Be, x or THE Pp LIPPINES “ DEPARTMEN? OF _ PUBLIC WORKS AND COMMUNICATIONS BUREAU OF PUBLIC WORKS ys y v4 1954 Prepared, by, + PHILIPPINE DIVISION ITED STATES BUREAU OF PUBLIC ROADS _Prepared for the BUREAU OF PUBLIC WORKS Republic of the Philippines by Philippine Division U.S, Bureau of Public Roads Technical Consultants Foreign Operations AdministrationForeword When work first began on the expanded highw , program in Mindanao, it was realized how difficult \} would be for our engineers to explain personally the recent developments in the art of highway location to all of the Filipino engineers and students who might have need for this information, A series of pamphlets was prepared, each dealing with a different phase of the subject, by whi means it was hoped to reach a larger number of peoplé. The favorable reception of these pamphlets has led to their consolidation into one booklet, with a considerable amount of new material added. Mr. F. W. Cron, Highway Construction Engineer, who prepared the first pamphlets, has been responsible for its preparation. The text of the manual was written by Mr. Cron and the illustrations were prepared by Mr. Marcial Manalaysay and Mr. Dominador Vergara under the general direction of Mr. Cron. In the manual an attempt has been made to set down many of the little details which when taken together com- prise the "know-how" of the locator's art. We are passing them on to the engineers of the Philippines in the hope that they may contribute in some measure to the program of road construction and modernization which is aiding so effectively the economic and cultural development of the Philippines. O uly k- A. C. Taylor Division EngineerChapter I Chapter u Chapter II Chapter IV Chapter v Chapter VI Chapter - VII Chapter VIII Chapter IX Chapter x Chapter XI Chapter XII Chapter XIII Chapter XIV APPENDICES Appendix I Appendix Appendix IIL Appendix IV Appendix = V Appendix VI Appendix VII Appendix VII Appendix IX. Appendix =X. Appendix XI Appendix. XII Appendix XIII Appendix XIV Appendix XV Appendix XVI Appendix XVII Appendix XVIIL Appendix XIX Appendix XX ART OF HIGHWAl OCATN CONTENT Pa The Evolution of the A_t of Highway Location... 7+ Highway Reconnaissance............ wee 1203 Highway Route Selection.. se 37-65 The Preliminary Survey. The Office Projection... The Location Survey. are \35-101 Highway Design..... . -102-104 Design of the Roadway Cross Section + 105-114 Design af the Subgrade and Pavement. . 115-122 Design of the Grade Line....... 123-132 Drainage Design. . ween 1B3=149 Design of Accesses, Intersections and Auxiliary Construction ........ see 150-159 Preparation of Plans, Specifications and Estimates....6.....eceeeeee sees 160-175 Setting Stakes for Control of Construction. -». 176-197 Typical Reconnaissance Report..... . 198-204 Characteristics of Aerial Photographs. ....., 205-207 Gradé Compensation for Curvature........., 208 Typical Flagging Report,...................209-211 Standards for Highway Surveys..............212-215 Astronomical Observations for Azimuth......216-229 Monumentation and Referencing. ... w+ 230 Field Notebooks and Note Keeping. + 231-244 Computations and Computation Sheets........245-256 Minimum Design Standards for Philippine Highways. .....0..4seeee0e00+ 257 Recommended Standards for Grade Com- pensation, Superelevation and Widening. ...258 Typical Final Location Report... = 259-266 Bridge Site Surveys... : 267-270 Estimating Waterway Openings for Highway Culverts.........0ee0ees . 271-274 Typical Design Memorandum. ..... . 275-277 Shrinkage and Swell............ 278-280 Characteristics of Mass Curves.. sees 281 The Classification of Soils...... sss 282-287 Vertical Curves and Sight Distance......... 288-291 Preparation and Filing of Plan Drawing 292-295CHAPTF 1 THE EVOLUTION OF THE AR OF HIGHWAY LOCATION In principle a road is simply an inclined plane, one of ez most elementary inventions. However, the application of the princ, fle to the irregular surface of the earth is a highly-developed art making use of many techniques. This art has evolved gradually from earliest times adapting itself to changes in the vehicle and making use of new discov- eries to produce better and cheaper locations The existence of a road implies the existence of a vehicle to use the road, The road and the vehicles travelling over it comprise a mode or system of land transportation, which cannot exist in the absence of either element. The dominant member of this inseparable pair is the vehicle and its characteristics in all cases determine the characteris ties of the road, or way. Thus the wagon road, the railroad, the boat- canal and the motor speedway and even the belt conveyor, have pecu- liar attributes traceable directly to the characteristics of the vehicles using them. They also have many features in common arising from the fact that they are all adaptations of the inclined plane principle. The Development of Land Transportation Among civilized man’s earliest accomplishments were the domes- tication of draft animals and the invention of the wheel. These made animal-drawn vehicles possible and greatly increased his capacity to move goods from one place to another. The vehicle of course required a relatively smooth way for its operation so roads also developed at a very early period. The remains of paved roads constructed more than 4,000 years ago have been un- earthed in Crete. Throughout all ages as populations increased men pushed farther and farther into the wilderness and established settlements. These were connected with each other by trails and crude roads which were gradually improved by minor relocations, drainage and surface better- ments until they became fairly good coach and wagon roads. Many of these survive today on locations originally selected by Roman engineers or medieval trail-blazers.Yen? (éseateday ri | m l, ap \re ancient Ke 4 ORES in. Pri ihis7 lt k “owed the ral mig \s. aded for 7 da: stan famea, nal _-™minated pes fined) cl aan move- ctide sy Conque ol __=ebbed and ‘the ntinents, Gradual, y be” 1€ stabilized along se Teas! stance, and the loc sns witi the lowest passes, % siesvtord most favorable c ditions of water and pasture became importé _ ies of communica a. The Romans were the most indus ious road builders of ancient: times. Their great empire was bound together by a network of fine roads, the product of hundreds of years of work by slaves, soldiers and private contractors. In all, the Romans constructed about 80,00 \kilo- meters of main highways. These enabled the Roman Army whic Aever at any time had more than 360,000 men to impose the rule of Rom’ over more than 100 million people. i After the Fall of Rome, road-building became a lost art. Those which had been built by the Romans were allowed to fall into disrepair or in some cases were delibarately destroyed to impede the advance of possible enemies. Without roads vehicles also disappeared, and during the middle ages