Journal of Atmospheric and Solar–Terrestrial Physics 212 (2021) 105488

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Journal of Atmospheric and Solar–Terrestrial Physics

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Research paper

Dissipation of acoustic–gravity waves in the Earth’s thermosphere

A.K. Fedorenko, E.I. Kryuchkov, O.K. Cheremnykh, Y.A. Selivanov ∗
Space Research Institute of NANU and SSAU, 40, Acad. Glushkov ave., 03187, Kyiv, Ukraine

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: The dissipation of acoustic–gravity waves in the thermosphere due to molecular viscosity and thermal
Acoustic–gravity waves conductivity based on a modified system of hydrodynamic equations is studied. A modification of the system
Earth’s thermosphere of equations consists in additional taking into account in the linearized Navier–Stokes equations and heat
Molecular viscosity
transfer additional terms describing the transfer of momentum and energy due to the background density
Thermal conductivity
gradient, except for the usually taken into account velocity gradient. Using these modified equations, the local
Attenuation rate
dispersion equation of acoustic–gravity waves in an isothermal dissipative atmosphere is obtained. On this
basis, new general expressions for the attenuation rates in time and in space for both acoustic and gravity waves
in the entire spectral range are derived in the paper. The relationship between the rates of AGW temporal and
spatial attenuation is analyzed. The results obtained are consistent with satellite-based observations of AGW
at the heights of the thermosphere, indicating filtering of the wave spectrum due to viscosity and thermal
conductivity.

1. Introduction
The interest in studying acoustic–gravity waves (AGW) in the atmo-
spheres of planets and the Sun has not been weakening for more than
half a century (Hines, 1960; Yeh and Liu, 1974; Beer, 1974; Roy et al.,
2019). This is due to the important role played by AGW in the dynamics
and energetics of planetary atmospheres. These waves can be gener-
ated by sources of different nature and propagate over considerable
distances, providing redistribution of the energy of disturbances in the
atmosphere, both in the horizontal plane and between different altitude
levels. The earliest theoretical studies of AGW were carried out mainly
within the framework of the linear theory developed for an isothermal
atmosphere (Hines, 1960; Yeh and Liu, 1974; Francis, 1975). Later, the
nonlinear theory of AGW was significantly developed (Belashov, 1990;
Nekrasov et al., 1995; Kaladze et al., 2008; Stenflo and Shukla, 2009;
Huang et al., 2014). The influence of changes in temperature, viscosity
and thermal conductivity with height, as well as of other features of the
real atmosphere, on the propagation of AGWs are taken into account
mainly by numerical simulation (Mayr et al., 1990; Piani et al., 2000;
Kshevetskii, 2001; Zhang and Yi, 2002; Cheremnykh et al., 2010).
To verify the theory and numerical models, experimental obser-
vations of the AGW in the atmosphere are necessary. To date, many
different remote methods have been developed for ground-based and
satellite diagnostics of AGW in the atmosphere, a meaningful overview
of these issues can be found in Meng et al. (2019). Direct satellite
measurements of the parameters of these waves are available only in
a limited range of heights of the thermosphere: 200 − 450 km. AGW
are recorded from low-orbit satellites in the form of fluctuations in the
parameters of the atmosphere and ionosphere: density, temperature,
and velocity. By comparing synchronous measurements of different
parameters with theory, one can reconstruct the spectral characteristics
of waves and the directions of their motion (Fedorenko, 2009). Since
the temperature in the thermosphere almost does not change with
height, this gives reason to apply the theoretical concepts developed for
an isothermal atmosphere when analyzing satellite data (Hines, 1960;
Yeh and Liu, 1974).
However, when comparing the satellite observations of AGWs with
theory, a number of difficulties arise, primarily related to the strong
rarefaction of the neutral medium, as well as the presence of an
ionized component, the concentration of which increases with height.
A clear feature of the observation of AGWs at satellite altitudes is the
amplitude–phase differences in wave fluctuations in different types of
atmospheric gases (Dudis and Reber, 1976; Fedorenko and Kryuchkov,
2014). These differences are due to the fact that in the absence of strong
turbulent mixing above the turbopause, different gases are distributed
in height with their individual altitude scales. Also, at the heights of
the thermosphere, the propagation of AGW is strongly influenced by
viscosity and thermal conductivity. In addition to attenuation of am-
plitudes, viscosity can lead to selective filtering of the wave spectrum.
The features of viscous dissipation of gravity waves at different heights
depending on their spectral properties were studied in Vadas and Fritts

∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: yuraslv@gmail.com (Y. Selivanov).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jastp.2020.105488
Received 15 June 2020; Received in revised form 14 October 2020; Accepted 23 October 2020
Available online 16 November 2020
1364-6826/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Fedorenko et al. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics 212 (2021) 105488

