POWER ELECTRONIC SOURCE ON TRANSMISSION LINE GROUND FAULT

DETECTION

ABSTRACT

Transmission line is the most important part of the power system. Transmission lines a
principal amount of power. The requirement of power and its allegiance has grown up
exponentially over the modern era, and the major role of a transmission line is to transmit
electric power from the source area to the distribution network. The exploded between limited
production, and a tremendous claim has grown the focus on minimizing power losses. Losses
like transmission loss and also conjecture factors as like as physical losses to various technical
losses, Another thing is the primary factor it has a reactive power and voltage deviation are
momentous in the long-range transmission power line. In essentially, fault analysis is a very
focusing issue in power system engineering to clear fault in short time and re-establish power
system as quickly as possible on very minimum interruption. However, the fault detection that
interrupts the transmission line is itself challenging task to investigate fault as well as improving
the reliability of the system. The transmission line is susceptible given all parameters that
connect the whole power system. This paper presents a review of transmission line fault
detection.
BLOCK DIAGRAM

ADVANTGE

 The fault can easily be detected.

 very easy to identify and maintain it in short interval of time.
 It can avoid line fault induced accidents up to a limit.

DISADVANTGE

 Individual units instead of batteries.

 Installation cost is high for each unit.
 POWER SUPPLY

Block Diagram

The ac voltage, typically 220V rms, is connected to a transformer, which steps that ac voltage
down to the level of the desired dc output. A diode rectifier then provides a full-wave rectified
voltage that is initially filtered by a simple capacitor filter to produce a dc voltage. This resulting
dc voltage usually has some ripple or ac voltage variation.

A regulator circuit removes the ripples and also remains the same dc value even if the input
dc voltage varies, or the load connected to the output dc voltage changes. This voltage regulation
is usually obtained using one of the popular voltage regulator IC units.

TRANSFORMER RECTIFIER FILTER IC REGULATOR LOAD

Fig 2.1 Block Diagram of Power supply

Working principle

Transformer

The potential transformer will step down the power supply voltage (0-230V) to (0-6V) level.
Then the secondary of the potential transformer will be connected to the precision rectifier,
which is constructed with the help of op–amp. The advantages of using precision rectifier are it
will give peak voltage output as DC, rest of the circuits will give only RMS output.
Bridge rectifier

When four diodes are connected as shown in figure, the circuit is called as bridge rectifier.
The input to the circuit is applied to the diagonally opposite corners of the network, and the
output is taken from the remaining two corners.
Let us assume that the transformer is working properly and there is a positive potential, at point
A and a negative potential at point B. the positive potential at point A will forward bias D3 and
reverse bias D4.
The negative potential at point B will forward bias D1 and reverse D2. At this time D3 and D1
are forward biased and will allow current flow to pass through them; D4 and D2 are reverse
biased and will block current flow.

The maximum voltage that appears across the load resistor is nearly-but never exceeds-500 v0lts,
as result of the small voltage drop across the diode. In the bridge rectifier shown in view B, the
maximum voltage that can be rectified is the full secondary voltage, which is 1000 volts.
Therefore, the peak output voltage across the load resistor is nearly 1000 volts. With both
circuits using the same transformer, the bridge rectifier circuit produces a higher output voltage
than the conventional full-wave rectifier circuit.

IC voltage regulators

Voltage regulators comprise a class of widely used ICs. Regulator IC units contain the
circuitry for reference source, comparator amplifier, control device, and overload protection all
in a single IC. IC units provide regulation of either a fixed positive voltage, a fixed negative
voltage, or an adjustably set voltage. The regulators can be selected for operation with load
currents from hundreds of milli amperes to tens of amperes, corresponding to power ratings from
milli watts to tens of watts.
 Fig 2.2 Circuit Diagram of Power Supply

A fixed three-terminal voltage regulator has an unregulated dc input voltage, Vi, applied to one
input terminal, a regulated dc output voltage, Vo, from a second terminal, with the third terminal
connected to ground.

The series 78 regulators provide fixed positive regulated voltages from 5 to 24 volts. Similarly,
the series 79 regulators provide fixed negative regulated voltages from 5 to 24 volts.
 For ICs, microcontroller, LCD --------- 5 volts
 For alarm circuit, op-amp, relay circuits ---------- 12 volts
EMBEDDED PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

Understand User
Requirements

Choose Optimum
Electronic Chip

S/W Side
H/W Side

HLL/ALL
PCB Layout Design

Algorithm

Coding/Editing Assembling
Compiling/Assembling Components

Debugging

Testing Testing

Simulator

S/W H/W

Download

ICE (In-Circuit
Emulator)

Embedded Product

Figure – 13 Embedded Product Development Life Cycle

INTEL’S 8051 ARCHITECTURE

The generic 8031 architecture sports a Harvard architecture, which contains two separate
buses for both program and data. So, it has two distinctive memory spaces of 64K X 8 size for
both program and data. It is based on an 8 bit central processing unit with an 8 bit Accumulator
and another 8 bit B register as main processing blocks. Other portions of the architecture include
few 8 bit and 16 bit registers and 8 bit memory locations.

Each 8031 device has some amount of data RAM built in the device for internal
processing. This area is used for stack operations and temporary storage of data.

This base architecture is supported with onchip peripheral functions like I/O ports,
timers/counters, versatile serial communication port. So it is clear that this 8031 architecture was
designed to cater many real time embedded needs.

The following list gives the features of the 8051 architecture:

 Optimized 8 bit CPU for control applications.

 Extensive Boolean processing capabilities.
 64K Program Memory address space.
 64K Data Memory address space.
 128 bytes of onchip Data Memory.
 32 Bi-directional and individually addressable I/O lines.
 Two 16 bit timer/counters.
 Full Duplex UART, On-chip clock oscillator.
 6-source / 5-vector interrupt structure with priority levels.

