13

cORAL REEFS

13.1 INTRODUCTION 13.2 COMPONENTS OF CORAL REEFS

The coral reefs have the following

Coral reefs and atolls are significant sub-
marine features. These are formed due to accumu-
lation and compaction of skeletons of lime
secreting organisms known as coral polyps. Coral
polyps thrive in the tropical oceans confined
between 25°N-25°S latitudes and live on lime.
Numerous coral polyps live, at a place, in groups
in the form of colony and form calcareous shells
around them. Coral reefs are formed due to
formation of one shell upon another shell along
submarine platforms at suitable depth. Since coral
components
Coral or polyps as living organisms,
>Corallite, the external skeleton or house of
the corals, and polyps, and
> Reef, cemented and hardened structure of
calcium carbonate.
Thus, corals reefs are cemented and com-
pacted deposits of skeletons of corals in the
tropical and subtropical oceans and seas. Coral
reeIs are organically formed reefs composed of

survive above water level and mostly calcium carbonate (Ca CO3). More than 50
polyps cannot
percent of calcium carbonates of coral reefs is
hence coral reefs are always found either upto sea
contributed by algae. Coral reef consists of corals,
level or below it. They are generally attached to
their skeletons and reef as basic components
submarine platforms or islands
submerged under which need brief introduction.
seawater. It may be mentioned that coral reefs are
more diverse than the tropical rain forests because
Corals or Coral Animals
the coral recfs have about 1,000,000 species of
which only 10 percent have been studied.
The living organisms of the category of
This is why these are called as rainforests of the
marine animals and related to jellyfísh, which are
oceans.
 324
OCEANOGRAPHY
building coral reefs, called after the death of coral animals. These carbonat.
responsible for are
polyps or simply corals. Corals may live as solitary
individuals or in a colony but only the corals
skeletons are
cemented and compacted to forma
reef. The process ot reet
living in groups in big colonies can form coral
1ormation continues and
a massive large coral
reefs. Corals are lime secreting sea
reet, like the Great Barrier
Reef off the east coast of Australia, is
belonging to the phylum Cnidaria. The close
organisms formed.
The other characteristic of coral
examination of the body
of coral animals (polyps) animals will be discussed later
features
in this
reveals the fact that the outer layer of the flesh of chapter.
the animal consists of unicellular
photosynthetic 13.3 cONDITIONS FOR THE GROWTHOF CORAL
plants, called as zooxanthellae, which comprise
more than 75 of the tissue weight of coral POLYPS
percent
animals. These plants help in providing nutrients
to coral animals and Coral animals
also assist them in
secreting (polyps) need certain
condi
carbonates Thus, there is symbiotic relationship tions of temperature, depth of water, nature of
(mutualism) between coral animals and photosyn- seawater etc. for their smooth survival and growth
thetic zooxanthellae, which live as follows:
together. There
are many tentacles at the mouths of polyps, which
help them to catch preys. In this way coral Temperature of Seawater
get their food through two sources, namely animals
(1)
through zooxanthellae algae, and (2) through their Coral polyps are temperature sensitive
own tentacles. Polyps are cup-shaped animals of shallow sea animals because they cannot survive
the size of average ants. in either very high or very low
temperature
conditions. Corals are found mainly in the tropical
Coralite Oceans and seas where mean monthly temperature
remains more than
1S°C but less than 30°C
throughout the year. If the average monthly
The exterior skeletons of coral animals are
called corallites or houses of polyps. In fact, coral temperature exceeds 30°C corals are bleached and
die. Suitable thermal conditions are, thus, found
animals build their own skeletal houses of
in the broad tropical zone of oceans, of which
calcium carbonate in which they are
protected the
from predators. In fact, corallites are the bodies of poleward boundary is determined by the 20°C
isotherms in both the hemispheres. Since the
living coral animals, and are called exoskeletons
annual range of temperature is usually less than
and are composed of compact rigid calcium
3°C in the Indo-Pafic Ocean, there is the
carbonate (limestone). The bottom portion of the largest
variety of corals in that region (fig. 13.2) as there
corallites consist of a few vertical compartments. are more than 50 genera of coral
These vertically divided compartments are called polyps in the
tropical Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean.
septa. These corallites or exterior skeletons of Sometimes, the temperature of seawater rises
coral animals are the basic raw materials for the above normal and hence many corals die due to
formation of coral reefs. coralbleaching (this aspect will be elaborated
later). Such situation arises when the El Nino
Reefs phenomena become strong and La Nina becomes
weak. Such situation was created
during the year
The coral reefs are cemented and com- 1997-98 when 50 to 75 percent corals died
account of coral bleaching as a
on
pacted rigid massive structures of numberless
corallites (skeletons) of dead coral animals. It rise in normal sea
consequence of
temperature caused
by global
may be mentioned that only the upper and outer warming. Wherever the warm ocean currents flow
parts of coral reefs are housed by living coral the poleward limit of the
growth of polyps
polyps. In fact, the skeletons of calcium carbonate 35° latitudes in both the hemi-
of coral
ncreases upto
spheres in the western margins of ocean basins.
animals are deposited one upon another
CORAL REEFS
325
Depth of Seawater
the density of suspended materials which deter-
mines the degree of turbidity of seawater. As a
Sufficient sunlight should be available for rule, the higher the density of suspended materi
the growth of coral the greater is the turbidity of seawater and
polyps. It may be
mentioned als,
that sunlight does not favour coral animals VICe versa. Turbidity of ocean water also deter-
directly rather it helps them indirectly because mines its transparency which decreases with
z0Oxanthellae (a microscopic algae) which are increase in turbidity and muddiness. The coral
embedded in the tissues of outer bodies of coral polyps require clean sediment-free water for their
animals (polyps) need sunlight to manufacture growth because muddy water clogs the mouths of
tood the process of photosynthesis. These coral result
through
Z0Oxanthellae provide 60 percent of food to coral
animals, as a
of which they dne
because they cannot get food through i e r
animals internally while coral animals
get re- feeding. This is why generally corals are not
maining 40 found in the vicinity of the mouths of major rivers
percent food externally by capturing
their prey (small zooplanktons) through their because big rivers dump huge quantity of eroded
tentacles. Since the sediments from the continents in the seas and
Stinging
with
sunlight decreases
hence turbidity of seawater increases enor
increasing depth of seawater, the depth
becomes a imiting factor for the growth of coral mousiy.
polyps. It is to be noted that sunlight cannot
the
penetrate
zone
beyond depth of 200 meters. The
of sunlight from the sea level to 200
Flux of Fresh Water
m depth
is called photic zone. Thus, only upper part of
photic zone is suitable for coral polyps to thrive. It may be mentioned that though coral

