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Absolute age and tooth eruption and wear sequences in sheep and goat:
determining age-at-death in zooarchaeology using a modern control sample

Article  in  Journal of Archaeological Science · April 2008

DOI: 10.1016/j.jas.2007.06.003

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 Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 836e849
http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jas

Absolute age and tooth eruption and wear sequences in sheep

and goat: determining age-at-death in zooarchaeology
using a modern control sample
Haskel J. Greenfield a,*, Elizabeth R. Arnold b
a
Department of Anthropology, University of Manitoba, Fletcher Argue 435, Winnipeg, MB R3T 5V5, Canada
b
Department of Archaeology, University of Calgary, Earth Sciences Building, 8th floor, 2500 University Drive N.W., Calgary, AB, T2N 1N4, Canada
Received 14 March 2007; received in revised form 15 June 2007; accepted 19 June 2007

Abstract

This paper seeks to improve our understanding of the relationship between mandibular tooth eruption and wear sequences and absolute age in
modern sheep and goat. While the relationship between tooth eruption and wear and absolute age has been investigated for primitive breeds in
parts of the Old World, our pilot study extends the applicability of this research to modern breeds and to another geographic region (North Amer-
ica). A modern control sample of two species of domestic caprines e Ovis aries (sheep) and Capra hircus (goats) from Manitoba, Canada e are
used to evaluate the two major systems for analyzing mandibular tooth wear and eruption (Payne and Grant) and for assigning an absolute age-
at-death. In order to compare the two systems, an absolute age for Grant’s Mandibular Wear Stages was established for the first time, previously
demonstrated only for Payne’s system. The analysis confirmed that there is a very high correlation between the known age and estimated age
based on tooth eruption and wear. However, Payne’s system generated far coarser age-at-death profiles, which lowers its utility in constructing
harvest profiles. Grant’s system is recommended for ageing be utilized since it can yield more sensitive age estimations. In conclusion, it is
possible to utilize the modern caprine breeds to establish the relationship between tooth eruption and wear and absolute age to reconstruct
age and season of death of archaeological samples.
Ó 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Ageing; Harvest profile; Tooth eruption and wear; Zooarchaeology

1. Introduction destruction of the younger age groups (Gifford, 1981; Lyman,

There are a variety of techniques for the determination of age
of death of animals derived from archaeological contexts, in-
cluding epiphyseal fusion, closure of cranial sutures, tooth
growth and replacement sequences, tooth wear, incremental
structures and antler and horn development (Davis, 1987; Klein
and Cruz-Uribe, 1984; Reitz and Wing, 1999; Wilson et al.,
1982). They are not equally useful considering the effect of as-
semblage attrition on interpretations e i.e. on the differential
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ1 204 489 4962; fax: þ1 204 474 7600.
E-mail addresses: greenf@cc.umanitoba.ca (H.J. Greenfield), earnold@
shaw.ca (E.R. Arnold).
1994; Munson, 2000). Since the 1970s, it has become widely
recognized that mandibular tooth wear and eruption sequences
have the highest probability for withstanding the various forces
of destruction and would be the most accurate measure of age-
at-death for animals. As a result, more and more researchers use
mandibles and their associated premolar and molar teeth for cal-
culating age-at-death in order to create harvest profiles (Davis,
1987; Hambleton, 1999; Hesse and Wapnish, 1986; Hillson,
1986; Reitz and Wing, 1999).
There are a number of problems in most such ageing analy-
ses. First, the weakest link has always been the assumption that
there is a degree of correspondence between the tooth eruption
and wear classes and the absolute age of the animal at death
(e.g. Payne, 1973, 1985; Halstead, 1985). Most studies simply

