Haack, R. C., P. Sundararaman, J. O. Diedjomahor, H. Xiao, N. J. Gant, E. D.

May,
and K. Kelsch, 2000, Niger Delta petroleum systems, Nigeria, in M. R. Mello
and B. J. Katz, eds., Petroleum systems of South Atlantic margins: AAPG
Memoir 73, p. 213–231.

Chapter 16

Niger Delta Petroleum Systems, Nigeria

Richard C. Haack Eric D. May

P. Sundararaman Chevron Overseas Petroleum Inc.
San Ramon, California, U.S.A.
Jacob O. Diedjomahor
Hongbin Xiao Ken Kelsch
Nicholas J. Gant P.T. Caltex Pacific Indonesia
Rumbai, Indonesia
Chevron Petroleum Technology Co.
San Ramon, California, U.S.A.

Abstract
Regional integration of results from conventional exploration geochemistry, structural analysis, and
gravity–magnetic data provide a comprehensive new understanding of Niger Delta petroleum systems.
Nigeria is the 12th largest producer of crude oil in the world. Daily oil production from the Niger Delta is
2.1 million bbl, and recoverable reserves are estimated to be about 22.5 billion bbl. Historically, structural
play types have dominated, although large stratigraphic traps have also been discovered. The basin has
matured through one cycle of successful exploration, and future success depends on linking the geology
of the shelf and onshore areas to deep-water areas and exploiting new play types in older producing areas.
Three petroleum systems are present in the Niger Delta and delta frame: Lower Cretaceous (lacustrine),
Upper Cretaceous–lower Paleocene (marine), and Tertiary (deltaic). One biodegraded seep oil from
Nigerian tar sands along the northern flank of the Dahomey Embayment has been correlated to
Neocomian source rocks in Ise-2 well. A source rock extract and pyrolyzate of the seep are similar to the
Bucomazi petroleum system in the Lower Congo Basin. Oil recovered from Paleogene sandstones in
Shango-1 well are inferred to be derived from Upper Cretaceous–lower Paleocene source rocks identified
in Epiya-1 well, consisting of type II and II–III kerogens. The principal source for oil and gas in the Niger
Delta is the Tertiary deltaic petroleum system, consisting of type II, II–III, and III kerogens. On the basis of
oils and source rocks, source facies variation characteristic of this system has been regionally mapped in
the northwestern part of the delta. Similar trends exist delta-wide and are responsible, along with burial,
for controlling the complex distribution of gas and oil across the delta.

Shell D’Arcy, which resumed after World War II in the

INTRODUCTION
The Niger Delta Basin, situated at the apex of the Gulf
of Guinea on the west coast of Africa, is one of the most
prolific deltaic hydrocarbon provinces in the world
(Figure 1). The sedimentary basin occupies a total area of
about 75,000 km2 and is at least 11 km deep in its deepest
parts. Reserves are currently estimated to be 22.5 billion
bbl of oil, 770 million bbl of condensate, and 124 TCFG.
Current daily oil production is 2.1 million bbl, and daily
condensate production is 85,000 bbl. The present reserve
to production ratio is about 30 years. Oil exploration by
southern part of Nigeria, resulted in the first well being
drilled in 1951. After about 15 wells, the first commercial
oil discovery in the Tertiary delta was confirmed at
Oloibiri-1 well in 1956.
Over the past 40 years, the Niger Delta has matured
through one cycle of exploration during which a variety
of different structural play types have been exploited. The
3-D bar graph in Figure 2 summarizes the relationships
among different play types and recoverable reserves for
most of the delta. Important relationships apparent in the
graph have previously been noted by Weber (1987). Each

213
214 Haack et al.

Africa
0 400 Km.

NIGERIA

N
NIGER DELTA

Figure 1—Index map for the study area. The Niger Delta Basin is located at the apex of the Gulf of Guinea along the west-
central coast of Africa.

play type is associated with large oil fields. Most of the

structural–stratigraphic traps have been discovered in
the southeastern part of the delta, but they have also been
noted elsewhere, particularly offshore in deep water. A
variety of new combination trap styles have been drilled 60

with encouraging results, and they represent one possible 50

exploration future for Nigeria. 40
Faulted Anticline
The Tertiary petroleum system of the Niger Delta has Simple Rollover
30 Collapsed Crest
most recently been discussed in papers by Ekweozor and Closure Behind Fault
Daukoru (1994) and Stacher (1995). A considerable 20 Structural - Stratigraphic
amount of new information, however, has become avail- 10
able since publication of those papers, including penetra- 0
tion of a Tertiary oil-prone source rock sequence in Aroh-
2 well. As a result, three petroleum systems are now < 100
defined for the Niger Delta, new and interesting regional 100 - 250
trends have been recognized and mapped, and a much Recoverable 250 - 500
better understanding of factors controlling the complex Reserves
> 500
(MMBO)
distribution of gas and oil across the delta has been
achieved (Haack and Sundararaman, 1994; Haack et al.,
1997; 1998). In this chapter, we present the following:
Figure 2—Frequency distribution of the size of Niger Delta
• a new model, called a deformation cell, for evolu-
oil fields, measured in millions of barrels of recoverable
tion of the delta; reserves, by play type. Five generalized play types are
• definition of three petroleum systems; and recognized, of which four are structural. The
• new models for Tertiary deltaic source rocks and structural–stratigraphic category includes a variety of
episodic hydrocarbon migration for the Niger different play types that are being actively pursued.
Delta.
 Chapter 16—Niger Delta Petroleum Systems, Nigeria 215

(a) (c)

N
0 200 Km.

0 200 Km.

(b) (d) 0 100 Km.

1 - 2 Kms
>11 Kms
> 200 mmbls

N
0 200 Km.