It is, thus, apparent that coral animals polyps reguire

water is
also
sediment-free water but fresh
(polyps) do not live in deeper water i.e. not more
injurious
for the survival and growth
of coral animals. This is the reason that corals
than 60-80 meters below sealevel because most of avoid coastal land and build their colonies away
polyps die ofstarvation as the zooxanthellae algae from the areas of river mouths. There are total
cannot perform photosynthesis due to lack of absence of big rivers on sea islands and hence
proper sunlight and hence corals cannot get food corals large colonies around islands. Rich coral
from internal source (from their outer tissues colonies have developed around Andman and
which are embeded withphotosyntheticzooxanthellae Nicobar Islands and Lakshwadeep of India, and
phytoplanketons) and thus they die. The oxygen is Maldives.
another factor that limits the growth of coral
is
polyps. Oxygen very much required by coral Ocean Salinity
to As oxygen also decreases with
animals thrive. corals
increasing depth, cannot survive in water
deeper than 80 meters. According to M.S. Land Very high proportion of oceanic salinity is
and J.E. Hoffmeister injurious for the growth of coral polyps because
(1936)the maximum depth
for ideal growth of coral polyps is 6l to 91 meters such waters contain little amount of
calcium
(200 to 300 feet) below sea level while Gardiner
caroonates whereas lime is important food of
coral polyps. The
observed some corals thriving at the depth of 150
oceanic
salinity ranging be
to 170 fathoms (one fathom=6 feet) (274 meterswen i s and 30%o is most ideal for the growth
to 310 meters) below sea level. and development of coral polyps.
Turbidity of Seawater Ocean Currents and Waves