0305-4403/$ - see front matter Ó 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jas.2007.06.003
 H.J. Greenfield, E.R. Arnold / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 836e849
use the standard age classes in an uncritical fashion. Second,
age classes are often treated as if they are of equal length (which
they are clearly not as warned by one of the originators of this
ageing technique e Grant, 1975). Third, there is some discrep-
ancy concerning the assignment of absolute age and whether it
is more appropriate to utilize 19th century age data for domestic
stock (cited in Habermehl, 1961; Schmid, 1972; Silver, 1969)
or modern 20th century eruption timetables as suggested by
Payne (1985). As a result, few researchers seek to assign an ab-
solute age to the various age classes of their zooarchaeological
specimens (e.g. Hambleton, 1999; Halstead, 1985).
Since most zooarchaeologists prefer to use tooth eruption
and wear in order to age animal remains, there is a need to en-
hance our understanding and the validity of age determinations
relying upon tooth eruption and wear sequences. A modern
control sample can validate tooth eruption and wear sequences.
Tooth wear and eruption age classes need to be linked to the
known age of these classes in modern control populations.
This can be accomplished (but is rarely done) since most mod-
ern farms keep some form of age information on all stock.
This study seeks to establish a relationship between man-
dibular tooth eruption and wear sequences and absolute age
in small domestic stock by comparing the results of a standard
tooth eruption and wear analysis with a modern control sam-
ple. The analysis to be described below is derived from a mod-
ern sample of two species of domestic caprines e Ovis aries
(sheep) and Capra hircus (goats) e with known age and sea-
son of death that were collected from modern slaughterhouses
in Manitoba (Canada). The collected sample was limited in
size (n ¼ 41) and coverage to animals between the ages of
five months and four and a half years. This was due mainly
to the fact that sheep and goat are raised primarily for meat
in Manitoba, thereby limiting the age range of slaughtered
animals.
2. Ageing methods in zooarchaeology
There are a variety of techniques for the determination of
age-at-death of zooarchaeological remains. The most com-
monly used include epiphyseal fusion and closure of cranial
sutures, tooth growth and replacement sequences, tooth
wear, incremental structures, and antler and horn development
(Davis, 1987; Reitz and Wing, 1999; Wilson et al., 1982).
Each is discussed in turn since they are directly relevant to
the issue and data to be described.
2.1. Epiphyseal fusion
The major technique of age determination in zooarchaeol-
ogy has traditionally been bone epiphyseal fusion (Silver,
19691). Fusion is limited to relatively large-scale age classes,
1
While the data from Silver (1969) are widely cited, there are typographical
problems in the text that have crept into the literature (e.g. Amorosi, 1989 and
elsewhere), such as the reversing of the position of the fusion time for proxi-
mal and distal phalanges. The data for the distal end are listed in the proximal
category and vice versa.
837
such as infant, juvenile, subadult, adult and senile or immature
versus mature. There are several problems associated with this
method. First, the chronological age of fusion is not always
clear for many wild species. Second, there is some variation
among breeds of domestic animals and extreme variation
among wild animals between stage of fusion and absolute
age. Third, the epiphyseal age classes are sometimes too
coarse to establish meaningful mortality profiles (Klein and
Cruz-Uribe, 1984: 43). Fourth, the fusion of epiphyses ceases
relatively early in an animal’s life (Payne, 1973: 283) when an
animal reaches maturity. As a result, it is difficult to distin-
guish a prime adult (young, but full-grown) from an aged
one based purely on the epiphyseal data (Crabtree, 1982:
242; Klein and Cruz-Uribe, 1984: 43). Fifth, epiphyseal data
are often biased because of differential attrition between early
and late fusing bone ends. Early fusing bone elements tend to
be more resistant to attrition leading to a bias against certain
age classes especially against the very young age classes.
Their bones are not fused and are most subject to attrition
(Greenfield, 1986, 1989, 1991; Lyman, 1994; Munson,
2000). The disadvantages of epiphyseal fusion for ageing
can be overcome by the use of tooth eruption and wear
data.
2.2. Tooth eruption and wear
Tooth eruption and wear is the second most commonly used
technique in the ageing of individual animals from zooarchaeo-
logical collections, widely utilized today, and particularly
applicable to large herbivores (Davis, 1987; Hambleton,
1999; Munson, 2000; Reitz and Wing, 1999). It is both easy
to apply and provides accurate age determination when tied
into a known age sequence (Lowe, 1967). The sequence and
timing of the eruption of the teeth in the mandible for domestic
animals has been established for a number of species (Silver,
1969; Habermehl, 1961; Getty, 1975). Unfortunately, it
was not systematically applied by most zooarchaeologists
until the 1970s, when the descriptive techniques became
standardized.
Ageing through eruption and wear of deciduous and perma-
nent teeth offers several advantages over epiphyseal fusion.
Teeth allow for ageing beyond the range of epiphyseal fusion
so age can be monitored more continuously throughout the life
of an individual (Reitz and Wing, 1999). Clear distinctions can
be made between young, prime and senile adults (Klein and
Cruz-Uribe, 1984). Further, the mandibles and mandibular
teeth are less affected by preservation bias (taphonomy)
(Payne, 1973; Munson, 2000), which makes them more abun-
dant in samples and lowers the high attrition levels of younger
animals (Lyman, 1994).
There are two major systems for recording tooth eruption
and wear data (Table 1). Payne’s (1973) system focuses on
sheep and goat remains, while Grant (1975) advocates
a more widely applicable system for sheep, goats, cattle
and pigs. Halstead (1985) adapted Payne’s technique for use
with cattle. Both Payne and Grant’s systems identify tooth
eruption and wear stages for the mandibular deciduous
838 H.J. Greenfield, E.R. Arnold / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 836e849