practically all passengers and freight were carried on the backs of animals. In 1550 there were only three carriages in the whole city of Paris and England's first coach did not appear until 1555. There was a gradual revival of road building in Europe beginning about 1750 which received added impetus from the work of Tresaguet in France and MacAdam and Telford in England and Scotland. The latter part of the 17th century and the early part of the 18th was a period of intensive canal building in Europe and the.United States. This period ended rather abruptly in the middle 1800's as the rapid ex- pansion of steam railroads deprived the canals of their traffic, There then followed an amazing period of railroad construction and in the re+ latively short period of sixty years the civilized regions of the world were crisscrossed with railroad tracks forming highly developed trans- portation systems, In Europe and North America these systems reached maturity about the year 1910. In the early 1900's the automobile entered the transportation picture, The primitive vehicles of these early days created ademand for better roads than the existing wagon and carriage roads. The highways were then improved, but not rapidly enough to keep up with the mechanical development of the motor car and the increase in the number of vehicles in operation. The introduction of heavy road build- 8ae méry + World Warlenat the Fo_j builders to catch up atly vith “hicle builders bt this advantage has now been wsnothered it sanche of trucks. d automobiles which has made the road sys) «8: «every country in. world obsolete. To avoid the breakdown c/' the highway transpo ation systems, the authorities responsible tor road building must now locate, designand build highways which are far stronger and better (and costlier) than any of the past. Modern highways are wider and are built for higher speeds ar \ greater sight distances; and they require deeper cuts and fills an , greater volumes of excavation. The volumes moved are so great it fact that even at the relatively low unit cost possible with modern earth moving machinery the costs of today's highways are staggering. These high construction costs have emphasized the importance of the locating engineer's work, for only by careful exploration and study of the terrain can the costs of modern roads be kept within reasonable limits. The Evolution of Road Location From antiquity down to fairly recent times (excepting only the Roman era) the selectionof road locations was a rather flexible process requiring knowledge of the country and a good deal of common sense, but not much technical skill, Obstacles such as swamps, hills and frequently-flooded low ground were avoided, even at the expense of adding considerable extra distance. Since vehicle speeds were low very sharp curves were used. Grades were generally light so that an ordinary team could negotiate them with a fair load, but very steep grades were occasionally used. The cuts and fills were relatively small and earthwork quantities were as low as possible. The result was a location which often followed a crooked indirect route. The Romans were exceptional in that they generally located their roads in long straight stretches across hills and valleys, regardless of the terrain. They avoided only the worst obstacles, This was probably done to shorten the distances between towns and permit rapid concen= tration of foot troops. It may also have been done to permit easier pa- trolling and protection of the roads by the troops. Another peculiarity of the Roman roads was that they were usually built entirely on embank- ments thrown up from borrow. There was no attempt to reduce grades when going over hills by cutting at the top and filling at the bottom; the embankments went right over the tops of the hills. This practice may also have arisen from military necessity. The raised roads commanded a good view of the adjoining country and probably minimized the chance of successful ambush. In constructing canals engineers had to carry nearly level grades across country for great distances. This required an entirely different 9/ Yo ee eee aot Somned to / o2 Probe Po \ thy £ wage~ ad builder, e obse, A tor iougetgeo! AACle~ be ide Noa! ‘Narp kinks, “ alignm: iJ ath om cult spot awine eepyr ec. . Je could aah eryex og of the flat- ede oes were uired valleys and _ “jlls bout losing support he gr ‘eIine. To shorten istances eep operating cosi /ithin reasonable limits the builders sorted to building ‘elatively high embankments across the vall’ 6 making fairlyde cuts or even tunnels through the hills. The r ated al in the cuts was’ vn used to make the e abank- ments. Eventvally a point was reache where the cost of the heavier earthwork equalled or exceed the benefits of the shorter distance. In their early days the railroads were almost as s¢verely restricted by grades as the canals, due to the low power of the | somo tives. However, rapid evolution in motive power soon produced pgines capable of pulling loaded trains up grades of2 percentor even mote, and these steeper grades were frequently used to reduce initial construction costs. Occasionally grades were used, that could only be negotiated by a train in motion. These were called "momentum grades." "Pusher grades," were so steep that they could be negotiated only with the assistance of additional locomotives The railroads were fully aware of the disastrous effect of exces+ sive grades and sharp curvature on their operating costs, but in the early days, they could not afford. the capital investment required to build lines with low ruling grades, By the early 1900's however, new railroads were being located through fairly rough country with ruling yrades of % of one, percent or less, a fear that would have been considered impossible a few years earlier. Locations with these extremely low ruling grades demanded very thorough exploration and painstaking examination of the country and to meet these requirements a new method of location evolved in the United States. For want of a better term this method may be called the "'topo- graphic method" or the "railroad method." Using ground survey pro cedures (the only ones known at that time) the locator constructed a narrow topographic strip map of the country through which he desired to build his railroad. This enabled him to study large sweeps of ter- rain as if he were looking down on the earth from a balloon, and to lay out on his strip map what appeared to be the best available route. In difficult country he could make several such layouts, called "projec- tions", and compare their relative merits in the office without running any of them on the ground. This saved a great deal of field work and avoided repeated revisions. When he was satisfied with the "paper pro- jection" the locator transferred it from the map to the ground as his final location 10‘ache tristics of motor c _periffred much greater flexi- ‘ity in hig ‘ades than was po" ible on railways. Some of the compelling -y for using the ‘ ographic method therefore way’ absent in hi, .Wa work. This, and! poor alignment stand irds of the early moto ‘roads léd to the retenti . of the old "direct metnod" of lo~ gation by nost of the early road-building organizations long after this method had been abandoned by the railroads. Under the''direct method" the locator laid his tangents by inspection on the ground, fit’ ing curves as he went along ’ ? In some kinds of terrain a skillful locator could produce a reason- ably good location by the direct method, but in moutainous or confusing terrain poor locations often resulted. Appreciating its advantages a number of the more advanced highway organizations then adopted the topographic method, at least for important work. They felt that the additional cost of the topographic strip map was fully recovered in more economical location with lower construction cost. Today the topographic method is quite generally used in locating the main highways in the United States and particularly for costly and difficult projects, such as freeways-and parkways. Some of the opera~ tions formerly performed by ground survey methods are now done faster! and better by aerial and photogrammetric procedures but essentially the method remains unchanged ges. These are: nd requires five distinct steps or sta- 1, The Reconnaissance, the purpose of which is to decide the ter-| mini, the major intermediate controls, and the general route for the proposed highway. 2, Route Selection to narrow the choice down to the one or two best locations within the general route. 3. The Preliminary Survey to develope a topographic strip map covering the one or two selected routes. 4, The Office Projection, the purpose of which is to fit the detailed location as closely as possible to the terrain within the estab- lished standards, and 5, The Location Survey by means of which the paper projection is transferred from the topographic strip map to the ground. These steps will be discussed separately in the following chapters. 1amal ‘AR ighwe ocatruw a8 two fixe’ —_ints: thé-.-gcnining and the W€etthes -mini an infinite nt er or._ad centerlines can The pro? the locator is to fi _ the line which best serves the-sujoining lan * expected traffic d which can be constructed to the required : .a, ds at the least cos ‘The first step toward finding the best line is to make a reconnai. sance of the country between the termini. A reconnaissance is nota survey in the ordinary sense, but is a rapid and critical general - xami- nation of the country through which the road is to pass to detern ne its principal topographic features and the nature of present and futur® land use. Its purpose is: 1. To discover whether a practicable location exists between the proposed termini, or which of several possible routessis the best. 2. To show conclusively where detailed location surveys should later be run. 3, To get an idea of the probable construction cost of the pro- posed road. 4, To secure information as to the possible effect of the road on the economic development of the country through which it will pass. 5, In special purpose roads, such as scenic highways, to locate points of scenic or historic interest and to estimate the possible destructive effect of the proposed road on the natural scenery. Reconnaissance requires an intensive study of the topography bet= ween the two proposed termini. This study will usually reveal possible avenues which may be followed for a-road location and barriers which must be avoided. Ridges or watersheds are often good avenues, and where long regular ridges leading in the right direction exist the loca- tor is indeed fortunate. Valleys are also excellent avenues if they lead in the right direction, The most difficult locations are those which cut across the natural avenues or those which lie in confusing terrain where the ridges and streams have no continuous or well-defined direction. 12Ascot < In hir examination the) iator examines a belt of country rather than - cular route, searc! g for topographic features whick restrict th location, These con! sis" as they are call:d may be* natural, su ‘has favorable bridge si.:s,or man-made such as favorable sites for railroad grade crossings, Ifa road is to connect two towns, obviously the towns are controls. If the road crosses a mountain the "saddle" or "gap"! selected for the crossing point is a ce trol. The lowest saddle is not necessarily the best one to use, as ‘it may be difficult to reach from one or both sides. A spur jutting frorn the main mountain may be a control and often the deepest cuts are through such spurs, Tunnels through spur ridges may be required to secure adequate alignment. If the route follows a ridge the lowest saddles are controls and the location must go around the intervening summits. Where the problem is to develope distance on a stiff climb favor- able sites for switchbacks may be controls. The maximum permissible grade is in itself a control. & If the road crosses a large river a particularly favorable bridge site may be a control. For example, the Davao City-Bukidnon Survey crosses the Pulafigi River where the river is in a chasm 40 meters deep but only 35 meters wide. At no other place in the entire lengthof this large river does such a condition exist, The bridge site here is a primary control on the route, a point which allows no alternate choice of location (See Figure 19). Swampy areas and areas subject to landslides or to inundation are "negative controls" in the sense that they should be avoided. Works of man such as dams, reservoirs, railroads are also often negative controls. Narrow streets and traffic congestion in small poblaciones Often require by-pass locations avoiding such places, On the other hand, favorable sites for highway or railroad overpasses or junction Points may be positive controls. Not all controls are topographic. The existing and future land use may have a distinct influence on the location. Assume for example two towns A and B which are to be connected by highway, as shown by Fig- ure 1. The cheapest and most direct location is by way of Pass C, but the future development of a new barrio at E may throw the balance ia favor of a location through Pass D. Other economic controls on a road location might be the need for reaching a mine or a stand of good tim= ber. 13POSSIBLE” FUTURE ys UruR 1] Bannio FIGURE 1 In the old days, the locator relied entirely upon ground observas tion, first or second-hand, for all of his information, Using such maps as were available he found his way through the country with the help of native guides or by his own intuitive knowledge of geography. Wherever possible, he climbed to the tops of hills from which he could see out able as they often had the understandable desire to lead the future road near their home bare rios, It actually happened during the reconnaissance for the Davao