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Garry Kranz
Carol Sliwa

Flash memory, also known as flash storage, is a type of nonvolatile memory that erases data in
units called blocks and rewrites data at the byte level. Flash memory is widely used for storage
and data transfer in consumer devices, enterprise systems and industrial applications. Flash
memory retains data for an extended period of time, regardless of whether a flash-equipped
device is powered on or off.

Flash memory is used in enterprise data center server, storage and networking technology, as
well as in a wide range of consumer devices, including USB flash drives -- also known as
memory sticks -- SD cards, mobile phones, digital cameras, tablet computers and PC cards in
notebook computers and embedded controllers. For instance, NAND flash-based solid-state
drives are often used to accelerate the performance of I/O-intensive applications. NOR flash
memory is often used to hold control code, such as the basic input/output system (BIOS), in a
PC.

Flash memory is also used for in-memory computing to help speed performance and scalability
of systems that manage and analyze large sets of data.

Origins of flash storage technologies

Dr. Fujio Masuoka is credited with the invention of flash memory when he worked for Toshiba in
the 1980s. Masuoka's colleague, Shoji Ariizumi, reportedly coined the term flash because the
process of erasing all the data from a semiconductor chip reminded him of the flash of a
camera.

THIS ARTICLE IS PART OF

 Flash memory guide to architecture, types and products

Which also includes:

The pros and cons of flash memory revealed

Four common SSD form factors and where they work best

Flash memory standards and interfaces every IT admin should know

Flash memory evolved from erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM) and
electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM). Flash is technically a variant
of EEPROM, but the industry reserves the term EEPROM for byte-level erasable memory and
applies the term flash memory to larger block-level erasable memory.

k Flash memory consists of a transistor and a floating gate that stores the electric current.

How does flash memory work?

Flash memory architecture includes a memory array stacked with a large number of flash cells.
A basic flash memory cell consists of a storage transistor with a control gate and a floating gate,
which is insulated from the rest of the transistor by a thin dielectric material or oxide layer. The
floating gate stores the electrical charge and controls the flow of the electrical current.

electrons are added to or removed from the floating gate to change the storage transistor's
threshold voltage. Changing the voltage affects whether a cell is programmed as a zero or a
one.
 Floating gate flash cell

k A flash memory cell consists of a storage transistor with a control gate and a floating gate.

A process called Fowler-Nordheim tunneling removes electrons from the floating gate. Either
Fowler-Nordheim tunneling or a phenomenon known as channel hot-electron injection traps the
electrons in the floating gate.

With Fowler-Nordheim tunneling, data is erased via a strong negative charge on the control
gate. This forces electrons into the channel, where a strong positive charge exists.

The reverse happens when using Fowler-Nordheim tunneling to trap electrons in the floating
gate. Electrons manage to forge through the thin oxide layer to the floating gate in the presence
of a high electric field, with a strong negative charge on the cell's source and the drain and a
strong positive charge on the control gate.
 Fowler-Nordheim tunneling diagram

k A process called Fowler-Nordheim tunneling removes electrons from the floating gate.

Channel hot-electron injection, also known as hot-carrier injection, enables electrons to break
through the gate oxide and change the threshold voltage of the floating gate. This breakthrough
occurs when electrons acquire a sufficient amount of energy from the high current in the
channel and the attracting charge on the control gate.
 Channel hot-electron injection diagram

k Channel hot-electron injection enables electrons to break through the gate oxide and change the threshold voltage of the
floating gate.

Electrons are trapped in the floating gate whether or not a device containing the flash memory
cell is receiving power as a result of electrical isolation created by the oxide layer. This
characteristic enables flash memory to provide persistent storage.

NOR vs. NAND flash memory

There are two types of flash memory: NOR and NAND.

NOR and NAND flash memory differ in architecture and design characteristics. NOR flash uses
no shared components and can connect individual memory cells in parallel, enabling random
access to data. A NAND flash cell is more compact and has fewer bit lines, stringing together
floating gate transistors to increase storage density.