Now you may be wondering about the non mentioning of memory space meant for the
program storage, the most important part of any embedded controller. Originally this 8031
architecture was introduced with onchip, ‘one time programmable’ version of Program Memory
of size 4K X 8. Intel delivered all these microcontrollers (8051) with user’s program fused inside
the device. The memory portion was mapped at the lower end of the Program Memory area. But,
after getting devices, customers couldn’t change any thing in their program code, which was
already made available inside during device fabrication.

Figure 1 - Block Diagram of the 8031 Core

So, very soon Intel introduced the 8031 devices (8751) with re-programmable type of Program
Memory using built-in EPROM of size 4K X 8. Like a regular EPROM, this memory can be re-
programmed many times. Later on Intel started manufacturing these 8031 devices without any
onchip Program Memory.

Now I go ahead giving more information on the important functional blocks of the 8031.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MICROCONTROLLER AND MICROPROCESSOR:

 Microprocessors have many instructions for moving data from external memory to internal
memory. But microcontrollers have a few such instructions.
 Microprocessors have less bit handling instructions, but microcontrollers have many such
instructions.
 Microprocessors are concerned with rapid movement of code and data from external
memory. But Microcontroller is concerned with that of bits within the chip.
PIC Microcontroller

PIC Microcontroller:

PIC microcontroller was developed in the year 1993 by microchip technology. The term PIC
stands for Peripheral Interface Controller. Initially this was developed for supporting PDP
computers to control its peripheral devices, and therefore, named as a peripheral interface device.
These microcontrollers are very fast and easy to execute a program compared with other
microcontrollers.

What is a PIC Microcontroller?

PIC (Programmable Interface Controllers) microcontrollers are the worlds smallest

microcontrollers that can be programmed to carry out a huge range of tasks. These
microcontrollers are found in many electronic devices such as phones, computer control systems,
alarm systems, embedded systems, etc. Various types of microcontrollers exist, even though the
best are found in the GENIE range of programmable microcontrollers. These microcontrollers
are programmed and simulated by a circuit-wizard software.

Every PIC microcontroller architecture consists of some registers and stack where registers
function as Random Access Memory( RAM) and stack saves the return addresses. The main
features of PIC microcontrollers are RAM, flash memory, Timers/Counters, EEPROM, I/O
Ports, USART, CCP (Capture/Compare/PWM module), SSP, Comparator, ADC (analog to
digital converter), PSP(parallel slave port), LCD and ICSP (in circuit serial programming) The 8-
bit PIC microcontroller is classified into four types on the basis of internal architecture such as
Base Line PIC, Mid Range PIC, Enhanced Mid Range PIC and PIC18.

Other PIC MCU’s

PIC12F508, PIC12F629, PIC12F683, PIC16F505, PIC16F628A, PIC16F676, PIC16F72,

PIC16F873A, PIC16F876A, PIC16F886, PIC18F252, PIC18F25520, PIC18F452, PIC18F4520
PIC16F877A

This powerful (200 nanosecond instruction execution) yet easy-to-program (only 35 single word
instructions) CMOS FLASH-based 8-bit microcontroller packs Microchip's powerful PIC®
architecture into an 40 package and is upwards compatible with the PIC16C5X, PIC12CXXX
and PIC16C7X devices. The PIC16F877A features 256 bytes of EEPROM data memory, self
programming, an ICD, 2 Comparators, 8 channels of 10-bit Analog-to-Digital (A/D) converter, 2
capture/compare/PWM functions, the synchronous serial port can be configured as either 3-wire
Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI™) or the 2-wire Inter-Integrated Circuit (I²C™) bus and a
Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (USART).

We know that the microcontroller is an integrated chip which consists of CPU, RAM,
ROM, timers, and counters, etc. In the same way, PIC microcontroller architecture consists of
RAM, ROM, CPU, timers, counters and supports the protocols such as SPI, CAN, and UART for
interfacing with other peripherals. At present PIC microcontrollers are extensively used for
industrial purpose due to low power consumption, high performance ability and easy of
availability of its supporting hardware and software tools like compilers, debuggers and
simulators.