(2005), Fritts and Vadas (2008), Vadas and Nicolls (2012) and Lizunov 2. Basic equations
and Leontiev (2014).
Satellite observations of the AGW in the Earth’s polar thermosphere The general system of hydrodynamic equations describing an
indicate the predominance of waves with periods of the order of the isothermal compressible dissipative atmosphere without external
Brunt–Väisälä period and horizontal lengths in the interval of 400 − sources includes the equations of continuity, Navier–Stokes and heat
700 km (Johnson et al., 1995; Innis and Conde, 2002; Fedorenko and transfer (Landau and Lifshitz, 1987; Ladikov-Roev and Cheremnykh,
Kryuchkov, 2011). In addition, in the altitude range of 250 − 400 km 2010):
of the thermosphere, there is no pronounced dependence of the AGW 𝑑𝜌
amplitudes on altitude (Fedorenko et al., 2015). The AGW amplitudes + 𝜌∇ ⋅ 𝑉⃗ = 0, (1)
𝑑𝑡
in relative density fluctuations in the range of 1%–6% are equally often
𝑑 𝑉⃗
observed at different heights of the indicated interval. If we assume 𝜌 + ∇𝑃 − ∇ ⋅ 𝑆̂ − 𝜌𝑔⃗ = 0, (2)
𝑑𝑡( )
that the sources of these waves are of an auroral nature (for example,
𝑑 𝑐𝑉 𝑇
particles precipitations or ionospheric currents) and are located below 𝜌 + 𝑃 ∇ ⋅ 𝑉⃗ − ∇ ⋅ (𝜒∇𝑇 ) = 𝑄. (3)
the base of the thermosphere, then, according to the theory, in the 𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝜕
absence of dissipation, their amplitudes should increase exponentially. Here 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜕𝑡 + 𝑉⃗ ⋅ ∇ is the material derivative, 𝑉⃗ is the particle velocity
The predominance, in satellite observations, of certain spectral scales of vector with the components 𝑉𝑖 and 𝑉𝑗 in the Cartesian coordinate
the AGW, as well as the absence of a noticeable increase in amplitudes system, 𝜌 is the density, 𝑇 is the temperature, 𝑃 is the pressure, 𝑔 is the
in the thermosphere, can be a consequence of viscosity and thermal gravity acceleration, 𝑆̂ is the tensor of viscous stresses with components
conductivity.
The main difficulty of the analytical approach when studying the ( ) ( )
2 𝜕𝑉𝑖 𝜕𝑉𝑗
atmosphere is that its properties (density, temperature, viscosity and 𝑆̂𝑖𝑗 = 𝛿𝑖𝑗 𝜀 − 𝜇 ∇ ⋅ 𝑉⃗ + 𝜇 + , (4)
3 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖
thermal conductivity coefficients, etc.) vary with height. As a result,
the system of hydrodynamic equations describing wave perturbations where 𝜇 and 𝜀 are the dynamic and bulk viscosity coefficients, re-
in the atmosphere contains height-dependent coefficients. A barometric spectively, 𝜒 = 𝑐𝑃 𝜇∕𝑃 𝑟 is the thermal conductivity, 𝑃 𝑟 is the Prandtl
change in density with height is usually excluded in the AGW theory number, 𝑐𝑃 and 𝑐𝑉 are the specific heat at constant ( ) volume and
( )
for an isothermal atmosphere using the well-known substitution (Hines, pressure, respectively. The term 𝑄 = 𝑉⃗ ⋅ ∇ ⋅ 𝑆̂ −∇⋅ 𝑆̂ ⋅ 𝑉⃗ on the right-
1960; Yeh and Liu, 1974), which leads to a system of equations with hand side of (3) describes the heating of the medium due to viscous
constant coefficients. However, it is impossible to take into account dissipation. The axis 𝑧 of the Cartesian coordinate system is directed
in this way a change of temperature and transport coefficients with up. Since we assume that the atmosphere is uniform in the horizontal
height. Therefore, the analytical expression for the dispersion of waves plane, the dependence on the coordinate 𝑦 is excluded by turning the
in a viscous and non-isothermal atmosphere can be obtained only in coordinate system around the axis 𝑧 so that the axis 𝑥 is directed along
the local approximation, assuming that the parameters of the medium the horizontal component of the particle velocity.
change rather slowly at the scales of the vertical wavelength. The We will consider the Earth’s thermosphere at heights above 200 km,
local dispersion equation of the AGW with allowance for viscosity and where the temperature does not change much with height, and one type
thermal conductivity was obtained and studied, for example, in Vadas of atmospheric gas predominates — atomic oxygen. In the equilibrium
and Fritts (2005). state, the unperturbed pressure and density change in the thermosphere
Rates of AGW attenuation in time due to molecular viscosity and with height according to the barometric law are 𝑃𝑃 (𝑧) = 𝜌𝜌(𝑧) =
thermal conductivity were obtained in Vadas and Fritts (2005) and ( ) (𝑧0 ) (𝑧0 )
𝑧−𝑧0
Lizunov and Leontiev (2014). In Lizunov and Leontiev (2014), the exp − 𝐻 , where 𝑧0 is a certain initial altitude level, 𝐻 = 𝑅𝑇 ∕𝑔 is the
attenuation rate was calculated based on the general hydrodynamic atmosphere scale height, 𝑅 = 𝑅0 ∕𝑀, 𝑅0 is the universal gas constant,
approach, which describes the dissipation of the energy of acoustic 𝑀 is the molar mass of the gas.
waves. The expression for attenuation rate obtained in Vadas and Fritts As is the practice, in the linearized Navier–Stokes and heat transfer
(2005) from a linearized system of hydrodynamic equations contains a equations, the transfer of energy and momentum by the wave is taken
paradoxical result. At wavelengths greater than a certain critical value, into account through the gradient of the perturbed velocity. However,
the attenuation is replaced by an increase in amplitude, which is im- as shown in the paper Lebedev-Stepanov (2007), in a medium with
possible in a dissipative atmosphere. In our opinion, this paradox is due a background density gradient, the contribution of this latter factor
to incomplete consideration of transport processes in the hydrodynamic to transfer processes must also be taken into account. In this paper,
description of AGW dissipation using the Navier–Stokes and heat trans- following the approach developed in Lebedev-Stepanov (2007) for
fer equations. Wave perturbations propagate in the atmosphere against flows with a velocity gradient, we take into account in Eq. (2) the
the background of a barometric density distribution that is established additional momentum transfer due to the vertical density gradient
upon diffusion equilibrium of the atmospheric gas in the gravitational 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝜌𝑉
using the following replacement 𝜇 𝜕𝑥 𝑖 → 𝜈 𝜕𝑥 𝑖 in all components of the
field. Therefore, an additional transfer of momentum and energy by the 𝑗 𝑗

wave due to the background density gradient must occur, in addition viscous stress tensor. It is indicated here that 𝜈 = 𝜇∕𝜌, 𝜈 is the kinematic
to the usually taken into account velocity gradient (Lebedev-Stepanov, viscosity coefficient. We will make a similar replacement in the heat
𝑐 𝜈
2007). In the Navier–Stokes and heat transfer equations, which are transfer equation (3): 𝜒 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑇
→ 𝑃𝑝 𝑟 𝜕𝜌𝑇
𝜕𝑥
. The indicated substitutions are
𝑖 𝑖
obtained for the case of a compressible medium with a uniform density,
actually equivalent to introducing 𝜌 in the Navier–Stokes and heat
this effect is not taken into account (Lebedev-Stepanov, 2007).
transfer equations under the sign of the derivative. As a result, we
In this paper, we obtain the local dispersion equation of the AGW
obtain from Eqs. (1)–(3) the linearized equations for the perturbed
based on a modified system of linearized hydrodynamic equations that
quantities 𝑉𝑥 , 𝑉𝑧 , 𝜌′ ∕𝜌, 𝑇 ′ ∕𝑇 in an isothermal dissipative atmosphere:
additionally take into account the transfer of energy and momentum ( )
due to the background density gradient. From these equations, we 𝜕 𝜌′ 1 𝜕𝜌
+ 𝑉 + ∇ ⋅ 𝑉⃗ = 0, (5)
calculate the expressions for the attenuation rates in time and in 𝜕𝑡 𝜌 𝜌 𝜕𝑧 𝑧
space, which more adequately describe the attenuation of acoustic–
( ′ )
gravity perturbations in the entire allowable spectral range. Using the 𝜕𝑉𝑥 𝜕 𝜌 𝑇′
+ 𝑅𝑇 +
expression for spatial attenuation rate, we analyze the nature of the 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜌 𝑇
AGW attenuation with height depending on their spectral properties [
𝜕 ⃗
and temperature in the thermosphere. −𝜈 𝛥𝑉𝑥 + 𝑒 ∇ ⋅ 𝑉
𝜕𝑥