NAND is better suited to serial rather than random data access. NAND flash process
geometries were developed in response to planar NAND reaching its practical scaling limit.

NOR flash is fast on data reads, but it is typically slower than NAND on erases and writes. NOR
flash programs data at the byte level. NAND flash programs data in pages, which are larger
than bytes, but smaller than blocks. For instance, a page might be 4 kilobytes (KB), while a
block might be 128 KB to 256 KB or megabytes in size. NAND flash consumes less power than
NOR flash for write-intensive applications.
NOR flash is more expensive to produce than NAND flash and tends to be used primarily in
consumer and embedded devices for boot purposes and read-only applications for code
storage. NAND flash is more suitable for data storage in consumer devices and enterprise
server and storage systems due to its lower cost per bit to store data, greater density and higher
programming and erase (P/E) speeds.

Devices, such as camera phones, may use both NOR and NAND flash, in addition to other
memory technologies, to facilitate code execution and data storage.

Flash memory form factors

Flash-based media is based on a silicon substrate. Also known as solid-state devices, they are
widely used in both consumer electronics and enterprise data storage systems.

There are three SSD form factors that have been identified by the Solid State Storage Initiative:

SSDs that fit into the same slots used by traditional electromechanical hard disk drives
(HDDs). SSDs have architecture similar to that of an integrated circuit.
Solid-state cards that reside on a printed circuit board and use a standard card form factor,
such as Peripheral Component Interconnect Express (PCIe).
Solid-state modules that fit in a dual inline memory module (DIMM) or small outline dual
inline memory module using a standard HDD interface, such as the Serial Advanced
Technology Attachment (SATA).

An additional subcategory is a hybrid hard drive that combines a conventional HDD with a
NAND flash module. A hybrid hard drive is generally viewed as a way to bridge the divide
between rotating media and flash memory.

All-flash and hybrid flash memory

The advent of flash memory fueled the rise of all-flash arrays. These systems contain only
SSDs, they offer advantages in performance and potentially reduced operational costs,
compared to all disk-based storage arrays. The chief difference, aside from the media, is in the
underlying physical architecture used to write data to a storage device.

HDD-based arrays have an actuator arm that enables data to be written to a specific block on a
specific sector on the disk. All-flash storage systems do not require moving parts to write data.
The writes are made directly to the flash memory and custom software handles data
management.

A hybrid flash array blends disk and SSDs. Hybrid arrays use SSDs as a cache to speed
access to frequently requested hot data, which subsequently is rewritten to back-end disk. Many
enterprises commonly archive data from disk as it ages by replicating it to an external magnetic
tape library.

Flash plus tape, also known as flape, describes a type of tiered storage in which primary data in
flash is simultaneously written to a linear tape system.
In addition to flash memory arrays, the ability to insert SSDs in x86-based servers has
increased the technology's popularity. This arrangement is known as Server-side flash memory
and it enables companies to sidestep the vendor lock-in associated with purchasing expensive
and integrated flash storage arrays.

The drawback of placing flash in a server is that customers need to build the hardware system
internally, including the purchase and installation of a storage management software stack from
a third-party vendor.

Pros and cons of flash memory

Here are some advantages of flash memory:

1. Flash is the least expensive form of semiconductor memory.

2. Unlike dynamic random access memory (DRAM) and static RAM (SRAM), flash memory is
non-volatile, offers lower power consumption and can be erased in large blocks.
3. NOR flash offers increased random read speeds, while NAND flash is fast with serial reads
and writes.
4. An SSD with NAND flash memory chips deliver significantly higher performance than
traditional magnetic storage media, such as HDDs and tape.
5. Flash drives also consume less power and produce less heat than HDDs.
6. Enterprise storage systems equipped with flash drives are capable of low latency, which is
measured in microseconds or milliseconds.

The main disadvantages of flash memory are the wear-out mechanism and cell-to-cell
interference as the dies get smaller. Bits can fail with excessively high numbers of
program/erase cycles, which eventually break down the oxide layer that traps electrons. The
deterioration can distort the manufacturer-set threshold value at which a charge is determined
to be a zero or a one. Electrons may escape and get stuck in the oxide insulation layer, leading
to errors and bit rot.