City= Bukidnon Road that the locator was led many kilometers from the best route by his Manobo guides. Fortunately, a better location was later found with the help of different guides. over the land. Native guides were not always reli The airplane has increased the locating engineer's effectiveness many-fold. By flying over the country between the termini in a light plane he can often pick out the principal controls in a matter of minutes instead of the days or weeks required with the old ground methods. One or more narrow strips including the principal controls can then be pho- tographed and the photos can be further studied intensively under the stereoscope in the office. The locator thus has a very thorough know- ledge of the general route before he even sets foot on the ground. However, even the airplane has its limitations. In solidlyforested country where the observer cannot see the ground it is difficult to dis- tinguish minor irregularities in the surface, such a small ravines and ridges. A thick impenetrable forest cover also defeats efforts to secure 14i.vertical” ‘ographs or to plot, ntours to a small interval by otogramm rethods. Finally,) “solid forest cover prevents a ground obs: vm locating ‘hims on an aerial photo for lack of, easilyerecog z€4 sbjects. The locatc aust therefore be prerared, even in this mod’ rn age, to occasionally cate by the old ground methods. The first step to take in making a location is to assemble all available information about the area in question. This mgy include maps of varying degrees of reliability, aerial photograjps, verbal / accounts ofstravelers through the area and information Sapplied by natives. Maps . A good large-scale topographic map of the area under investiga- tion is the most useful tool a locator can find to help him in his work. Even small-scale planimetric maps are of value as they generally give a fairly good idea of the drainage pattern. At present only four maps of value for highway work are available in the Philippines. These are: 1, The U.S, Army Map Service Series S711 map, Scale 1:50, 000, issued in 15 minute x 10 minute sheets. This is an excellent map prepared since the war from aerial photographs , with good ground control. The contour interval is 10 meters or 20 meters depending upon the relief. Coverage is now available for only a few provinces. Figure 2 shows a portion of this map. This map is accurate enough to enable the user to get his elevation controls and pick out a fairly close route in rough coun try, and to sketch a general route in settled country that will migs most of the natural and man-made obstacles. 2. U.S, Army Map SWPA 712 (SWPA S751) (SWPA1),Scale 1:50, 000, issued in 10 minute x 10 minute sheets. This map was Prepared from uncontrolled aerial photos made in 1944 while the Philippines were enemy-held territory. Some of the sheets are fairly reliable and others are very poor. Some sheets have 50- foot contours, some indicate topographic forms by hachures or shading, many have no indication of relief at all, Most of the Philippines is covered, but there are many blank spots. Portions of this map are shown in Figures 62, 6b and 6c. This map is useful as a general guide if supplemented by ground observations. It gives a fairly good idea of the drainage pattern and can be used to get the drainage areas of the larger streams. It can also be used to layout flight lines for very large- scale aerial photo coverage. 157 = ad - sible to fit the ce fills will be required. "Kalaw Ridge" and "Tubig Creek” in Figure 12 are examples of this kind of topography. Here you will often have t scout ahead to determine the direction your line is to take. For exit ple in Figure 12, 1f you continue up ''Tubig Creek! beyond Sta, 3014 15" you will come tna dead end because it will not be possible to 1 out of the ravine with a curve of minimum radius and it will also b very costly to our shrough Kalaw Ridge oss the vavine and cut through the mde ad contours and sizeable cuts aad erline to the gro its base. Obviously it is ini~ ter to change (rection, ple Case The princ.ples involved in crossing a major obstecle such mountain are best illustrated by a practical example such as the illustrated in Figure 13, To fully comprehend the disc lows, the reader should have a bow divider at hand and himself step out the routes on Figure 13. os which £ Let us assume that you have been following a stream valley at ti: head of which is a saddle or'gap'' through which you wish to cross ov: to the other side of the mountain. Since most mountain streams {ult very rapidly in their upper reaches you wish to know where to leave ti ¢ flat valley floor and start your climb towa d the tion the best procedure is to stop your survey betore the valley flo: becomes steep and run a flag line back from the saddle to intersect The grade for this flagline should be one percent less than the max.- mum permissible grade for the project. This will provide enou to take care of grade compensation and the shortening that oce curves are [ilted to an angle line. (See discussion of maximum srar and grade compensation in Appendix II!). idle, In this sitBefore you begin flagging you will have to assume a cut or fill at the saddle. If the saddle is broad and flat it is usually best to go through it at grade, that is with little or no cut or fill, But if it is thin and sharp you will certainly have to cut deeply to preserve sight distance over the summit. You will also have to decide on which side of the valley to run your flag line. If you have a reasonably good topographic map or an aerial photograph it will be easy to select the best side. If these are not available you should climb to some high point from which you can get a good view or seek information from natives. In the example of Figure 13 you have stopped your survey at Point A, Sta. 26+000 and then walked ahead to the divide. After looking at both saddles you have decided to pass the line through Saddle C at grade. Since the maximum grade for your final survey is 6 percent, you will use 5 percent for your flag line. Your examination of the valley from the saddle has convinced you that the northwest slope is the most favor- able, so you flag your line there, reaching the bottom at Point D. (You can follow this route on Figure 13 by dividing the contour interval by the grade and setting this distance on the bow divider. By dropping down one contour with each step of the divider you will then trace on the map the desired grade. In this example your step interval will begs or 200 meters. ) a In this case you will have to pull back to Sta, 254200 on your sur- vey before proceeding up the mountain, abandoning your original line between Points Dand A. Your survey will reach the summit at Station 28+700. Now to illustrate a common error, let us assume that you have succumbed to the temptation of following the easy flat valley floor and have reached Point E with your survey. You