o- C 2.4.1 Class-li 20 olloshvtdes faved dace INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICAL THEORY é number of observations f i SA eA Rn fnetpaeeaeeae ns falling in a particular class is referred to as A eee eh es or simply frequency and is denoted by f. Data a ¢ e form of a frequency distribution are also called grouped lata. while the data in the original form are referred to as ungrouped data. The data are said to be arranged in an array when arranged in ascending or descending order of magnitude. The purpose of a frequetity distribution is to produce a meaningful pattern for the overall distribution of the data from which conclusions can be drawn. A fairly common frequency pattern is the rising to a peak and then declining. In terms of its construction, each class or group has lower and upper limits, lower and upper boundaries, an interval and a middle value. its. The class-limits are defined as the numbers or the values of the variables which describe the classes; she smaller ~ number is the lower class limit and the larger number is the upper class J limit, Class-limits should be well defined and there should be to () Overlapping. In other words, the limits should be inclusive, i.e. the values corresponding exactly tothe lower limit or the upper limit be included in that class. The class-limits are therefore selected in such a way that they have the same number of significant places as the recorded values. Suppose the data’ aré!recorded’“to” the nearest integers:! Then’ an appropriate method for defining the class limits without overlapping; for example, may be 10-14, 15-19, 20-24, ete. Th be te he, Gass Jin defined as 10.0-149, 16.0-19.9, 20.0-24., ete. when th recorded to nearest 8 h of an integer. Sometimes; d’class has either no _ lower class limit on no upper class-limit. Such:a:classiis called an! open- end class. The open-end classes, if possibl ould be arses as they, Ss ae Ae a hindrance in perférming certain calculations, A class indicater 10-15 will include 10 but not 15, i.e. 10 SX < 15. 4.2 _Clase-howoudastes: Tha alanine Nee mbers Which separate one class from another, The selection ; numbers removes the difficulty, n kn Re particular value should be assigned. ; between the upper Iimit of a class and th class, e.g. 9.5-14.5) 14.6-18.6, 19,6- etc. The cluss-boundaries the level of measurement class boundaries cal the observed value! ernPRESENTATION OF DATA : 21 n2-4.3 Class Mark. A class mark, also called class midpoint, is that number which divides each class into two equal parts. In practice, it is obtained by dividing either the sum of the lower and upper limits of « class, or the sum of the lower and upper boundaries of the class by 2 but in a few cases, it does not hold, particularly in modern practice of age grouping. For purposes of calculations, the frequency in 2 particular class is assumed to have the same value as the class-mark or midpoint. This assumption may introduce an error, called the grouping error, but statistical experience has shown that such errors usually tend to counterbalance over the entire distribution. The grouping error may also be minimized by selecting a class (group) in such a way that its midpoint corresponds to the mean of the observed values falling in that class. 2.4.4 Class Width or Interval. The class-width or ‘interval of a class is equal t to the difference between the class boundaries. It may also be obtained by findin; the difference either between two successive lower class limits, or between two successive class marks. The lower limit of a class should ni subtracted from its upper limit to get the class interval. An e Q interval, usually denoted _ by h or ¢, facilitates the calculat standard deviation, moments, etc. That is to have equal class-intervals. But some types 0 of econor data, it is wis concentration of usually become unif should be noted that ae interval” interchang ly ce th size or pelea of the.class-interval. .. @Mrequency distri Hon an type cumulative distribution from the hte ts of weights of 69 apples of Example 2.2, 4 in” ty ; below Ype cumulative frequency distribution is shown Weight ¢ grams) Less than 64.5 Cumulative Frequency (F) Less than 84.5 Less than 104.5 Less than 124.5 Lens than 144.5 Less than 164.5 Lass than 124.5 Less than 204.5 “ (A “oree thaat pe exmolative frequency distribution