Turbidity of seawater means cloudiness of Ocean curents and sea waves are favour-
able for coral polyps
water caused by the presence of suspended
materials oforganic and inorganic origin. So, it is
because they bring necessary
1000 Suppiy 1o tne symb1otic zooxanthellae algae
 326 OCEANOGRAPHY
wi are embeded in he outer tissues of coral temperature causes bleaching in ne corals wherein
St1s to be remembered that these the corals lose their embeded aigae and become
white in colour. This process is called coral
symbiotic algae manufacture food
through pho
tOsynthesis and
provide 60 Since of tood
percentocean bleaching, Which causes death to corals. Accordin
Tequirement of coral animals. cur to Clive Wilkinson ot tne Global Coral Reef
COral
with them, the Monitoring (GCRMN)
Network bleaching
ents and sca waves bring nutrients nutrients has occurred at large scale off the co0asts of West
these
ynolonc zOOxanthellae algac
use
Asia, East Africa, South, Southeast and East Asia,
and supply them to the coral polyps. It is, thus,
that grow in opean seas and oceans in the Indian Ocean, east Pacine, ne aribbean
0oviousthere
where corals
is ample wave energy but they die in Sea and the Atlantic Ocean (19y8). ACCOrding to
him the Indian Ocean 1s the most adversely
lagoonsand small enclosed seas because of lack
Or Supply ot nutrients and food supply. Curents aftfected region wherein 'more than 70 per cent
the
coasts of
and waves also determine the shapes of coral mortality has been observed oit
High
reets. sea waves also damage coral
energy Kenya, the Maldives, the Andamans and the
islands. The studies have shown
reefs by eroding them. Lakshwadeep
that coral bleaching begins when the temperature

rises 1°C above The

Submarine Foundatlon normal temperature. year
1998 has been reported to be the warmest year in
the last 1200 years. The temperature in the Indian
There should be extensive
submarine plat Ocean was recorded 2C higher than the normal
forms for the formation of colonies by the coral
polyps. Such platforms should not be more than
temperature in 1998. EINino phenomenon has also
been associated with coral bleaching (coral
50fathoms(300 feet or9] m) below sea level. The death). El Nino was the strongest on record in
their firm hard
polyps start colonies from a
rocks and grow upward until they reach the sea
base of 1997-98 and hence caused large-Scale bleaching
of corals.
also grow outward from the
level. Besides, polyps
submarine platforms.
Pollution of Ocean Water

Human Factor
Besides global warming, human activities at
local to regional levels such as pollution of
Human economic activities Viz. deforestation,
a ater through excess flux of sediments
1ndustrialization etc. causing global warming ad. and nutrients, industrial efluents, urban wastes,
versely atfect corals in their habitats. Corals are sewage; over fishing clearance of maritime forest
more susceptible to long-term climatic change.
and tillhng of wetlands; mining of coral rocks;
Corals are generally termed as rain forests of the
collection of rare species of corals etc. cause fatal
oceans. These cannot
survive in extreme warm
environment. The scientists claim that about 10 diseases to corals. Recent studies have shown that
percent of the corals have died and become 8 per cent of the world's coral reefs are
threatened by human activities (Down to Earth,
skeletons due to global warming caused by
1999).
anthropogenic 1actors mainly industrialization.
According to report published in Dovwn to Earth
ummary of Conditlons for Coral Growth
(August 15, 1999) 30 per cent of corals are in
critical condition and a further 30 per cent are
under severe environmental stress. According to The following conditions are required for
the report of the United Nations Inter-Goven- the survival and growth of coral polyps
ment Panel on Climate Change (IPCc) 'If the >Corals are temperature-sensitive. They
projected levels of climate change are not
cannot thrive in either cold or very warm
stopped, the doom may be just 30 years away
(Down to Earth, August l15, 1999). The increase in sea temperature. Corals can grow in a
CORAL REEFS

327
temperature range of 200C and 30°C
temperature means temperature of (here 13.4 CORAL ECOLOGY

>Corals grow seawater).