now discover that the fall of the stream has become suddenly steeper--much steeper than your allowable 6 percent road grade—so you decide to run a 5 percent Abney Flag line upgrade from Point E. You immediately discover that you are "boxed in" and cannot get up on the west side of the valley. The only direction you can turn is to the right across both prongs of the creek, and eventually you find yourself at Point F headed away from your objective and unable tq turn around. There is only one thing you can do now—~back up to Point G and throw ina tight switchback on the compa- ratively flat ridge here. You can then either continue your 5% grade line to Point H, proceeding on nearly level grade from there to the saddle, or you can flag a uniform ''slack"’ grade of approximately 3 percent from the switchback to the saddle. (You can calculate this 45s W FIG Sones SKETCH SHOWING RELATION OF TOPOGRAPHY TO EXPOSURE IN NORTHERN LATITUDES ARLY AFTER: NOON SUNLIGHT HAVE GOOD EXPOSURE WHERE THE ROCK STRATA IE IN THIS ATTITUDE THIS, SIDE OF THE VALLEY IS ON THE FLATTER SIDE. UNDERBREAKAGE od FIG.15 SKETCH SHOWING EFFECT OF ROCK STRATA UPON BREAKAGE OF EXCAVATION NOT TO SCALEgrade by subtracting the elevation of the switchback which is 570 meters from the saddle elevation, 650 meters, and divide by the distance which is about 2.7 kilometers. ) By delaying the beginning of your climb you have lengthened your line, introduced three sharp curves into your alignment, and have added two extra stream crossings. The two examples above illustrate the advantages of flagging down-grade from the saddle, However, this of itself will not always yield the best location, To illustrate, let us suppose that you have stopped your survey atPoint A and have decided to flag down from sad- dle C taking the southeast side of the valley. Because of the deep in- dention on this side your route will be considerably longer than the west side route. When you get to Point J you will either have to take a heavy fill across the small creek coming in from the south or turn around the precipitous nose with a minimum-radius curve, flag up the smallcreek, and turn sharply again across the creek. And when you get to the bot- tom you still have to cross the large creek at a considerable skew By choosing the wrong side of the valley for your flag line your route is 1,2 kilometers longer than Route "CD" on the other side, has poorer alignment and requires a bridge and two culverts, Flagging Down a Corrugat Hillside The problems of Figure 13 were comparatively simple, for one side of the valley was so obviously superior to the other that the best route for the road was immediately apparent. In actual practice such situations are rare. Usually both sides of the valley will have obsta- cles and quite often the choice will fall on the least undesirable side. Sometimes the terrain obstacles may be equal and the more favorable exposure will decide the route. Exposure means little in the tropics but in colder climates the southerly and westerly slopes which receive more sunshine are generally freer of ice and snow during the winter than the northerly and easterly slopes and therefore inore desir- able because of reduced winter maintenance, (See Figure 14.) Sometimes the geological formation on one side will be more favorable for road building than on the other. The writer recalls one project where a road was relocated {rom one side of a valley where hard quartzite rock outcropped everywhere to the opposite side, The new location was 1% mile longer but cost $100, 000 less to build because the material was soft decomposed siltstone which excavated nearly as easily as earth. In regions where the rock beds are tilted slides along 47the contact planes of the rock strata may be expected on one side of the valley and often this possibility may lead to the choice of the opposite side for the location. (See Figure 15.) * If the route follows a stream, especially a large one, the cost of the bridge may prohibit crossing to the other side where the topography is easier, In Figure 16, we see a valley similar in general appearance-to the valley of Figure 13 but with important differences. The spur jut ting out from the northeast side of the valley is much more prominent And is now @ formidable obstacle while the northwest side is nowno longer smooth but deeply corrugated by steep ravines and narrow ridges. Let us assume that you have stopped your survey at Point A in Figure 16 and have decided to flag down the northwestern side of the valley from Saddle C using a 5 percent grade. The mountain slope is so "choppy" that it is impossible to fit the contours closely using your allowable minimum radius curves. By going part way up the ravines and part way out on the noses you can minimize the earthwork required but at best you can expect poor alignment and heavy excavation and embankment. The topography is particularly bad at Point "G" where the situation is the same as at Kalaw Ridge in Figure 12, At Point F, there is a small ravine which is adverse to the general direction of the line and here you will have to accept a large fill, You will have8 culverts, nearly all of them under heavy fills. This line is so rough and expensive that you decide to seck another route, so you return to Saddle C and start a 5 percent flag line down the other side of the valley. This brings you to Point H where you observe that the slopes ahead are too steep for good location. "Where to go next?"", you ask yourself. The slopes seem flatter higher on the ridge so you walk up the nose of the ridge, finally select- ing Point Jas the best place to round the nose. You must flag a new line from Saddle C to Point J and this line will be ona flatter grade. To calculate the approximate new grade, simply measure the vertical dis- tance between Points H and J with a hand level, divide by the horizontal distance, CH and subtract from 5 percent. (In this case the difference in elevation between H and J was 44 meters and the distance CH was 1 kilometer so the new grade CJ is about 0.6 percent.) You then return to Point C, set the new grade on the Abney level and re-flag from C to J. 4cFrom Point J you continue your minus 5 percent grade line to the valley floor, crossing the main creek and joining your survey at Point A. Although 1.54 kilometers ‘onger than Line DC, this line would have much better alignment and wou'd probably cost no more to construct because earthwork would -bé ligh ex. The bridge on this line would just about balance the cost of the many culverts on line DC. Line DMPG is similar to Line AKJC but has even better align— ment and lighter excavation. Point P is higher than Saddle C so the total rise on Line DMPC will be greater than either of the others, A connection from M to K would save about 0.4 kilometer of dis- tance, but would require a 30-meter fill over a large box culvert which would be extremely costly. In actual practice the locator is