Table 1 and duration of the stages suggested by Payne (1973). While

Concordance and absolute age for Payne (1973) and Grant’s mandibular wear their work does not modify the basic tooth eruption and wear
stages (MWS) as suggested by Hambleton (1999)
stages (A-I) suggested by Payne (1973), it provides increased
Payne Grant Suggested Deniz and Generalized Subclass time control for the absolute ageing of stages (Table 1). They
MWS MWS absolute age Payne (1982) age class
(Payne, 1973)
suggest that there is a great deal of age variation within and
between each of the stages. Payne (1987) neither modifies
A 1e2 0e2 months Infant Neonate
B 3e7 2e6 months e5 months Infant Old
the ages assigned to the tooth eruption and wear sequences
C 8e18 6e12 months 3e14 months Juvenile from his 1973 publication nor relate the new age data from
D 19e28 1e2 years 11e30months Subadult Young Deniz and Payne (1982) to them. This task is undertaken by
E 29e33 2e3 years 24e47 months Subadult Old Jones (2006) who divides each of Payne’s (1973) mandibular
F 34e37 3e4 years 33 months Adult Young wear stages into two or more sub-stages identified by both
e6 years
G 38e41 4e6 years 4e7.5 years Adult Young
a letter (stage) and number (sub-stage) e see Section 6. Grant
H 42e44 6e8 years 5e9.5 years Adult Middle (1975, 1982) neither provides absolute ages or the relative
I 45þ 8e10 years 7e10+ years Adult Old/Senile duration of different stages (Hambleton, 1999), nor precisely
defines the ages boundary between stages (Payne, 1987).
Until recently, it was difficult to compare age at death anal-
molar 3 (dm3)2, permanent molars (M1eM3) and perma- yses by various zooarchaeological researchers when they used
nent fourth premolar (PM4). A mandibular tooth wear stage one or the other of these two competing systems (Payne, 1973;
(MWS) is composed of the sum of several individual tooth Grant, 1975). Hambleton (1999) has provided a solution for
wear patterns in a single mandible. Grant’s system was based resolving the discrepancies between the two systems by con-
on material from British archaeology contexts. In contrast, verting them into a similar format (Table 1). Rather than
Payne’s system was originally based on archaeology from creating a new coding system, she establishes a basis for con-
Turkey and historic published literature (e.g. Silver, 1969). It verting Grant’s system to Payne’s. This allows for more accu-
was subsequently supported and refined (Payne, 1987) by anal- rate comparison between sites that may have been recorded
ysis of modern Turkish goats (Deniz and Payne, 1982). The two utilizing two different tooth eruption and wear schemes. While
ageing systems differ in terms of number of eruption and wear some detail is lost, the Grant’s system is converted to Payne’s,
stages, how the tooth wear variation is represented, and the which can be linked with his suggested absolute ages.
relation to absolute age.
Number of eruption and wear stages e Payne (1973) uti-
lizes nine broad summary stages (A-I) to generate age-at-death 3. Data e the modern control sample
profiles from tooth eruption and wear patterns. Payne (1987)
subdivides these tooth eruption and wear patterns in order to It has long been argued that tooth eruption and wear age
more clearly define the boundaries between mandibular tooth data from primitive (18e19th century data) breeds would be
wear stages. Grant (1975) has more representations of the wear most applicable to prehistoric zooarchaeological data (e.g.
pattern for individual teeth and consequently generates more Habermehl, 1961; Schmid, 1972; Silver, 1969). Research on
stages (n = 45) than Payne (1973). Even though Grant has the dental eruption and wear of Soay sheep, a feral breed be-
fewer individual tooth wear patterns than in Payne’s revised lieved to be the closest living analogy to prehistoric breeds,
coding system (1987), her system still generates more mandib- agrees with known age data (Hambleton, 1999; Payne, 1973;
ular wear stages. Silver, 1969). While it would appear more logical to assume
Representation e Payne (1973, 1987) utilizes a more sche- that the earlier breeds would be more applicable to archaeo-
matic system of illustration for individual tooth wear patterns. logical populations, not all lines of research supports the as-
In contrast, Grant (1975, 1982) uses more realistic representa- sumption. For example, Payne (1985) found that modern
tions for individual tooth wear patterns. 20th century eruption timetables are more applicable to
Relation to absolute age e Payne (1973) tentatively links archaeological populations for sheep and goats. The question
mandibular tooth eruption and wear stages to absolute age becomes e can we use modern data for reconstructing age
based on historic data. Deniz and Payne (1982) utilize a large based on tooth eruption and wear sequences? Therefore, the
modern control sample of goats (n = 1256) to modify the age use of a modern collected sample for this type of testing seems
both appropriate and applicable.
2 A sample of sheep and goat remains was collected from local
There is another error that has crept into the literature. This one occurs
with respect to the identification of deciduous molars. Many zooarchaeological
abattoirs in the Province of Manitoba (Canada) between August
studies (e.g. Grant, 1975; 1982) erroneously identify deciduous molars (dm) as 2000 and March 2001. The sheep crania and mandibles were
premolars (e.g. dp or dpm). However, in terms of comparative mammalian os- collected from Carmen Meats in Carmen, while the goat crania
teology, there are no deciduous premolars, but only deciduous molars. Others and mandibles were collected from Prairie Abattoir in nearby
(e.g. Payne, 1973) erroneously identify the fourth deciduous molar as the third Portage la Prairie. The sheep were all slaughtered on the
deciduous molar. In mammalian terms, there are four deciduous molars, but
that the first or second may have been lost depending upon various species- same day of the month, while the goats were slaughtered at
specific evolutionary terms. These errors are compounded by the various appli- the rate of two per week. The specimens were collected once
cators of the two mandibular ageing systems. a month.
 H.J. Greenfield, E.R. Arnold / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 836e849
The animals in the sample were raised on small-scale farms
in southern Manitoba at ca. 50 latitude. They are domestic farm
animals raised in a moderately dry mid-continental climate
characterized by strong seasonal differences in temperature
(and food availability in the past). The winters are long and
very cold winters (average January temperatures 20  C, but
dipping to 40  C) and briefer and warmer summers (average
July temperatures þ19  C, but ranging up to þ38  C). Wide
variations from average values are common in all seasons.
The region is relatively dry with an annual average precipitation
of about 600 mm. Most (two-thirds) precipitation falls in the
warmer months (MayeSeptember) in the form of brief heavy
showers. The rest falls during the winter in the form of snow,
with southern Manitoba receiving 110e140 cm annually. Typ-
ically, the ground is covered by snow from November to April
(http://www.yourmanitoba.com/; http://www.britannica.com/
eb/article-43169/Manitoba; http://www.educationcanada.com/
facts/index.phtml?sid¼mb&a¼1&lang¼eng).
The soils tend to be a soft loam with minimal grit. The en-
vironment is best described as northern prairies, with vegeta-
tion dominated by extensive grasslands. Due to the nature of
the environment, domestic stock is fodder-fed during the winter.
The goat sample was larger (n ¼ 27; Table 2). Local pro-
ducers provided absolute age data for the goats. All the goats
were born in the month of April, with a mean birth date esti-
mated by the producer to be April 15th of the same year. They
were slaughtered on a regular schedule (two/week) from six
months to a year and a half in age. Due to vagaries in abattoir
slaughtering schedules, the exact date of death was not always
known and could only be estimated to the month for some spec-
imens As these were animals slaughtered for meat consumption,
they were generally young animals (less that a year and half).
The sheep sample was slightly smaller (n ¼ 14; Table 3).
Again, information on age of death was obtained from local
producers. They were born in the month of April. Most of
the sheep collected from the abattoirs were very young, as
they were slaughtered for ‘‘lamb chops’’. The abattoir speci-
mens range in age from six to twelve months of age. They
were aged to only the month of death based on ear tag infor-
mation. The sheep sample was ‘‘fleshed out’’ with several
older sheep from a private producer who raises sheep for
wool, including one four and a half years old (54 months)
and two eighteen-month-old specimens.
Age of death data collected from the abattoirs are more
accurate for sheep than goats. Sheep were slaughtered in one
group on the same day of the month. Collection of specimens
occurred as closely as possible to this day. As a result, age of
death is accurate to within 1 month for sheep. In contrast, the
variable slaughter schedule of goats, two per week, and a col-
lection of specimens only once a month could mean that the
age of death of goats may vary up to two months. As a result,
definite age of death data were not directly available for a few
specimens (n ¼ 18) due to the nature of the collection schedule
and had to be estimated.
The final modern comparative collection for comparing
tooth eruption and wear systems consists of a total of 43 sheep
and goat. Even though it was relatively large, individuals from
839
the two taxa are not equally represented in all age categories.
The youngest age stages (less than six months) are represented
solely by sheep, while the older data are disproportionately
represented by goats.
The sample has limited age variability due mainly to the
fact that Manitoba sheep and goat are slaughtered primarily
for meat. This limits discussion of the assignment of absolute
ages to animals between the ages of five months and four and
a half years. All but one were two and a half years or younger.
4. Analytical techniques
4.1. Sample preparation
The mandibles were removed from the skull and defleshed
using the method described in Greenfield et al. (2002) in the
Anthropology Laboratory of the University of Manitoba.
This maceration system was chosen to minimize the potential
for damage to the specimen since even the finest bone struc-
ture is preserved.
4.2. Tooth eruption and wear
The mandibular tooth eruption and wear was recorded for
each mandible, first using Payne’s and subsequently Grant’s
system (Tables 2 and 3). To establish absolute age for mandi-
bles, each mandibular tooth row was assigned a score based on
the tooth eruption and wear pattern of m3/P4, M1, M2 and M3
using the Payne’s and Hambleton’s systems (Grant, 1975;
Hambleton, 1999; Payne, 1973). The MWS score for each
mandible was then converted to an absolute age estimate
from Payne’s formulation (Table 1).
5. Results
The known age data from the modern control sample are
compared to the suggested ages given by Payne (1973). The
tooth eruption and wear data from the modern control sample
are analyzed for degree of variation within known age classes
(as defined by Payne). These data are then compared with the
Payne’s estimates for absolute age. Then, these data are com-
pared with the results generated using the Hambleton’s system
to determine if comparable age estimates can be generated. If
the two sets of age estimates are comparable, then analysts can
confidently continue either system. If not, then one or all sys-
tems need to be revised for future analyses.
5.1. Comparing tooth wear and eruption sequences
In order to evaluate the agreement of the Grant (1975) and
Payne (1973) tooth eruption and wear recording systems, the
combined sheep and goat modern sample from Manitoba
(Canada) is analyzed (Table 4) and summarized (Table 5).
Due to the lack of appropriately aged animals, Payne’s mandib-
ular wear stages A and B, F, H and I and their equivalents in the
Grant’s system could not be evaluated. In order to illustrate
their relative agreement, two sets of harvest (age-at-death)
840 H.J. Greenfield, E.R. Arnold / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 836e849

