AEHEM RAS: Seep i Linguistics: A Very Short Introduction Soy ME PHL. Matthews 2003 SE Mathews, PH) RIE TERME, 2013.6 Chapter | The study of language What is linguistics? It is defined in dictionaries as the academic study or, more simply, as a ‘science’ of language. i ABR DF, BU PAA Fee AIRE” 6 Those who practise it are linguists, and the aim of this book is to give some feeling for what interests a wide variety of linguists, and for the nature of language itself. BAe RMN o BE FEAR RIE PAR RITE U ie S MASA 6 What do we mean, though, by applying the term ‘science’ in this field? {ERAN fA BBE Jk — SURE ? in| A Human language is, of course, uniquely human. I say ‘of course’ since, as it stands, that is scarcely a profound statement KKB WSFA RE ARMA IN, 1A find out at best with difficulty It does make clear, however, that in studying ES WAI RMB aA language we are starting, and cannot but start, | A AF. as insiders. We are ourselves human beings, and all speak | FR(1@:*+ ABS ANB, BL at least one language. We are therefore JERE CAN th studying a central aspect of our own lives OEP. This puts us in a privileged position, since we | FAA TA FOL. FN ISE take for granted so much that outsiders would | iA jf VP& Jl Sh A FEVER A AR va. Being an insider, however, also has its problems. (AfEARAA, Fein tole Other scientists have studied the ‘language’, as we are tempted to call it, of other species. ae SSA Ph iB CBATTA EH FAR BES BRE) EAT THR. European robin We know, for example, that many birds sing tea, FRAME SO AEA partly to establish a territory; that honey bees Y pH ay, BWR Ke SUR tell others in their hive where sources of food | fee fr4yyny his, 3 HER are located; that the calls of at least some other | ye: ayy ty ag ts 4 a, # pagar ere in part learned and not wholly HH} HH JE GRE 2 PAS Most autumns, when I am tidying up the ak = oe HEME TE GUY, garden, I am thrilled by the song of the 75 PMA It is the only garden bird that has an individual CEE — — Bi EE Ae LT AI: Www.all-terms.com/bbs ARLE AR LA, NPAT EA, WPLAEHEM RAS: Seep i territory outside the breeding season, and therefore sings when others are silent. K, stk Ste fb LEA E AiG Its song is complex and can be divided into phrases, lasting on average between one and two seconds. Each phrase is different from the next, and can be analysed into ‘motifs’, which themselves vary REN, AAT EER, GEER ER, TAME, 885 SAAB. To that extent, then, we are able to see structure in the robin’s song. Yet we have no evidence, as human scientists, that these smaller units have what we would call specific ‘meanings’ BEM, BAAS ME ACF SEE ACS aR, AAAI B ARGS LAG AR PEW ee a ie SRE The autumn is also a time when professors must sing for their living. PK AE BBA 9 Ei RE Hie While preparing my lectures, I have often wondered what a similar outsider might make of the noises Homo sapiens so volubly produces. “ERRHE UPA, FRAY Dette Be ioe 4 We: eh A REUTER EE Let us imagine that some genuine aliens come here in their UFO to study us. Forget the conventions in films: they will not be able to question us in fluent American English. AE FR Sb ASR AE RO SS BR TAR BMT OF, AAT AS REF HAM RAR MAH, 4 to ours, so they will at least hear what we are saying. FR PAA ABR Sb. But suppose — though this is already some {EMBL CAA Migt— e077 supposing — that they communicate with one TBE: AAT LL — BRAS AE another at a range of sound frequencies similar Ba hs wipes tte, AAT FR AD ENT PEATE ETT A They will find that, when we are together, we are rarely silent. ALATA, BETTE LE IN AR > SUMMER. Sometimes we give tongue while doing things that seem to have some purpose. We might at the same time, for example, be cooking dinner and then eating it. AMR PELVA, o— ie tae nt, A. At other times we chatter, for long periods, while apparently doing nothing else that matters. FEMA 1, BATT FAS ANS Tl AP MAAR e We may be simply sitting down, moving limbs PRPS AER LL, of people sit there while one individual spouts at them. This happens, for example, when a professor lectures to an audience of students. from time to time or shifting our position BY yaa pees 4 , There are even occasions when whole groups | Am PL 42 FEA