2
A. Fedorenko et al. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics 212 (2021) 105488
( )]
1 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝑉𝑥 𝜕𝑉 𝑔𝑘2𝑥 𝛼 𝑘2𝑥 𝜈 2 𝑏5
+ + (𝑒 − 1) 𝑧 = 0, (6) 𝐹2 = 𝑐𝑆2 𝑞 2 𝑏2 + + 𝑞 4 𝜈 2 𝑏4 +
,
𝜌 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝐻𝑞 2 𝐻2
( ′ ) 𝛾
𝑏1 = + 𝑒 + 2,
𝜕𝑉𝑧 𝜕 𝜌 𝑇′ 𝑇′ 𝑃𝑟
+ 𝑅𝑇 + −𝑔 ( 𝛾 ) 𝛾
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑧 𝜌 𝑇 𝑇 1
[ 𝑏2 = 1 + , 𝑏3 = (𝑒 + 1) +1 + ,
𝜕 𝑃𝑟 𝑃𝑟 𝑃𝑟
−𝜈 𝛥𝑉𝑧 + 𝑒 ∇ ⋅ 𝑉⃗ 𝑏4 =
𝛾
(𝑒 + 1), 𝑏5 =
𝛾
(𝑒 − 1).
𝜕𝑧
( )] 𝑃𝑟 𝑃𝑟
1 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝑉𝑥 𝜕𝑉
+ + (𝑒 + 1) 𝑧 = 0, (7) The presence of the imaginary part in the dispersion equation (11)
𝜌 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 indicates a change in the amplitudes of the perturbations. The inclusion
( ) of the effects of viscosity and thermal conductivity in the original
𝜕 𝑇′
+ (𝛾 − 1) ∇ ⋅ 𝑉⃗ system of hydrodynamic equations means taking into account irre-
𝜕𝑡 𝑇
[ ( ′) ( ′ )] versible losses of wave energy. Therefore, we must obtain a decrease
𝛾𝜈 𝑇 1 𝜕𝜌 𝜕 𝑇 in the amplitudes of the waves, i.e. attenuation in the entire spectral
− 𝛥 + = 0. (8)
𝑃𝑟 𝑇 𝜌 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝑇 range of their existence. In the following sections, using the dispersion
It has been taken into account that for an ideal gas 𝑃 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇 , 𝑒 = equation (11), we consider the nature of the AGW attenuation in time
1∕3+𝜀∕𝜇, 𝑃 𝑟 = 0.7 (Kundu, 1990). In the isothermal case, we neglected and space.
the terms ∼ 𝑑𝜇∕𝑑𝑧 because 𝜇 ∼ 𝑇 0.7 (Dalgarno and Smith, 1962).
It can also be put in the thermosphere 𝑒 = 1∕3 since for monatomic 4. AGW attenuation in time
gases 𝜀 = 0 (Landau and Lifshitz, 1987). The contribution of the
density gradient to the transfer of energy and momentum by wave Let us calculate the attenuation rate in time for AGW in a dissipative
disturbances is taken into account in Eqs. (6)–(8) using additional terms atmosphere. To do this, we make the following change in Eq. (11):
proportional to 𝜌1 𝜕𝜌
𝜕𝑧
. In the system of equations commonly used to 𝜔 → 𝜔 + 𝑖𝛿𝑡 , where 𝛿𝑡 is the attenuation rate, and leave in it only terms
analyze linear disturbances in the atmosphere, these terms are absent linear in the small parameter 𝛿𝑡 . As a result, we obtain the following
(see, for example, Kundu, 1990; Vadas and Fritts, 2005). equation:
( )
𝜈 2 𝑐𝑆2 𝑞 2 𝑘2
3. Dispersion equation of AGW in a dissipative atmosphere 𝜔4 − 𝜔2 𝐹1 + 𝑘2𝑥 𝑁 2 𝑐𝑆2 + 𝑞4 + 𝑥
𝑃𝑟 𝐻2
( )
Solutions for small wave disturbances in the atmosphere will be +𝜈𝑞 2 3𝜔2 𝑏1 − 𝐹2 𝛿𝑡
sought in the following form (Hines, 1960): [ ]
[ ( )] +𝑖𝜔 4𝜔2 𝛿𝑡 − 2𝛿𝑡 𝐹1 − 𝜔2 𝜈𝑞 2 𝑏1 + 𝜈𝑞 2 𝐹2 = 0. (12)
𝑉𝑥 , 𝑉𝑧 , 𝜌′ ∕𝜌, 𝑇 ′ ∕𝑇 ∼ exp (𝑧∕2𝐻) exp 𝑖 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑘𝑧 𝑧 , (9)
Equating the imaginary part of (12) to zero, we determine the attenu-
where 𝜔 is the frequency, 𝑘𝑥 and 𝑘𝑧 are the horizontal and vertical ation rate in time:
components of the wave vector, respectively. The multiplier exp (𝑧∕2𝐻)
𝜈𝑞 2 𝜔2 𝑏1 − 𝐹2
takes into account the change in the amplitudes of disturbances with 𝛿𝑡 = ⋅ . (13)
2 2𝜔2 − 𝐹1
height in the atmosphere with barometric vertical density stratifica-
[ ]
tion (Hines, 1960). Substituting Eq. (9) into the system of Eqs. (5)–(8), For the accepted form of perturbations, ∼ exp 𝑖(𝜔 + 𝑖𝛿𝑡 )𝑡 − 𝑖(𝑘𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑘𝑧 𝑧) =
( ) [ ]
as a result, we obtain the dispersion equation exp −𝛿𝑡 𝑡 exp 𝑖(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑘𝑧 𝑧) , the attenuation in time is obtained at
( )( 𝜈 2
) 𝛿𝑡 > 0. For acoustic waves, the numerator and denominator in Eq. (13)
𝑘2𝑥 𝑁 2 𝑐𝑆2 + 𝑐𝑆2 𝑞 2 𝑖𝜔 + 𝜈𝑞 2 𝑖𝜔 + 𝑞
𝑃𝑟 are always positive, and for gravity waves they are always negative.
( 𝛾𝜈 2 ) 𝑔𝑘𝑥 𝜈
2
Therefore, in both of these cases 𝛿𝑡 > 0, and the AGW amplitudes decay
+ 𝑖𝜔𝛼 + 𝑞
𝑃𝑟 𝐻 in time in a dissipative atmosphere.
( 𝛾𝜈 2 ) 𝑘𝑥 𝜈
2 2 For high-frequency acoustic waves from (13) we obtain 𝛿 ∼ 𝜔2 ,
+𝑖𝜔 𝑖𝜔 + 𝑞 (𝑒 − 1) for low-frequency gravity waves 𝛿 ∼ 𝑘2𝑥 ∕𝜔2 . Whence one can see a
𝑃𝑟 2
( ) ( 𝐻 𝛾𝜈 ) [ ] significant difference in the character of attenuation of these types of
+𝑖𝜔 𝑖𝜔 + 𝜈𝑞 2 𝑖𝜔 + 𝑞 2 𝑖𝜔 + (𝑒 + 1) 𝜈𝑞 2 = 0. (10)
𝑃𝑟 waves at high and low frequencies. Next, we will focus on the analysis
√ √
Here 𝑐𝑆 = 𝛾𝑅𝑇 is the speed of sound, 𝑁 = 𝑔 𝛾 − 1∕𝑐𝑆 is the of the attenuation of internal gravity waves, since waves of this type
Brunt–Väisälä frequency, 𝛾 = 𝑐𝑃 ∕𝑐𝑉 is the specific heats ratio, 𝑞 2 = were observed from a satellites and therefore it is possible to compare
𝑘2𝑥 + 𝑘2𝑧 + 1∕4𝐻 2 , 𝛼 = 2 − 𝛾 + 𝑒(𝛾 − 1). Since the kinematic viscosity our theoretical results with experimental data.
coefficient in the atmosphere varies with height, dispersion equation Substituting Eq. (13) into Eq. (12), we obtain the dispersion equa-
(10) is valid only in the local approximation. It is performed within thin tion of the AGW in an isothermal atmosphere with dissipation:
[
layers, where the value of 𝜈 can be considered approximately constant. ( )
This is true for waves with 𝑘𝑧 > 𝜈1 𝑑𝜈 ≈ 𝐻1 . When 𝜈 = 0 in expression 2 2𝜔2 − 𝐹1 𝜔4 − 𝜔2 𝐹1 + 𝑘2𝑥 𝑁 2 𝑐𝑆2
𝑑𝑧
( )]
(10), it exactly coincides with the dispersion equation of the AGW in 𝜈 2 𝑐𝑆2 𝑞 2 𝑘2
an isothermal atmosphere without dissipation (see, for example, Hines + 𝑞4 + 𝑥
𝑃𝑟 𝐻2
(1960), Yeh and Liu (1974)). We represent Eq. (10) in the following [ ]
equivalent form, where the real and imaginary parts are separately +𝜈 2 𝑞 4 3𝜔4 𝑏21 − 4𝜔2 𝑏1 𝐹2 + 𝐹22 = 0. (14)
distinguished:
( ) The kinematic viscosity coefficient 𝜈 varies in the thermosphere in
4 2 2 2 2
𝜈 2 𝑐𝑆2 𝑞 2 4
𝑘2𝑥 the interval of 105 −106 m2 s−1 (Vadas and Nicolls, 2012), depending on
𝜔 − 𝜔 𝐹1 + 𝑘𝑥 𝑁 𝑐𝑆 + 𝑞 +
𝑃𝑟 𝐻2 the height and level of solar activity. The dispersion dependences (𝜔, 𝑘𝑥 )
( ) with 𝑘𝑧 = 0 and 𝑘𝑧 = 1∕𝐻 for both the acoustic and gravity branches of
+𝑖𝜔𝜈𝑞 2 𝐹2 − 𝜔2 𝑏1 = 0. (11)
the AGW taking into account dissipation (𝜈 = 1 ⋅ 106 m2 s−1 ) are shown
Here in Figs. 1a–1b by solid curves. For comparison, the same dependences
𝑘2𝑥 𝜈 2 (𝑒 − 1) are shown without taking into account dissipation (dashed curves). It
𝐹1 = 𝑐𝑆2 𝑞 2 + 𝑞 4 𝜈 2 𝑏3 + , is seen that due to dissipation, the frequency of acoustic and gravity
𝐻2