Table 2
Detailed data on tooth eruption and wear and suggested age for each modern Manitoba goat specimen
Specimen Known Method m3 code P4 code M1 code M2 code M3 MWS Estimated MWS Estimated Comments
age-at- of code (Payne, absolute age (Grant, absolute age
death recording 1973) based on 1975) based on our
Payne MWS analysis of
Grant’s
1 1 year, Grant n g e V 24 16e22
4e5 months Payne V D 1e2 years months

2 1 year, Grant E g e V 24 16e22

4e5 months Payne E V D 1e2 years months

3 1 year, Grant E h e C 24 16e22

4e5 months Payne E C D 1e2 years months

4 1 year, Grant m h e C 24 16e22

4e5 months Payne C D 1e2 years months

5 1 year, Grant E Unrecordable e V 24e25 16e22

5e6 months Payne E Unrecordable V D 1e2 years months

6 1 year, Grant m g c C 21 16e22

5e6 months Payne C D 1e2 years months Lingual
half of
tooth
7 1 year, Grant n g c C 21 16e22 missing
5e6 months Payne C D 1e2 years months

8 1 year, Grant 1/2 g c V 22 16e22

5e6 months Payne V D 1e2 years months

9 1 year, Grant 1 g c V 22 16e22

5e6 months Payne V D 1e2 years months

10 1 year, Grant 1/2 Unrecordable d V 24 16e22

6e7 months Payne Unrecordable V D 1e2 years months

11 1 year, Grant E g c V 22 16e22

6e7 months Payne E V D 1e2 years months Posterior
cusp
absent
12 1 year, Grant n h d C 23 16e22
8 months Payne V D 1e2 years months

13 1 year, Grant n h d V 24 16e22

8 months Payne V D 1e2 years months

14 1 year, Grant 1/2 h e V 25 16e22

9e10 months Payne E D 1e2 years months
 H.J. Greenfield, E.R. Arnold / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 836e849 841

Table 2 (continued )
Specimen Known Method m3 code P4 code M1 code M2 code M3 MWS Estimated MWS Estimated Comments
age-at- of code (Payne, absolute age (Grant, absolute age
death recording 1973) based on 1975) based on our
Payne MWS analysis of
Grant’s
15 1 year, Grant n h d C 23 16e22
9e10 months Payne C D 1e2 years months

16 1 year, Grant U h c V 23 16e22

9e10 months Payne U C D 1e2 years months

17 1 year, Grant n Unrecordable c E 22e23 16e22

9e10 months Payne Unrecordable E D 1e2 years months

18 1 year, Grant E g e C 23 16e22

5e6 months Payne E C D 1e2 years months

19 1 year, Grant m f d C 21 16e22

5e6 months Payne C D 1e2 years months

20 1 year, Grant E g e V 24 16e22

5e6 months Payne E V D 1e2 years months

21 1 year, Grant n g e C 23 16e22

5e6 months Payne C D 1e2 years months

22 1 year, Grant n Unrecordable e C 23 16e22

5e6 months Payne Unrecordable C D 1e2 years months

23 1 year, Grant n g e C 23 16e22

5e6 months Payne C D 1e2 years months

24 1 year, Grant n h e C 24 16e22

5e6 months Payne C D 1e2 years months

25 1 year, Grant n (abnormal wear e anterior cus1) h e V 25 16e22

6 months Payne V D 1e2 years months

26 1 year, Grant U h d E 25 16e22

6 months Payne E D 1e2 years months

27 1 year, Grant m f c V 21 16e22

5e6 months Payne V D 1e2 years months
842 H.J. Greenfield, E.R. Arnold / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 836e849

Table 3
Detailed data on tooth eruption and wear and suggested age for each modern Manitoba sheep specimen
Specimen Known Method M3 code P4 code M1 code M2 code M3 code MWS Estimated MWS Estimated Comment
# age-at- of (Payne, absolute (Grant, absolute age
death recording 1973) age based 1975) based on
on Payne our analysis
MWS of Grant’s
1 4 years, Grant j 1 h g 41 4e6
6 months Payne G 4e6 years years