HARE a KP AD I, ERB ERIK. BF Our alien scientists might not understand at once that this is communication. Sh RAP RTT BED Sebn ATK. V7 A sk His AI: Www.all-terms.com/bbs ARLE AR LA, NPAT EA, WPLAEHEM RAS: Seep i Think how long it took our own intelligent species finally to grasp the point of bird song! WAL, WO ARE eT SI Te) A Fa ihe SILAS AT | Let us assume, however, that they have this insight. How would they analyse the sounds they recorded? we We? AeA MAA AST AE Fy SORA ATR PF Tous, as insiders, it seems obvious that speech includes words. TIAA, BUA ce er 18 He eta HAM. If someone asks, for example, for three oranges, the word three is one word with one meaning, andoranges another with another meaning. tet, 47 A isthree oranges, in] threet -S LAHE AE CA ial, oranges) i 53 LAT AS ADE AY ial. But an outsider would have no easy clue to the existence of these words. AEEUSD AY BERTIE SW Try, if in doubt, to listen to someone speaking a language totally unknown to you. There will be pauses when they breathe or hesitate, but no audible divisions among smaller units. AMICK SES TIA, Me, EM ASARENB A, H PEGE RZ Pi PF OIL, Wp, Ae Besa — adap tl Pa, display in Fig. 1 overleaf, of a recording of three successive words as spoken naturally in English. SUA fase WOME BE Therefore, even though we take for granted that | FAK. wLOCFRANI Ue OLN FE AE such units must be there, we cannot guess ICE Al RIE A. reliably where they begin and end If that is not already convincing, look at the au Hi, Db wh Be a : 1 mere The variations in the signal largely correspond to our distinctions between vowels and consonants. But it is not cut off between words. HSE Aa bei ia EUAT RTF wii] It seems then that an alien investigator might at first hear no more than an intermittent burble How can they discover whether parts of it have separate functions? Dh Se WLR ARITA A fe Wr Bi] — Be ABA SB, (ELC AE wih we IE TPE TAD ee A Th BB We? The natural method is to try to correlate repeated signals with the other things that people are observed to do. FUE TT AEE A SLB 15 ASEH BU AA 9 ZTE IK That is how we can ourselves identify, for IIE. in that way. instance, an ‘alarm call’ in another species, ae 4: Once this call is sounded by one individual, I ath, UT TB TH A f others in earshot can be seen to hide, or dash up riseaeees, LER, aE, at trees, or fly off, or start running. Fe But a moment’s thought makes clear that AAI BPA, UE language would only rarely lend itself to study | 92 Jt3c4R > WII BIT IRBEAT AI: Www.all-terms.com/bbs ARLE AR LA, NPAT EA, WPLAEHEM RAS: Seep i Take, for example, a group of people who are talking while they are having coffee. One of them has the coffee pot in hand and asks if anyone would like some more. UA FRG WEE TR TEA. Sep AF ROME id A ABE Fk He We cannot, however, predict exactly what they will say. It might be ‘Would anyone like some more coffee?’, or ‘Would anyone like another cup?’, or ‘Another cup, anyone?’ Rive EMO EAR, (HRT RELA EAT A BME A ae RATA, Be =I". In response to these and other possibilities, some individuals may hold out a cup and have it refilled; others at most shake their heads. Heart x He ELH Ue LN, FE A ine PFA AED HG, TUNG A REEF In saying any of these things the speaker need not actually hold the pot. BE Ne SEAT ELAR HAR As FO ee, EDS eae, wet Ay Rede ae fi. It might indeed be empty and, if anyone wants more, someone must go to the kitchen to refill it. If no one wants more nothing happens that, to an alien observer, will give any clue at all UAT AS, BS: A hin WRB ASM, RINE MER WTA take Even when there is coffee in view and being handled, the word coffee does not have to be LOE OIME RE EMT, MOEA A SE Hi WAS fae AR BEADS SS HT spoken ne. Neither is it spoken only when that is the case. | iii #7] 6E KABA A speaker might ask someone if, for example, | nem) ZERIT YLT . they have remembered to put coffee on their shopping list. These are everyday exchanges. FETE FSET E ALAR AS DLE 6 Where, then, would an alien find the correlations that would demonstrate that speech is made up of such words, or that coffee is one of them? IRA, SATE REA EER ACLUMHE AB 2 A > I. Wave form of those three oranges F211 