water the
successfully in the ocean The coral ecology means interactions be
upto depth of 30 meters below tween coral animals (coral
sea level but they cannot polyps) and
survive in physical
seawater deeper than 80 environmental conditions, and between coral
meters. polyps and other marine organisms. Let us first
>High turbidity of seawater i.e. high con- discuss the types of corals in different marine
centration of suspended
materials, both environment. Corals are basically divided into the
organic and inorganic, does not allow following two categories
growth corals because their mouths are
of
clogged by muddy water and hence corals (1) hermatypic corals or hermatype corals, and
cannot get food and (2) ahermatypic or hermatype corals.
starvation.
ultimately die of
(1) Hermatype corals live in groups and build
>Flux ofhuge volume colonies and hence they may be called colonizer
of fresh water into the
seas by big continental rivers corals. These coral animals
is injurious have embeded
for corals z0Oxanthellae algae in the outer tissues of their
growth. This is why corals avoid bodies. These corals thrive in tropical seas and
the vicinity of mouths of major rivers i.e.
they avoid coastal areas but they thrive Oceans mainly in
tropical western Pacitic and
around sea Indian Oceans. As stated in section 13.3 of this
islands because there are no big8
rivers like around Andman and Nicobar chapter, hermatypic corals can survive only in
such environment of tropical seas and oceans
Islands of India.
where temnperature of seawater
ranges between
High salinity of ocean water is injurious for 20°C-30C; water depth is upto 30 meters from
coral growth. The oceanic
salinity ranging sea level (i.e. is shallow
seawater) but does not
between 27%o and 30%% is most ideal for the exceed 80 meters; there is not high
growth and development of coral polyps. turbidity of
seawater, salinity range is between 27%o and
Ocean currents and high energy sea waves 30%; there are high energy ocean currents
are favourable for coral polyps because waves; extensive submarine platforms upto desir-
and
they bring nutrients to the symbiotic able depth are available; nutrient level is
high etc.
zooxanthellae algae, which are embeded in The zooxanthellae algae, which are embeded in
the outer tissues of coral animals (living the outer tissues of the bodies of coral animals, are
corals i.e. polyps). These embeded algae phytoplankton plants and thus prepare food
through photosynthesis. The coral animals get 60
prepare food through photosynthesis and
provide 60 percent of total food require- percent of their food requirement from internal
sources i.e. from zooxanthellae
ment of coral polyps. algae.
It is apparent that there is symbiotie relation-
> There should be extensive submarine
for the formation of colonies by ship between coral animals and embeded
platforms
the coral polyps. Such platforms should zooxanthellae algae because the phytoplankton
not be more than 91 meters below sea level. a g a e live in the outer tissues of coral animals and
in turn provide 60 percent of food to corals.
There should be pollution free coastal
Secondly, these algae recycle the wastes and
water for the survival and growth of corals. excreta of coral animals. Thus, there is mutual
>Coral bleaching caused by sudden increase relationship between hermatypic corals (herma=
due to secret) and zooxanthellae algae as the latter
the temperature of
seawater
in
such as emission «
to the coral
anthropogenic
sources