is given Weight (grams) More than Gh Mare than 645 More than 104.5 stil More than 45 % More than VAS More than 164.5 More than 145 More than A clear dinedve A individual obe Srowinck, Sohn Ft Stem-and-Leaf Disp sitmultancously thie data est is aly_INTRODL leading digit(s) of each number and le w ake. wed In sorting, while w leaf in Us reat of the mumbor or tho trailing digit(a) and shown in dleptey, A Vortical Ino soparaton the leaf (or leaves) from tho stem, For example, the number 243 could be aplit two ways: : leading digit trailing digits a3 leaf OR loading digit 24 trailing digit, 2 stem stem: All possible stoma are arranged in order from the smallest to the largest and placed on the left hand sido of the lino. The stem-and-leaf display is a useful step for listing the data in an array, leaves are associated with the stom to know the numbers. Tho stem-and-leaf table provides a useful description of the data set and can easily be converted to a frequency table, It is a common Practice to arrange the trailing digits in each row from smallest to highest. : | _Bxample 2.6 ‘The ages of 80 patients admitted toa certain ee a 23.008 andl 48, 31, 54, 37, 18, 64, 61, 49, 40, 71, 61, 12, 62, 65, : 42, 39, 62, Be Ue aces eel 87, 26, 27, 58. an array. Bieta ie soe ‘A scan of the data indicates tha second (or trai has a stem of 4 and Placing the leaves i the stem-and- ini shown %HMESENTLWAL GE WP 24 TH Wel UK AttBY, We wesociate the Jeayes in order of size with the alana HA BQH Dela: YZ 14, Ih, Wh, 47, 24, 40, 21, 26, 21, 29, 40, 42, 42, 48, 48, 49, fil, Wh, Wit, 4, UW], BR, 61, 62, 64, 65, 67, 68, 71, 74. Kuninjle 47 Construct @ siem-end-leef Bispley for the data of HHhUal Agath retes given in Example 2.2. Hsing the decimed pert in ech number es the leof end the rest of Wie Aigls be hie stem, We yer ihe following etem-end-leef displey (eaves Ave Hedared) ak Se p gsene Gh GMAPHICAL ‘ablation, We feprenenting saree pele hee no representation wher Wy Wie [ieee IAH OR F Mepresentaian wang tiecagh fgPRESENTATION OF DATA Ki , Example 215 ( Wich A Hietoentn fat Ena tllérnins bemnpieeerey distribution relating to Lie agen Ua tena Wiethilays id llapninnee operators. eee wi -yo | sna | ah ad | AW He No. of , at 160 14 HA iy Operators ‘As the class-inlervals are wtiedual, thie Heigtil uf aneh acta nie eynne We made equal to the frequency, ‘The height af a featenie i# therefore calculated by dividing the freqieney (thie arom ly the KU OHA, » class interval (the width), The necessary ealeulations aad te hietAnnte follow: 17.5-19.5 196-245, 2.8.38 Frequent of a frequency Wieuril (xj, fp whore x iB corresponding segments provid intervals, heights of4 fils ~ INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICAL THEORY jon, the cumulative frequency polygon drawn for the frequency | distribution of sssistants in Example 2.4, is shown below: OGIVE FOR DISCRETE VARIABLE CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY aa sss Tae 5 6729 0 MUMBER OF ASSISTANTS "This graph shows that the cumulative frequency polygon is stepped. Buch a ) On function is alled a ee The ome c curve is id OB canteal marin he folded along tt halves of the © example of 2 sym aPRESENTATION OF DATA Z 45 (ii) (iv) The Extremely Skewed or J-shaped distributions, Here the frequencies run up to a maximum at one end of the range, having the shapes of the or its. re M distributions in” Bta extremely skewet The U-shap or curves, th range and 4 ™ like the letteINTRODUCTION To BYATIBTK tho arithmetic scales, Thou AVADLA CAN Only | absolut changon in valwon hee a8 arithmetic aaa nee Renee a a “Als kana Paper represont equal ditforoncer pe aati Magee thy Merested in studying tho volative chamme ov ration, hy puanges oF ratios ean bo displayed and commead by th alan ot nn Hine when tho logarithms of tho value atv mote a marie Paper, In practico, the difficulty of looking. wp logaithina cnn he dispensed with by using anothor typo of qraph paper, called Menn| Logarithmic paper or ratio paper, & woini-toguritinie mpeg ae paper is so constructed that equal intorvals on tho vartical nein indlenty cual ratios or rates of change, while equal intorvals on the horizontal oxi represent equal differences or amounts of chango, ‘Thun tho ounontial feature of a Semi-logarithmic chart is that one axis has a logarithinie scale and the other has arithmotic sealo, Graphs obtained by plotting the values on a semi-logarithmie paper or ratio paper and joining the successive points by means of otralght Jing segments are called Semi-logarithmie graphs ov Ratio charts, hey are generally used when Gi) the relative rates of che g , . ‘ OAL Mibotey (ii) visual comparisons which differ widely Gii) the data are to a Gi) : forms a_ straight progression form a a ii) Nal (iv) slope, has the lary (v) Equal slopes (in change. 