those three orangesiJ7 Il. This shows the amplitude of the acoustic signal, as it varies in time (left to right). The time dimension is marked arbitrarily in tenths of a second EBLUL fe 5S BAI Ta) OA Ze a8 5 ZETA. MAA a Bo It would be still more difficult if they were to look in on a course of lectures OPP URBE, Yb A CE HET A 6 The lecturer will be doing almost all the talking TYEE ATE When anyone else speaks it will be the lecturer who is usually addressed, not other members of the audience. ROI ZEEE. iA He SARA, TE HALUT AR Most of the time, students are engaged in making marks on paper SPAEIT UR BERT AB PO MAE iB id. Rites: Www.all-terms.com/bbs ARLE AR LA, NPAT EA, WPLAEHEM RAS: Seep i What sense would this make, if one did not already understand it? MB BEET REG, Ay AA Sei ie? It might well be seen as powerful confirmation that, in general, human burbling did not carry detailed ‘meanings’ dpe AT RE SHELA Fe iE, WH AZ BAMA . wR LUAIT Lectures might be explained as periodic rituals in which certain members of society, who are mostly older, assert dominance over groups of other members, who are mostly younger. UPPER TY RES BH a Pad SHE AA Ke Ph, eRe HM TEBE FE A DHT RK This is not so very different from the robin seen by us as maintaining a territory. JAE SB ALE FT LA A ES oH HE MAIFAS KE What we call sermons might be explained as part of a more complex ‘dominance-ceremony’. HUBRIS Ais HEY BE ew Ae TT BL — FES SS AR HY Ih FAR. Pop concerts might be another, in which lower-ranking individuals show subservience by dancing, cheering, and clapping. Wb, BAWTERE, WBAS SEALANT ART aa, Ar UA BIGS BOP ABE IT Seo ACHE. How close our alien observer might be to the truth, and yet how wrong! Se MME. AE. TIRE The blessings of being an insider will by now be obvious. NoTAAA, ORBIT WSEAS. At the simplest level we already know, for fad, FRAY RU. AE of coughs and sneezes.) instance, that some sounds are ‘language’ and) | “jZ2", jfj JHE RARE. others are not ‘language’. (Imagine an outsider trying to work out the role | (HJ LIME, — Naish AA Sei PRIA OWATTT MOR WE MI Ss) We know too that language is not uniform, that different forms of speech are found in neighbouring communities or neighbouring, | political units FUNC, HEAR AASB AUEE EK WR AE AY AMS i ASAE. ‘Therefore linguistics must also be a science of, in the plural, languages We know that speech is made up of specific smaller units, which are composed in tum of units such as vowels and consonants. HAE HH OTT Ji FEL AK 6 We know too that there is more to language than just face-to-face communication about things immediately before us. Nor is it even necessarily communication. People think and calculate in language, trivially, all the time, as well as, on occasion, profound! MME DATED i SRN TA, & RMI RAAT SE, ATLA WAN AE. FEAR ASHE, AUIS 4S 2K 0 These are enormous advantages, if we try again BURGESS AT ROP RABI AI: Www.all-terms.com/bbs ARLE AR LA, NPAT EA, WPLSEHR IRE A: ee) to put ourselves in alien shoes. a, MRARSAAARE. But the flip-side is that, as insiders, we must struggle hard to be objective. WE AAA, FATE IR HAS IEAM We too are talking men and women; and, for a start, we have no way of talking about language other than through language itself. TET AMS thi, RED AAI BARARRCIES Our ‘metalanguage’, as philosophers call a language in which one talks about a language, always has essential properties of its ‘object language’. TEER sa EDR watiies, Wee ARE HSEARABEE. As human investigators we have no escape from this circle. TERT SEA Tea Ar REE HH I will try in this book to write ‘we’ when I refer to us as linguists. FEA, PUT AUB E I will use other forms, like ‘one’, when I am talking about people as a subject of investigation. “MAT RATE NA Any ‘we’ is nevertheless a ‘one’, and, in the last analysis, every ‘one’ is also a ‘we? FEAT SRI RT AEA A {10s AIRLINE AMT ea eA. ‘Anyone who says, for example, that the word for ‘bird’ in French is oiseau is, like a linguist, using a language, English, to say something about a language. PAGO, MUI bird” HZIBUL AE oiseau AY AATIE 48 £8 — FE, ASE Riga UIE) Ki —Aa so A warning about meanings Doe Let us examine this statement about French more closely. LAR — PAE aI Eg Thave written oiseau thus, in italics. This is the normal convention that linguists use in citing words and sequences of words, like les oiseaux ‘the birds’, or J’ai vu les oiseaux ‘I saw the birds’. oiseaut RHA. RAL AACE S| Vial Bin] ZA EL, Sles oiseaux SJL, Sai vu les oiseaux (“48 ALT SIU) Another convention is to write translations in inverted commas: thus, for the word on its own, oiseau ‘bird’. 