Analysis of Fossil Fuel Energy Consumption and Environmental Impacts in European Countries † Florinda

Martins 1,* , Carlos Felgueiras 2 , Miroslava Smitkova 3 and Nídia Caetano 2,4 1 REQUIMTE/LAQV/ISEP,
School of Engineering, P. Porto 4249-015, Portugal 2 CIETI/ISEP, School of Engineering, P. Porto 4249-015,
Portugal; mcf@isep.ipp.pt 3 Institute of Power and Applied Electrical Engineering, FEI - Slovak University
of Technology, Ilkovicova 3, 812 19 Bratislava 1, Slovakia; miroslava.smitkova@suba.sk 4 LEPABE-
Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering,
University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal; nsc@isep.ipp.pt * Correspondence:
ffm@isep.ipp.pt; Tel.: +00351 228340500 † This paper is an extension of the paper presented in
ICEER2018 and published in Energy Procedia, vol. 153. Received: 15 January 2019; Accepted: 8 March
2019; Published: 13 March 2019 Abstract: The use of fossil fuels as the main source of energy for most
countries has caused several negative environmental impacts, such as global warming and air pollution.
Air pollution causes many health problems, causing social and economic negative effects. Worldwide
efforts are being made to avoid global warming consequences through the establishment of
international agreements that then lead to local policies adapted to the development of each signing
nation. In addition, there is a depletion of nonrenewable resources which may be scarce or nonexistent
in future generations. The preservation of resources, which is a common goal of the Circular Economy
strategy and of sustainable development, is not being accomplished nowadays. In this work, the
calculation of indicators and mathematical and statistical analysis were applied to clarify and evidence
the trends, provide information for the decision-making process, and increase public awareness. The fact
that European countries do not possess abundant reserves of fossil fuels will not change, but the results
of this analysis can evolve in the future. In this work, fossil fuel energy consumption, fossil fuel depletion,
and their relationship with other variables, such as energy dependence and share of renewable energy in
gross final energy consumption, were analyzed for 29 European countries. Furthermore, it was possible
to conclude that many European countries still depend heavily on fossil fuels. Significant differences
were not found in what concerns gross inland consumption per capita when the Kruskal–Wallis test was
applied. It was possible to estimate that by 2050 (considering Jazz scenario) it will only remain
approximately 14% of oil proven reserves, 72% of coal proven reserves and 18% of gas proven reserves.
Given the small reserves of European countries on fossil fuels, if they need to use them, they will fast
disappear. Keywords: fossil fuels; low carbon energy systems; sustainable energy; sustainable
development

1. Introduction Most countries’ energy systems, either developed or in development, are based on
fossil fuels [1,2]. In spite of their qualities, e.g., good operational control in thermal plants [3],
their use has many problems which have been analyzed and addressed in many studies [4].
These problems, such as the environmental impacts, scarcity, supply risk, and instability of prices
and markets, put fossil fuels at the center of the shift to low carbon economies. Khan et al. [5]
found that, in Pakistan, there is a strong relationship between energy consumption, air pollution,
water resources, and natural resource rents. Zheng et al. [6] used panel data regression analysis
on a sample of 26 Chinese provinces and
 2. Energy Fuels is a major U.S. producer of vanadium, a strategic mineral used
in high-strength steel, titanium and other alloys, and in the batteries
needed to store power from renewable energy.

 the purity requirement for hydrogen (when used in fuel cells), the infrastructure
required, safety and environmental concerns

Hydrogen can be produced from diverse domestic resources with the

potential for near-zero greenhouse gas emissions. Once produced,
hydrogen generates electrical power in a fuel cell, emitting only water
vapor and warm air. It holds promise for growth in both the stationary
and transportation energy sectors.

Energy Security
The United States became a net exporter of petroleum in 2020 with
exports surpassing imports, although imports of 7.86 million barrels per
day remained an important part of balancing supply and demand for
domestic and international markets. Overall, the transportation sector
accounts for approximately 30% of total U.S. energy needs and 70% of
U.S. petroleum consumption. Hydrogen can be produced domestically
from resources like natural gas, coal, solar energy, wind, and biomass.
When used to power highly efficient fuel cell electric vehicles, hydrogen
holds the promise of helping strengthen national energy security,
conserve fuel, and diversify our transportation energy options for a more
resilient system.

Public Health and Environment

About half of the U.S. population lives in areas where air pollution levels
are high enough to negatively impact public health and the environment.
Emissions from gasoline and diesel vehicles—such as nitrogen oxides,
hydrocarbons, and particulate matter—are a major source of this
pollution. Hydrogen-powered fuel cell electric vehicles emit none of
these harmful substances—only water (H2O) and warm air.
The environmental and health benefits are also seen at the source of
hydrogen production if derived from low- or zero-emission sources, such
as solar, wind, and nuclear energy and fossil fuels with advanced
emission controls and carbon sequestration. Because the transportation
sector accounts for about one-third of U.S. carbon dioxide emissions,
using these sources to produce hydrogen for transportation can cut
greenhouse gas emissions. Learn more about hydrogen emissions.

Fuel Storage
Hydrogen's energy content by volume is low. This makes storing
hydrogen a challenge because it requires high pressures, low
temperatures, or chemical processes to be stored compactly.
Overcoming this challenge is important for light-duty vehicles because
they often have limited size and weight capacity for fuel storage.
Typically, the storage capacity for hydrogen in light-duty vehicles should
enable a driving range of more than 300 miles to meet consumer needs.
Because hydrogen has a lower volumetric energy density than that of
gasoline, storing this much hydrogen on a vehicle currently requires a
larger tank at higher pressure than other gaseous fuels. Medium- and
heavy-duty vehicles have more space for larger tanks but could face
weight limitations that reduce the total load potential to stay within U.S.
Department of Transportation restrictions. Learn more about hydrogen
storage challenges from the Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies
Office.

Production Costs
To be competitive in the marketplace, the cost of fuel cells will have to
decrease substantially without compromising performance. From at least
one original equipment manufacturer, the predicted cost of mass-
produced fuel cell electric vehicles could be similar to the cost of their
hybrid counterparts by 2025. Unlike a battery, where most of the cost
comes from the raw materials used to make it, the most expensive part
of a fuel cell is manufacturing the fuel cell stack itself—not the materials
to produce it. The cost to build and maintain hydrogen stations also
needs to decrease for the market to support a hydrogen economy. See
the Department of Energy Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office
Plan for plans and projections for the future of hydrogen and fuel cells.