PIN DIAGRAM
 PIC16F877A Pin Configuration

Pin Pin Name Description

Number

1 MCLR/Vpp MCLR is used during programming, mostly connected

to programmer like PicKit

2 RA0/AN0 Analog pin 0 or 0th pin of PORTA

3 RA1/AN1 Analog pin 1 or 1st pin of PORTA

4 RA2/AN2/Vref- Analog pin 2 or 2nd pin of PORTA

5 RA3/AN3/Vref+ Analog pin 3 or 3rd pin of PORTA

6 RA4/T0CKI/C1out 4th pin of PORTA

7 RA5/AN4/SS/C2out Analog pin 4 or 5th pin of PORTA

8 RE0/RD/AN5 Analog pin 5 or 0th pin of PORTE

9 RE1/WR/AN6 Analog pin 6 or 1st pin of PORTE

10 RE2/CS/AN7 7th pin of PORTE

11 Vdd Ground pin of MCU

12 Vss Positive pin of MCU (+5V)

13 OSC1/CLKI External Oscillator/clock input pin

14 OSC2/CLKO External Oscillator/clock output pin

15 RC0/T1OSO/T1CKI 0th pin of PORT C

16 RC1/T1OSI/CCP2 1st pin of POCTC or Timer/PWM pin

17 RC2/CCP1 2nd pin of POCTC or Timer/PWM pin

18 RC3/SCK/SCL 3rd pin of POCTC

19 RD0/PSP0 0th pin of POCTD

20 RD1/PSPI 1st pin of POCTD

21 RD2/PSP2 2nd pin of POCTD

22 RD3/PSP3 3rd pin of POCTD

23 RC4/SDI/SDA 4th pin of POCTC or Serial Data in pin

24 RC5/SDO 5th pin of POCTC or Serial Data Out pin

25 RC6/Tx/CK 6th pin of POCTC or Transmitter pin of

Microcontroller

26 RC7/Rx/DT 7th pin of POCTC or Receiver pin of Microcontroller

27 RD4/PSP4 4th pin of POCTD

28 RD5/PSP5 5th pin of POCTD

29 RD6/PSP6 6th pin of POCTD

30 RD7/PSP7 7th pin of POCTD

31 Vss Positive pin of MCU (+5V)

32 Vdd Ground pin of MCU

33 RB0/INT 0th pin of POCTB or External Interrupt pin

34 RB1 1st pin of POCTB

35 RB2 2nd pin of POCTB

36 RB3/PGM 3rd pin of POCTB or connected to programmer

37 RB4 4th pin of POCTB

 38 RB5 5th pin of POCTB

39 RB6/PGC 6th pin of POCTB or connected to programmer

40 RB7/PGD 7th pin of POCTB or connected to programmer

Architecture of PIC Microcontroller

The PIC microcontroller architecture comprises of CPU, I/O ports, memory organization,
A/D converter, timers/counters, interrupts, serial communication, oscillator and CCP module
which are discussed in detailed below.

Architecture of PIC Microcontroller

CPU (Central Processing Unit)

It is not different from other microcontrollers CPU and the PIC microcontroller CPU consists
of the ALU, CU, MU and accumulator, etc. Arithmetic logic unit is mainly used for arithmetic
operations and to take logical decisions. Memory is used for storing the instructions after
processing. To control the internal and external peripherals, control unit is used which are
connected to the CPU and the accumulator is used for storing the results and further process.

Memory Organization

The memory module in the PIC microcontroller architecture consists of RAM (Random
Access Memory), ROM (Read Only Memory) and STACK.

Random Access Memory (RAM)

RAM is an unstable memory which is used to store the data temporarily in its registers. The
RAM memory is classified into two banks, and each bank consists of so many registers. The
RAM registers are classified into two types: Special Function Registers (SFR) and General
Purpose Registers (GPR).

General Purpose Registers (GPR)

 These registers are used for general purpose only as the name implies. For example, if we
want to multiply two numbers by using the PIC microcontroller. Generally, we use registers for
multiplying and storing the numbers in other registers. So these registers don’t have any special
function,- CPU can easily access the data in the registers.

Special Function Registers

These registers are used for special purposes only as the name SFR implies. These registers
will perform according to the functions assigned to them , and they cannot be used as normal
registers. For example, if you cannot use the STATUS register for storing the data, these
registers are used for showing the operation or status of the program. So, user cannot change the
function of the SFR; the function is given by the retailer at the time of manufacturing.

Special Function Registers

Memory Organization

Read Only Memory (ROM)

Read only memory is a stable memory which is used to store the data permanently. In PIC
microcontroller architecture, the architecture ROM stores the instructions or program, according
to the program the microcontroller acts. The ROM is also called as program memory, wherein
the user will write the program for microcontroller and saves it permanently, and finally the
program is executed by the CPU. The microcontrollers performance depends on the instruction,
which is executed by the CPU.
Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM)

In the normal ROM, we can write the program for only once we cannot use again the
microcontroller for multiple times. But, in the EEPROM, we can program the ROM multiple
times.

Flash Memory

Flash memory is also programmable read only memory (PROM) in which we can read, write
and erase the program thousands of times. Generally, the PIC microcontroller uses this type of
ROM.

Stack

When an interrupt occurs, first the PIC microcontroller has to execute the interrupt and the
existing process address. Then that is being executed is stored in the stack. After completing the
execution of the interrupt, the microcontroller calls the process with the help of address, which is
stored in the stack and get executes the process.

I/O Ports

The series of PIC16 consists of five ports such as Port A, Port B, Port C, Port D & Port E.
Port A is an 16-bit port that can be used as input or output port based on the status of the TRISA
(Tradoc Intelligence Support Activity) register. Port B is an 8- bit port that can be used as both
input and output port. Port C is an 8-bit and the input of output operation is decided by the status
of the TRISC register. Port D is an 8-bit port acts as a slave port for connection to the
microprocessor BUS. Port E is a 3-bit port which serves the additional function of the control
signals to the analog to digital converter.

BUS

BUS is used to transfer and receive the data from one peripheral to another. It is classified
into two types such as data bus and address.

Data Bus: It is used for only transfer or receive the data.

 Address Bus: Address bus is used to transmit the memory address from the peripherals to the
CPU. I/O pins are used to interface the external peripherals; UART and USART both are serial
communication protocols which are used for interfacing serial devices like GSM, GPS,
Bluetooth, IR , etc.

BUS

A/D converters

The main intention of this analog to digital converter is to convert analog voltage values to
digital voltage values. A/D module of PIC microcontroller consists of 5 inputs for 28 pin devices
and 8 inputs for 40 pin devices. The operation of the analog to digital converter is controlled by
ADCON0 and ADCON1 special registers. The upper bits of the converter are stored in register
ADRESH and lower bits of the converter are stored in register ADRESL. For this operation, it
requires 5V of an analog reference voltage.
 A/D CONVERTER

Timers/ Counters

PIC microcontroller has four timer/counters wherein the one 8-bit timer and the remaining
timers have the choice to select 8 or 16-bit mode. Timers are used for generating accuracy
actions, for example, creating specific time delays between two operations.

Interrupts

PIC microcontroller consists of 20 internal interrupts and three external interrupt sources
which are associated with different peripherals like ADC, USART, Timers, and so on.