2 1 year, Grant m h e E 26 16e22

6 months Payne E D 1e2 years months

3 1 year, Grant h h e E 26 16e22

6 months Payne D 1e2 years months

4 1 year, Grant n h e E 26 16e22

6 months Payne E D 1e2 years months

5 There is no specimen # 5 for sheep. Misnumbering in the original data

6 2 years, Grant Unrecordable h g c 33 2e3
6 months Payne Unrecordable E 2e3 years years

7 5 months Grant g c C 9 5e6

Payne C C 6e12 months months

8 5 months Grant g d V 11 5e6

Payne V C 6e12 months months

9 6 months Grant g d E 12 6e12

Payne E C 6e12 months months

10 6 months Grant g c V 10 5e6

Payne V C 6e12 months months

11 6 months Grant g d V 11 5e6

Payne V C 6e12 months months

12 6 months Grant j e E 13 6e12

Payne E C 6e12 months months

13 6 months Grant g d C 10 5e6

Payne C C 6e12 months months

14 6 months Grant j e V 12 6e12

Payne V C 6e12 months months

15 6 months Grant h e E 13 6e12

Payne E C 6e12 months months
 H.J. Greenfield, E.R. Arnold / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 836e849 843

Table 4 Table 4 (continued )

Comparison of known age-at-death vs. suggested absolute age based on Payne
Specimen # Age class Absolute age Known Absolute age
(1973) for modern comparative sample
(Payne, 1973) based on age-at- based on
Specimen # Age class Absolute age Known Absolute age Payne (1975) death Manitoba
(Payne, 1973) based on age-at- based on specimens
Payne (1975) death Manitoba
Sheep # 4 D 1e2 years 1 year, 16e22 months
specimens
6 months
Goat # 1 D 1e2 years 1 year, 16e22 months Sheep # 5 No specimen
4e5 months Sheep # 6 E 2e3 years 2 year, 2e3 years
Goat # 2 D 1e2 years 1 year, 16e22 months 6 months
4e5 months Sheep # 7 C 6e12 months 5 months 5e6 months
Goat # 3 D 1e2 years 1 year, 16e22 months Sheep # 8 C 6e12 months 5 months 5e6 months
4e5 months Sheep # 9 C 6e12 months 6 months 6e12 months
Goat # 4 D 1e2 years 1 year, 16e22 months Sheep # 10 C 6e12 months 6 months 5e6 months
4e5 months Sheep # 11 C 6e12 months 6 months 5e6 months
Goat # 5 D 1e2 years 1 year, 16e22 months Sheep # 12 C 6e12 months 6 months 6e12 months
5e6 months Sheep # 13 C 6e12 months 6 months 5e6 months
Goat # 6 D 1e2 years 1 year, 16e22 months Sheep # 14 C 6e12 months 6 months 6e12 months
5e6 months Sheep # 15 C 6e12 months 6 months 6e12 months
Goat # 7 D 1e2 years 1 year, 16e22 months
5e6 months
Goat # 8 D 1e2 years 1 year, 16e22 months
5e6 months profiles are generated for each system e absolute (Figs. 1
Goat # 9 D 1e2 years 1 year, 16e22 months and 2) and relative frequency (Figs. 3 and 4).
5e6 months The data from our analysis suggest that Hambleton’s con-
Goat # 10 D 1e2 years 1 year, 16e22 months version system is successful in transforming the data from
6e7 months
Goat # 11 D 1e2 years 1 year, 16e22 months
Grant to Payne’s MWS system. The suggested equivalencies
6e7 months produce the same number of individuals. Within the sample,
Goat # 12 D 1e2 years 1 year, 16e22 months the number of individuals recorded as Payne’s MWS C is
8 months equal to nine; C corresponds to Grant’s MWS 9e13 and the
Goat # 13 D 1e2 years 1 year, 16e22 months frequency is also equal to nine. Mandibles recorded as Payne’s
8 months
Goat # 14 D 1e2 years 1 year, 16e22 months
MWS D and Grant’s MWS 21e26 are both equal to 30 indi-
9e10 months viduals. Payne’s MWS E is equal to Grant’s MWS 33. Payne’s
Goat # 15 D 1e2 years 1 year, 16e22 months
9e10 months
Goat # 16 D 1e2 years 1 year, 16e22 months Table 5
9e10 months Summary frequency distribution of combined modern sample by MWS
Goat # 17 D 1e2 years 1 year, 16e22 months
9e10 months Payne MWS # Of individuals % Cumulative
Goat # 18 D 1e2 years 1 year, 16e22 months frequency (%)
5e6 months C 9 21.95 78.05
Goat # 19 D 1e2 years 1 year, 16e22 months D 30 73.17 4.88
5e6 months E 1 2.44 2.44
Goat # 20 D 1e2 years 1 year, 16e22 months F 0 0.00 2.44
5e6 months G 1 2.44 0.00
Goat # 21 D 1e2 years 1 year, 16e22 months Total 41 100.00
5e6 months
Goat # 22 D 1e2 years 1 year, 16e22 months Grant MWS # Of individuals
5e6 months 9 1 2.44 97.56
Goat # 23 D 1e2 years 1 year, 16e22 months 10 2 4.88 92.68
5e6 months 11 2 4.88 87.80
Goat # 24 D 1e2 years 1 year, 16e22 months 12 2 4.88 82.93
5e6 months 13 2 4.88 78.05
Goat # 25 D 1e2 years 1 year, 16e22 months 21 4 9.76 68.29
6 months 22 3 7.32 60.98
Goat # 26 D 1e2 years 1 year, 16e22 months 23 7 17.07 43.90
6 months 24 7 17.07 26.83
Goat # 27 D 1e2 years 1 year, 16e22 months 25 3 7.32 19.51
5e6 months 26 3 7.32 12.20
Sheep # 1 D 4e6 years 4 year, 4e6 years 22e23 1 2.44 9.76
6 months 23e24 1 2.44 7.32
Sheep # 2 D 1e2 years 1 year, 16e22 months 24e25 1 2.44 4.88
6 months 33 1 2.44 2.44
Sheep # 3 D 1e2 years 1 year, 16e22 months 41 1 2.44 0.00
6 months Total 41 100.00
844 H.J. Greenfield, E.R. Arnold / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 836e849
35
30
No. of individuals
25
20
15
10
5
0
C D E F
MWS
Fig. 1. Absolute frequency distribution of mandibular wear stages of modern
comparative sample using Payne (1973).
MWS G is equivalent to Grant’s MWS 41 and each includes
one individual. This analysis demonstrates the validity of
Hambleton’s conversion system.
Up until this point, the conversion method is supported, mak-
ing it possible to compare the results of ageing between the
Payne and Grant techniques. The difference in sensitivity
between the two techniques for ageing is immediately
apparent e in Payne’s system only four stages were observed,
while there were eleven stages in Grant’s system. When the
data are broken down by percent within stages (Tables 3 and
4), most of the animals in Payne’s system were slaughtered in
MWS D (78%), while the majority is divided between two
MWS (23e24) in Grant’s system (67%). Part of the problem is
the conflation of many of Grant’s MWS into Payne’s larger
stages. For example, Payne collapses Grant’s MWS 19e28
into a single MWS D. Two immediate conclusions can be
made with regard to the above analysis. First, it is clear that the
use of Payne’s system with fewer stages creates a much coarser
analysis, with a pronounced reduction in sensitivity for ageing
(Fig. 5). Second, it is possible to convert Grant’s system to Payne,
but not the reverse since the latter lacks the sensitivity built into
the former. It is clear that the two methods yield completely
6
No. of individuals
0
9 10 11
Fig. 2. Absolute frequency distribution of mandibular wear stages of modern comparative sample using Grant (1975).
different age-at-death profiles and implications for any ageing
analysis. Our suggestion is that Grant’s system is superior and
should be used for initial coding of any data. The data can be con-
verted into Payne’s system afterwards for further analysis, but
the Grant’s system is clearly a more sensitive ageing technique.
5.2. Relationship between absolute age and tooth
eruption and wear
In this section, the information on absolute age is correlated
G with the tooth eruption and wear systems described above.
Age-at-death was obtained by ear tag information and from lo-
cal producers (Tables 2 and 3) and was available for 27 goats
and 14 sheep. This is tested against the suggested absolute
ages taken from Payne’s (1973) age classes.
Comparison of known versus predicted age (based on
Payne’s system) yielded a general correlation (Table 4). The
age-at-death of all, except for two individuals (8% of
sample e Sheep 7 and 8), falls within the predicted age
from the Payne’s age class. They are five-months-old (instead
of 6e12 months). Interestingly, both of these animals are very
young (under six months of age) and are sheep. In both cases,
the assigned absolute age overestimates the known age-
at-death by only 1 month. The pattern for the older individuals
is more accurate.
Several factors affect tooth eruption and wear including the
foods eaten and the general nutritional health of the animal.
These can and do affect the timing of appearance and rate
of wear of the wear stages of teeth (Reitz and Wing, 1999).
Similar primary causal factors are noted for the formation
of cementum. These can include environment and climate
(Grue and Jensen, 1979; Burke, 1995), dietary restrictions,
seasonal variation in the food availability, hormonal changes,
reduced food intake (Saxon and Higham, 1969) and reduced
nutrition and biomechanical stress (Lieberman, 1993). It is
suggested, based on the above data, that these factors have
the greatest influence on animals less than 1 year of age.
12 13 21 22 23 24 25 26 22-23 23-24 24-25
MWS
 H.J. Greenfield, E.R. Arnold / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 836e849 845