dioxide, meth-
provides food animals which in turn
greenhouse gases (carbon
and resultant
provide nutrients to zooxanthellae algae. This is
the reason that corals survive in tropical seas
ane, nitrogenoxides etc.)
results in m a s s deaths of where nutrients are not plenty. Coral animals get
global warming,
remaining40 percent of total food requirement by
coral polyps.
328 OCEANOGRAPHY
capluring liny zooplanktons through their sting- water, from illuminated (through sunlight) water
ing tentacles. The total biomass of a coral animal to dark water etc. Thus, ahematypic corals are
consists of two third of algae biomass and only found from warm tropical ocean water to cold
polar water, and from shallow seas to deep seas,
one third of animal biomass.
(2) Ahermatype corals do not live in groups The coral animals are adapted to varying
locations of coral reets which consist of several
rather they live in isolation because they are
morphological features as follows (fig. 13.1):
solitary by habit. This is why ahermatypic corals
do not build colonies. They are not confined to a
1. algae ridge
particular localities of certain environmental
2. buttress zone
conditions. This is why ahermatypic corals are
3. reef face
found throughout world oceans in varying envi-
ronmental conditions. They are found from 4. reef terrace
shallow water to deep water, warm water to cold 5. patch reef
Reef Terrace Algal Ridge
Lagoon Sea Level
Land
Patch Reet
Deposits of dead Massive Corals
orals as Limestone
Branctingordls
Fan Corals
Continental
Bedrock
corals associated with them.
coral reefs and dijerent types of
Fig. 13.1: Morphological features of
furrow. It is, thus,
reef idges are separated by a
of3 major
Vertically, the coral reefs consist evident that buttress zone represents undulating
downward e.g. (1)
morphological zones from top features characterized by alternating
buttress zone, and reef face.
(3) topographic Such irregular
algae ridge, (2) faces ridges and furrows of channels.
wave
algae, of disrupts
The algae ridge, composed mostly and undulating topography
also
These algae
the fury of sea waves, say surf surges.
energy.
reefs absorb most of the energy of surging
waves
is reef face which extends
and save the The third zone
and thus weaken the pounding waves
hence there are
no
erosion. The second morphologi- downward to greater depth and
reefs from wave
cannot grow beyond 8u
z o n e which consists of polyps
because
cal zone is called buttress Corals toward the
landward
and furrows i.e. two is reef terrace
aepth. There
numerous alternating ridges
 oCEANOGRAPH
28
their sting
water, from illuminated (through sunlight
capturing tiny
zooplanktons through
to dark
a t e r etc. Ihus, ahematypic coate
coral animal
total biomass of a warm
ropical ocean water toe
ing tentacles. The and only found from Cold
of third of algae biomass from shallow seas to
consists two
biomass.
polar water, and deep seas,
third of animal
The coral animals are adapted to ary
one
in groupsS
of coral reefs which consist of seg
not live
(2) Ahermatype corals do locations
isolation because they arc
rather they live in
morphological
features as 1oilows (fig. 13.1).
This is why ahermatypic corals
solitary by habit.
do not build colonies. They are not confined to a 1. algae ridge
localities of certain environmental 2. buttresS zone
particular
conditions. This is why ahermatypic corals are
3. reef face
found throughout world oceans in varying
envl-
ronmental conditions. They
found from are 4. reef terrace
shallow ater to deep water, warm water to cold S. patch reef
Reef Terrace Algal F dge
Lagoon Sea Level
Land
A Palch Reef
Deposits of dead Coralsg
Corals as Limestone
Corals
Corals
Continental
Bedrock
Reer
ace
Fig. 13.1: Morphological features of coral refs and diferent types of corals associated with them
Vertically, the coral reefs consist of'3 major reef ridges are separated by a furrow. It is, thus,
morphological zones from top dowaward e.g. (1) Vi der nat buttress zone represents undulating
algae ridge, (2) buttress zone, and (3) reef face. topographic features characterized by alternating
The algae ridge, composed mostly of algae, faces ridges and furrows of channels. Such irregular
the fury and undulating topography also disrupts wave
of sea waves, say surf surges. These algae
reefs absorb most of the energy of surging waves
and thus weaken the pounding waves and save the
energy
The third zone is reef face which extends
reefs from wave erosion. The second
morphologi
cal zone is called buttress zone which consists of
downward to and hence there
greater depth
numerous alternating ridges and furrows i.e. two 80 u
corals because polyps cannot grow beyonddward
depth. There is reef terrace toward the
 329
CORAL REEFS

corals grow along

algae ridge
side of algae ridge. Reef terrace is characterized Encrusting
the fury of
can withstand
by flat and broad surfaces of reefs and are at or because they
waves. It may be remem
slightly above low tide water (LTW). This is the strong pounding embeded
corals with
bered that encrusting
zone of rich growth of encrusting algae, i.e. such calcium carbonate
build crusts of
algae which can help in building shells ofcalcium algae face strong
wave
them to
carbonate. In between the inward edge of recf which help
terrace and land there is broad shallow water energy. corals
B u t t r e s s zone is colonized
by brain
lagoon (fig. 13.1) which has deposits of dead coral corals which can easily
and branching
rubbles of calcium carbonate (limestone) at its withstand wave attack.
base (fig. 13.1). There are a few organically face are
colonized by
above the water Deeper parts of reef corals etc.
formed mounds projecting corals, platy
knolls are fan corals, branching the
surface of lagoon. These mounds or
which a r e behind
Since the lagoons,
called patech reefs. from w a v e
are well protected
reet terrace, flour-
These morphological features provide dif- different varieties of corals
attrack,
ferent suites of habitats for coral growth. Since the ish in such lagoons.
environmental conditions of various morphologi-
cal features of reef vary mainly in terms
of wave DISTRIBUTION OF CORAL REEFS
13.5
forms of
find different growth
energy, we
hermatypic colonizing corals in different
or
Corals are found in certain pockets
and

conditions of different morphological and oceans

because
ecological patches in the tropical seas
features as given below:

30"E 69 90E 130'E

150W 120W 90W 60W 30"W
20'E gOTE 180
Green
land ArcbC Circle-
Arctic Circe Alaska 60°N -

60'N ASia Asla

Europe

North
Americe Atlantic 30"N-
30N 20"C-
20' nalaTropic o
ropic of Cancer frica cancer
Pacific Ocean
P E q u a t o **-**********

Ocean
****

South T * * * *
South Indian
Qua
Ocean
America 2 0

Tropic of Capricorn-
Tropicof
papncom -20°C- 305-
30*S 20"C

Australia
Coral reefs 60'S
60'S
Antarcic Cirde
Antarctic Cirçle
Antarctica
30 W 30°E 60E 90°E 120E
120°E 150"E 180 150'W 120W 590°VW 60W
L-

Based on M. Lenman, 1986, in P.R. Pinet, 2000.