Figure 3—Regional total intensity magnetic and Bouguer gravity maps. (a) Merged air and marine total intensity magnetic
map. Warm colors represent magnetic highs, cool colors are magnetic lows. Because the Niger Delta lies 16° S of the
geomagnetic equator, positive basement features produce negative total intensity anomalies (lows) and basement deeps
generate positive anomalies (highs), opposite of the gravity response. (b) Merged land and marine Bouguer gravity map.
Warm colors (southwest) represent gravity highs; cool colors are gravity lows. (c) Residual gravity map derived from
several regional gravity trend surfaces. The surface selected to subtract from the Bouguer data captures the greater bulk of
the dynamic range in the gravity data and preserves anomalies of moderate wavelength. Warm colors represent positive
residuals; cool colors are negative residuals. (d) Regional basement structure inferred from gravity and magnetic data.
Large oil fields with >200 million bbl recoverable reserves are shown.

Other important contributions on the geology and

hydrocarbon habitat of the Niger Delta include publica-
tions by Hospers (1965), Frankl and Cordry (1967), Short
and Stäuble (1967), Weber and Daukoru (1975), Evamy et
al. (1978), Knox and Omatsola (1989), Doust and
Omatsola (1990), and Damuth (1994). In addition, key
contributions on the geochemistry of oils and source
rocks include papers by Ekweozor et al. (1979a, b),
Ekweozor and Okoye (1980), Ekweozor and Daukoru
(1984), Lambert-Aikhionbare and Ibe (1984), Udo (1985),
Nwachukwu and Chukwurah (1986), Ekweozor and
Udo (1988), Bustin (1988), and Ekweozor and
Nwachukwu (1989).
REGIONAL GEOLOGY
Basement Configuration
All available gravity and magnetic data for the Niger
Delta Basin and adjacent areas offshore were merged and
analyzed for the purpose of mapping basement struc-
tures. Strong northeast to southwest trends dominate the
magnetic signal across the delta (Figure 3a). These trends
are parallel to fracture zone patterns in the deep ocean
and are believed to have formed during opening of the
Mid-Atlantic Ocean in Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous
216 Haack et al.
0 200 Km.
Figure 4—Tertiary structural trends of the Niger Delta. Regional normal fault framework is based on the published map of
Evamy et al. (1978) and the mapping of Chevron earth scientists. Oil fields are shown in black.
time. Parallel structural trends extend through the
Anambra Basin and into the Benue Trough northeast of
the Niger Delta.
Regional patterns expressed in the Bouguer gravity
data are different from those indicated by magnetic data.
A large gravity low, due to the presence of a thick
Tertiary deltaic sediment load, is present beneath the
region of the delta. Conversely, there is a large gravity
high associated with thinned continental crust offshore
(Figure 3b). Only in the extreme northeastern part of the
delta, where the basement is shallower and Cretaceous
rocks crop out, can structural trends parallel to those
observed in the magnetic data be observed. To resolve
these apparent discrepancies and map basement struc-
ture, a regional gravity surface, capturing most of the
dynamic range in the data and retaining all anomalies of
moderate wavelength, was selected to subtract from the
Bouguer gravity data.
The residual gravity map exhibits a significantly differ-
ent but geologically acceptable anomaly pattern (Figure
3c). In the residual gravity map, effects due to thinned
transitional crust and thick Tertiary basin fill are miti-
gated. This methodology was applied to the Bouguer
data to better image structural trends in the basement.
Those structural trends extending northeast to southwest,
N
parallel to trends in the magnetic data, can now be
observed. By inferring the structural fabric from the resid-
ual gravity map and combining it with depth to basement
calculations from the magnetic data, a structure map of
the basement was constructed (Figure 3d). This map
represents an approximation of the structural configura-
tion of the Tertiary basin at some point in time prior to
very early development of the Niger Delta. In this map, a
series of northeast–southwest trending structural highs
and lows are present beneath the delta. Structural lows
are deeper than 11 km and, in some areas, probably still
influence drainage patterns today. These lows are
inferred to represent subbasins and, as discussed later,
possibly separate hydrocarbon kitchens. There is, in fact,
a relationship between each of the subbasins onshore and
the largest oil fields in the delta, those with more than 200
million bbl of recoverable oil.
Tertiary Structural Trends
Tertiary structural trends are oriented in a general
northwest–southeast direction (Figure 4). These regional
structure-building faults, which have been controlling
deposition of the deltaic growth section since middle–late
Eocene time, occur at an angle approximately 90° to the

0 200 Km.
Figure 5—Location of four regional dip cross sections, based on seismic and well data, including biostratigraphy, across
the Niger Delta. Oil fields are shown in black.
older pregrowth structures. The resulting Tertiary struc-
tures are regionally extensive anticlinal features devel-
oped on the downthrown side of growth faults, which
dip in a southerly direction. The southern flanks of these
structures generally dip moderately to steeply, and there
is typically stratigraphic expansion into major counterre-
gional growth faults as well. In fact, in many cases the
amount of growth on counterregional faults greatly
exceeds growth on the regional faults.
As illustrated in Figure 4, the regional Tertiary fault
framework is quite complicated. With this complexity
and northwest–southeast regional structural grain, long-
distance lateral migration of oil and gas updip to the
northeast across major faults is unlikely. More likely,
hydrocarbon migration is predominantly vertical and
restricted to major structural compartments that are
controlled by growth faulting and deposition. Stacher
(1995) has expressed a similar view.
Tertiary Structural Model
Four regional dip cross sections across the Niger Delta
have been compiled from 2-D and 3-D seismic data, well
control, and biostratigraphy (Figure 5). The transects,
Chapter 16—Niger Delta Petroleum Systems, Nigeria 217
N
D
C
converted to depth and structurally balanced, demon-
strate that regional structural and stratigraphic patterns
across the delta are similar (Figure 6). They also docu-
ment higher rates of progradation in the more central
parts of the delta, where the amount of extension is
greater. All hydrocarbon production in the Niger Delta
occurs in the growth section, which is separated by
regional décollements from the underlying pregrowth
section (Cretaceous–Paleocene strata). The regional
décollements pass through the mobile shale.
Two styles of deformation are characteristic of the
Niger Delta and occur in each of the four cross sections.
The domino style, characterized by a series of parallel to
subparallel normal faults that pervasively break up hang-
ing-wall strata, occurs in the most landward onshore
parts of the delta. The listric style of deformation contains
relatively intact hanging-wall strata with localized fault-
ing associated with curvature of the major structure-
building fault. Most faults extending offshore beyond the
domino zone are listric, and listric faults in deep water are
commonly associated with shale tectonism.
Throughout most of the Niger Delta, the amount of
extension that has occurred through time cannot be
balanced by the amount of compression that can be
218 Haack et al.

