2.1.2.

1 Fruits and Citric Acid

The use of fruits as main ingredient in jelly candy contribute to the product’s

colour and nutritional value by the presence of bioactive compounds (Ergun et al.,

2010). Fruits are turned into fruit juices to be mixed with other ingredients creating

gel structure producing dry-sticky and chewy texture (Jiamjariyatam, 2018). Fruit

compounds such as citric acids and tartaric acid are required in high amount that

will contribute to sourness, driving force and moisture migration of jelly candy

(Rivero et al., 2021).

2.1.2.2 Sucrose

Sucrose also refers as table sugar is composed of one glucose molecule and

one fructose molecule (Winarno, 2004). Sucrose is called 𝛼-D- glucopyranosyl-

(1,2)-𝛽-D-fructofuranoside or 𝛼-D- glucopyranoside-(1,2)-𝛽-D-fructofuranoside

contains parts of glucose and fructose bonded by glycosidic bonds (Yebra-Biurrun,

2013). Glycosidic bonds in sucrose prevent a particular structure to bond with other

sugar that makes sucrose as non-reducing sugar. The inability of sucrose to bond

with another sugar is caused by the absence of reactive OH bonds (White, 2014).

Figure 2.2 Structure of sucrose

Source: Winarno (2004)

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in a form of gel that mainly functions as gelling agent where agaropectin has less

practical functions. The use of variety agarobioses will influence physicochemical

characteristics such as gelling properties, melting temperatures and reaction of agar

with other products (Armisén and Galatas, 2009).

Unlike other chemical gels which polymer molecules linked through

covalent bonds, Agar gelling ability is physically contributed by hydrogen bonds in

agarose without the addition of other compound. Gels are produced by agarose

compound which the gel structure is formed by combined hydrogen bonds. The gels

are retained in water network moving through macroreticulum. Agar physical

gelling ability is reversible where the substance melts when heated and gelling

occur upon cooling (Armisén and Galatas, 2009).

Figure 2.4 Chemical structure of agar

Source: Phillips and Williams (2009)

Gelidium and Pterocladia species are considered the best combination due

to the amount of hardness and lack of syneresis and brittleness in food products.

The addition of Gracilaria species in agar manufacturing is suitable for

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 Figure 2.6 Chemical structure of carrageenan
Source: Phillips and Williams (2009)

Different types of carrageenan shows slight different in thickening and

gelling properties. Addition of potassium ion creates firm gel when added to kappa

carrageenan. In contrast, iota and lambda carrageenan gelling ability is not

significantly impacted by the addition of potassium ion. Addition of calcium ion

gives soft and elastic properties in iota carrageenan. Lambda and kappa carrageenan

are combined in milk system to obtain creamy gel (Imeson, 2009).

All types of carrageenan are soluble in high temperature, but only kappa and

iota carrageenan are soluble in lower temperature. These types of carrageenan also

result in gel textures when being set in 40°C to 70°C depends on cation present in

the system. Temperature is an important aspect to determine type of carrageenan

used for food system (Imeson, 2009).

Utilization of carrageenan in acidic medium is advised to be done under

neutral conditions due to antagonistic effect on gelling with pH below 4.3 that

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 Figure 2.7 Chemical structure of pectin
Source: Phillips and Williams (2021)

Gelation is a state between precipitation and solubility of a polymer. Gelling

ability of pectin dependent on pH variation and cation content in the system. High

methyl ester pectin gelling ability is positively influenced by rate of cooling,

presence of sugars and low pH. pH value may impact the rate of gelation and lower

pH in high methyl ester pectin will increase set temperature. Change of sugar type

will also change set temperature, optimum pH for gelation and gel strength. On the

other hand, low methyl ester pectin is influenced by presence of calcium and

compounds present in material itself. Low methyl ester pectin gelling ability is

higher in presence of increased soluble solids and lower pH (Zeeb et al., 2021).

Pectin that is considered high methyl ester pectin should contain above 7.12%

methyl ester while low methyl ester pectin should contain 2.5% to 7.12% methyl

ester. Esterification degree impacts the gelling ability of pectin, where higher

esterification degree creates stronger gel which shows esterified carbonyl content.

Esterification degree above 50% indicates HMP pectin, meanwhile esterification

degree below 50% indicates LMP pectin. LMP pectin gelling is able to be enhanced

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