frequently faced with situations such as those illustrated by Figure 16. He then has to balance one location against another, using his experience and judgment to help him select the best route. Ordinarily he would expect the shortest route to have the lowest construction cost, but in this case the longer route may be the cheaper to build. The longer route may also cost less to main- tain as the maintenance cost per kilometer may be lower due to the light earthwork. (Heavy cuts and fills are more subject to slidesand washouts and therefore more costly to maintain that lighter ones.) The saving in distance accruing to vehicle owners on Line DC may be offset by slower speed imposed by the poor alignment. Quite often some non- engineering factor such as possible future development or scenic value may have to be considered in arriving at a finaldecision. Where equally inviting alternates exist the experienced locator will flag all promising routes before he makes his final selection. Flagging a Ridge Route In hilly or mountainous country the best location may follow a ridge. Where a continuous ridge leading in the desired general direc- tion exists it may often present the cheapest route even though it may be longer and more circuitous than a cross-country location. Ridge locations generally require fewer and smaller drainage structures than valley locations or cross-country locations. On ridge locations the lowest "saddles"! or "gaps" are controls. The grade line must meet the saddle elevations approimately and pass around the intervening hilltops. The locator can pass his line from one side of the ridge to the other to take advantage of favorable topography , to get better exposure, to improve alignment, or to improve his gra- dient. In passing through saddles it is generally best to avoid heavy 50“cuts or fills: The best alignment is generally obtained by passing the ne diagonally through’ a saddle from oné side of the ridge to the oppo- “site side. ‘Long spurs or side ridges are major obstacles. To shorten Gistance it is usually best to crass such spurs as high as possible using ’ maximum gradient from the nearest adjacent control saddle. To pre- erve satisfactory alignment around these spurs deep cuts are often necessary, Under favorable conditions tunnels can often be built as ‘cheaply as open cuts but if tunnels are used the grade summits should Snot lie in the tunnels, as a continuous rising grade is necessary for ventilation. To flag’a ridge route the locator must know the elevations of the controlling saddles and the distances between them. If a good contour ) Map exists this information can be scaled or read from the map. If the ‘locator has a verticai aerial photograph the distances can be scaled; and elevations can be taken with an aneroid barometer (obtainable from the:Central Office). If neither map ncr photo is available distances can e be epaced or measured Bppiedmeiely with a tape along the nearest Peween them, This grade is then set on the Abney level and the first trial E.grade line is flagged out on the ground from the first saddle to the “'second If the original. information was reliable the'flag line grade at the second saddle may be so close to the ground elevation there that no D further flagging will be needed, However, if the first trial flag line is Gtoo -high or too low, it will be necessary to measure the discrepancy and éalculate a new grade For example, let us assume that you have reached Saddle A in Figure 17 and wish to flag from there to Saddle B. According to your rometer Saddle A has an elevation of 295 meters, while Saddle B is §252 meters. By pacing on the foot trail you get a distance of approx— 1,000: meters between the scddles. The trial grade thenis When you run out this trial grade line with the Abney you arrive P Point "C"', which is too low. Obviously the trial grade line was too. psteep. With your hand level you measure the difference in elevation Detween Points B and C, finding it to be 9 meters. The measured dis fence from A to C along your flag line was 1210 meters, so the cor- ected grade would be 4.3 - [2-1 =3. 56%. Rounding this to the nearest 51¢ e FIGS FLAGGING A RIDGE ROUTE | \\ nN ( \WAWA | \ FLAGGING BETWEEN TWO SADDLES0.1 percent, you set 3.6% on the Abney level and flag the line again from A to B. This time you should come into Saddle Bat the desired elevation. “If you don't, you will have to again measure the vertical difference, calculate another grade and flag the line again, Line AD of Figure 17 illustrates what would have happened had your first trial grade line been too flat Figure 18 illustrates some of the problems encountered in fol- lowing a ridge route, Let us assume that you have arrived at Saddle A where the elevation is 872 meters, and that the grade line elevation here is 870 meters. Between Saddle A and the next control ahead, Saddle C, there is a choice of routes, the most direct of which is AMC, However, this traverses some steep cliffs at M. Route ANC has easier topography but is considerably longer and has poorer alignment. Pro- bably the best location will be found on Route ABC. (All three of these alternates assume a fill of 4.0 meters in Saddle C.) Any lesser fill in Saddle C would rule out Route ABC because the cut at Saddle B would then be excessive. However, by using a 3.9 per- cent grade along Route ANC the fill could be climinated entirely. In considering these routes, therefore, you will have to balance the ad- vantages and disadvantages of each against the others, In this situation you would certainly flag each of the three possible routes before making: your decision. Ridge PDEF is the next control along your route, Saddle F is the lowest point of this ridge but to pass through this saddle will require a long line, a very sharp curve and large fills on each side of the knife- like saddle. The line can be greatly shortened by climbing on maximum grade and crossing the ridge at Point D but this would requirea sharp curve and a deep cut at Point D. Probably a location in the vicinity of Point E would be most satisfactory. If the road has a high design speed the alignment may require a location such as Line CPG. Here a tunnel would probably be cheaper to construct than an open cut. Notice that the rising 4 percent grade is Continued beyond the tunnel before the descent to Saddle G is begun. Between Saddles G and H the shortest route is obviously GRH, but this line traverses an extremely steep hillside where heavy excava- tion would be required. Line GJH follows a uniformly descending grade through flat easy terrain but is quite long. Line GKH introduces more rise and fall into the location but lies in easy terrain and is much shorter than Line GJH. It is probably the best of the three locations Note that the summit K is controlled by the maximum grade from Sad- dle H. 53pee Se a wo OLOOT AYA ““E i SNOVE HOLIMS 40 SNVAW Aa oe fF JONVISIO 9NId013A30 “Descent Into a Canyon Highway