Figure 8

Water D
Pleistocene
Pliocene
Late Miocene
Middle Miocene
Early Miocene 0 50 Km.
Oligocene
Eocene and older
Mobile Shale Vertical Scale = Horizontal Scale
Basement

Figure 6—Regional cross sections A, B, C, and D extending across the Niger Delta into deep water. Each section is drawn
at true scale (no vertical exaggeration).

(a)
a) Before Deformation measured in the thrust belt out in front of the delta in
Extensional deep water. To structurally balance rock volume when
Compressional Head constructing cross sections, the concept of a deformation
Toe Transitional Middle
cell was developed. Figure 7 illustrates an idealized cross
section of a cell before and after deformation. A deforma-
tion cell contains a through-going detachment with
extensional faults upslope, a transitional middle detach-
ment with a slope that is approximately parallel to the
surface slope, and a compressional thrust downslope.
Basal Detachment After the cell slips for some distance, the vacated area A,
caused by normal faulting, will be equal to the excess
(b)
b) After Deformation area A' caused by compressional thrusts. This model
A'
links creation of accommodation space for deposition of
A
sediments with structural growth.
Figure 8 illustrates a seismic example of an active
deformation cell from cross section A. The extensional
head, transitional middle, and compressional toe are
labeled. Positive bathymetry above the compressional toe
creates gravitational instability, which results in slippage
and downslope motion of the next younger cell. The
Figure 7—Idealized conceptual model for a deformation compressional toe, offset by a new normal fault, will
cell. (a) Idealized cell before deformation. (b) Idealized cell eventually become decapitated and wind up at the
after deformation, where vacated area A caused by normal bottom of the next younger cell. Older decapitated
faulting equals excess area A' caused by compressional compressional toes have been observed in 3-D seismic
thrust faulting. Vacated area A represents accommodation
space for deposition of sediments.
data in the northwestern part of the delta.
Figure 9 is a schematic diagram that illustrates
progressive evolution of a deformation cell. Progra-
dational sedimentation on an unstable slope drives large-
scale formation of the cell. Figure 9a depicts an unde-
formed basin filled with Upper Cretaceous–Paleocene
shale. Figure 9b shows that the first cycle of sedimenta-
tion produces a series of domino faults upslope and a
 Chapter 16—Niger Delta Petroleum Systems, Nigeria 219

SW NE
5000 4600 4200 S.P. 3800 3400 3000
0 0

5 5
Depth (Km)

10 10

15 15
Compressional Transitional Extensional
Toe Middle Head

20 0 10 Km. 20

True Scale
Figure 8—Seismic data from the distal part of cross section A (see Figure 6 for location), illustrating the key characteristics
of an active deformation cell. The compressional toe creates a positive topographic expression on the sea floor. The result-
ing gravitational instability initiates outboard motion in the next younger deformation cell that develops. Considerable
stratigraphic thinning occurs in the growth section between the red and blue horizons onto the compressional thrust front.

compressional toe downslope, which creates a new shelf-

slope break. In Figure 9c, the next cycle of sedimentation
forms a new deformation cell containing a megastruc-
(a)
ture. The counterregional fault of the megastructure
probably results from the counterregional bend in the Stage 1
basal detachment. The compressional toe of the first cell
has been decapitated and translated into the deeper part Shale
of the megastructure in the younger cell. This process is (b)
repeated through time, as younger and younger cycles of Shelf Break Compressional Extensional
sedimentation form new cells. Stage 2 Toe Head

PETROLEUM SYSTEMS (c) Shelf Break

Counter-Regional Fault
A petroleum system is the “oil and gas machine” that Stage 3