3
A. Fedorenko et al.
Fig. 1. Dispersion dependences of AGW in an isothermal atmosphere, taking into
account viscosity and thermal conductivity at 𝜈 = 8 ⋅ 105 m2 s−1 (solid curves) and
without dissipation (dashed curves): (a) 𝑘𝑧 𝐻 = 0; (b) 𝑘𝑧 𝐻 = 1.
waves decreases. With a viscosity coefficient 𝜈 = 1 ⋅ 106 m2 s−1 , the
frequency shift becomes noticeable for the values 𝑘𝑥 𝐻 > 4 (see 1a–1b).
This corresponds to horizontal wavelengths 𝜆𝑥 ⩽ 75 km for values
𝐻 = 50 km characteristic of the thermosphere. According to satel-
lite data, most AGW observed at altitudes of the thermosphere have
horizontal scales of ∼ 400 km or more (Johnson et al., 1995; Innis
and Conde, 2002; Fedorenko et al., 2015). Therefore, the influence
of molecular viscosity and thermal conductivity on the shift of the
real part of the frequency in the thermosphere can be neglected. In
this case, the value 𝑞 2 needed to calculate the attenuation rate (13)
can be approximately found from the usual dispersion equation of the
AGW (Hines, 1960; Yeh and Liu, 1974):
1 𝑁 2 𝜔2
𝑞 2 = 𝑘2𝑥 + 𝑘2𝑧 + = 𝑘2𝑥 + .
4𝐻 2 𝜔2 𝑐𝑆2
The attenuation rates of the acoustic and gravity AGW branches at
𝑘𝑧 𝐻 = 1 and two values 𝜈 = 2⋅105 m2 s−1 and 1⋅106 m2 s−1 are presented
in Fig. 2. It can be seen that the quantity 𝛿𝑡 increases rapidly with
increasing viscosity coefficient and decreasing horizontal wavelength.
5. AGW attenuation in space
Usually researchers limit themselves to calculation of the time atten-
uation rate (see, for example, Vadas and Fritts, 2005; Vadas and Nicolls,
2012; Lizunov and Leontiev, 2014). However, in our opinion, the atten-
uation of waves with height is more demonstrative than attenuation in
time. The spatial attenuation rate shows how the exponential growth
of the wave’s amplitude slows down with height due to dissipation. In
Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics 212 (2021) 105488
Fig. 2. Attenuation rate in time for gravity (solid curves) and acoustic AGW branches
(dashed curves): 𝜈 = 2 ⋅ 105 m2 s−1 (curves below) and 𝜈 = 1 ⋅ 106 m2 s−1 (curves above),
𝑘𝑧 𝐻 = 1.
addition, as will be shown below, the independently calculated atten-
uations in time and space make it possible to calculate a reasonable
value for the vertical group velocity in a dissipative atmosphere. In
turn, this will make it possible to understand how the rate of vertical
energy transfer in a viscous isothermal atmosphere changes.
Suppose the AGW attenuates in space in the vertical direction. To
calculate the attenuation rate in space, we make a replacement 𝑘𝑧 →
𝑘𝑧 + 𝑖𝛿𝑧 in Eq. (11), where 𝛿𝑧 is the spatial attenuation rate. Similarly to
the procedure for the attenuation rate in time described in the previous
section, we obtain the expression for the AGW attenuation rate with
height:
𝜈𝑞 2 𝜔 𝜔2 𝑏1 − 𝐹2
𝛿𝑧 = − ⋅ , (16)
2 𝑘𝑧 𝑐 2 𝜔2 + 2𝑞 2 𝜈 2 𝑏3 𝜔2 − 𝐹3
𝑆
( )
𝜈2 𝑐2 𝑘2
where 𝐹3 = 𝑃 𝑟𝑆 3𝑞 4 + 𝐻𝑥2 . We note that expression (16) must be
used with caution when 𝑘𝑧 → 0, making sure that the assumption of
[
𝛿𝑧 smallness is satisfied. For solution of the form ∼ exp 𝑖(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 𝑥) − 𝑖
] ( ) [ ]
(𝑘𝑧 + 𝑖𝛿𝑧 )𝑧 = exp 𝛿𝑧 𝑧 × exp 𝑖(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑘𝑧 𝑧) , the attenuation condi-
tion in space is satisfied if 𝛿𝑧 < 0.
The dependences of the spatial attenuation rate, 𝛿𝑧 , on the hor-
izontal scale 𝑘𝑥 are shown in Figs. 3a–3b for different values of 𝑘𝑧
and viscosity coefficient, 𝜈. From these figures, the general tendency
of viscous filtration of internal gravity waves with height is clearly
visible. At a fixed value of 𝑘𝑧 , the rate of wave spacial attenuation
rapidly increases with increasing coefficient 𝜈 (Fig. 3a), and at a
fixed value of 𝜈 the attenuation increases with increasing 𝑘𝑧 (Fig. 3b).
There is a minimum of spatial attenuation in the range of horizontal
scales 𝑘𝑥 𝐻 = 0.4 − 0.8. With increase of 𝜈, the horizontal wave scale
corresponding to the minimum attenuation manifests itself more dis-
tinctly (see Fig. 3a). These results are in good agreement with satellite
(15)
observations, indicating the predominance at altitudes of 250 − 450 km
of the polar thermosphere of large-amplitude quasi-horizontal AGW
with wavelength of ∼ 400 − 700 km (Johnson et al., 1995; Innis and
Conde, 2002; Fedorenko et al., 2015). At an atmosphere scale height
𝐻 = 50 km, these wavelengths correspond to 𝑘𝑥 𝐻 = 0.45 − 0.78,
i.e. to the interval of minimum AGW attenuation in the dissipative
thermosphere. Apparently, under conditions of a viscous atmosphere
far from sources, only waves with the spectral properties precisely
corresponding to weak attenuation can be observed, while other AGWs
are rapidly absorbed. Let us obtain expressions for spatial attenuation
rate in some special cases. For internal gravity waves in the Boussinesq
approximation 𝑞 2 = 𝑘2𝑥 𝑁 2 ∕𝜔2 , and from Eq. (16) it follows:
𝜈𝑞 2 𝜔 𝐹2
𝛿𝑧 = ⋅ . (17)
2 𝑘𝑧 𝑐 2 𝜔2 − 𝐹3
𝑆
4
A. Fedorenko et al. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics 212 (2021) 105488