locations frequently cross deep river valleys or canyons Here the problem is the same as that of crossing a ridge, for extra distance must be introduced into the location to make the descent pos- sible within grade limitations. The selection of the bridge site is important and often controls not only the grade but the alignment as well. In narrow canyons the two most common types of river crossings are the U-type illustrated in Figure 19, and the skewed type, in which the descent on one side and the ascent on the other side are made without reversing direction. The skewed typed crossing is much to be preferred because it affords bet- ter alignment and the bridge is usually easier to design and construct It is generally best to press the descent on maximum compensated grade, although slack grade may sometimes have to be accepted to take advantage of terrain favorable for switchbacks. Normally, the locator selects his bridge site and then [lags up to the top of the canyon on both sides. Figure 19 shows the crossing of the Pulafgi River on the Davao City-Bukidnon Road Survey, At this point the Pulaigi River is in a gorge with vertical cliffs 40 meters high. The river is normally about 15 meters deep, but is subject to tremendous fluctuations in water level during floods. The current is extremely swift. At Point C of Figure 19 the gorge narrows down to a width of only 35 meters and here is found the only good bridge site in a distance of 50 kilometers up or down- stream, The location problem is to get from the top of the Canyon at A to the bridge site, C. The desirable grade of the bridge is at elevation 13720, The difference in elevation between A and C is 213 meters, so 4.25 kilometers will be required to make the descent at our maximum flagging grade of § percent. Since the air line distance between Points A and C is only about 1; kilometers it is obvious that a great deal of extra distance will have to be introduced into the location. This pro- cess, called "development", is well illustrated by the Zigzag section of the Kennon Road to Baguio Now let us assume that you are the one who will locate this Pu- lafigi Descent, You have selected Point C for your bridge site, and you know from the preliminary reconnaissance that your general direction alter crossing the river must be south or southeast. You set your Abney level for a plus 5 percent grade and begin flagging from C back toward the top of the canyon. You must now decide whether to startAP __enommeany wearin 429 AP _enat rocarion #16. 20 CONTROLIED GRADE ASCENT FROM MANALONG CANYON USING SWITCHBAOKS 70 DEVSLOPE DISTANCEflagging upstream toward F or downstream toward D. Since the general §: direction CB is already established, flagging upstream toward Point F will give you a skew crossing with pretty fair alignment, while flagging downstream will require a Ustype crossing with a curved bridge. How- V ever, you soon discover that the terrain between C and F is much steeper than 5 percent so you are forced to take the downstream direc- ‘ tion whether you like it or not. Eventually you reach Point D where the hillside becomes much flatter. Here you decide to turn your line and reverse direction rather than continue toward the steep and rough ter- “rain ahead. You pass through Saddle E, but when you get to Point F you find that you must again change direction. Here the conditions are not favorable for turning as they were at Point D, and you may expect a heavy fill on the east side of your switchback and a heavy cut on the “west side, At Point G you are able to turn around a nose which usually produces a better switchback that to reverse on a straight hillside, such as Point F, From G to the top of the canyon you have merely to -. follow your 5 percent grade which will bring you to Point A. In situations such as this one where distance must be developed to . stay within grade limitations there is no objection to the use of switch- backs, provided they are of ample radius and the grade is compensated Figure 19, unlike the preceding figures, illustrates an actual sur- | vey made in the field. It is an excellent argument for eliminating slack grade from the descent. The broken line shows the first location which “was made with much slack grade. The new location which is on maxi- mum grade all the way is 1.56 kilometers shorter, has much better alignment and will be cheaper to build in spite of somewhat heavier S earthwork. Another example from an actual field survey is shown in Figure 20. An idea of the roughness of this terrain can be had by looking at © Figures 7a and 7b under the stereoscope. Route Selection by Aerial Photographic Methods. The science of photogrammetry has made such rapid strides in recent years that it is now possible under certain conditions to produce - topographic strip maps accurate enough and to a large enough scale for direct projection of road alignment without the intermediate steps of flagging, running a P-Line and taking topogiaphy. Such maps require - the following: 1, Re-photographing the route toa larger scale. (This involves 57AERIAL SURVEYS IMPLEMENT AND IMPROVE THE TRADITIONAL GROUND-SURVEY METHOD. FOR MAKING HIGHWAY LOCATIONS IN FOUR STAG AERIAL SURVEYS PRODUCE A MINIATURE REPLI OF FIELD CONDITIONS THAT: FURNISHES A PICTORIAL RECORD OF TOPOGRAP| e AND LAND USE pz BRINGS TOPOGRAPHY AND LAND USE INTO THE 4 OFFICE FOR EXTENSIVE AND INTENSIVE STUDY — DEMONSTRATES THAT THE BEST HIGHWAY ‘e LOCATION HAS BEEN MADE A Conteibution of the DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE BUREAU OF PUBLIC ROADS WASHINGTON, D.C FIGURE 2la ey courresy U.S. BUREAU OF PUBLIC ROADS.FIGURE 21b By COURTESY oF U.S.BUREAU OF PUBLIC ROADSSEAR Coae on Rate TI eit ROUTE 3ANDS REPHOTOGRAPHED UTE BAND'S SELECTED, TOPOGRAPHY AND LAND USE. FIGURE 2lc BY COURTESY OF U.S, BUREAU OF PUBLIC ROADS:BEST “PRELIMINARY LINE” ZONE- ROUTE BAND. FOR PRELIMINARY SURVEY FIGURE 214 BY COURTESY OF U.S. BUREAU OF PUBLIC ROADS‘THE HIGHWAY LOCATION LINE DETERMINED IN THE THIRD STAGE IS $1 TAKED ON THE GROUND, THE HIGHWs 1S NOW READY FOR CONSTRUCTION. SEN ANS Pseuane sanver By COURTESY OF U.S. BUREAU OF PUBLIC ROADS!flying new photos at lower altitude; mere enlargement of the reconnaissance photos will not suffice.) 2. A sufficient number of accurately-determined points of known position established by ground survey methods. 