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    Uncertainty Principle

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    Kailasa
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    © All Rights Reserved
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    Chapter fl HEISENBERG UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE According to classical mechanics, a moving particle is associated with a definite momentum and occupies a definite position in space. But classical view point is applicable only for objects of appreciable size, it does not give satisfactory explanation for particles of atomic dimensions. Quantum mechanically, a wave packet is associated with a moving particle and according to Born’s probability, the particle may be found anywhere within the wave packet. Thus position of particle is uncertain within the limits of wave packet hence there is uncertainty about the velocity and momentum of the particle. Because of wave nature of matter, a particle is always in the disturbed state, in the wave packet associated with it. Hence it is almost impossible to locate the position and momentum of the particle with 100% accuracy. Statement of Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle It states that it is impossible to determine the exact position and momentum of a Particle simultaneously. In any simultaneous determination of the position and ™omentum of the particle, the product of uncertainty in position of the particle in certain direction and uncertainty in component of linear momentum of particle in the fame directs A "me direction can never be less than >- 2 A * w(4.1) : Ax Apr 2 > 2 bers Ax = Uncertainty in position along X-axis ps = Uncertainty in component of linear momentum along X-axis h_ where h is Planck's constant fae Qn a UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE Similarly uncertainty principle along Y-axis and Z-axis is given as A y Apy 2 = a4 Ay Apy 2 9 (4.2) A and (4.3) Proof of Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle Heisenberg uncertainty principle can be proved by assuming that a particle in motion can be taken as a group of waves. The group velocity being equal to the particle velocity. The moving particle is considered to be a de-Broglie wave group. This means there is always a limit to the accuracy with which one can measure its particle properties. Let us consider a particle surrounded by a de-Broglie group as shown in Fig. (4.1). Let us consider a group of waves consisting of two waves of equal amplitude and slightly different angular frequencies. Let us consider two such waves of amplitude a frequencies o: and w2 and propagation constants ki and ke are given as yi = acos (ort — kia) ye = a.cos («st ~ kox) Since phase velocity (up) = i hence eo and “2 represent phase velocities of two waves. 1 2 According to the principle of superposition the resultant wave is given as y =yit we ww =acos (ait — kix) + a cos (Wat — kox) y =a [eos (ait — kix) + c08 (wat — kox) B x Since cos A+cos B = 2cos (422) om (44) :. Eq. (4.6) becomes by using the above relation 9 = Ba cos] S122) (& + ke) x) oos| i 2 2 or y = 2a cos (ot ~ x) cns( 0 ES) 2 2 where reson Ozh bi eka 2 Das Aw =@1-@2 and Ak=ki—kz 4 " \ . NCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE ‘The resultant wave as shown in fig. (4.2), en By Ak” The group velocity of the de-Broglie wave up associated with the moving particle is equal to the particle velocity. Therefore, the loop formed may be taken equivalent to the position of particle. Thus position of the particle cannot be determined with certainty. It is somewhere between two consecutive nodes. Thus the error jn measurement of the position of the particle is equivalent to the distance between these two consecutive nodes. [4.3] the loop formed will travel with group velocity Particle ax —________ Fig. 4.2 For the formation of nodes, the amplitude should be zero. Thus a node is formed when from eqn. (4.7) ie. where n =0,1,2,.... If. and x» represent the positions of two con: x = (2n+1I)> (Qn+1) 2 Ak yy = (Qn +3) and ” cae 2 ..-(4.8) secutive nodes at any instant ¢ then (4.9) «--(4.10) Subtracting eqn. (4.9) from eqn. (4.10), we get Ak Ae Ga =m) = (n+3-2n Ak —%2) macoecs. or Since and a Thus ™ ais 3 (4.11) = UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE Putting this value in eqn. (4.11) Therefore, error in measurement of position of the particle (2m) h 2nAp or ae Ap or Ax Ap =h +=e(4.12) where Ap is error in measurement of momentum p of the particle. If the group consists of very large number waves of continuously varying frequencies, the product of errors in measurement of position and momentum of particle is given by 1(h Ax Ap > 3(4) w-(4.18) or Axdp 2th where a= 2 On which is exact form of uncertainty principle. 