expressions (13) and (16), the terms ∼ 𝜈 2 can be neglected. In this

approximation we get:

𝛿𝑡 𝑘 𝑐𝑆2 𝜔2
𝑉𝑔𝑟𝑧 = − = 𝑧 . (20)
𝛿𝑧 𝜔 2𝜔2 − 𝑐 2 𝑞 2
𝑆
Eq. (20) exactly coincides with the expression for the vertical group ve-
locity 𝑉𝑔𝑟𝑧 in an isothermal atmosphere without dissipation (Kryuchkov
and Fedorenko, 2012). For low-frequency internal gravity waves it
follows from Eq. (20) that 𝑉𝑔𝑟𝑧 = −𝑘𝑧 𝜔3 ∕𝑘2𝑥 𝑁 2 , and for high-frequency
acoustic waves, that 𝑉𝑔𝑟𝑧 = 𝑘𝑧 𝑐𝑆2 ∕𝜔. The vertical component of the
group velocity 𝑉𝑔𝑟𝑧 determines the rate of energy transfer by the wave
in the vertical direction. In an isothermal atmosphere without dissipa-
tion, 𝑉𝑔𝑟𝑧 reaches a maximum with spectral parameters 𝑘𝑥 𝐻 ≈ 0.5 and
𝑘𝑧 𝐻 ≈ −0.2 (Kryuchkov and Fedorenko, 2012). This means that waves
with such spectral properties provide the most efficient energy transfer
in the atmosphere from sources located ‘‘below’’.
The rate of vertical energy transfer in a dissipative atmosphere can
be determined using expressions (13) and (16):
2 2 2 2 2
𝛿𝑡 𝑘 𝑐 𝜔 + 2𝑞 𝜈 𝑏3 𝜔 − 𝐹3
𝑉𝑔𝑟𝑧 = − = 𝑧 𝑆 . (21)
𝛿𝑧 𝜔 2𝜔2 − 𝐹1
Dependencies of 𝑉𝑔𝑟𝑧 on 𝑘𝑥 𝐻 without regard to viscosity and thermal
conductivity are shown in Fig. 4a by dashed curves.
It can be seen that with an increase in the angle of inclination of the
wave vector to the horizontal plane, the value of 𝑉𝑔𝑟𝑧 decreases from
the maximum value with a simultaneous shift of the maximum position
to the side of increase of 𝑘𝑥 𝐻. Note that in Fig. 4a, we deliberately
left the cases of that go beyond the locality of the approximation
in order to show the tendency for a rapid increase in attenuation
with increasing 𝑘𝑧 𝐻 and the presence of scales corresponding to the
minimum attenuation of waves. The dependences of the vertical group
velocities, taking into account the viscosity of 𝜈 = 6 ⋅ 105 m2 s−1 ,
calculated by the formula (21), are shown by solid curves in the same
Fig. 3. The spatial attenuation of internal gravity waves −𝛿𝑧 𝐻: (a) at 𝑘𝑧 𝐻 = −1 and
figure.
different values of 𝜈: 2⋅105 m2 s−1 , 4⋅105 m2 s−1 , 6⋅105 m2 s−1 , 8⋅105 m2 s−1 , 1⋅106 m2 s−1 ; The effect of viscosity on the expected value 𝑉𝑔𝑟𝑧 increases with
(curves are arranged from bottom to top); (b) for 𝜈 = 4 ⋅ 105 m2 s−1 and different values increasing parameter 𝑞 2 . The vertical group velocities calculated in two
of 𝑘𝑧 𝐻 ∶ −1, −1.2, −1.4, −1.6 (curves are arranged from bottom to top) ways more and more differ with increasing 𝑘𝑥 and |𝑘𝑧 |. The rate of
vertical energy transfer in a dissipative atmosphere also decreases with
height as the viscosity coefficient, 𝜈, increases. This can be seen from
For high frequency acoustic waves 𝑞𝐴𝐶 = 𝜔2 ∕𝑐𝑆2 . Then the expression Fig. 4b, where the dependences of 𝑉𝑔𝑟𝑧 on 𝑘𝑥 𝐻 at 𝑘𝑧 𝐻 = −1 are shown
for spatial attenuation rate takes the form: for different values of 𝜈.
( )
𝜈 𝜔3 𝛾 −1
𝛿𝑧𝐴𝐶 ≈ − +𝑒+1 . (18) 7. Change of AGW amplitude with height
2 𝑘𝑧 𝑐 4 𝑃𝑟
𝑆