100%  five months show a MWS between 9 and 11 (two

90% individuals);
80%  six months show MWS between 10 and 12 (four
No. of individuals

70% individuals);
60%  one year, 4e5 months show MWS of 24 (three
50% individuals);
40%  one year, 5e6 months show MWS of 21e24 (ten
30% individuals);
20%  one year, 6 months shows MWS of 26 (two individuals);
10%  one year, 6e7 months show MWS of 22 (one individual);
0%  one year, 8 months shows MWS of 23e24 (two
C D E F G
MWS individuals);
 one year, 9 months shows MWS of 23e25 (three
Fig. 3. Relative frequency distribution of mandibular wear stages of modern individuals).
comparative using Payne (1973).

As a result of the analysis of the modern comparative sample,

While the modern comparative sample contains no animals
that are three months or less in age, the modern comparative
sample shows M1 erupted and the beginning of enamel wear
for animals of five and six months of age. Therefore, the erup-
tion time for M1 in the modern sample is ca. three months,
confirming Silver’s (1969) and Deniz and Payne’s (1982)
suggested eruption timetables.
Among the animals older than six months, the situation is
different. The absolute ages assigned to the tooth eruption
and wear stages by Payne (1973, 1985) and Deniz and Payne
(1982) are in general agreement with the known ages from the
modern comparative sample (Table 4). But, there is substantial
age variation within each of Payne’s age classes, which is lost
when the grosser age class system is utilized (Figs. 1e4).
This problem can be overcome by utilizing the Manitoba
comparative collection to provide a benchmark for Grant’s
more sensitive MWS system. By focusing only on those ani-
mals whose tooth wear sequence was recordable, the data
allow the following concordance to be developed between
known age and Grant’s MWS system:
we would suggest the following revisions to the Payne-Grant
equivalency system outlined in Table 1 (see Table 6).
 Payne’s class A and Grant’s MWS 1e2 continue to corre-
spond with 0e2 months.
 Payne’s class B previously corresponded to Grant’s MWS
3e7 (2e6 months). However, it can now be subdivided
into a B1 and B2 age class. Payne’s B1 would correspond
to Grant’s MWS 3e8, which are aged 2e5 months.
Payne’s B2 would correspond to Grant’s MWS 9e12,
which are aged 5e6 months.
 Payne class C originally corresponded to Grant’s 8e18
MWS (6e12 months). We suggest modifying the equiva-
lency to Grant’s MWS to 12e18 for the same age range.
 Payne’s relatively coarse age class D (Grant’s 19e28
MWS; 12e24 months) can also be divided into three parts.
Payne’s D1 corresponds to Grant’s 12e18 MWS (6e12
month range). Payne’s D2 corresponds to Grant’s 21e26
MWS (1 year, 4e10 months). Payne’s D3 age class corre-
sponds to Grant’s 26e28 MWS (22e24 months).