generates and concentrates hydrocarbons within a basin

over geologic time. It is composed of two subsystems
(Demaison and Huizinga, 1991): (1) a generative subsys-
tem defined by source rocks and oil characteristics, and
(2) a migration–entrapment subsystem defined by timing
of generation, type of drainage (lateral or vertical), and
type of trap. This regional study of the hydrocarbon habi-
tat of the Niger Delta is focused on evaluating the oil Figure 9—Conceptual model for the progressive evolution
of a deformation cell in the Niger Delta. Progradational
machine at the basin scale, that is, at the scale of a petro-
sedimentation on an unstable slope drives the large-scale
leum system. development of the cell. (a) A pristine basin filled with
On the basis of available geochemical data, we recog- Upper Cretaceous–Paleocene shale. (b) The first cycle of
nize three petroleum systems in the Niger Delta, infor- sedimentation produces a series of domino faults upslope
mally named as follows: and a compressional toe downslope. (c) The next cycle of
sedimentation forms a new deformation cell containing a
1. Lower Cretaceous petroleum system, megastructure.
220 Haack et al.
2. Upper Cretaceous–lower Paleocene petroleum
system, and
3. Tertiary petroleum system.
Lower Cretaceous source rocks are identified from one
of the rift grabens that occur along the northwestern
margin of the delta. Upper Cretaceous–lower Paleocene
source rocks are also recognized from the same area.
Tertiary deltaic source rocks, the principal source for oil
and gas in the Niger Delta, are time transgressive and
occur in regionally extensive outer shelf to slope facies
beneath the parallic sequence and in transgressive shelf
facies within it. On the regional cross sections in Figure 6,
source facies occur within growth strata of Eocene–
Pliocene age and in older pregrowth strata.
Lower Cretaceous Petroleum System
One biodegraded seep oil from Nigerian tar sands on
the northern flank of the Dahomey Embayment has been
correlated to Lower Cretaceous (Neocomian) source
rocks in Ise-2 well (J. Dahl, personal communication,
1990). The lacustrine alga Botryococcus was also identified
in samples from the source rock interval in that well (A. R.
Daly, personal communication, 1990). The source rock
extract from Ise-2 well and pyrolyzate of the seep sample
have geochemical characteristics similar to oils from the
Lower Congo Basin that have been derived from Lower
Cretaceous lacustrine Bucomazi source rocks (K. E.
Peters, personal communication, 1993).
The approximate aerial extent of the Lower Cretaceous
petroleum system is shown in Figure 10. Lower
Cretaceous source potential, based on the geochemical
profile from Ise-2 well, is estimated to be 5.24 tons
HC/m2 rock. This would provide a low to moderate
hydrocarbon charge for a vertically drained rift basin
(Demaison and Huizinga, 1991). A previous in-house esti-
mate of source potential was 12.07 tons HC/m2 rock. This
estimate, however, is too high because obvious nonsource
lithologies were mistakenly included in the calculation.
As in the Dahomey Basin, a Lower Cretaceous petroleum
system could also be present within the rift sequence of
the Benue Trough northeast of the Niger Delta.
Upper Cretaceous–Lower Paleocene
Petroleum System
The inferred regional extent of the Upper Cret-
aceous–lower Paleocene petroleum system is illustrated
in Figure 11 and identified by the geochemical profile for
Epiya-1 well. This system consists of type II and II–III oil-
prone kerogen and includes source rock strata in the
marine Araromi, Awgu, and Imo shales, which were
deposited along the northwestern margin of the delta.
Oils recovered from Paleogene sandstones in Shango-1
well are inferred to be derived from this source (K. E.
Peters, personal communication, 1993). Contrary to the
inferred origin of tar sand bitumen discussed above,
other geochemists believe bitumen in the tar belt of the
Dahomey Basin could have been derived from Upper
Cretaceous marine shales. Presently, not enough
geochemical data from the tar sands are available to
confidently determine whether the source is lacustrine or
marine. More sampling and evaluation of the Nigerian
tar sands are needed.
The source potential for the Upper Cretaceous–lower
Paleocene petroleum system, based on the profile for
Epiya-1 well, is estimated to be 10.5 tons HC/m2 rock.
This would provide a normal hydrocarbon charge for a
vertically drained basin (Demaison and Huizinga, 1991).
If, however, richness increases distally, as is likely, source
potential could be higher. Conversely, if thickness
decreases distally, even if richness increases, then source
potential might not increase and could even decrease
farther offshore.
Although data are sparse, Upper Cretaceous source
rocks have been identified along the eastern margin of the
Niger Delta in outcrops (Inyang et al., 1995) and in the
subsurface (J. A. Adakomola, personal communication,
1992). Oil has also been discovered in Cretaceous strata
from the Anambra Basin. Oil produced from Seme field
in the Republic of Benin, west of the Niger Delta, is also
derived from Upper Cretaceous source rocks (J. Dahl,
personal communication, 1991).
Upper Cretaceous–lower Tertiary marine Iabe and
Landana source rocks in the Lower Congo Basin,
Cabinda, consist of type II kerogen derived primarily
from marine organic matter (Schöellkopf and Patterson,
1997). Although an Upper Cretaceous–lower Tertiary
petroleum system is important for generating oil
throughout much of west Africa, no large petroleum
accumulations have been identified to date from Upper
Cretaceous–lower Paleocene source rocks in the region of
the Niger Delta. Nevertheless, this older petroleum
system could be a major source for liquid hydrocarbons
in deep-water areas of the delta. For this system to be
effective in deep water, however, it would require suffi-
cient hydrocarbon charge through migration pathways
connecting pregrowth source strata to reservoirs in
Tertiary traps within the growth section.
Tertiary Petroleum System
The aerial extent of the Tertiary petroleum system is
shown in Figure 12a, and its source rock richness is repre-
sented by the hydrogen index (HI) versus oxygen index
(OI) plot and geochemical profile for Aroh-2 well (Figures
12b and c). Variation in source richness, as illustrated
stratigraphically by the profile, from dry gas prone to oil
prone, can also be inferred and mapped regionally on the
basis of geochemical signatures in oils. The predomi-
nance of gas-prone source rocks encountered in most
wells that have been analyzed from the Niger Delta and
implicit variation in source potential have been recog-
nized by many workers and discussed thoroughly in the
literature (Ekweozor and Daukoru, 1994, and references
therein; Core Laboratories, 1994; Stacher, 1995; Haack and
Sundararaman, 1994; Haack et al., 1997; 1998). This chap-
 Chapter 16óNiger Delta Petr oleum Systems, Nigeria 221

(a)a)
Ana
ambra Basiin

T r Sands

Enugu
Onitsha

Warri

Calabar
PETROLEUM SYSTEM Port Harcourt

(Hypothetical)
Benue Trough ?

0 200 Km.

(b)
b) OI HI TOC S2 S2/S3 TMAX S1 PI
200 100 300 200 2 1 2 5 10 440 1.5 .4
BENIN FM
MIOCENE
MIOCEN
ALEOCENE

SHALE
MO SH
IMO
PA
N

E
ALBIAN

ISE FM

Figure 10—(a) Map showing the Lower Cretaceous petroleum system and the location of the Nigerian tar sands on the
northern flank of the Dahomey Embayment. (b) Geochemical profile for Ise-2 well, representative of the Lower Cretaceous
petroleum system. The source potential in this well, calculated for Neocomian source rock, is 5.24 tons HC/m2 rock. The top
of the oil window is at ~8500 ft (~2590 m).
222 Haack et al.

(a)a)
Anambra Basin

Lagos Tar Sands

Enugu
Onitsha
Seme Field Shango - 1

Epiya - 1 Warri

Calabar
? Port Harcourt

PETROLEUM SYSTEM
Upper Cretaceous
Lower Paleocene
Benue Trough ?

0 200 Km.