In the limit of low-frequency gravity waves, the attenuation rate is
equal to:
4 4 ( ) In a stratified atmosphere without dissipation, the AGW amplitude in-
𝜈 𝑘𝑧 𝑁 1
𝛿𝑧𝐺𝑅 ≈ 1+ . (19)
2 𝑘𝑧 𝜔5 𝑃𝑟
Note that the different signs in the attenuation rates of acoustic and
gravity waves reflect the difference in their physical nature. For upward
propagating acoustic waves 𝑘𝑧 > 0, and for internal gravity waves
𝑘𝑧 < 0. Therefore, the attenuation condition 𝛿𝑧 < 0 is satisfied according
to expressions (18) and (19) for both types of waves during their
propagation in the atmosphere from the bottom up.
6. Relationship between AGW attenuation rates in time and in
space
The description of wave attenuation in time and in space are equiv-
alent ways, and the rates 𝛿𝑡 and 𝛿𝑧 must be connected through the
vertical group velocity. For the characteristic in the thermosphere
values of the parameters: 𝑐𝑆 ≈ 700 − 1000 ms−1 , 𝐻 ≈ 40 − 50 km, 𝜈 ∼
105 − 106 m2 s−1 and typical spectral characteristics of the AGW in
The spatial rate of the AGW attenuation has a simple physical
meaning, which can be understood from the following considerations.
creases exponentially with increasing height as the background density
decreases. When dissipation is taken into account, with an increase in
height, the loss of wave energy due to viscosity and thermal conduc-
tivity also increases simultaneously, since 𝜈(𝑧) increases exponentially
with height. As a result, the change in wave amplitudes with height in
an isothermal dissipative atmosphere can be written as:
[ ( ) ]
1
𝑉𝑥 , 𝑉𝑧 ∼ exp + 𝛿𝑧 (𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 . (22)
∫ 2𝐻
Since for the adopted type of solution we have 𝛿𝑧 < 0, it follows
from Eq. (22) that at a certain height 𝑧 = 𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑥 the wave amplitude
will reach its maximum value, and will decrease above 𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑥 . The
attenuation rate, 𝛿𝑧 < 0, depends on the wave spectral properties
and parameters of the medium; therefore, the attenuation heights of
different spectral components must differ. Intuitively, the maximum
heights in a dissipative atmosphere are reached by spectral harmonics
propagating with a maximum value of velocity 𝑉𝑔𝑟𝑧 . This is confirmed
by the simple model below.

5
A. Fedorenko et al. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics 212 (2021) 105488

Fig. 4. Dependences of the vertical group velocity 𝑉𝑔𝑟𝑧 (m s−1 ) on the horizontal
scale 𝑘𝑥 𝐻: (a) for 𝜈 = 6 ⋅ 105 m2 s−1 and different values of the vertical components
𝑘𝑧 𝐻 = −0.2, −0.5, −1; (b) for 𝑘𝑧 𝐻 = −1 and different values of the viscosity coefficient
𝜈 = 4 ⋅ 105 m2 s−1 , 8 ⋅ 105 m2 s−1 , 1 ⋅ 106 m2 s−1 (curves are arranged from top to bottom).
Dashed curves - excluding dissipation.

Consider the interval of heights of the thermosphere in 200−400 km
with 𝑇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. Suppose that at the lower boundary of this interval,
the auroral source generates AGW of unit amplitude. In the absence
of viscosity, the amplitudes of such waves, regardless of their spectral
properties, would increase in this interval by a factor 2 amplitudes. Fig. 6b shows the change in the amplitude of the spectral
( of 𝑒 ≈ 7.3) when
ℎ = 50 km. Let us set the dependence 𝜈(𝑧) = 𝜈0 exp (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )∕𝐻 so that
𝜈 = 1 ⋅ 106 m2 s−1 at an altitude of about 300 km, which approximately
corresponds to the average level of solar activity. Let us calculate how
the AGW amplitudes change with height using Eqs. (16) and (22).
Dependences of the AGW amplitude on the normalized frequency 𝜔∕𝑁
at 𝑘𝑥 𝐻 = 0.5 are shown in Fig. 5. With increasing frequency, the
attenuation decreases, reaching a minimum at 𝜔 ≈ 0.64𝑁 (Fig. 5a).
With a further increase in frequency, the attenuation increases again
(Fig. 5b). Thus, a minimum of AGW attenuation with frequency is
observed.
Dependences of amplitudes on height for 𝑘𝑥 𝐻 = 0.5 and sev-
eral values of 𝑘𝑧 𝐻 are shown in Fig. 5. It can be seen that in the
thermosphere it is waves with 𝑘𝑧 𝐻 ≈ −0.2, 𝑘𝑥 𝐻 = 0.5 reach the
maximum heights and amplitudes, and these conditions correspond to
the maxim of 𝑉𝑔𝑟𝑧 . The wave amplitudes with |𝑘𝑧 𝐻| > 1 increase in the
dissipative thermosphere with an average solar activity of no more than
2 times. This is consistent with satellite measurement data, indicating
the absence of a pronounced dependence of the AGW amplitudes on
altitude in the range of 250 − 450 km (Fedorenko et al., 2015).
In the viscous thermosphere, the AGW amplitudes and the maxi-
mum heights of their penetration are strongly dependent on temper-
ature. With increasing temperature, 𝜈(𝑧) changes more slowly with
Fig. 5. The change in the AGW amplitude with height depending on the normalized
frequency 𝜔∕𝑁 at 𝑘𝑥 𝐻 = 0.5, 𝑇 = 1000 K: (a) 𝜔∕𝑁 = 0.1...0.64; (b) 𝜔∕𝑁 = 0.64...080.
height, as a result of which the AGW penetrate higher and reach large
component 𝑘𝑥 𝐻 = 0.5, 𝑘𝑧 𝐻 = −1 with height, at temperatures of the
thermosphere: 𝑇 = 800 K, 1000 K and 1300 K, characteristic of low,
medium, and high solar activity, respectively. It is seen that under
conditions of high solar activity, AGW can propagate much higher
in a dissipative atmosphere than with low activity. Also, with low
solar activity, the AGW amplitude in the thermosphere is, on average,
smaller due to greater attenuation.
8. Discussion
For several years, the authors of this work had been analyzing the
properties of AGWs at heights of the thermosphere from measurements
on the Dynamics Explorer 2 satellite (Fedorenko and Kryuchkov, 2011;
Fedorenko et al., 2015). As a result, a number of observed features
were revealed that did not fit into the framework of the standard AGW
theory developed for an isothermal atmosphere without dissipation. We
then considered that it would be more consistent to complicate the
isothermal model by introducing viscosity than to abandon this model
and look for a suitable one among the abundant set of non-isothermal
models. In doing so, we proceeded from the following results. First,
observations indicate the predominance of waves of certain spatial and

