Physics

Chapter 7
• Work is done on an object only when a force applied on it produces
motion in the direction of the force

7.2
• Energy is the unit J (joules)
• KE = 1/2 mv2 (where m = mass in kg, v = speed in m/s) - kinetic energy
• Kinetic energy is the energy a body possesses due to its motion
⁃ eg. A flying arrow and a moving bus posses kinetic energy
⁃ Any object which is moving has kinetic energy

• Work = F x D (Work = Force x Distance moved up the direction of the

force
• SI unlit for work is joules

• Work done does not mean moment

• Potential energy is the energy stored in an object due to its position,
state or shapes
• Potential energy exists in various forms
• A compressed spring or a stretched bowstring has energy due to its
state or condition, know as elastic PE


• Substances that can be burnt also contain potential energy. This is
know as checmical potential energy.
⁃ eg. Gas, battery, foods

• Gravitational potential energy is the energy which an object possesses

because of its position relative to the ground. When and object is brought to a
higher position, it gains potential energy.

⁃ PE = mgh ( where m = mass in kg, g = 10 m/s2, h = height in m )

7.2 What happens during energy conversion

• Energy can change (convert) from one form to another

⁃ eg. Lamps convert electrical energy to light energy and thermal energy.
(Electrical energy > Light energy)
⁃ Oven converts electrical energy to thermal energy
⁃ Blender changes electrical energy to kinetic energy

• The principle of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be

created or destroyed, but only change from one form to another. This means that the
amount of energy in the universe is always then same.

7.4 How is power related to work and energy

• Power is defined as the rate of doing work


• SI unit of power is the watts (W)
• One watt is the same as one joule per second (1 J/s)

Homework page 51 to page 54

Chapter 11 (General Wave Properties) (TB 184 - 200)

 • All waves are produced by a vibrating source
• A wave is disturbance that transfers energy through vibrations from one
place to another without transferring matter

11.1 How are waves produced

11.2 How are waves classified

• There are two types of waves: transverse waves and longitudinal waves
• A transverse wave is a wave which travels in a direction perpendicular
to the direction of vibration
• A longitudinal wave is a wave which travels in a direction parallel to
the direction of vibration


• waves are distinguished by wave length
• The rest position is the level of still water before a wave passes
through
• The highest point are called the crests or peaks while the lowest
points are called troughs
• The amplitude, a, is the maximum displacement from the rest position or
equilibrium position, it is the height of a crest or depth of a trough from rest
position.
• The wavelength is the horizontal distance between 2 successive crests
or two successive troughs
• The unit of frequency is hertz (Hz)
• The period, T, is the time taken to generate one complete wave, it is
also the time taken for the crests, or any given point on the wave, to move a
distance of one wavelength

⁃ T = 1/f

⁃ Conservation of energy
1. KEa + PEa = KEb + PEb


The speed, v, of the wave is the distance moved by the wave in one second. Since
the wave crest travels a distance of one wavelength in one period, the wave speed
is determined by


The Ren thing equals to wavelength
This is a wave equation (V=wavelength)

• If we take a photograph of a wave travelling through a rope, the

photograph shows the displacement of th

• A wavefront is an imaginary line that joins all the crests/peaks of a

wave

Page 234 to 247

13 Electromagnetic Spectrum

R M I V U X G
R - radio (biggest wavelength) (least harmful)
M - microwave
I - Infra-red
V - Visible Light
U - Ultraviolet
X - X rays
G - Gamma wave (smallest wavelength) (most harmful)

• All electromagnetic wave are transverse waves that travel with the same
speed in vacuum
• The speed is the speed of light in a vacuum, which is 3 x 10^3 m/s^-1
• The speed of light in a medium such as air or glass has a value smaller
than 3 x 10^8 m/s^-1
• They transfer energy from one place to another
• They are transverse waves
• They can travel through vacuum
• They travel through vacuum with the speed of light (3 x 10^8 m/s^-1)
• They obey the wave equation, v = (f)(lamda)
• They show wave properties like reflections and refraction


Uses

Radiation Uses
Radio waves Radio and television communication
Microwaves satellite communication for satellite television and mobile phone
networks, microwaves cooking, Radar communications
Infra-red rays Remote control of electrical appliances, Intruder alarms, Infra-
red photography, Radiant heater
Visible Light Optical fibre for medical uses and telecommunications,
photosynthesis, lasers for medical, industrial and surveying uses
Ultra violet rays Sun beds, sterilisation, Forgery detection, Fluorescence effect
X-Rays Medical dental inspections, Checking welds, Analysis Of crystal
structure, airport security, treatment of cancer
Gamma Rays Treatment of cancers, checking welds, sterilising equipments