(b)b) OI HI TOC S2/S3 TMAX S1 PI

S2
200 100 300 200 2 1 2 5 10 440 1.5 .4
BENIN
PLEISTOCENE
PLIOCENE -

AGBADA
MIOCENE

AKATA

OLIGO

EOCE
PALEOCENE

IMO SHALE
UPPER CRETACEOUS
ARAROMI /
AWGU
ABEOKUTA

Figure 11—(a) Map showing the Upper Cretaceous–Lower Paleocene petroleum system. (b) Geochemical profile for Epiya-1
well, representative of this petroleum system. The source potential in this well is 10.5 tons HC/m2 rock. The top of the oil
window is at ~9000 ft (~2740 m).
 Chapter 16—Niger Delta Petroleum Systems, Nigeria 223

(a)
a) Anambra Basin

Tar Sands

Enugu
Lagos
Aroh -2 Onitsha

Warri

Calabar
? Port Harcourt
PETROLEUM SYSTEM
Tertiary Deltaic

(b)b
1000
0 200 Km.
HYDROGEN INDEX (mg HC/g TOC)

I
800 ?
?

600
II
HIGHER HI VALUES FROM
TERRIGENOUS PLANT WAXES
400

200
III
IV
0
0 100 200 300
OXYGEN INDEX (mg CO2/g TOC)

(c)c
OI HI TOC S2 S2/S3 TMAX S1 PI
200 100 300 200 2 1 2 5 10 440 1.5 .4
UPPER EOCENE

AKATA
MIDDLE EOCENE

Figure 12—(a) Map showing the Tertiary (deltaic) petroleum system. (b) HI/OI plot showing the higher HI values characteriz-
ing the richer source rock section that result from the presence of terrigenous plant waxes in the kerogen. (c) Geochemical
profile for Aroh-2 well, representative of this petroleum system. Source potential for the analyzed middle Eocene interval is
27 tons HC/m2 rock, and for the more liquid-prone source rock sequence at 10,500–12,400 ft (3200–3780 m) is 15 tons
HC/m2 rock. All samples were preextracted to remove Petrofree. As a result, S1 values are minimum values. (Preextraction
does not alter or enhance other pyrolysis or TOC results.) The top of the oil window is at ~10,500 ft (~3200 m).
224 Haack et al.
Dominated by Terrigenous Organic Matter
- waxy oils
- considerable gas
Gas-prone Source
Uniform Composition
Oxic Depositional Environment
Poor Organic Matter Preservation
Oil-prone Source
Variable Organic Facies
Sub-oxic Depositional Environment
Enhanced Organic Matter Preservation
Figure 13—Schematic diagram of the Niger Delta source
rock model. Niger Delta source rocks, dominated by
terrigenous organic matter, generate considerable gas
and waxy oils. Oil-prone source rocks were deposited in
suboxic depositional environments where hydrogenicity
was preserved. Gas-prone source facies are composition-
ally more uniform due to degradation of organic matter in
oxic environments.
ter documents the evidence for Tertiary oil-prone source
rocks in the Niger Delta and provides a new understand-
ing of the Tertiary petroleum system.
In Aroh-2 well, thermally mature oil- and gas-prone
middle Eocene source strata occur upthrown to a normal
fault. The richer source facies, consisting of type II oil-
prone kerogen, progressively increase in abundance with
depth in the lower part of the well. Extracts from these
source rocks correlate to oils recovered from nearby wells.
Results from pyrolysis gas chromatography of one of the
richer samples from this source sequence indicate that the
oil-prone deltaic source facies generate primarily light to
normal oils, some wet gas, and very little dry gas. These
results correspond well to the chemical composition of
liquid hydrocarbons characteristic of Niger Delta oil
fields. Source potential for this 4200-ft (1280-m) interval is
27 tons HC/m2 rock, indicative of a supercharged petro-
leum system. Although this value is slightly inflated by
the thick gas-prone section overlying the richer source
rocks, more than 55% of the source potential is due to the
more liquid-prone source rock section at 10,500–12,400 ft
(3200–3780 m).
Based on foraminifera biostratigraphy, the deeper,
richer source rocks in Aroh-2 well are inferred to have
been deposited in an outer neritic to bathyal paleoenvi-
ronment. The relatively high concentration of C29 ster-
anes derived from land plants in this source facies
(42–57%) implies that abundant terrigenous organic
matter was being deposited and preserved in deep water.
Perhaps a zone of lower oxygen content began to develop
in the water column impinging on the shelf–slope break
during middle–late Eocene time. Although there is no
evidence for anoxia in any of the biomarker data from oils
and source rock extracts, something happened during the
middle–late Eocene to enhance preservation of terrige-
nous organic matter in the vicinity of the upper slope in
the northwestern part of the delta.
Figure 13 presents a conceptual model for Tertiary
deltaic source rocks in the Niger Delta encompassing the
complete range of source potential observed, from dry
gas prone to oil prone. Depending on where you are in
the delta, source rocks range in age from middle Eocene
to Pliocene and they contain predominantly terrigenous
organic matter. These source rocks generate light waxy
oils or gas. The more gas-prone end-member of the
organic facies spectrum was deposited in an oxic deposi-
tional environment in which organic matter was poorly
preserved. Oil-prone organic facies, however, were
deposited in suboxic depositional environments in which
enhanced preservation of terrigenous organic matter was
possible. Different oil-prone source facies have been
recognized and mapped across the delta. The differences
undoubtedly result from variation in the composition of
organic matter components, which contribute to kerogen
of the richer source facies.
Regional variation in oil-prone source facies, inferred
on the basis of biomarker and carbon isotope data, is illus-
trated in Figure 14a. This map, summarizing the results
from cluster analysis, illustrates the distribution of differ-
ent subfamilies of oils across the delta. This discrimina-
tion of subfamilies is based on source-related geochemi-
cal parameters, which are known to be significant from
analyses of about 250 oils from the Niger Delta. [Note: in
Nigeria, accepted petroleum industry nomenclature and
practice makes use of the red color to indicate oil and
green to indicate gas (Nigerian Committee on Standard-
isation of Geological Nomenclature and Symbols, 1984).
These conventions are followed here.]
A MORE DETAILED LOOK AT THE
TERTIARY (DELTAIC) PETROLEUM
SYSTEM
Results from regional geochemical investigations indi-
cate that kerogen derived from terrigenous Tertiary
organic matter deposited in marine shales is the principal
source for hydrocarbons in the Niger Delta. There
appears to be a minor unquantified contribution from
marine organic matter to the kerogen, based on carbon
isotope and biomarker data, but the primary source is
organic matter derived from Tertiary land plants.
Variability in preservation of terrigenous organic matter
due to changes in redox potential through time caused
considerable regional variation in deltaic organic facies.
These laterally and temporally varying source facies,
coupled with differences in maturity resulting from
regional variability in geothermal gradient and burial, are
the two principal factors that have controlled the complex
distribution of oil and gas across the delta.
More than 35 years of drilling experience in the Niger
Delta has demonstrated that oil-prone source rocks are
rarely, if ever, encountered in wells. Because the richer
source rocks are deeper than strata normally penetrated
by wells, regional trends in oil-prone source facies must