6
A. Fedorenko et al.
Fig. 6. The change in the AGW amplitudes with height in an isothermal at-
mosphere with dissipation: (a) at 𝑘𝑥 𝐻 = 0.5 and different values of 𝑘𝑧 𝐻 =
−0.2, −0.5, −0.8, −1, −1.2, −1.4; (b) at 𝑘𝑥 𝐻 = 0.5, 𝑘𝑧 𝐻 = −1 and different values of the
temperature of the thermosphere: 𝑇 = 800 K, 1000 K and 1300 K.
temporal scales in the thermosphere. Thus, the frequency estimates
for large-amplitude AGWs observed in the polar thermosphere accord-
ing to the data of different authors (Johnson et al., 1995; Innis and
Conde, 2002; Fedorenko and Kryuchkov, 2011) give values close to
the boundary frequency of the Brunt–Väisälä for the gravity branch.
In this case, the horizontal wavelengths belong to the interval 400–
700 km (Johnson et al., 1995; Fedorenko and Kryuchkov, 2011). Note
that in satellite measurements, the frequency is determined in the ref-
erence frame of the medium, in contrast to ground-based observations,
where the directly measured frequency is shifted due to the Doppler
effect by the presence of background winds at the altitudes of AGW
propagation. The frequency values obtained in the reference frame of
the medium can be used to estimate other spectral characteristics using
dispersion relations. As follows from the dispersion equation, AGWs
with the above properties are characterized by a small inclination of the
wave vector to the horizontal plane. Also, by the satellite observations
in the thermosphere, there is no exponential dependence of AGW
amplitudes on altitude, as it should be in the atmosphere without
attenuation (Fedorenko et al., 2015). The inability to explain these
observed features prompted us to consider how dissipation affects the
propagation and properties of AGWs in the thermosphere.
When studying the viscous damping of waves in the atmosphere,
one usually takes into account the transfer of energy and momentum
7
Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics 212 (2021) 105488
associated only with the velocity gradient, both in analytical consid-
eration and in numerical simulation. For the first time, to take into
account the damping of small wave disturbances in an isothermal
atmosphere, we used a system of the form (5)–(8), where, in addition
to the usual terms, the terms responsible for the transfer of energy
and momentum due to the background density gradient are added.
We analytically considered AGW attenuation based on (5)–(8) and
obtained new expressions for the wave attenuation rates 𝛿𝑡 and 𝛿𝑧 .
The difference between these expressions and those obtained earlier by
other authors (Vadas and Fritts, 2005; Vadas and Nicolls, 2012; Lizunov
and Leontiev, 2014) is as follows: (1) the expressions are obtained
taking into account the additional transfer due to the background
density gradient; (2) they are valid for the entire frequency range of
AGW, including the gravity and acoustic regions. For example, in Vadas
and Fritts (2005) and Lizunov and Leontiev (2014), attenuation rates
in time were obtained only for low-frequency gravity waves, in the
Boussinesq approximation.
Taking into account that additional terms in the system of Eqs. (5)–
(8) led not only to an increase in the total attenuation, but, most
importantly, to the elimination of the paradoxical amplification of
amplitudes at large wavelengths, which follows from the system of hy-
drodynamic equations in its commonly used form. For a more accurate
study of the dissipation of AGWs in the atmosphere, it is necessary
to carry out numerical modeling. However, when modeling, it is also
necessary to take into account the additional terms given in (5)–(8),
proportional to (1∕𝜌)(𝑑𝜌∕𝑑𝑧).
We compared the observational data obtained earlier from satellite
measurements with the theoretical results obtained in this work on the
features of the attenuation of AGWs with different spectral properties.
AGW with horizontal scales of 400–700 km prevailing in satellite
measurements at thermosphere heights approximately correspond to
the minimum attenuation of waves in space (see Fig. 3). At the same
wave scales, the rate of vertical energy transfer is close to maximum
(Fig. 4), i.e. such waves most efficiently transfer energy along the
vertical and provide coupling between different altitude levels of the
atmosphere. With an increase in the viscosity coefficient, the rate of en-
ergy transfer along the vertical decreases (Fig. 4b). The observed AGW
frequencies near the BW frequency also correspond to the minimum of
wave attenuation (Fig. 5). In the future, it is of considerable interest to
compare the statistical features of the AGW amplitudes during periods
of high and low solar activity.
Let us compare the expression we obtained for the temporal rate of
AGW attenuation with the results of other authors (Vadas and Fritts,
2005; Lizunov and Leontiev, 2014). Since the AGW attenuation rates
in these works were calculated in the Boussinesq approximation, for
comparison we will also restrict ourselves to this approximation. Taking
into account the AGW dissipation using the Navier–Stokes and heat
transfer equations leads to the expression for the attenuation rate in
time with the following form (Vadas and Fritts, 2005):
1 2𝑘𝑧 𝜈
( ) 1+ +
𝜈 2 1 𝑃 𝑟 𝜔𝐻𝑃 𝑟 .
𝛿𝑡𝑉 = 𝑘 − ⋅ (23)
2 4𝐻 2 𝑘 𝜈 ( 1
)
1+ 𝑧 1+
2𝜔𝐻 𝑃𝑟
In a wide range of spectral parameters and characteristic conditions in
the thermosphere, one can approximately write:
( )( )
𝜈 2 1 1
𝛿𝑡𝑉 ≈ 𝑘 − 1+ . (24)
2 4𝐻 2 𝑃𝑟
It follows from Eqs. (23) and (24) that at large values of 𝑘2 = 𝑘2𝑥 + 𝑘2𝑧
(small wavelengths), the attenuation increases with decreasing their
wavelength, which is consistent with the general hydrodynamic con-
cepts (Landau and Lifshitz, 1987). However, according to this expres-
sion, the AGW amplitudes with 𝑘2 < 1∕4𝐻 2 should increase in a
dissipative atmosphere, which is impossible.
In our work, the attenuation rate, 𝛿𝑡 , was calculated based on the
local dispersion equation (11), obtained from a linearized system of hy-
drodynamic equations, taking into account the additional contribution