22) TIME-ENERGY UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE Consider a free particle of mass m is moving with velocity v, along X-axis. Then Id energy of the particle is given by or where p: is momentum of the particle. Let Ap: and AE be the uncertainties in momentum and energy respectively. Differentiating eqn. (4.14), we get 2p, ee me Ap, or AE = 2 pp, m or AE = v, Ape Let the uncertainty in time interval at point Ax is At, then uncertainty Ax = v, At or UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE Putting this value in eqn. (4.15), we get AE At = Ax Apy +=(4.16) According to Heisenberg uncertainty principle Ax Ap: 2 & ps2 t using eqn. (4.13) Patting this value in eqn. (4.16) ane) AE At 2 5 (4.17) This is time-energy uncertainty principle. UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE IN TERMS OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM AND ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT Consider an electron of mass m and having momentum pis moving in an atomic orbit of radius r. Let the atomic orbit is a circle with centre O as shown in Fig. (4.3). Let © be the angular displacement corresponding to linear displacement x. Then Gok A . Uncertainty in angular displacement can be written as no= > (4.18) r where Ax is uncertainty in position. Angular momentum (L) of electron is given by L=mor tg L=pr p=mv) +. Uncertainty in angular momentum can be written as AL =(Ap)r aft .-(4.19) bps re From eqn. (4.18) Ax Ao = — r Ax = (A0)r wes(4.20) UNCERTAINTY P} (a) PRINCIPLE ‘Multiplying eans. (4.19 and 4.20), we get | (a0) r Ax Ap = AL AO (4.21) Since according to Heisenberg uncertainty principle h Ax Ap 2 = Putting this value in eqn. (4.21) abso >= « (4.22) 2 This is uncertainty principle in terms of angular momentum and angular displacement. [EJ EXPERIMENTAL ILLUSTRATION OF UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE ‘The validity of Heisenberg’s uncertainty may be illustrated by following two experiments (1) DETERMINATION OF POSITION OF A PARTICLE BY GAMMA RAY MICROSCOPE For measuring both the position and momentum of an electron, a high powered y-ray microscope is used as shown in Fig. (4.4). The resolving power (i. the minimum distance between two points that can be resolved by microscope) of a microscope is given by a Ax = 3 sin 0 (4.23) Particle (electron) Incident, photon x-axis me ceRTAINTY PRINCIPLE [4.7] ul s the error or uncertainty in the measurement of positio gth of light used and 0 is the semi-vertical angle of cone of light ‘this represent n of particle cea ere Ais wavelen| entering the we of microscope. wh object A yray phot ‘ugh the microsco torered photon can enter the own in Fig. (4-4). As the electron inte ‘change in momentum lectron. Now in order that the electron may be seen photon is incident on the © of microscope. The pe the scattered photon must enter the objective field of view of microscope between angular range + @ to— 0 as acts with a y-ray photon, the electron recoils and suffers Let a photon of wavelength 4’ and momentum ZB is incident upon the electron. The photon ron and scatter into the microscope with increased wavelength A (due to collide with elect OA and OB. In Compton effect). The scattered photon enters the microscope anywhere between 4 sine. case it enters along OA, then its momentum along X-axis Thus loss of momentum of photon (or momentum imparted to the electron) along X-axis hh is (4.24) ee (4.24) In case the scattered photon enters the microscope along OB, then its momentum along X- sin 8 axis sin 0. x Thus loss of momentum of photon imparted to the electron along X-axis h (ih ) =77(-z89) (4.25) The momentum imparted to electron can have any value given by eqns. (4.24 and 4.25). _, Hence error (or uncertainty) involved in the measurement of momentum of electron is given to-~(Bobains)-(£-2ains) himabals ia thoohry = tp sin o-35+5-sino ap. = sin 0 Multiplying eqns. (4.23) and (4.26), we get eenoh Ax Ap. = 5 Ax Ap: =h +=(4.27) i In ca, Prodi tS @ sroup consisting of large number of waves of continuously varyi : cf errors (uncertainties) in position andraomantum ie givenad oe renee the UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE ‘Ax Aps 2 ++-(4.28) eAna2 : {where n= h or Thus the experiment shows validity of Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle. A BEAM OF ELECTRONS BY A SLIT rrow beam of electrons passing through a narrow slit of width Ay in direction as the electron must pass through the slit, the width of the slit Ay is a measure of uncertainty in position of electron. Suppose the narrow beam of electrons passing through the slit produces a diffraction pattern on the screen as shown in Fig. (4.5). The diffraction pattern consists of a central bright band and having alternate bright