Serial Communication

Serial communication is the method of transferring data one bit at a time sequentially over a
communication channel.

USART: The name USART stands for Universal synchronous and Asynchronous Receiver and
Transmitter which is a serial communication for two protocols. It is used for transmitting and
receiving the data bit by bit over a single wire with respect to clock pulses. The PIC
microcontroller has two pins TXD and RXD. These pins are used for transmitting and receiving
the data serially.
SPI Protocol: The term SPI stands for Serial Peripheral Interface. This protocol is used to send
data between PIC microcontroller and other peripherals such as SD cards, sensors and shift
registers. PIC microcontroller support three wire SPI communications between two devices on a
common clock source. The data rate of SPI protocol is more than that of the USART.

I2C Protocol: The term I2C stands for Inter Integrated Circuit , and it is a serial protocol which
is used to connect low speed devices such as EEPROMS, microcontrollers, A/D converters, etc.
PIC microcontroller support two wire Interface or I2C communication between two devices
which can work as both Master and Slave device.

Serial Communication

Serial Communication

Oscillators

Oscillators are used for timing generation. PIC microcontroller consist of external oscillators like
RC oscillators or crystal oscillators. Where the crystal oscillator is connected between the two
oscillator pins. The value of the capacitor is connected to every pin that decides the mode of the
operation of the oscillator. The modes are crystal mode, high-speed mode and the low-power
mode. In case of RC oscillators, the value of the resistor & capacitor determine the clock
frequency and the range of clock frequency is 30KHz to 4MHz.

CCP module

The name CCP module stands for capture/compare/PWM where it works in three modes
such as capture mode, compare mode and PWM mode.

Capture Mode: Capture mode captures the time of arrival of a signal, or in other words, when
the CCP pin goes high, it captures the value of the Timer1.

Compare Mode: Compare mode acts as an analog comparator. When the timer1 value reaches a
certain reference value, then it generates an output.

PWM Mode: PWM mode provides pulse width modulated output with a 10-bit resolution and
programmable duty cycle.

PIC Microcontroller Applications

The PIC microcontroller projects can be used in different applications, such as peripherals,
audio accessories, video games, etc. For better understanding of this PIC microcontroller, the
following project demonstrates PIC microcontroller’s operations.

 Multiple DIY Projects

 Very good choice if you are learning PIC
 Projects requiring Multiple I/O interfaces and communications
 Replacement for Arduino Module
 Ideal for more advanced level A/D applications in automotive, industrial, appliances and
consumer applications.
Advantages of PIC Microcontroller:

 They are reliable and malfunctioning of PIC percentage is very less. And performance of
the PIC
 is very fast because of using RISC architecture.
 Power conception is also very less when compared to other micro controllers. When we
see in
 the programmer point of view interfacing is very easy, also we can connect analog
devices
 directly with out any extra circuitry and use them. Programming is also very easy when
compared to other microcontrollers.
Disadvantages of PIC Microcontroller:

 The length of the program will be big because of using RISC (35 instructions).
 Program memory is not accessible and only one single accumulator is present.

LCD Display

Liquid Crystal Display. A type of display used especially in small portable electronic
devices. A type of display, usually numerical, used in electronic equipment. Dark characters are
formed on a lighter background. Requires external back lighting to be visible under low-light
conditions.

Figure 7 – LCD Diagram

One of the most popular output devices for embedded electronics is LCD. The LCD interface has
become very simple. This is due to the availability modules for LCDs. The LCD along with
necessary controller (LCD Controller) and mounting facility is made available in the module
itself. The LCD controller takes care of everything necessary for the LCD. We communicate
with the LCD controller with the help of a command set provided by the manufacturer.

Pin Diagram

Figure 1.1 Pin Diagram

LCD Display Pin Description:

Vcc, Vss, and VEE:

While Vcc and Vss provide +5V and ground, respectively, VEE is used for controlling
LCD contrast.

RS – register select:

There are two very important registers inside the LCD. The RS pin is used for their selection as
follows. If RS = 0, the instruction command code register is selected, allowing the user to send a
command such as clear display, cursor at home, etc. If RS = 1 the data register is selected,
allowing the user to send data to be displayed on the LCD.

R/W – read/write:

R/W input allows the user to write information to the LCD or read information from it. R/W = 1
when reading; R/W =0 when writing.

E – Enable:
The enable pin is used by the LCD to latch information presented to its data pins. When data is
supplied to data pins, a high to low pulse must be applied to this pin in order for the LCD to latch
in the data present at the data pins. This pulse must be a minimum of 450 ns wide.

D0 – D7:

The 8 bit data pins, D0 – D7, are used to send information to the LCD or read the contents of the
LCD’s internal registers.

To display letters and numbers, we send ASCII codes for the letters A – Z, a – z, and numbers 0
– 9 to these pins while making RS = 1.

There are also instructions command codes that can be sent to the LCD to clear the display or
force the cursor to the home position or blink the cursor. Table below lists the instruction
command codes.

LCD Commands table:

We also use RS = 0 to check the busy flag bit to see if the LCD is ready to receive information.
The busy flag is D7 and can be read when R/W =1 and RS = 0, as follows: if R/W =1, RS =0.
When D7 = 1(busy flag = 1), the LCD busy taking care of internal operations and will not accept
any new information. When D7 = 0, the LCD is ready to receive new information. Note: It is
recommended to check the busy flag before writing any data to the LCD.

Interfacing 8051 with LCD:

From the above figure microcontroller is used for 8 bit data display on the LCD. Data
lines of the LCD Pin no.7 to pin no 14 are connected to the port 1 of the microcontroller.
The control pin no.4 register select is connected to P3.5, pin no.5 of LCD for Read/write is
connected to P3.6 and the enable pin (6) is connected to microcontroller.