100%

90%

80%

70%
No. of individuals

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%
Grant 9 10 11 12 13 21 22 23 24 25 26 22-23 23-24 24-25
MWS
MWS

Fig. 4. Relative frequency distribution of mandibular wear stages of modern comparative using Grant (1975). The results of the Payne system are overlapped as
large boxes over the Grant MWS.
846 H.J. Greenfield, E.R. Arnold / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 836e849

100
Payne (1973)
Grant (1975)

80

% Age Survival

60

40

20

0
9 10 11 12 13 21 22 23 24 25 26 22-23 23-24 24-25 33 41
C D E F G
MWS

Fig. 5. Harvest profile of Manitoba modern sample illustrating variation between Payne (1973) and Grant (1975).

 The remaining age classes remain the same based on the may be overly restrictive. The assignment of absolute ages is
limitations of this modern comparative. However, ex- not only possible, but also consistently accurate for animals
pansion of the sample in the future may allow further over six months of age. It also provides support for the hypoth-
refinement. esis that modern eruption timetables are applicable to archae-
ological populations (Payne, 1985; Deniz and Payne, 1982). In
The recording of tooth eruption and wear continues to be addition, it suggests that the established tooth wear and erup-
broadly employed due to its simplicity, low cost and wide ap- tion systems within zooarchaeology are applicable outside the
plicability to a variety of taxa. This refinement of Grant’s geographic region where they were produced, Turkey and the
MWS system allows finer detail for ageing sheep and goats, UK, respectively. This modern sample from a Canadian con-
addressing key age classes (<2 years) that may allow for im- text was accurately aged using these methods.
proved resolution of age profiles to better address key archae-
ological questions.
It has been argued that while tooth eruption and wear stages 6. Discussion
can provide a good estimation of physiological age of an indi-
vidual, there are too many problems to assign an absolute age Recent research by Jones (2006) utilized Payne’s tooth
to wear stages (e.g. Grant, 1975; Hambleton, 1999 and others). wear and eruption model to create a database of modern infor-
However, the data presented here indicate that this statement mation for making age at death estimates using a large sample
of living sheep and goat breeds (n = 1324) in the UK. The
analysis of the data presented here and by Jones (2006) recog-
Table 6 nize that Payne’s MWS stages are quite long. Both studies
Absolute ages for Grant’s mandibular wear stages (MWS) as suggested by
suggest that there be further division of Payne’s original sys-
Manitoba modern comparative sample
tem. However, there are also differences between our studies
Payne’s Suggested Suggested Suggested
in terms of the length of stages, points of division between
age class reassignment absolute age average
of Grant’s MWS age (months) stages, and the creation of sub-stages in Payne’s system partic-
ularly with respect to the earliest stages (Table 7).
A 1e2 0e2 months 1
B1 3e8 2e5 months 4 First, Jones (2006) shortens Payne’s Stage A (0e2 months)
B2 9e12 5e6 months 6 to only a few weeks. Most (n = 24 out of 35) 1-month-old
C 12e18 6e12 months 9 lambs have dentine wear on the dm4. Our Manitoba data do
D1 19e20 12e15 months 14 not allow comment on Payne’s Stage A due to a lack of ani-
D2 21e26 16e22 months 18
mals within this age group collected from the abattoirs and re-
D3 27e28 22e24 months 23
E 29e33 2e3 years 30 mains unchanged, as a result (Table 7). However, we feel that
F 34e37 3e4 years 42 it is appropriate to accept Jones’ revision of Stage A given the
G 38e41 4e6 years 60 pattern seen in the next stage.
H 42e44 6e8 years 84 Second, Jones shortens Payne’s Stage B (3e7 months) to
I 45þ 8e10 years 108
between 1 and 3 months. In contrast, our data supports
 H.J. Greenfield, E.R. Arnold / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 836e849
Table 7
Comparison of absolute age assignments as suggested by Manitoba modern and Jones (2006) comparative sample
Payne (1973) stages and age data Age data from live Manitoba caprines
Payne MWS Suggested absolute Suggested subdivision
age (Payne, 1973) of Payne’s MWS
A 0e2 months A 0e2 months
B 2e6 months B1
B2
C 6e12 months C 6e12 months
D 1e2 years D1
D2
D3
a subdivision of Stage B into two sub-stages: B1 (2e5 months)
and B2 (5e6 months). Jones’ Stage B and our Stage B1 are
roughly similar, but Jones proposes a shorter and younger ab-
solute age for the stage. We feel that it is appropriate to accept
Jones’ revision of Stage B e the lower age for its beginning e
given the correspondence with our results and that it is based
on a much large sample (n = 74 lambs under 3 months of age).
Third, Jones revises Payne’s Stage C (6e12 months) by
lowering the beginning to include animals aged from 3 to 4
months. Our analysis also suggests a lowering of the beginning
of Stage C, but with a slightly different beginning e 5 months.
We found that one of the diagnostics of Stage C (the M1 com-
ing into initial wear) occurred many weeks before 6 months.
Nine of our sample of 6-month-old sheep already had M1 at
quite a late wear stage (Table 3). While both studies support
a lowering of the beginning of Payne’s Stage C, we suggest
that the earlier months be called a separate sub-class (B2)
based on our comparative work on the Grant system (see
above). Extending the Payne MWS to ages earlier than 6
months makes it too large and unwieldy. It becomes the equiv-
alent of lumping our Stage B2 and C age groupings (5 months
to 1 year). While our proposed division of Stages B and C into
B1 and B2 and C is tentative due to sample size limitations,
our and Jones’ analyses suggests that revision of Payne’s
age classes is necessary for these early stages.
Fourth, Jones’ (2006) subdivided Stage D into four sub-
stages covering the ages from 10 months to 24 months (Table 7).
In contrast, our data divide Payne’s Stage D into three phases
with slightly different age ranges: D1 (12e16 months) and
D2 (16e22 months) and D3 (22e24 months). It does not sup-
port Jones’ earlier beginning of the stage at 10 months. Rather,
it supports Payne’s original suggestion that the stage begin at 12
months. Also, our sub-stage D1 conflates Jones’ D1/2 and D3/4
sub-stages, with a much shorter length (12e15 months versus
10e17 months). In contrast, there is general agreement
between the later D sub-stages. Our later sub-stages (D2 and
D3) are more or less equivalent to Jones’ D5 and D6+, but
with a later beginning (16 months versus 14 months) and
shorter overall time span (8 months versus 10 months).
847
Age date from live UK sheep (Jones, 2006)
Suggested age Suggested subdivision Suggested age
of Payne’s MWS
A 0e1 month
2e5 months B 1e3 months
5e6 months
C1/2 3e5 months
C3/4 5e8 months
C5 6e9 months
C6+ 8e12 months
12e15 months D1/2 10e13 months