be inferred on the basis of geochemical characteristics
from produced oils (Peters and Moldowan, 1993). This
methodology works well as long as migration pathways
are predominantly vertical and source-related geochemi-
cal signatures are not significantly altered during migra-
tion. Because of extensive normal faulting, long-distance
lateral migration of hydrocarbons across major bounding
faults is unlikely in the Niger Delta. Furthermore, in
many areas of the delta, the common association of seis-
mic amplitudes from 3-D data and normal faults indi-
cates that normal faulting does play a key role in hydro-
carbon migration. Such an association supports earlier
assessments of the Niger Delta as a classic example of a
vertically drained petroleum system (Weber and
Daukoru, 1975; Evamy et. al., 1978; Demaison and
Huizinga, 1991). The results and discussion that follow
are based on the methodology of inferring regional
source facies trends from biomarkers in oils and pertain
to the richer oil-prone source facies of the delta.
Regional Source Rock Trends Inferred
from Oils
Regional variability in organic matter input, deter-
mined from the contour map in Figure 14b of relative
abundance of C29 steranes, effectively demonstrates how
source facies change across the Niger Delta. Sample
control for this map is shown in Figure 14a. The areas in
green in Figure 14b have the highest relative abundance of
C29 steranes (>50%), indicating the highest organic matter
contribution from land plants, and represent proximity to
paleodrainage systems during source rock deposition.
The areas in blue have the lowest relative abundance of
C29 steranes (about 40% or less) and hence the lowest land
plant contribution, which suggests source rock deposition
under more marine-influenced conditions. The easily
recognized deltaic lobes on this map correspond closely to
paleodrainage systems identified by Weber and Daukoru
(1975). The more proximal lobate patterns occur outboard
of the Anambra Basin (Cretaceous delta) in an area where
the early Tertiary delta began to develop. Those lobes
undoubtedly represent paleodrainage systems, which
supplied sediments to the early pre-Miocene Niger Delta.
The two more distal lobes in the eastern and western parts
of the delta represent later drainage systems, which began
to develop during the Miocene.
In the map of Figure 14b, there is close correspondence
between the more marine-influenced areas (blue) and oil
reserves. About 75% of Chevron Nigeria Limited joint
venture reserves occur in areas where source facies contain
less terrigenous organic matter. The same relationship
holds true for total reserves from all operators across the
entire delta (unpublished Petroconsultant data, 1994).
One difficulty with the map in Figure 14b is that it does
not discriminate the oil-rich northwestern and southeast-
ernmost parts of the delta from the more gas-rich central
offshore part. This anomaly was resolved by mapping
another biomarker parameter sensitive to the degree of
Chapter 16—Niger Delta Petroleum Systems, Nigeria 225
preservation of organic matter in the depositional envi-
ronment—the homohopane index (HHI). Better preser-
vation of organic matter results in more hydrogen-rich
kerogen, higher Rock-Eval HI values, and more liquid-
prone source rocks. This source rock signal is detected in
oils generated from those richer source rocks as a higher
value for the HHI (Peters and Moldowan, 1993). This
approach works well in the Niger Delta. One caveat,
however, is that the HHI is affected by maturity and
biodegradation. In this study, all data were screened for
those effects before mapping.
The contour map in Figure 14c of the HHI, or in other
words, the degree of preservation of organic matter, illus-
trates some interesting patterns. There is a general corre-
spondence between deltaic lobes, inferred on the basis of
C29 sterane content, and areas where HHI values are low.
These green areas in Figure 14c represent more highly
oxygenated parts of the Niger Delta during source rock
deposition and consist of more gas-prone source facies
than do the more oil-prone red areas. This map, in fact,
now effectively discriminates a more gas-prone source
facies in the central offshore part of the delta from the
more oil-rich areas in the northwest and southeast.
Furthermore, the dark red areas delimit the arcuate band
of major oil fields so characteristic of the delta. There are
other more subtle trends recognized offshore in the north-
western part of the delta that are also consistent with
trends in this map.
In the map of Figure 14c, there is a close correspon-
dence between oil reserves and the red areas, which are
inferred to be more liquid prone and characterized by
higher HHI values. Almost 75% of Chevron Nigeria
Limited joint venture reserves are from the areas colored
in red on this map, and Chevron’s operated production
from these areas is more than twice as liquid rich as
production from green areas is. There is a similar delta-
wide correlation between total reserves and inferred
source rock richness (unpublished Petroconsultant data,
1994). Although not surprising, these relationships
indicate that source rock facies control to some extent
where oil accumulations are large, and conversely,
where the gas–oil ratio (GOR) is high. The correlation,
however, is not perfect, and other factors such as matu-
rity, reservoir distribution, migration timing, and traps
are also important.
Relationship Between Oil Families and
Basement Structure
In Figure 14d, the distribution of different oil subfami-
lies is superimposed onto the structure map of the base-
ment, revealing interesting relationships between some of
the subbasins and subfamilies of oils. These subbasins, in
fact, could represent separate hydrocarbon kitchens for
the Niger Delta. The correspondence is not perfect, but
there is enough overlap in the data to suggest possible
genetic relationships among subbasins, different source
facies, and oil generation.
226 Haack et al.

a)
(a)
Oil Sub-Families
0 100 Km.
Less Terrigenous Dominated
Group I
Group II
More Terrigenous Dominated
Group III
Group IV
Outliers
Group V

(b)
b)