3. Construction of the map from the photos and the ground con- trol data, using one of several stereo-mapping instruments. This method, however, has its limitations which should be under- stood by the locator. If the area is heavily forested vertical accuracy by stereo-mapping methods will usually not exceed one-half the height of the cover which in many places in Mindanao is 30 meters high. Since good location work requires contours that are accurate within one meter . or twometers at the outside, ground methods should be used indensely- forested country. Ground methods may also be best in extremely flat country where highwater elevations may control the location. However, aerial surveys for locating the best route band should be used whenever possiole, This method is illustrated by Figures 21b and 2lc, showing stages one and two of the aerial route survey and requires no ground control or complicated stereo-mapping instruments. The advantages of location by aerial methods are most apparent in well-developed country of moderate relief where there are already established many points of known position which can be used to control | the mapping, In such country the topography can usually be obtained © much faster and at less expense than by ground methods and the strip map is usually wider permitting more thorough study of the route. Less } engineer man-power is required which is important in countries where engineers are scarce. The preliminary survey can be made without alarming the inhabitants or advertising the route to speculators. There are instances in the United States where all of the preliminary location work was done in the office and not a stake was driven until the final location survey was made The various steps involved in making a road location by the aerial photographic method are shown ina series of exhibits prepared by the U.S. Bureau of Public Roads. (See Figures 21a to Zle.) Flagging Reports Quite often where there is a choice of location flag lines will be = run over all alternate routes before any further field work is under- / taken. The locating engineer will then prepare a report setting forth 63the advantages and disadvantages Lf each route, and the decision as to which to follow may be ma e by the District Engineer, the Division | Engineer or even the Cen’ fai Office. Usually in such cases one or more of the alternate rvaces is walked on the ground by the reviewing engineer who can thus make his own appraisal of the relative merits of each route In his flagging report the locating engineer should describe all conditions of each route which might affect the final selection some- what as follows: 10 wl What are the comparative distances on each route? How do alignment and grades compare? What is the number and size of drainage structures required for each route? Is earthwork, heavy, medium or light? Are the slopes steep or moderate? Does the excavation consist of earth, boulders, soft rock or hard rock or mixtures of these? Is the soil good or poor for road construction? Is the right-of-way through public dr private land? Will property damage be heavy, light or nil? What natural or man-made obstacles exist? Are there advantages, such as service to intermediate local- ities that favor one location over another? Are construction materials such as sand and gravel more plentiful or accessible on one route than on another? he locator should also make a round-figure estimate of the approximate construction cost along each route. Such an estimate for the location illustrated by Figure 19 might read as follows: 64 Sayre Highway to top of Pulafigi Canyon(Point A) light rolling topography, earth excavation 4.0 Km. at 730,000/Km. 120, 000Point A to Point B Broken hillside location, hard rock excavation 4.84 Km.at #120,000/Km. 581, 000 Pulangi River Bridge 250, 000 Approximate Total Cost 951,000 From his flagging notes the locator should also prepare profiles showing approximate cuts and fills on each location. These profiles are very helpful to the reviewing authorities in reaching a decision. An example of a typical flagging report appears in Appendix IV.CHAPT.JIR IV THE PI £L.“MINARY SURVEY The "Preliminary Line" or "P-Line" is an angle traverse which follows the Flag Line closely. It provides the framework for the topography and the location survey Accuracy Required Highway surveys are valuable to other agencies for control of mapping and land subdivision work and should be run with a reasonable degree of precision. "Modified Third Order Accuracy" is recommended for all surveys for National highways except in the metropolitan area of Manila where the importance and cost of improvements may require "Modified Second Order Accuracy". (For discussion of orders of accuracy see Appendix V.) Running the P-Line Let us assume that you are the chief of a party which is to run a P-Line following a route which has already been flagged. 1, First, establish your beginning point. a. If possible select a point such as a cross-road or bridge which can be readily identified on aerial photos. b. Reference the beginning point completely so that it can be found years later if necessary, (See Appendix VII.) Describe it completely in your notes. 2, Next, establish your beginning azimuth. a, If there is a monument of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, the Bureau of Lands, or any mapping agency such as the U.S. 29th Engineer Topographic Battalion within 5 kilometers of the begin- ning of the project run a traverse to it to establish your geogra - phic position and starting azimuth. b, If no such monument is available take five solar observa- tions and use their average for your starting azimuth: (See Appendix VI for method of taking and computing solar observa- tions.) 663. Then establish your datum. a. If there is a bench mark established by any of the above agencies within 5 kilometers of the point of beginning run a line of levels to it to establish your datum b. If no bench mark is available, establish your datum with an aneroid barometer, or if near the sea by tide transfer from a place of known elevation. 4, Finally, establish your kilometer . a. If there is a highway kilometer post within 5 kilometers of the point of beginning measure the distance to it, b. If no kilometer post is available assume a kilometer (0+000 is as good as any). 5. In running the P-Line do not make any special effort to secure long tangents but strive for speed while maintaining the required order of precision. a, Avoid obstacles such as large trees or buildings by passing the line to one side of them. b, Avoid or minimize damage to standing crops, fruit trees, and ornamental shrubs. Try to pass the line parallel to rows of corn, abaca and other row crops rather than diagonally across the fields c. Set stakes marked with the stations at 20-meter intervals d. Do not waste time setting these intermediate station stakes exactly on line. If the stake is within 5 centimeters of the line, itis close enough for topo and will not appreciably affect the chaining. . Set "hubs! or durable wood such as ipil or molave, or concrete pins, to mark every P.I. These should be about 5 cen- timeters in diameter and at least 20 centimeters long, driven flush with the ground. Mark the station on a ''guard stake!’ driven beside the hub and leaning slightly over it, (See Appendix VII for notes on references.) Also reference intermediate POT's on long tangents. f. On long tangents have the transitman read his angle and move ahead to the next P,lor POT while the chainmen continue 67