D3/4 12e17 months
16e22 months D5 14e20 months
22e24 months D6+ 18e24 months
One of the main differences between Jones’ and our results
is that the stages defined from the Manitoba material do not
overlap in their range of absolute ages. Each stage is treated
as a discrete period of time.
There are some discrepancies between the two systems in
the early stages although they are relatively minor. The source
of the discrepancy may be a combination of the means of col-
lecting data (from live animals by Jones and from slaughtered
animals by us), forage, soil, and/or breed. It is unlikely that
forage and soil are important issues since neither sample de-
rived from harsh or primitive conditions. The other variables
need further investigation. Data collection technique may be
of a minor importance for the youngest specimens. For exam-
ple, the way the modern producers record the date of birth and
the abattoirs record date of death means that animals assigned
to the same known age-at-death could in fact be up to 2
months different in age. Therefore, it may be unrealistic to
achieve a firm synchronization between age and tooth wear
stages for periods of less than 2 months (e.g. the 5e6 month
age range suggested for stage B2). At this point, breed is an
uncontrollable variable.
7. Conclusions
This investigation tests the validity of some of the assump-
tions underlying the methods for ageing of domestic animals
with tooth eruption and wears utilized extensively in zooarch-
aeology. Most tooth eruption and wear studies utilize 19th cen-
tury age data for domestic stock. Recently, there have been
suggestions that modern stock data may be more appropriate.
As a result, a modern sample of sheep and goat with known
age and season of death were collected from a modern in-
dustrial slaughterhouse in southern Manitoba. The analysis
confirmed that there is a very high correlation between the
known age of the animal and its estimated age based on tooth
eruption and wear in modern North American domestic cap-
rines, even though raised in a strongly seasonal northern envi-
ronment (Table 4).This analysis also confirmed that while
there may be differences in tooth wear and eruption between
848 H.J. Greenfield, E.R. Arnold / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 836e849
populations of the same species living in different geographical
areas because of supposed variations in health and nutrition, the
similarities between the Manitoba, British and Turkish studies
indicate the validity of broad scale application of these systems
when considering the assignment of absolute ages.
This analysis has demonstrated a relationship between ab-
solute age and the Mandibular Wear Stage for Grant’s tooth
eruption and wear system for animals that are between two
months and two years of age. Previously, such a relationship
had been demonstrated for Payne’s system for samples from
Turkey and Britain, but never from North America. This al-
lows the abundant published and unpublished database that
uses this technique to begin to establish absolute ages for
when domestic caprines were culled from herds.
This analysis also investigated the perceived differences in
ageing results achieved by the Payne and Grant’s systems for
recording mandibular tooth eruption and wear by comparing
them against the absolute age data from the control sample.
In general, the two systems were found to correspond. How-
ever, Payne’s (1973) system generates far coarser age-at-death
profiles, which lowers its utility in constructing harvest pro-
files. Jones’ (2006) modification of Payne’s stage system im-
proves his original formulation. However, it still does not
provide the same degree of sensitivity as Grant’s system. As
a result, we recommend that Grant’s system for ageing be uti-
lized since it can yield more mandibular wear stages, which
can be linked to age estimations through comparison with
modern control samples as demonstrated here.
Furthermore, when known absolute ages from the compara-
tive modern samples are compared with the predicted ages based
on tooth eruption and wear proposed by Payne (1973), Deniz
and Payne, 1982 and Jones (2006), the predicted ages were
found to be generally correct for older animals (>6 months).
However, there was enough variation in the younger (<6-
month-old) age group to indicate that caution is required in
assigning absolute age to such individuals. This is clearly the
age group where differential diet and/or breed may have the
greatest impact upon the relationship between absolute age
and tooth eruption and wear.
It is commonly assumed that tooth eruption and wear se-
quences will never be synchronized with absolute certainty
to absolute age in all places, for all time periods, and for all
species. However, as our knowledge of the effect of breed, cli-
mate, and forage from samples from different parts of the
world increases, it will be increasingly possible to improve
the reliability of the relationship between tooth eruption and
wear curves to actual age distributions and to begin to be
able to do true age-comparative studies.
We conclude that it is possible to utilize the modern rela-
tionship between tooth eruption and wear sequences and
absolute age in sheep and goats and apply it to the archaeolog-
ical past. The above conclusions have been further strength-
ened by a secondary technique for the assignment of absolute
age, such as cementum analysis of the sheep and goat teeth
in this same sample, which is forthcoming (by the authors).
Future research should focus on increasing the size and diver-
sity of modern comparative material, and on the age groups that
were unavailable for examination within this sample. In addi-
tion, specific attention should be directed at the factors that
affect assignment of absolute ages to the youngest individuals.
Acknowledgements
Thanks must be extended to Clayton Robins (Manitoba
Sheep Association) and Sharon Peddler (Manitoba Goat Asso-
ciation); Monica Griffiths, Randy and Solange Eros, Lee Per-
reault and the staff at Prairie Abattoir, and Jim and Doris
Holmes from Carmen Meats. Thanks must also be extended
to our colleagues who helped at various stages and put up
with the noxious fumes generated in the preparation of speci-
mens in the Anthropology Laboratory of the University of
Manitoba. Funding for this research was derived from the Uni-
versity of Manitoba and the Social Sciences and Humanities
Research Council of Canada. The anonymous reviewers of
the journal provided essential and positive commentary that
was gladly incorporated into the body of this work. Most of
all, special thanks must be extended to our families for their
constant support. None of this could have been accomplished
without them. They continuously sacrificed in order to ensure
that this work would see the light of day.
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