Current Transformer

A current transformer is an instrument transformer, used along with measuring or

protective devices, in which the secondary current is proportional to the primary current
(under normal conditions of operation) and differs from it by an angle which is
approximately zero.
Current transformers perform the following functions:
 Current transformers supply the protective relays with currents of magnitude
proportional to those of power circuit but sufficiently reduced in magnitude.
 The measuring devices cannot be directly connected to the high magnitude
supplies. Hence current transformers are used to supply those devices with
currents of magnitude proportional to those of power.
 A current transformer also isolates the measuring instruments from high voltage circuits.
Current Transformer is a type of “instrument transformer” that is designed to produce an
alternating current in its secondary winding which is proportional to the current being measured
in its primary. Current transformers reduce high voltage currents to a much lower value and
provide a convenient way of safely monitoring the actual electrical current flowing in an AC
transmission line using a standard ammeter. The principal of operation of a basic current
transformer is slightly different from that of an ordinary voltage transformer.

Typical Current Transformer

Unlike the voltage or power transformer looked at previously, the current transformer
consists of only one or very few turns as its primary winding. This primary winding can be of
either a single flat turn, a coil of heavy duty wire wrapped around the core or just a conductor or
bus bar placed through a central hole as shown.

Due to this type of arrangement, the current transformer is often referred too as a “series
transformer” as the primary winding, which never has more than a very few turns, is in series
with the current carrying conductor supplying a load.

The secondary winding however may have a large number of coil turns wound on a
laminated core of low-loss magnetic material. This core has a large cross-sectional area so that
the magnetic flux density created is low using much smaller cross-sectional area wire, depending
upon how much the current must be stepped down as it tries to output a constant current,
independent of the connected load.
 The secondary winding will supply a current into either a short circuit, in the form of an
ammeter, or into a resistive load until the voltage induced in the secondary is big enough to
saturate the core or cause failure from excessive voltage breakdown.

Unlike a voltage transformer, the primary current of a current transformer is not

dependent of the secondary load current but instead is controlled by an external load. The
secondary current is usually rated at a standard 1 Ampere or 5 Amperes for larger primary
current ratings.

There are three basic types of current transformers: wound, toroidal and bar.

 Wound Current Transformer – The transformers primary winding is physically connected

in series with the conductor that carries the measured current flowing in the circuit. The
magnitude of the secondary current is dependent on the turn’s ratio of the transformer.
 Toroidal Current Transformer – These do not contain a primary winding. Instead, the line
that carries the current flowing in the network is threaded through a window or hole in the
toroidal transformer. Some current transformers have a “split core” which allows it to be
opened, installed, and closed, without disconnecting the circuit to which they are attached.
 Bar-type Current Transformer – This type of current transformer uses the actual cable or
bus-bar of the main circuit as the primary winding, which is equivalent to a single turn. They
are fully insulated from the high operating voltage of the system and are usually bolted to the
current carrying device.
Current transformers can reduce or “step-down” current levels from thousands of amperes
down to a standard output of a known ratio to either 5 Amps or 1 Amp for normal operation.
Thus, small and accurate instruments and control devices can be used with CT’s because they are
insulated away from any high-voltage power lines. There are a variety of metering applications
and uses for current transformers such as with Wattmeter’s, power factor meters, watt-hour
meters, protective relays, or as trip coils in magnetic circuit breakers, or MCB’s.

Current Transformer
  
 Generally current transformers and ammeters are used together as a matched pair in which
the design of the current transformer is such as to provide a maximum secondary current
corresponding to a full-scale deflection on the ammeter. In most current transformers an
approximate inverse turns ratio exists between the two currents in the primary and secondary
windings. This is why calibration of the CT is generally for a specific type of ammeter.
 Most current transformers have a the standard secondary rating of 5 amps with the primary
and secondary currents being expressed as a ratio such as 100/5. This means that the primary
current is 20 times greater than the secondary current so when 100 amps is flowing in the
primary conductor it will result in 5 amps flowing in the secondary winding. A current
transformer of say 500/5, will produce 5 amps in the secondary for 500 amps in the primary
conductor, 100 times greater.
By increasing the number of secondary windings, Ns, the secondary current can be made much
smaller than the current in the primary circuit being measured because as Ns increases, Is goes
down by a proportional amount. In other words, the number of turns and the current in the
primary and secondary windings are related by an inverse proportion.

A current transformer, like any other transformer, must satisfy the amp-turn equation and
we know from our tutorial on double wound voltage transformers that this turns ratio is equal to:
from which we get:

The current ratio will sets the turn’s ratio and as the primary usually consists of one or
two turns whilst the secondary can have several hundred turns, the ratio between the primary and
secondary can be quite large. For example, assume that the current rating of the primary winding
is 100A. The secondary winding has the standard rating of 5A. Then the ratio between the
primary and the secondary currents is 100A-to-5A, or 20:1. In other words, the primary current is
20 times greater than the secondary current.

It should be noted however, that a current transformer rated as 100/5 is not the same as
one rated as 20/1 or subdivisions of 100/5. This is because the ratio of 100/5 expresses the
“input/output current rating” and not the actual ratio of the primary to the secondary currents.
Also note that the number of turns and the current in the primary and secondary windings are
related by an inverse proportion.

But relatively large changes in current transformers turns ratio can be achieved by modifying the
primary turns through the CT’s window where one primary turn is equal to one pass and more
than one pass through the window results in the electrical ratio being modified.

So for example, a current transformer with a relationship of say, 300/5A can be converted
to another of 150/5A or even 100/5A by passing the main primary conductor through its interior
window two or three times as shown. This allows a higher value current transformer to provide
the maximum output current for the ammeter when used on smaller primary current lines.