9) MELB EAE CE 31S, Mloiseau (“4”) » What then do we mean by talking of “the word for “bird’”? WA, ABABA Ra SIRS ia”, RTA REE? The statement may at first seem quite straightforward. BB, RAEN T There are many kinds of creature in the world: birds, insects, snakes, and so on. People must be able to talk about them. DARA HE FELASA PT) my: ©, oh, ReARE, HS 4 — ial 5 ZHTBL Therefore any language has to have a word by which each one can be referred to. A word for MAMIE SHAE Hida”: SoG Abird, WiBeoiseau, WHF Rites: Www.all-terms.com/bbs ARLE AR LA, NPAT EA, WPLAEHEM RAS: Seep i birds has, we will say, the meaning ‘bird’. In English it is bird, in French oiseau, in Spanish pajaro, and so on. Wrepajaro, “FF. But this leads directly to a fallacy, which is so fundamental that it was not until the 20th century that linguists and philosophers finally nailed it. a enki BER BIE. When we talk about a language, we can do so, once more, only through the medium either of itself or of some other language. Our language has a word bird, with the meaning, as we say, ‘bird’. ng SET PP PA birdix 4 Hin], It is therefore very easy to perceive this meaning as in some way prior to the word that corresponds to it. i, ROA SB YS CNB. The fallacy, in its crudest form, is that words are names for pre-existing categories. 1X BAMA UR RAE, Pate ZEMIN 2 Pho The following is a quotation from the Authorized Version of the Book of Genesis, in which Adam, who is still the only human being in the Garden of Eden, assigns names to other species with which he shares it. POC BLiA 51 REAR (EHS Bl itt 22), HRM (EAH bd Pb MES ADA. BOAT AS SE DAE TA RE « And out of the ground the Lord God formed every beast of the field, and every fowl of the air, and brought them unto Adam to see what he would call them: and whatsoever Adam called every living creature, that was the name thereof. TGA eT) hn. AE AS AEB. (hit tha, WSR UTA BM Genesis 2.19 (hittt2a) 2.19 This is one passage that for many centuries lay at the centre of linguistic thought in Christian Europe. {RE -/MEZAWK, TEEPE DE EL RAT AOC — EAP 1 eA rats A. Another was the story later in the same book of the Tower of Babel — BOR WEA RE HI hie, 46 oe Bob Bimal a The naming by Adam explained the origin of language, as a way of labelling things around us. WARY AY IGS ee A UE PAPE B AA AY EY TT xt. The second story explained why, as we know it, ‘the whole earth’ is not still ‘of one language, and of one speech’ BAAR AE T Ab AE CA A — Ae A — aig”. For, to curb mankind, God had to ‘confound’ it (11.1-9). LRAT REA, BOR DE Ok FAR Pi C1.1—>9) . Now this ‘confusion’, whatever its origin, is certainly with us. ei Ee ew Rites: Www.all-terms.com/bbs ARLE AR LA, NPAT EA, WPLAEHEM RAS: Seep i There is, however, another way of talking about bird and oiseau. RGD — BOK bird Al oiseaus As words, both are in italics, and each word is used, bird in English and oiseau in French, in referring to a certain range of creatures. Le in AERA, OSTS PA bird AEE F Moiseasg tit — Koy» ‘An English speaker might use an expression such as those birdsto refer to various groups of them; a French speaker might use, of the same Zroups, an expression such as ces oiseaux. YLIGE H HH those birds # a I AH FSAI HE: IY S PRAM AE Wii Ml ces oiseaux « These are our basic findings, and they directly concern the way the words are used, first in one language and then in the other. DAE RERATSEA BH, ERED ion AMET. But in presenting them we are again obliged to talk in English, or in French, or in some other human language. We therefore establish a convention by which the meaning of oiseau in French can be indicated by a word in English, in inverted commas, whose meaning in English is the closest to it AAT AGE. TE REE