A. Fedorenko et al.
Fig. 7. AGW attenuation rates in time at 𝜈 = 1 ⋅ 106 m2 s−1 according to different
authors: 1 - 𝛿𝑡 in this work; 2 - 𝛿𝑡𝑉 according to Vadas and Fritts (2005); 3 - 𝛿𝑡𝐿
according to Lizunov and Leontiev (2014).
of the density gradient to transport processes. From the general expres-
sion for attenuation rate, Eq. (13), in the Boussinesq approximation, we
obtain:
( )
1 𝑘2 𝑔𝛼 𝜈 2 𝑏5
1+ + 𝑥 + The relationship between the temporal and spatial attenuation rates
𝜈𝑞 2 𝑃 𝑟 𝑐 2 𝑞 2 𝐻𝑞 2 𝐻2
𝑆
𝛿𝑡 = ⋅ , (25)
2 𝑘2 𝜈 2 (𝑒 − 1)
1+ 𝑥
𝐻 2 𝑐𝑆2 𝑞 2
where 𝑞 2 = 𝑘2 +1∕4𝐻 2 . For internal gravity waves in the thermosphere,
the following approximate expression will be valid:
( )( ) rate (16), the character of AGW attenuation with height is analyzed
𝜈 2 1 1
𝛿𝑡 ≈ 𝑘 + 1+ . (26)
2 4𝐻 2 𝑃𝑟
It is seen that an additional inclusion of the density gradient in the
transfer of energy and momentum by the wave eliminates the paradox
that arises in the attenuation rate 𝛿𝑡𝑉 . Instead of the factor 𝑘2 − 1∕4𝐻 2
present in the expressions for attenuation rates (23) and (24), we
got a factor 𝑘2 + 1∕4𝐻 2 . As a result, Eqs. (25) and (26) describe the
attenuation of acoustic–gravity perturbations in the entire allowable
spectral range.
In the paper Lizunov and Leontiev (2014), the time attenuation rate,
𝛿𝑡𝐿 , was calculated on the basis of a completely different approach,
namely, based on general hydrodynamic ideas about the dissipation
of the energy of acoustic waves under the influence of viscosity and
thermal conductivity. Additionally, polarization relations of the AGW
theory, Hines (1960), were also used. The attenuation rate obtained in
this way has the form (Lizunov and Leontiev, 2014):
𝛿𝑡𝐿 = 𝑎𝜈𝑘2 ,
where 𝑎 = 0.9 − 0.95 at 𝑘 = (∞, 0) for a monatomic gas.
The results of comparing the temporal attenuation rates obtained by
different authors are shown in Fig. 7. The figure shows the dependences
of attenuation rates on the magnitude of the wave vector 𝑘 according
to expressions (24), (26) and (27). Since the approximate expressions
(24) and (26) coincide up to a numerical factor, the curves 𝛿𝑡 and 𝛿𝑡𝑉
go parallel to each other. The curve 𝛿𝑡𝐿 has a functionally different
form, but quantitatively well agrees with 𝛿𝑡 and 𝛿𝑡𝑉 at relatively small
values of 𝑘𝐻 < 2. A comparison with the data of the work (Lizunov
and Leontiev, 2014) is also interesting from the point of view of the
feasibility of the local approximation used to obtain the attenuation
rates 𝛿𝑡 and 𝛿𝑡𝑉 .
Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics 212 (2021) 105488
9. Conclusion
The dissipation of acoustic–gravity waves in the thermosphere due
to viscosity and thermal conductivity is studied based on a modified
system of hydrodynamic equations. A modification of the system of
equations consists in the inclusion in the linearized Navier–Stokes
and heat transfer equations of special terms describing the transfer
of momentum and energy due to the density gradient, in addition to
the usually taken into account the velocity gradient. (see Eqs. (5)–(8)).
Using these hydrodynamic equations, the local dispersion equation for
acoustic–gravity waves, Eq. (10), in an isothermal dissipative atmo-
sphere is obtained. An analysis of this dispersion equation showed that
viscosity and thermal conductivity practically do not affect the real part
of the AGW frequency under typical conditions in the thermosphere.
In this work, a general expression is obtained for the AGW attenua-
tion rate in time, Eq. (13), which describes the attenuation of acoustic
and gravity waves in the entire spectral range. The value 𝛿𝑡 increases
with increasing viscosity coefficient 𝜈 and with decreasing wavelength.
A general expression is also obtained for the AGW attenuation rate
in space, Eq. (16). From it follows the expression for the attenuation
rates in particular cases of internal gravity waves in the Boussinesq ap-
proximation and sound waves. The rate of the AGW spatial attenuation,
like the time attenuation rate, rapidly increases with increasing coeffi-
cient 𝜈 and magnitude of 𝑘𝑧 . Waves with a small angle of inclination
of the wave vector to the horizontal plane attenuate much less. In the
interval of horizontal scales 𝑘𝑥 𝐻 = 0.3 − 0.8, a minimum of spatial
attenuation of the AGW is observed.
of AGW is analyzed. The rate of energy transfer in the vertical di-
rection in a dissipative atmosphere is calculated using the quantities
𝛿𝑡 and 𝛿𝑧 . It is shown that the value of the vertical group velocity
𝑉𝑔𝑟𝑧 decreases with height in a viscous atmosphere as the viscosity
coefficient 𝜈 increases. Using the expression for spatial attenuation
depending on their spectral properties and at different temperatures in
the thermosphere corresponding to different levels of solar activity.
The results obtained are consistent with satellite observations of
the AGW at the heights of the thermosphere. The predominance of
quasi-horizontal AGWs with horizontal wavelengths of ∼ 400 − 700 km
in satellite data at altitudes of 250 − 450 km can be explained by
filtering the wave spectrum due to viscosity and thermal conductivity.
As a result, far from sources, only AGWs with spectral properties that
correspond to minimal attenuation can be observed.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
A.K. Fedorenko: Conceptualization, Methodology, Drafting the ar-
ticle. E.I. Kryuchkov: Methodology, Software. O.K. Cheremnykh:
(27)
Conceptualization, Methodology. Y.A. Selivanov: Conceptualization,
Drafting the article, Manuscript preparation.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by the National Research Foundation
of Ukraine under grant 2020.02/0015 ‘‘Theoretical and experimental
studies of global perturbations of natural and artificial origin in the
Earth–Atmosphere–Ionosphere system’’, and the Targeted integrated
program of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine on Space
Research.
8
A. Fedorenko et al.
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