Current Transformer Primary Turns Ratio

Current Transformer Example No1

 A bar-type current transformer which has 1 turn on its primary and 160 turns on its
secondary is to be used with a standard range of ammeters that have an internal resistance of
0.2Ω. The ammeter is required to give a full scale deflection when the primary current is 800
Amps. Calculate the maximum secondary current and secondary voltage across the ammeter.

Secondary Current:

Voltage across Ammeter:

 
We can see above that since the secondary of the current transformer is connected across
the ammeter, which has a very small resistance, the voltage drop across the secondary winding is
only 1.0 volts at full primary current.

However, if the ammeter was removed, the secondary winding effectively becomes open-
circuited, and thus the transformer acts as a step-up transformer. This due in part to the very
large increase in magnetizing flux in the secondary core as the secondary leakage reactance
influences the secondary induced voltage because there is no opposing current in the secondary
winding to prevent this.

The results is a very high voltage induced in the secondary winding equal to the ratio
of:  Vp(Ns/Np) being developed across the secondary winding. So for example, assume our
current transformer from above is used on a 480 volt to earth three-phase power line. Therefore:
  This high voltage is because the volts per turns ratio is almost constant in the primary and
secondary windings and as Vs = Ns*Vp the values of Ns and Vp are high values, so Vs is
extremely high.
For this reason a current transformer should never be left open-circuited or operated with
no-load attached when the main primary current is flowing through it just as a voltage
transformer should never operate into a short circuit. If the ammeter (or load) is to be removed, a
short-circuit should be placed across the secondary terminals first to eliminate the risk of shock.

This high voltage is because when the secondary is open-circuited the iron core of the
transformer operates at a high degree of saturation and with nothing to stop it, it produces an
abnormally large secondary voltage, and in our simple example above, this was calculated at
76.8kV!. This high secondary voltage could damage the insulation or cause electric shock if the
CT’s terminals are accidentally touched.

Voltage measurement

Voltage is the difference of electrical potential between two points of an electrical or

electronic circuit, expressed in volts. It measures the potential energy of an electric field to cause
an electric current in an electrical conductor.

Most measurement devices can measure voltage. Two common voltage measurements
are direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC).

Although voltage measurements are the simplest of the different types of analog measurements,
they present unique challenges due to noise considerations.
Potential Transformers

It is not an easy way to measure the high voltage and currents associated with power
transmission and distribution systems, hence instrument transformers are often used to step-down
these values to a safer level to measure. This is because measuring meters or instruments and
protective relays are low voltage devices, thereby cannot be connected directly to high voltage
circuit for the purpose of measurement and protection of the system.

In addition to the reduction of voltage and current levels, these transformers isolate the
measuring or protective circuit from the main circuit which is operating at high power levels.

The current transformers reduce the level of current to the instrument or relay operating
range, whereas potential transformers transforms the high voltage to a circuit operating low
voltage. In this article we are going to discuss in detail about the potential transformers.

What is Potential Transformer

Potential transformer is a voltage step-down transformer which reduces the voltage of a

high voltage circuit to a lower level for the purpose of measurement. These are connected across
or parallel to the line which is to be monitored.

The basic principle of operation and construction of this transformer is similar to the
standard power transformer. In common, the potential transformers are abbreviated as PT.

Potential Transformer
 The primary winding consists of a large number of turns which is connected across the
high voltage side or the line in which measurements have to be taken or to be protected. The
secondary winding has lesser number of turns which is connected to the voltmeters, or potential
coils of wattmeter and energy meters, relays and other control devices. These can be single phase
or three phase potential transformers. Irrespective of the primary voltage rating, these are
designed to have the secondary output voltage of 110 V.

Since the voltmeters and potential coils of other meters have high impedance, a small
current flows through the secondary of PT. Therefore, PT behaves as an ordinary two winding
transformer operating on no load. Due to this low load (or burden) on the PT, the VA ratings of
PTs are low and in the range of 50 to 200 VA. On the secondary side, one end is connected to the
ground for safety reasons as shown in figure.

Similar to the normal transformer, the transformation ratio is specified as

V1/V2 = N1/N2

From the above equation, if the voltmeter reading and transformation ratio are known,
then high voltage side voltage can be determined.

Construction

Compared to the conventional transformer, potential transformers or PTs use larger

conductor sizes and core. PTs designed for ensuring the greater accuracy and hence, at the time
of designing economy of the material is not considered as main aspect.

PTs are made with special high quality core operating at lower flux densities in order to
have small magnetising current so that no load losses are minimised. Both core and shell type
constructions are preferred for PTs. For high voltages, core type PTs are used while shell type is
preferred for low voltages.
 Construction

To reduce the leakage reactance, co-axial windings are used for both primary and
secondary. For reducing the insulation cost, low voltage secondary winding is placed next to the
core. And for high voltage PTs, high voltage primary is divided into sections of coils to reduce
the insulation between coil layers. For these windings, vanished cambric and cotton tape are used
as laminations. In between the coils, hard fiber separators are used.

These are carefully designed to have minimum phase shift between the input and output
voltages and also to maintain a minimum voltage ratio with variation in load. Oil filled PTs are
used for high voltage levels (above the range of 7KV). In such PTs, oil filled bushings are
provided to connect the main lines.

Types of Voltage or Potential Transformers

Majorly these are classified into outdoor and indoor potential transformers.

Outdoor Potential Transformers

These can be single or three phase voltage transformers available for different range of
operating voltages that are used for outdoor relaying and metering applications. Up to 33KV,
these are of electromagnetic type single and three phase voltage transformers. Above 33KV
single phase outdoor potential transformers can be two types electromagnetic type and capacitive
voltage transformer (CVT).