2.1 Explain what is “principles? 2.2 i A main steP title and prefatory,47 44 What is a statistical table? What are different types of tables? Byplain the different parts of a table and the main points to be kept in toind in their construction. (P.U,, B.A./B.Sc. 1970) 4A Represent the data given in the following paragraph in the form of 4 table, so as to bring out clearly all the facts, indicating the _ Source and bearing suitable title: foil Pescey el Marne aaees Le GOt “According to the census of Manufacturers Report 1945, the John Smith Manufacturing Company employed 400 non-union and 1,250 union erployees-in 1941, Of these 220 were females of which 140 were non-union. In 1942, the number of union omployees increased to 1,475 of which 1,300 were males. Of the 950 non-union employees 200 were males. In 1943, 1,700 employees were union members and 50 were non-union. Of all the employees in 1943, 250 were females of which 240 were union members. In 1944, the total number of employees was 7,000 of which ong pereént were non-union. Of all the employees in 1944, 200 wore females of which only 5 were non-union. 26 (a) Write short notes on: er Clase-frequency, Class-Interval, Class limits, Cl Marks, Size of Class-Interval and Sturges’ rule. ‘ : (hy Determine class boundaries, class limits and class marks for the first and last classes in respect of the following: (i) Weights of 800 entering freshmen ranged from: pounds, correct to the nearest pound, t (i) | The thickness of 460 washers inches. Gh IPE ee aE () A sample consists of 34 observations, ¢ 26 (n)What is m the main st@ \ ign data. ) Prepare a 96 100 wi V8! bb 66.48 INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICAL THEORY, 2.7 (a) Why are frequency distributions constructed’? What are the rules to be observed in making a frequency distribution from ungrouped data? (b)A record was made of the number of absences per day from a factory over 35 days with the — results: imme Tots? le ]sle tee), Pewee —tetete te etee Gi) On how many days were there fewer than 4 people absent? Gi) On how many days were there at least 4 people absent? Gii) What is the total number of absences over the whole 36 days? _ (M.A,, Econ, Il Semester, 1980) 2.8 (a)Describe the steps you would take to construct a frequency distribution. a the following. marks in a grouped frequency distribution. ae iu 49 103 95 90118 62 88 101 96 72 66 64110 97 59 62 96 82 65. 85 105 iu 83 99 62 76 BA 80 y 77104 96 84 62 68 66 100 54 76 65°99 104 78 66 96 83 57 60 51114 120 121 92 88 64 63 95 78. 2.9 The following data give the index numbers of 100 commodities in a certain year. Form ‘grouped frequency distribution, taking 6 as-class-interval, — Arrange frequency distri class boundaries 79.4 71.6 95.6 15.2 81.9 Q 98.1 77.8 96 58.3 48.6PRESENTATION OF DATA 1 esceonntasheoanicocneeneeeeioee 49 211 The following figures give the number of children born to 50 women: 2 6 1 6 4 3 3 8 3 1 4.3 3 0 5 2 1 4 3 3 5 3 3 6 3 3 2 2 7 3 1 4 2 4 4 4 6 8 10 7 7 5 6 65 3 2 3 9 2 2 Construct an ungrouped frequency distribution of these data. 2.12 Count the number of letters in each word of the following passage, hyphenated words, if any, being treated as single words and make a frequency distribution of word length. “To forgive an injury is often considered to be a sign of weakness; it is really a sign of strength. It is easy to allow oneself to be carried away by resentment and hate into ani act of vengeance; but it takes a strong character to restrain those natural passions. ‘The man who forgives an injury proves himself to be the superior of the man who wronged him, and puts the wrong-doer to: Forgiveness may even turn a foe into a friend. So mercy noblest form of revenge.” woth 8k see 193 240 230 288 250 236 258 231 265 235 frequency table 2.14 Make a stem-al the lower limi convert it toa 9.0 10.2 116 18.6 1711.0 10.10 141 12.8