MiB RRMA BE, BAAS MEAS AED: WB F oiseau Fl VA Hl] SLIB PIES SZ ABN) Cit fealo) H. Thus, from an English viewpoint, we write oiseau ‘bird’ just as, from a French viewpoint, we might write bird‘oiseau’ ALE, RAL “bird”# oiseau, EMME, Bl “oiseau” a bird. We are not, however, appealing to a prior concept of ‘bird’, as a meaning that all languages must have in common PRI, BRAT AS AT RAE TB Pa APE RA TER The basic relation is again between the words bird and oiseau, between these and Spanish pajaro, and so on. SPE ZN EAE ET bird#lloiseauZ li], ##7EF (ER S¥cia] Al GE EpajaroZ fa], Wee = English river. Once we see things in this light, we are less KARMA, ADT ao fazed when precisely common meanings do not | yy "4 Ay RR AR ZSERIES exist. Anyone who learns French learns, for example, | tht, Wie’! HMA, WS h that no single French word corresponds to y As 5 PGE rh Mrivert et READ ‘ial. Fleuve is sometimes used when river would be appropriate, but often riviére will be used instead. Amp AY LAH fleuve, (142th ue FA riviére. Nor, for that matter, do the limits of the use of riviére correspond quite to the differences in English between river and stream EDR riviére, AGA MEA RIA IS "Priver Allstream Z IA] 2M 22 Hilo Now French and English speakers have been neighbours for centuries, and their languages have much in common. AS. ‘ENE S AI: Www.all-terms.com/bbs ARLE AR LA, NPAT EA, WPLAEHEM RAS: Seep i Even in this illustration we can at least start from a rough correspondence. FEE MFP, FATT AAPL Bole. But in other cases an apparent similarity can easily mislead us. AEVAT IY SE ARAL AN 2 PR fil. What, for example, is the word for ‘mother’ in Navajo? ADU, “FRR TEA EIB TVEA ve? Navajo (pronounced, as it is also written, ‘Na-va-ho’) is the language of a people in the Southwest of the United States who have, so far, resisted being sucked into speaking only English. YTLEIB (Navajo) XS AMR E SEW i — +S (Na-va-ho”) » “EJE “E1763 A Peg PAH XA — 4 BT fteAN 128 SHB 8 RR Their traditional culture is not, as we might anticipate, remotely like ours. Yet they too are born of women. DERI FE, fl NT 42 BEC JEAN, SOBLAL II MALI BRI. A Lan Ack SEL We have in English a word, mother, that refers to this biological relationship between each person and their female parent Seis PMN mother AEA AES A fihy/dah, WAKE INE LINK. We might well think that, if any “meaning? pre-exists by virtue of the world we live in, surely that does. AY DAi, FEE FG TAR ia Td BEB A ZETA The anthropologists who first worked with this people found that there was indeed a form, shima, by which they could translate English mother. But it does not follow that the use, or even a primary use, of shima should be lossed as ‘biological female parent’ BOHRA NERA, AY RIMS P, A—APialshima SSE A mother, (1'e HysEAR BURLIEAS E EE ERE Es ‘According to a 1970s account by Gary Witherspoon, the whole cultural emphasis is on the affective action of a shima in both giving and sustaining life. ARTE IM HE, AE ARO (LAE 7O4E {R HA AIR, AR TR shima (TAM SEE A ah TA. A shima is a being who acts in that way; and, in a society intensely sensitive to the rights of other people and other creatures, every member of a mother’s clan is, at one level, a shima. ABLA IAT ANAD, BERT BoAshima. ZEA xt Hh A wea RATIOS, BRA WATE — me HB Eshima.. So, at the first in a series of less general levels, HWP EP, AP REA yazhi can, though it does not always, translate aunt. is every member who is female #heshima. The term is often qualified: for example, shima | ix“ AR: EER, shimayazhiF] LAUR FRaunt (ERY ARERR ABT Do Nor should we assume that a shima is necessarily human. For it is not just people that give and sustain life. BANTEAY DAshima fs di HE fl BARS, ARR ART AUAEEE AE A 6 AI: Www.all-terms.com/bbs ARLE AR LA, NPAT EA, WPLAEHEM RAS: Seep i So, for example, does a cornfield or a flock of sheep; and each of these is a shima WOK, Bae, BY LA ERK Ashima. ‘ents Earth”, one does not mean that the earth is literally a parent.’ So does the earth itself, and the earth toois | JLARAR AIL, CH Ashima. a shima, “Ahal’, we say, ‘but when one talks of “Mother | FAV/@WGH: “UY ABE ASE ape, SPAR WERE — ie SOE AY Certainly in English, where mother is used primarily in reference to a biological female parent, that expression can be seen as secondary. rs YEH, motherly GE a WHE ARI, ideas ALE» A dictionary will first give the primary definition; then a series of extended senses, in which the same word is applied to someone else who acts in part like a mother, to an object from which a run of other objects is reproduced, and so on. Beer tH AP i SEAR ARPES) HANG, tu SG PAE Aft SE BR YE & 8 RON, AA. But, in the traditional culture of the Navajo, the earth is not perceived as merely ‘like a shima’” {A 7E ANE MERCH, HAS IEA Rie —hshima. In Witherspoon’s words, it is ‘not only an actual mother but . . . also the greatest of all mothers’ ARBOR UE. “ES AMEE — fi SUE APRA... AEE — Be KARR” For the earth itself is a living being who created the earliest Navajo people and continues to sustain her children. DR AaHE ER AS EAT AE ai 8) it ula TREMAREA, Jewitt Writ. At this point we have barely scratched the surface of the cultural-cum-linguistic system in which shima has its place. Mi shimare BLE Aa BRB PHS L, BALM R— “Bee” The example does, however, make clear that we cannot take a word in our own language and assume that there are forms in any other language that can be placed in simple correspondence with it. abi AR, Peli EM WB), RAE AU A Si PLE SAI RE Still less can we take a word like mother and project from it a meaning ‘mother’, defined by other meanings such as ‘female’ and ‘parent’, which we assume that any language must distinguish from others. PUNTA REA Fie mother" HRA Smother”, FEAASE BCH. “BUR RTE RO, RAVER ia aires SPIE SHY Vai fii ‘Meanings’ are not simply given in nature, or in the way the world itself is. They are bound up with a culture of which language is one aspect. et DACRE. miss FOR AQUA 7 i iE . AI: Www.all-terms.com/bbs ARLE AR LA, NPAT EA, WPLSEHR IRE A: ee) Es The moral we draw is not just that one language can be strikingly different from another. FRICRAS eRe: ie Zee We must also train ourselves to look FRM AER SOCIALE & NH Bible. objectively at what is said, in our own language | th, “4227 thi MIE S . or in our own culture, about language. The tradition that words are names has deep EAMG PUR CE) #, A roots in our history, in Ancient Greece as in the | —#irffiyaae [AMEE A: Sim AE Re Itis therefore natural for us to think that, just as Mary Smith can be the name of someone who is visibly there, bird or mother or love are ‘names’ for what must, in some similar sense, be there. Fak, BNR By, IESMary Smith HEP] WA HY AA bird. motherRlove ty MEIC A AML, ELE LS TAD BTS 6 Tt is also natural to say what words mean in another language by putting words in our own language in inverted commas. FDRE. AAV EA ri Ss ASHE IB FESS PORES PHB ra AY When we say accordingly thatoiseau ‘means “bird’”, we are tempted to think that a meaning FRA Vibboiseautty i ME “bird? AY”, ee PAE, BA ‘bird’ is something out there to which oiseau is | A 2 y SENSE Mn n] RE REI Vga mE ALY Another solution would be to make the utterances longer or more complex. Fy HER IS VE EAE NY FS AAR BSS Akt. But that too faces a limit, if the complexity is not to develop into something like that found in actual language AE AUIS RES iG, SC hi a, FRA 78 AS ESS 2 BEIT LS IB SMe. Think especially of wamings: what in other species are ‘alarm calls’. SPARE PR: Rete Wi Kea REET” They must be clear but, obviously, they should not be too long. CISL TU TT TAIT » It seems more efficient to have a single call that signals that some scary land animal is somewhere in the vicinity (which is the kind of thing that actual primate calls do seem to signal) than several calls that would distinguish, by the time one has got to the end of them, a lioness at running distance in grass on the left, or a pack of six hyenas straight ahead. Pye MEA Ea OR ASAI VA AMY FKL Bt Ht FEAR AE AGL) GAUMY 75-88 bE EE JL FB pede Rh RAha Amma ATTA SR Bo) FI FE WE GIR, A Sear ata BE TEDEUSIY TL, BREE REIT Fllpi The obvious alternative (to us) is to distinguish separate ‘words’ for lionesses, grass, and so on. Fy— AY AE OORT RUE AEH AST] Him eR MEM. GUE. Rites: Www.all-terms.com/bbs ARLE AR LA, NPAT EA, WPL