Electromagnetic or Wound Type Conventional Potential Transformer

These are similar to the conventional oil filled wire wound transformers. The figure
below shows the electromagnetic type of PT wherein tap tank is connected to the line terminal. A
plug is provided on the tank to fill the oil and this tank is mounted on an insulator support.

At the base, ground terminal and oil drain plug is provided. In this, primary is connected
between the two phases or between one phase and ground. So one end of the primary is
connected to main line at the top and the other end is brought out at the bottom and is grounded
with other ground terminals.

The secondary terminals including earth terminal are located in the terminal box at the
bottom, further these are connected to the metering and relay circuits. These are used up to or
below 132 KV operating voltages due to insulation aspects.

PotentialTransformer
Capacitive Voltage Transformers (CVTs)

It is a capacitive potential divider connected between the phase of main line and ground.
These can be coupling capacitor or bushing type CVTs. These two types are electrically less or
more similar, but the difference is that the formation of capacitance which further decides their
rated burden (or load).

A coupling capacitor type consists of a stack of series connected capacitors which are
made up of oil-impregnated paper and aluminium foil. For desired primary and secondary
voltages, primary and secondary terminals are connected across the capacitors.

The bushing type CVT uses condenser type bushings provided with tapping. CVTs are
also used for power line carrier communication and hence more economical.

Capacitive Voltage Transformers

Indoor Potential Transformers

These are also available as single or three phase PTs which are of moulded, magnetic type. The
mounting mechanism can be fixed or drawout type. In this type of PTs, all parts of primary
winding are insulated from earth at its rated insulation capacity. These are designed to operate
relays, measuring instruments, and other control devices in indoor service with high accuracy.

Indoor Potential Transformers

Based on the function, PT or voltage transformers are classified into metering voltage
transformers and protection voltage transformers.

Errors in Voltage Transformer

For an ideal voltage transformer, the voltage produced in the secondary winding is an
exact proportion to the primary voltage and are exactly in phase opposition. But in actual PTs
this is not so because of the presence of voltage drops in primary and secondary resistance and
also due the power factor of the burden on secondary. This causes to occurrence of ratio and
phase angle errors in voltage transformers. Let us know in detail.
Consider the phasor diagram of potential transformer shown above,

where

Io = No load current

Im = magnetizing component of no load current

Iu = Wattful component of no load current

Es and Ep = Induced voltages in secondary and primary windings respectively

Np and Ns = Number of turns in primary and secondary windings respectively

Ip and Is = Primary current and secondary current

Rp and Rs = Resistances of primary and secondary windings respectively

Xp and Xs = Reactances of primary and secondary windings respectively

β = Phase angle error

The primary induced voltage or EMF Ep is derived by subtracting the primary resistive
(IpRp) and reactive drop (IpXp) from the primary voltage Vp. And also, secondary terminal
voltage Vs is derived by subtracting secondary winding resistance drop (IsRs) and reactance
drop (IsXs) vectorially from secondary induced EMF Es. Due to these drops nominal ratio of the
potential transformer is not equal to the actual ratio of the PT, hence introduces a ratio error.

Ratio Error

The ratio error of the potential transformer is defined as the variation in actual ratio of
transformation from nominal ratio.

Percentage Ratio Error = (Kn – R) / R × 100,

Where,

Kn is the nominal or rated transformation ratio and is

Kn = Rated primary voltage / Rated secondary voltage

Phase Angle Error

In ideal PT, there should not exist any phase angle between the primary voltage and
reversed secondary voltage. But in practice, there exist a phase difference between Vp and Vs
reversed (as we can observe in above figure), thereby, introduces phase angle error. It is defined
as the phase difference between the primary voltage and reversed secondary voltage.

In order to reduce these errors such that the accuracy is improved by designing the
transformers in such a way that they windings have appropriate magnitudes of internal resistance
and reactance’s. In addition to this, the core should require minimum magnetizing and core loss
components of exciting current.

Applications of Voltage Transformers

 Electrical Metering systems

 Electrical protection systems
 Distance protection of feeders
 Synchronizing generators with grid
 Impedance protection of generators
 The class of potential transformers used for metering is called as measurement voltage or
potential transformers. On other hand PTs used for protection called as protection voltage
transformers. In some cases PTs are used for both metering and protection purposes, in such
cases, one secondary winding is connected to metering and other secondary winding is used for
protection.

Relay

A relay is an electrical switch that opens and closes under control of another electrical
circuit. In the original form, the switch is operated by an electromagnet to open or close one or
many sets of contacts. These contacts can be either Normally Open (NO), Normally Closed
(NC), or change-over contacts.

 Normally-open contacts connect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit is
disconnected when the relay is inactive. It is also called Form A contact or "make"
contact. Form A contact is ideal for applications that require to switch a high-current
power source from a remote device.
 Normally-closed contacts disconnect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit is
connected when the relay is inactive. It is also called Form B contact or "break" contact.
Form B contact is ideal for applications that require the circuit to remain closed until the
relay is activated.
 Change-over contacts control two circuits: one normally-open contact and one normally-
closed contact. It is also called Form C contact.

Functional description

When a current flows through the coil, the resulting magnetic field attracts an
armature that is mechanically linked to a moving contact. The movement either makes or
breaks a connection with a fixed contact. When the current is switched off, the armature
is usually returned by a spring to its resting position.
 Fig 6.1 An Electromagnetic Relay

Figure 3.0.2- Relay Switch Connection

Operation of Relay:
 The relay driver is used to isolate both the controlling and the controlled device. The
relay is an electromagnetic device, which consists of solenoid, moving contacts (switch) and
restoring spring and consumes comparatively large amount of power. Hence it is possible for the
interface IC to drive the relay satisfactorily. To enable this, a driver circuitry, which will act as a
buffer circuit, is to be incorporated between them. The driver circuitry senses the presence of a
“high” level at the input and drives the relay from another voltage source. Hence the relay is used
to switch the electrical supply to the appliances..From the figure when we connect the rated
voltage across the coil the back emf opposes the current flow but after the short time the supplied
voltage will overcome the back emf and the current flow through the coil increase. When the
current is equal to the activating current of relay the core is magnetized and it attracts the moving
contacts. Now the moving contact leaves from its initial position denoted “(N/C)” normally
closed terminal which is a fixed terminal.