Oil Reserves
NNPC/CHEVRON JOINT VENTURE

208 MMB
40 Km.
t
Lant Inpu

40 Mi.
1306 MMB Cum. Prod. Bbls. Res./Expl. Well
% Expl. Wells HIGHER CONTRIBUTION
(MMBO) (MMBO) FROM LAND PLANTS
nd P

3472 MMB
2.2 31 9 LOWER CONTRIBUTION
La

FROM LAND PLANTS

746.6 14 131
ng

i
e as 1836.9 55 87 OIL FIELD
Incr

Figure 14—Regional geochemical maps of the Tertiary deltaic petroleum system based on selected biomarker parameters.
(a) Four subfamilies of oils are recognized based on results from multivariate cluster analysis. (b) Contour map of relative
abundance of C29 steranes (Peters and Moldowan, 1993, p. 182) demonstrates regional variation in abundance and distri-
bution of terrigenous organic matter in source rocks of this petroleum system. Green areas represent highest relative abun-
dance (C29 steranes > 50%), blue areas are lowest relative abundance (C29 steranes ≤ 40%).
(Figure 14 continues on next page.)
 Chapter 16—Niger Delta Petroleum Systems, Nigeria 227

(c)c
3

3
3

4
2
4

Oil Reserves
NNPC/CHEVRON JOINT VENTURE
2
3
535 MMB 3
40 Km.
1399 MMB 4
-Prone

Cum. Prod. Bbls. Liq./MMCFG Bbls. Res./Expl. Well 40 Mi.

More G

(MMBO) (Reserves) (MMBO)

3019 MMB
MORE
106.1 60 LESS
uid

58% 531
as

3 HHI VALUE
Liq

1406.5 75
-P

on re OIL FIELD
r

e Mo 1074.0
42% 242
93
0 4 CONTOUR INTERVAL=1

(d)
d
0 100 Km.

1 - 2 Kms
>11 Kms

(Figure 14 continued) (c) Contour map of variation in HHI (C35 HHI × 100) (Peters and Moldowan, 1993, p. 147), which indi-
cates degree of variation in preservation of organic matter across the delta. Red areas represent better preservation of
organic matter, hence more liquid prone, and green areas are poorer preservation, hence more gas prone. (d) Map showing
the relationship between basement structure and oil subfamilies for the Tertiary petroleum system defined from cluster
analysis. Patterns suggest that subbasins are charged by hydrocarbons from different end-members of source rock
systems.
228 Haack et al.

Oil-Prone Source Rock Model (a) Aroh-2

-2
We propose a conceptual oil-prone source rock model 7.
0
for the Niger Delta which is based on detailed geologic Benin
River -26.0
and geochemical investigation in the northwestern part Makaraba NW Delta
of the delta (Figure 15a) and which builds on under- Meren
-26.0
Sub-Basin
standing achieved from regional work. Oil fields within
the northwest delta subbasin received hydrocarbon Okan
charge from Eocene source rocks. Large oil fields occur in -27.0 -2
8.
0
the center of this subbasin, which directly overlies the Sonam
deepest part of the hydrocarbon kitchen. Hydrocarbon -28 -27.0
.0
charge southwest of the regional fault system, bounding
the trend which includes Meren and Okan fields, is from 0 20 Km.
a younger source rock sequence. Oil-prone source rocks
from the delta contain both terrigenous and marine (b)
organic matter. The presence of marine organic matter is
based on geochemical data and could not be verified OM Composition
microscopically because marine precursors could not be Marine
positively identified in available samples. Terrigenous
The relationships between organic facies and key
geochemical signatures, including pristane/phytane
ratio, HHI, C29 sterane content, and saturate carbon Increasing
isotope value, are illustrated in Figure 15b. The oil-prone
source rocks recovered from Aroh-2 well provide docu- δ13Carbon (saturate)
Decreasing Homohopane Index
mentation for the terrigenous-dominated end-member
on the left side of Figure 15b. The well occurs in the north-
eastern part of the northwest delta subbasin (shown in C Steranes
Figure 15a). Source rock samples from the more marine- 29
Pr/Ph
influenced end-member on the right side of Figure 15b
have not been recovered, but sufficient data from oils
confirm its presence. For example, the change in organic Figure 15—Oil-prone source rock model for the Niger
facies recognized in the northwestern part of the delta, on Delta. (a) Contour map of saturate carbon isotope distribu-
the basis of C29 sterane content (Figure 14b), saturate tion from the northwestern part of the delta. Isotope
values measured in oils from fields (sampled oil fields are
carbon isotope values (Figure 15a), and results from clus- dark gray; unsampled oil fields are light gray) vary from
ter analysis (Figure 14a), strongly support the model of –29.3 to –24.0‰, which represents natural source facies
source facies variation proposed here. In addition, a variation characteristic of the Tertiary petroleum system.
corresponding change in organic facies can also be recog- Values are heaviest (less negative) toward the center of
nized on the shelf in the southeastern part of the delta the subbasin, where more marine organic matter is
(Figures 14a–d). preserved. (b) Schematic diagram showing variation in
source rock facies. Oil-prone source rocks from Aroh-2
well document one end-member (left side). Source rocks
Regional Maturity Trends Inferred representing the more marine-influenced end-member
from Oils (right side) have not been recovered.

Biomarker data were also used to map regional trends

in thermal maturity (Figure 16). The sterane isomeriza-
tion parameter 20S/20S + 20R was selected for mapping.
As expected, higher maturity is observed in the more
proximal parts of the Niger Delta where geothermal
gradients are higher. Furthermore, within each depobelt,
defined by the regional faults in Figure 16, maturity
decreases away from each major bounding fault. This
pattern, repeated within all of the depobelts, implies that
the major bounding faults do act as migration pathways
for hydrocarbon withdrawal from deep within the
source rock sequence. Because major faults have the
deepest penetration into source rocks, they provide
conduits for more mature hydrocarbons to migrate verti-
cally and accumulate in structures formed by the major
bounding faults.
Hydrocarbon Generation–Migration
Model
We propose a simple episodic hydrocarbon migration
model based on insights gained from regional study of
the Niger Delta and focused on trying to understand
underlying causes for the complex distribution of gas and
oil regionally and within fields. As already demonstrated,
variation in source facies, from gas prone to oil prone, is
one of the important controls of regional trends in GOR.
We now discuss additional controls implied by the
proposed migration model.
 Chapter 16—Niger Delta Petroleum Systems, Nigeria 229

.50
.45
.50 .45
.4
5

.4
0
.40
.3
0

.35

.35
.30

.35
.3
5

.35
.40
.35

0 200 Km. N

CONTOUR INTERVAL = 0.05

Figure 16—Contour map of regional thermal maturity across the Niger Delta inferred on the basis of sterane isomerization
biomarker parameter 20S/20S + 20R in oils (Peters and Moldowan, 1993, p. 237). Major regional bounding faults shown in
green define regional maturity compartments. Maturity contours are shown in red. Contour interval is 0.05.