14 Sound (pages 250 - 160)

• Production of sound
⁃ Sound waves are produced by vibrating objects. (Eg, a person’s voice,
piano)

• Properties of sound
⁃ Sound waves are longitudinal waves
⁃ Cannot travel through vacuum
⁃ Sound travels at different speeds in different mediums (Solid, liquid
or gas) (This is due to the particles, different arrangements of particles)
1. Fast in solid
2. Faster in liquid
3. Fastest in gas (for air)
⁃ Speed of sound increases when the temperature of air increases

⁃ A longitudinal wave
1. Compressions and Rarefactions


• Spaces between particles decreases or Density increases
• Speed of sound increases
 • Notice that different solids also transmit sounds at different speeds
• Speed of sound depends on how packed the particles are in a medium
• Speed of sound in solids > speed of sound in liquids > speed of sound
in gases

• Pitch and frequency

⁃ Pitch is a factor distinguish between various sounds.
⁃ The higher the frequency of a note, the higher the pitch

• Loudness and amplitude

⁃ Loudness is a factor distinguished between various sounds.
⁃ The larger the amplitude of vibration, the louder the sound

• Propagation of sound
⁃ sound waves are produced when a vibrating object alternately pushes and
pulls on the air adjacent to it, causing small but rapid changes in the air
pressure
⁃ sound travels in air by forming a series of compression and
rarefactions
⁃ The vibration produces a series of compressions and rarfactions of air
particles in the surrounding medium
⁃ As a result, sound is produced

• What is an echo
⁃ Sound waves can be reflected by large, hard surfaces such as buildings
walls and cliffs
⁃ The reflection of sound waves from a surface, heard as a separate sound
or series of sound, is known as an echo
⁃ To hear distinct echoes, the reflecting surface must be far enough from
the source of the sound
⁃ The human ear cannot distinguish the reflected sound from the original
sound if the delay is less than 0.1s
⁃ The reflecting wall must be more than 17m away from the source of sound
for an echo to be heard by a person at the source

• page 101
⁃ starts the stopwatch at the instant she hears the clap
⁃ Stops the stopwatch at the instant she hears the echo from the clap
⁃ This time taken, t, is called the echo time, the time taken for the
sound to travel to the wall and back
⁃ Distance travelled by sound is 2d
⁃ The speed of sound in air, v (340m s-1), is known, This is a constant
for a given temp
⁃ Using the formula, (speed of sound = distance to wall and back ÷ Echo
time) (V = 2d ÷ t)

• Applications of echos
⁃ Fishing ships use echoes to locate fish in the sea
⁃ This technique is known as SONAR (SOund Navigation And Ranging)

• Audible frequencies
⁃ The audible frequencies that a normal human being can hear is 20hz -
20Khz
⁃ Infrasound is frequencies less than 20hz
⁃ Ultrasound are frequencies more than 20Khz

Chapter 12 Light

⁃ Light is also known as optics

 ⁃ We are able to see an object only when the light rays coming from it
enters out eyes
⁃ Light travels at a speed of 3 x 10^8 m/s
⁃ Light travels in all directions
⁃ Represented by straight lines with an arrow, pointing outwards from the
source
⁃ Reflection > car mirror, mirror and stuff and still water etc
⁃ To study the reflection of light, the plane mirror is used
⁃ Plane mirror is drawn as:


⁃ reflection occurs when light bounces off a surface
⁃ The “you” seen in the mirror is called the image. ‘You” are called the
object

• Characteristics of a reflection
⁃ Mirror images formed are:
⁃ the same size as the object,
⁃ Upright
⁃ The same distance behind the mirror as the object is in front
⁃ Laterally inverted (left-right inversion)
⁃ Virtual: [light rays cannot pass through mirror and image cannot be
formed on a screen]

• Refraction:
⁃ Refraction is the bending of light when it passes from one medium to
another
⁃ Ray of light bends towards the normal when it enters a denser medium at
an angle:

⁃ Refractive index of a medium
⁃ The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of
incidence all lie on the same plane
⁃ Snell’s law:


⁃ Note: angle for numerator must be larger than in denominator
⁃ (Numerator/denominator) N must be bigger than D-


⁃ When light goes from glass to air, it is called a total internal
reflection (light bounce back out)
⁃ Below critical = reflected
⁃ Above critical = refraction
⁃


Lens:

⁃ 2 types of lens, Covex (converging) and Cocaine (Diverging)


Chapter 16

• Current is the rate of flow of charges


• A circuit consists of:1
 1. Source of EMF, usually battery-
⁃ Electromotive force, in volts (V)
2. A load or component
3. Wires for connection

• Circuit can be
1. Open - no current flows
2. Close - current flows
3. Short - very large current flows

• Common electrical symbols

Chapter 8 kinetic model of matter


Chapter 10