The common contact or moving contact establishes the connection with a new terminal
which is indicated as a normally open terminal “(N/O)”.Whenever, the supply coil is withdrawn
the magnetizing force is vanished. Now, the spring pulls the moving contact back to initial
position, where it makes a connection makes with N/C terminal. However, it is also to be noted
that at this time also a back emf is produced. The withdrawal time may be in microsecond, the
back emf may be in the range of few kilovolts and in opposite polarity with the supplied
terminals the voltage is known as surge voltage. It must be neutralized or else it may damage the
system.

Selection of an appropriate relay

 For a particular application requires evaluation of many different factors:

 Number and type of contacts – normally open, normally closed change over (double-
throw)
 Voltage and Current Rating of contacts
 Coil voltage – machine-tool relays usually 24 VAC or 120 VAC, relay for switch gear
may have 125V or 250 VDC coils, “sensitive” relays operate on a few mill amperes.
 Package/enclosure – open, touch-sage, double-voltage for isolation between circuits.
 Mounting – sockets ,rail mount, panel mount, through-panel mount, enclosure for
mounting on walls or equipment
 Switching time – where high speed is required
 “Dry” contacts – when switching very low level signals, special contact materials may be
needed such as gold-plated contacts
 Contact protection – suppress arcing in very inductive circuits
 Coil protection – suppress the surge voltage produced when switching the coil current.
 Isolation between coil circuit and contacts
 Aerospace or radiation – resistant testing, special quality assurance
 Accessories such as timers, auxiliary contacts, pilot lamps, test buttons
 Regulatory approvals
 Stray magnetic linkage between coils of adjacent relays on a printed circuit board.

Types of Relay

A latching relay is mechanically arranged so that the armature can rest in either of
two positions. There are two coils that pull the armature in opposite directions, so the relay can
be switched to one position or the other and then left in that state indefinitely. This type of relay
has the advantage that it consumes power only for an instant, while it is being switched, and it
retains its last setting across a power outage. Some common relays may be wired to electrically
latch, which offers no power saving but does ensure that the relay returns to a known state during
and after a power outage.
A reed relay has two, usually normally open, contacts inside a vacuum or inert gas
filled glass tube. This protects the contacts against atmospheric corrosion. The two contacts are
closed by magnetism from a coil around the glass tube, or a permanent magnet moved towards it.
See also: reed switch.
A mercury wetted relay is a form of reed relay in which the contacts are wetted
with mercury. Such relays are used to switch low-voltage signals (one volt or less), or for high-
speed counting and timing applications where the mercury eliminated contact bounce. Mercury
wetted relays are position-sensitive and must be mounted vertically to work properly. Because of
the toxicity and expense of liquid mercury, these relays are rarely specified for new equipment
A machine tool relay is a type standardized for industrial control of machine tools,
transfer machines, and other sequential control. They are characterized by a large number of
contacts (sometimes extendable in the field) which are easily converted from normally-open to
normally-closed status, easily replaceable coils, and a form factor that allows compactly
installing many relays in a control panel. Although such relays once were the backbone of
automation in such industries as automobile assembly, the programmable logic controller mostly
displaced the machine tool relay from sequential control applications.
A contactor is a very heavy-duty relay used for switching electric motors and
lighting loads. Such devices are often used for motor starters, and may be built up with overload
protection devices attached. The overload sensing devices are a form of heat operated relay
where a coil heats a bi-metal strip to open contacts, or where a solder pot melts, releasing a
spring to operate contacts.
A Buchholz relay is a safety device sensing the accumulation of gas in large oil-
filled transformers, which will alarm on slow accumulation of gas or shut down the transformer
if gas is produced rapidly in the transformer oil.
A Solid State Relay (SSR) is a solid state electronic component that provides a
similar function to an electromechanical relay but does not have any moving components,
increasing long-term reliability.
Applications
Relays are used for
 To control a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in some types of modems,
 To control a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the starter solenoid of an
automobile
 To detect and isolate faults on transmission and distribution lines by opening and closing
circuit breakers (protection relays)

Buzzer Basics

The following diagram shows how two buttons (switches) can each be used to ring a
buzzer. In this example, either button can control the buzzer. By pushing either button, the
circuit is completed and the flow of electricity moves from the power source (battery) to the
buzzer. It does not matter which button (switch) is activated.

The schematic below shows how the buzzer circuit would operate.
 A simple circuit consists of three elements: a source of electricity (battery), a path or
conductor on which electricity flows (wire) and an electrical resistor (lamp) which is any device
that requires electricity to operate. The illustration below shows a simple circuit containing a
battery, two wires and a low voltage light bulb. The flow of electricity is caused by excess
electrons on the negative end of the battery flowing toward the positive end, or terminal, of the
battery. When the simple circuit is complete, electrons flow from the negative terminal through
the wire conductor, then through the bulb (lighting it up), and finally back to the positive
terminal - in a continual flow.
CONCLUSION:

In this POWER ELECTRONIC SOURCE ON TRANSMISSION LINE GROUND

FAULT DETECTION system has been designed to improve the domestic and industrial safety.
The system was a positive learning experience for the student, which allows maximizing his
creative potential as well as utilizing many technologies in Electrical Engineering Technology
discipline.

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