizational Knowledge Creation
Griselda Pollock’s Vision and Difference
Amartya Sen’s Inequality Re-Examined
Susan Sontag’s On Photography
Yasser Tabbaa’s The Transformation of Islamic Art
Ludwig von Mises’s Theory of Money and Credit
The World’s Greatest Books,
Analysed Within
One Multimedia Library
Sign Up To The Macat iLibrary Today

Get hundreds of Macat analyses on
your phone, tablet and desktop
•
Study within a time that suits you, using our
3-minute, 10-minute or 3-hour modules
•
Access a complete set of multimedia tools, including
video, ﬂash cards, mind maps and audiobooks
•
New titles added every year
Join free for one month

library.macat.com
Macat Disciplines
Access the greatest ideas and thinkers
across entire disciplines, including
Postcolonial Studies

Macat analyses are available from all good bookshops and libraries.
Access hundreds of analyses through one, multimedia tool.
Join free for one month library.macat.com
Macat Disciplines
Access the greatest ideas and thinkers
across entire disciplines, including
AFRICANA STUDIES
Chinua Achebe’s An Image of Africa:

Racism in Conrad’s Heart of Darkness
Zora Neale Hurston’s Characteristics of Negro Expression
Martin Luther King Jr.’s Why We Can’t Wait
Toni Morrison’s Playing in the Dark:
Whiteness in the American Literary Imagination
Macat analyses are available from all good bookshops and libraries.
Access hundreds of analyses through one, multimedia tool.
Join free for one month library.macat.com

Ramon Pacheco Pardo - An Analysis of Sun Tzu's The Art of War-Macat Library (2017)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ramon Pacheco Pardo - An Analysis of Sun Tzu's The Art of War-Macat Library (2017)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

An Analysis of

Cover illustration: Etienne Gilfillan

Cataloguing in Publication Data

ISBN 978-1-912303-47-2 (hardback)

WAYS IN TO THE TEXT

Macat has worked with the University of Cambridge to identify the

ANALYSIS – understanding how an argument is built

To find out more, visit WWW.MACAT.COM.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR OF THE ANALYSIS

‘Macat is taking on some of the major challenges in university

‘The Macat vision is exceptionally exciting. It focuses

‘The Macat analyses provide immediate access to the critical

Who was Sun Tzu?

What Does The Art of War Say?

There are 13 chapters in the text, each is devoted to a single subject

Why Does The Art of War Matter?

importance of planning ahead are highly relevant to these fields.10

of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 B.C. (Cambridge:

Why Read this Text?

• Identifying the strengths and weaknesses of the enemy

The fundamental concern that Sun Tzu tackled in The Art of

details of battles fought during this period,7 such as the successful

The Work In Its Context

“TheAfter his retirement, Sun Tzu revised and improved

Overview of the Field

“andThewereSevenmoreMilitary Classics garnered greater respect

Classics*—a collection of the most important ancient Chinese texts

The Contemporary Debate

Modern scholarship in the field of military science has undergone

The Art ofWar or based on earlier works. However, there is no indication

Exploring The Ideas

do not expect to fight each other). Once a government understands

• Knowing when to fight and when not to fight

Without proper planning, emerging victorious from a war

Language And Expression

War. We should not look to it for any overarching thesis but as a

• Information, knowledge and understanding are essential to the

• The art of war is of vital importance to the state.

• The planning and the conduct of war are interlinked.

Exploring The Ideas

• Which of the two leaders is [in harmony with his subjects]?

Sun believed that it was essential to address these questions and

Assessing The Argument

“thatWhen speaking of this subject, Sun Tzu recognized

in order to secure promotions.5

advocacy of warfare itself and on the brutal tactics he advocates. For

Conflict And Consensus

shortcomings. Similarly, the work remains popular reading among

Uses And Problems

necessary, and making use of espionage to determine the intentions of

state. Sun’s work is considered to be part of the political school, along

American military historian Ralph Sawyer* published his translation

The Continuing Debate

However, our imaginary activist could actually benefit from some of

“on[The Art or War] has had a tremendous influence

be popular into the foreseeable future.

warfare, for example, all play a significant role in gathering intelligence.

Cataclysmic school: a school of thought that regards war as a curse

China’s Communist Government: the government that has ruled

Confucianism: a worldview, and ethical and philosophical tradition

Eschatological school: a school of thought that views war as part of

Fog of war: a military concept describing the difficulty of making