The model illustrated in Figure 17 depicts burial of a

Model Predicts Episodic HC
typical source rock sequence in the Niger Delta: oil-prone Migration
source rocks overlain by gas-prone source rocks (e.g., Gas
Aroh-2 well). Oil is generated from oil-prone source rocks Prone Increasing
Burial
as they mature. With deeper burial, the oil-prone source,
no longer capable of generating oil, begins to generate
lighter hydrocarbon products. At the same time, shal- Top Oil
lower gas-prone source rocks are also likely to enter the oil gas Generation
generative window. These source rocks, which are not Oil
Prone
capable of generating oil, provide a second source for gas.
Traps, migration pathways, and connectivity of sand-
Top Gas
stone beds across faults progressively change through light oil Generation
time concurrent with increasing burial and source rock gas
maturation within each deformation cell. This dynamic
evolution of the plumbing system, through which Figure 17—Conceptual generation–migration model for
expelled hydrocarbons migrate, results in different traps the Niger Delta. This model predicts that episodic hydro-
and migration pathways being available to migrating carbon migration should be common for the Niger Delta.
hydrocarbons at different times. Because the composition The principal assumption built into the model is that
of generated hydrocarbons also changes through time, as richer, oil-prone source rocks in the Akata are overlain by
predicted by the model, older traps are likely to receive more gas-prone source rocks in the Agbada. All available
more liquid-rich accumulations than younger traps. source rock data are consistent with this assumption.
230 Haack et al.
Even with this simple episodic migration model,
understanding the present-day distribution of gas and oil
in the Niger Delta is much more complicated because
secondary processes, such as biodegradation and remi-
gration, tend to alter the original composition of trapped
hydrocarbons. Furthermore, gas solubility varies consid-
erably within fields and across the delta due to varying
hydrocarbon compositions and pressure-volume-temp-
erature relationships. Nevertheless, the proposed model
does provide a new framework for studying the complex
GOR distributions across the Niger Delta within the
context of an evolving and dynamic petroleum system.
Within this context, the timing of generation-migration-
entrapment becomes a focal point for further investiga-
tion.
CONCLUSIONS
Structural lows are inferred to be deeper than 11 km,
based on gravity and magnetic data, and might provide
separate hydrocarbon kitchens for hydrocarbon genera-
tion in the Niger Delta. Different subfamilies of oils,
inferred to be derived from subtly different source rock
facies, are associated with separate subbasins onshore. In
addition, there is correspondence between subbasins and
the largest oil fields in the delta (>200 million bbl).
The concept of a deformation cell is proposed to
provide a better understanding of how to balance rock
volume structurally in an extensional deltaic setting. The
process–response model links creation of accommoda-
tion space for deposition of sediments to extensional
growth faults and compressional thrust fronts.
Three petroleum systems are defined for the Niger
Delta, and oils are correlated to each. The Lower
Cretaceous petroleum system, characterized by lacustrine
source rocks, occurs in the northwestern part of the delta
and might also be present in the Benue Trough. The
Upper Cretaceous–Lower Paleocene petroleum system,
characterized by marine source rocks, is defined for the
northwestern part of the delta. Correlative marine source
rocks are undoubtedly present beneath the entire Tertiary
delta and extend northeastward into the Anambra Basin.
No significant oil accumulations are derived from either
of these petroleum systems. For either to charge Tertiary
reservoirs would require hydrocarbon migration path-
ways from the pregrowth source rock section through the
mobile shale into the growth section.
The Tertiary deltaic petroleum system is defined by
oil-prone source rocks in Aroh-2 well. This petroleum
system is the principal source for hydrocarbons in the
Niger Delta. Laterally and temporally varying source
rock facies dominated by terrigenous organic matter, as
well as regional differences in thermal maturity, are the
principal factors controlling the complex regional distrib-
ution of oil and gas across the delta. There is reasonably
good correspondence between oil reserves and richer
source rock facies inferred on the basis of biomarker and
carbon isotopic signatures from oils.
A simple episodic hydrocarbon migration model
provides a new framework for studying the complex
GOR distribution in the Niger Delta on a subregional
scale and within fields. The model predicts changes in the
composition of generated hydrocarbons through time,
which occur within the geologic framework of an evolv-
ing and dynamic petroleum system, including hydrocar-
bon generation, migration pathways, reservoirs, and
traps. Secondary processes and variable gas solubility,
beyond the scope of this model, also play an important
role in understanding the distribution of gas and oil in the
Niger Delta.
Acknowledgments—This work would not have been possible
without support from the management of Chevron Nigeria
Limited and our joint venture partner Nigerian National
Petroleum Corporation. Their approval for publication of this
work is appreciated. In addition, many thanks to colleagues
from Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria
Limited, especially Daniel Trümpy, for permitting data trades.
Those data provided us with a regional perspective that other-
wise would be difficult to achieve. A special thanks to many
Chevron colleagues and former Chevron colleagues, who over
the years have inspired, supported, and critically reviewed
many of the ideas presented in this paper, including Alan
Nunns, Tom Heidrick, Mark Koelmel, Peter Berry, Brad
Huizinga, Jeremy Dahl, and Mike Moldowan. There are others,
of course, with whom we have worked over the years; we thank
them too. We also thank Barry Katz, Mike Hoffman, and Ed
Colling for reviewing and editing this paper. Their comments
have greatly improved its quality. All of the figures were drafted
by Rob Haitsma in the Chevron Drafting Department in San
Ramon.
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