and dark bands of decreasing intensity on both sides. From the Fraunhofer diffraction at a single slit, the first minimum is given by (2) DIFFRACTION OF Consider a na shown in Fig. (4.5). Since Diffraction pattern Singesit Fig, 45 Ay sin @ =) +-(4.29) (- d sin 6 = nd and n= where 2. = wavelength of electron beam and 6 = Angle of diffraction Since the electron beam producing diffraction i . tron b pattern can pass from any point throt slit, hence uncertainty in determining the position of electron is equal to width Ay of slit. “a From eqn. (4.27) Ay = sin 0 ees elem beam is moving along X-axis hence it has no component Yeaxis. At the slit the electrons deviate from their original path to form diffraction pattern , hence they have component psind along Y-axis, Since the electron can be anyw! UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE [49] gifraction pattern from angle ~ to + @ hence y-component of momentum of electron may be petween p sin @and ~p sin 0, . Uncertainty in momentum of electron Apy = p sin 0 ~ (—p sin 0) Apy =p sin 0+ p sin 0 . Apy = 2p sin 0 Multiplying eqns. (4.30) and (4.31) Ay Apy = 2ps sin@ See Ay Ap; Since De-Broglie wave length where h is Planck’s constant. Putting this value in eqn. (4.32), we get yan, = 2(4)p \p Ay Apy = 2h h 5 past \y Ap; 2 which is in agreement with Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle. (4.31) (4.32) (4.33) Thus the experiment of diffraction of a beam of electrons at a single slit verify the Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle. APPLICATIONS OF UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE (1) GROUND STATE ENERGY (OR MINIMUM ENERGY) OF HARMONIC OSCILLATOR Consider a particle of mass m is executing simple harmonic motion with angular frequency Let the displacement of the particle from mean position is x. Then kinetic energy of the harmonic oscillator is given by 2 eee BE, = 2 5 2m where p is the momentum of particle. Potential energy of harmonic oscillator is given by Leda? = = mo"x PE. a oO UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE ‘Total energy of harmonic oscillator E=K£E.+P.E. eal ++0(4.34) 2m ) Let 5 be the amplitude of harmonic oscillator ie. Sax =? Then distance between two extreme positions on its path = r ‘Therefore maximum uncertainty in position is given by (A2)max (4.35) According to uncertainty principle h h Ax Ap > — where h =— eas On Hence minimum uncertainty in momentum is given by h (Ap) min = ———— 20%) max h ae (Ap)min = a ‘The momentum of oscillator cannot be less than (Ap) min ee Paley near It is observed that a body executing simple harmonic will have maximum potential ¢ when its kinetic energy is minimum. Hence total energy of the harmonic oscillator is given E =(K.E.)min + (P.E,)max Free Pinin +4 mo? (ax)? Saws ‘max (42) el jae are 4r2) 2m” 2 2 ane 2,2 &mr ee a ee UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE [4.43] ? é a +mo*r =0 4mr or or or 2mo Putting this value in eqn. (4.38), we get (+ B= Ems) 2 r Ban = © (200) 1 mot (*-) Bm\ A 2 2mo. me ae 4 4 Ein =} nw=1(4) anv => hy (4.39) 2 2\2n, 2 Advanced quantum mechanical calculations show that the total energy of a harmonic oscillator is given by Tn = (n + - hy --(4.40) where n=0,1,2,3, For ground state, the energy of harmonic oscillator is minimum i.e. n = 0. 4 :. Eqn. (4.40) becomes i il Ey = shy (4.41) which is agreement with eqn. (4.39). This value is known as the zero point energy of a harmonic oscillator. (2) GROUND STATE ENERGY OF HYDROGEN ATOM (OR BINDING ENERGY OF f ELECTRON) Consider an electron is revolving around the nucleus of a hydrogen atom in an orbit of radius r. So uncertainty in the position of electron is equal to radius r. ie, be +-(4.42) Uncertainty in momentum of electron, according to Uncertainty principle of h OD a --(4.48) ~~ UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE ‘The uncertainty in kinetic energy of electron is given as 1 Ane m(Av)” where Av is uncertainty in velocity and m mass of electron. (mav)? _ Ap” gpa eee oy 2m 2m w i or aT = —_, (using eq. 4.43) 2m (Ax) we AT = Ax =r) ...(4.44) 2mr? Uncertainty in potential energy of electron in the field of nucleus with atomic number Z. 2 eee dmc, At 2 or yg aney 7 Uncertainty in total energy is given as AE =AT+AV ‘The uncertainty in total energy will be minimum when d ew. or (UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE 4.13] Ameg) N or ere 2 For hydrogen atom Z= 1 r -(4.AT) me’ (This is minimum value of r (i.e. radius of first Bohr orbit). Putting the value of r in eqn. (4.46) re ne (me? 1a (_ me?) iS | si 2 : om (ane, An Eq lena) ty + rain lee mas (Ameo)*2n* (Amey)? #7 A ie pene a eee (4meo)” 20? (Amey)? 4 or wo Eh] (neo)? #2 \2 4 or es (4meo)? 2W pete Sala mes 4x? met 16n’

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