Fig. 13.2:
Distribution
of coral reefs.
 332
reefs, barrier reefs and atolls are
oCEANOGRAPHY
staos successive
of the development of coral reefs. tages
Sea level
First of all coral
polyps flock together alono
a suitable submarine platform (tig. 13.6, A,-A
and 13.7 B)
and grow upward and ultimatel
reach sea level and fringing reet is formed. Thu
fringing reef is formed in stable condition of the
ig 135: Example of atoll land. A fter this, the land is subjected to
because of tectonic forces and thus coral
subsidence
13.6 ORIGIN OF CORAL REEFS AND ATOLLS
also reach greater depth where they may
polyps
not
The problem of the origin of coral reefs in survive. Consequently, they grow upward and
general and atoll in particular is highly complex. outward at much faster rate so that they can get food
Several contrasting theories have been advanced for their survival. The growth of polyps is retarded
near the shore of the land but it is
to explain
the mode
of origin
of different types of very phenomenal
coral recfs. and vigorous at the outer edge of the
If the salient features of all the land
theories are considered carefully then it becomes Consequently, a lagoon is formed between the
obvious that these theories have been based on 3 coast and fringing reef and barrier reef is
formed
considerations as follows: (fig. 13.6, Az-A2 and 13.7 C). There is further
>stable subsidence of the land and the island is completely
or
stationary land or island
submerged under water and a ring of coral reef in
subsiding land or island
the form of atoll is formed (fig. 13.7
emerging land or island D). It maybe
pointed out that Darwin did not invoke sudden and
The origin of coral reefs is
quite simple and rapid subsidence of land rather he conceived
easy to explain but the origin of atoll and barrier
reefs is highly complex and hence difficult to gradual and slower rate of land subsidence than the
rate of
explain. The theories of origin and evolution of upward growth of corals so that they could
coral
never find themselves in deeper waters.
reefs and atolls are grouped into the
following two categories :
1. subsidence theory
2. non-subsidence theory
a level
Atoll -
.--
Ag
1. Subsidence Theory of Darwin
2 A
Lagoon
ns
Lagoon'
Charles Darwin postulated his subsidence
theory first in 1837 and modified it in the year 1 wwww
1842 during his on the
Barner
Voyage "Beagle'. After
Fringing reet
close observation of different of reefs in the
types
oceans Darwin was convinced that coral
could grow only in shallow oceanic waters
polyps
coral reefs were found at
though Fig. 13.6:
greeter depths where Origin of coral reefs according Charies
coral Darwin. Aj-A, = Sea-level and thetoformation
polyps could not survive at any cost. Darwin
offningin8 reefs, Az-A2= sea level
postulated his theory in order to solve the riddle of sidence and the formation of barrierafier
reefsuo
and
this contradiction i.e. AzA,= sea level afiter complete
to shallow
confinement of coral polyps submergence
f the island and the formation of atoll reef
depth but their occurrence, in
at
greater depth. According to him the practice,
land or
island involved in the It may be noted that the of lagoon
origin and growth of coral depth
reefs is does not increase inspite of gradual subsidence ol
seldom
stationary rather it
gradual subsidence. According undergoes the land because there is continuous sedimenta*
to him fringing tion in the lagoon.
CORAL REEPS
In 333
Evldences Support of Theory T b e shallowness of
The lagoons indicates
following evidences and
points strongly gradual subsidence of land. If the land is
support the validity of Darwin's subsidence taken to be stable, the lagoons would be
: theory filled due to deposition of sediments.
The absence of cliffs along the coral
islands validates the idea of subsidence of
land because cliffs are found along only
thosc coral islands which are stationary.
>The coasts and the islands of the Pacifíc
Ocean having raised beaches, which are
indicative of emergence of land, are devoid
of barrier reefs and atols.
The islands having atolls are characterized
by very steep stopes. It may be mentioned
that very steep slopes are found only along
the upper parts of the islands. This fact alsoo
denotes subsidence of the land.
> The thickness of coral reefs
increases
downward. This feature reveals the fact
that coral reefs are formed along the
subsiding base of submarine
platforms.
Evaluetlon of the Theory
If fringing
reefs, barrier reefs
reefs, as maintained by Darwin, are and atoll
stages of the evolutionary growth of a only three
fringing reef and barrier reef should reef, then
not be found
on cither side of the same island
but
at the same level
observations and new
discoveries have
revealed the exístence of such
subsidence situations. If the
theory is
accepted then most of the
islands of the Pacific Ocean
would be
There are also some submerged.
evidences of the existence of
coral reefs
associated with the
islands. emerging
The critics of the
origin of coral reefs as subsidence theory of the
Darwin have raised the propounded by Charles
the theory : following points against
>The fringing reefs,
are not 3
barrier reefs and atolls
successive
ment of coral reefs stages
of the
because there develop- such
examples also which show are
that fringing
Fig. 13.7: Stages of the and barrier reefs
development of coral refs and grow together simultane-
atolls on the basis of subsidence
theory. ously along the same
Narai Island of Fiji. islands, example :
 OCEANOGRAPHY
334
formed around the solution lagoon (fig. 13.8).
>If thesubsidence theory is accepted, most According to Murray the lagoon-ward side of
of the islands of the Pacific Ocean would
be submerged. There are no geological atoll is characterized by dead corals while the
evidences to support submergence of Pa- seaward side has living corals which continuously
cific islands. grow outward. The dead corals are gradually
dissolved the is
>The geological evidences show that the and thus lagoon
widened. The lagoons also become shallower
continuously
atolls were formed on submarineplatforms
of shallow water depth.
because of deposition of dissolved dead corals.

2. Stand Sill Theory of Murray

Ring of coral reef

Theories based on the concept of non-

subsidence or stand-still situation of land fall in Lagoon
wo
categories. According to first group corals enosition ofmarine sadiente
grow upon suitable
with
stable submarine platforms
sea level
unchanging
second
while according to the
suitable submarine
group necessary plat-
forms become available due to lowering of sea

level erosion of land by sea waves

and consequentremain Submarine plattoms
but the land always stable. The theory of
Murray belongs to the first group.

Murray propounded his theory of formation

of coral reefs in the year 1880 on the basis of the
Fig. 13.8: Formation ofcoral
reefs according to Murray.
information received during the Challenger Expe- Evaluation of the
dition
Theory
(1872.76). According to him coral
polyps
can live upto the
depth of 30 fathoms (180 feet or The
55 meters). Sea level and submarine non-subsidence theory of
Murray
platforms are
acclaimed wide
stable. Several submarine
platforms, volcanic later
popularity in the
beginning but
peaks, islands are present below sea level. If the on it was severely criticised on the following
submarine land platforms are above the permissi- grounds
ble depth for the survival Murray's theory requires
or 55
of coral
polyps (180 feet the existence of
meters) they are subjected to wave erosion numerous suitable
submarine platforms at
so that their the
heights are lowered down . On the depth of 180 feet (55 meters) but the
other hand, if the submarine existence of such feature is not
platforms are below
possible.
the required depth of sea of 180 feet, their height Murray has described
views of marine erosion and contradictory
is two
increased due to deposition of marine
After getting suitable
sediments.
foundation at required the depth of 30 fathoms deposition at
depth of 180 feet (55 meters) coral (180 feet or 55
grow upward along the coasts and polyps begin
to meters) at the same
time over different
formed. The coral fringing reef is submarine peaks. Such
polyps after some time also
grow outward on the foundation of their own possible. proposition is not

debris. Thus, the continuously outward A limit of 30

fathoms (55 meters) for
Tinging reef is transformed into barriergrowing deposition and erosion cannot be
ue course of time. The lagoon is formed reef in accepted.
e land and barrier reef because of between According to Murray, the lagoon is formed
ead corals. Atolls dissolution of due to solution of
dead corals. This
are formed due to outward mechanism is also doubtful
owth of corals in all
directions at the top of because if the
bmarine platforms. Thus, a lagoon may be formed due to
ring of coral reef is corals, the
solution of
pelagic deposits laid down on