Anecdotal evidence suggests NAND flash drives are not wearing out to the degree once feared.
Flash drive manufacturers have improved endurance and reliability through error correction
code algorithms, wear leveling and other technologies.

In addition, SSDs do not wear out without warning. They typically alert users in the same way a
sensor might indicate an underinflated tire.

NAND flash memory storage types

NAND flash semiconductor manufacturers have developed different types of memory suitable
for a wide range of data storage uses cases. The following chart explains the various NAND
flash types.

Types of NAND flash memory storage

 Description Advantages Disadvantages Primary use

Single-level Stores one bit per Higher Higher cost than Enterprise
cell (SLC) cell and two levels performance, other types of storage,
of charge. endurance and NAND flash. mission-critical
reliability than applications.
other types of
NAND flash.

Multi-level Can store multiple Cheaper than Lower endurance Consumer

cell (MLC) bits per cell and SLC and than SLC and devices,
multiple levels of enterprise MLC eMLC, slower than enterprise
charge. The term (eMLC), high SLC. storage.
MLC equates to density.
two bits per cell.

Enterprise Typically stores Less expensive More expensive Enterprise

MLC (eMLC) two bits per cell than SLC flash, than MLC, slower applications
and multiple levels greater than SLC. with high write
of charge; uses endurance than workloads.
special algorithms MLC flash.
to extend write
endurance.

Triple-level Stores three bits Lower cost and Lower Mass storage
cell (TLC) per cell and higher density performance and consumer
multiple levels of than MLC and endurance than applications,
charge. Also SLC. MLC and SLC. such as USB
referred to as drives and flash
MLC-3, X3 or 3-bit memory cards.
MLC.

Vertical/3D Stacks memory Higher density, Higher Consumer and

NAND cells on top of each higher write manufacturing cost enterprise
other in three performance than planar NAND; storage.
dimensions vs. and lower cost difficulty in
manufacturing
 traditional planar per bit vs. using production
NAND technology. planar NAND. planar NAND
processes;
potentially lower
data retention.

*Quad-level Uses a 64-layer Stores four bits More data bits per Mostly write
cell (QLC) architecture that is of data per cell can affect once, read
considered the NAND cell, endurance; many (WORM)
next iteration of 3D potentially increased costs of use cases.
NAND. Not widely boosting SSD engineering.
available as of densities.
November 2017.

Note: NAND flash wear-out is less of a problem in SLC flash than it is in less expensive
types of flash, such as MLC and TLC, for which the manufacturers may set multiple threshold
values for a charge.

This video covers some of the basics of 3D NAND as it relates to NAND:

Monitoring Citrix Virtual Apps and Desktops with ControlUp

NOR flash memory types

The two main types of NOR flash memory are parallel and serial, also known as serial
peripheral interface. NOR flash was originally available only with a parallel interface. Parallel
NOR offers high performance, security and additional features; its primary uses include
industrial, automotive, networking and telecom systems and equipment.

NOR cells are connected in parallel for random access. The configuration is geared for random
reads associated with microprocessor instructions and to execute codes used in portable
electronic devices, almost exclusively of the consumer variety.

Serial NOR flash has a lower pin count and smaller packaging, making it less expensive than
parallel NOR. Use cases for serial NOR include personal and ultra-thin computers, servers,
HDDs, printers, digital cameras, modems and routers.

Vendor breakdown of enterprise NAND flash memory products

Major manufacturers of NAND flash memory chips include Intel Corp., Micron Technology Inc.,
Samsung Group, SanDisk Corp. -- now owned by Western Digital Corp. -- SK Hynix Inc. and
Toshiba Memory Corp.

Sampling of NAND flash memory vendors

k Major NAND flash memory vendors offer both enterprise flash and consumer flash products.

There was a NAND flash shortage in 2016 causing a disruption in the market. The shortfall
caused SSD prices to rise and lead times to lengthen. The demand outstripped supply largely
due to soaring demand from smartphone makers. In 2018, signs began showing that the
shortage was near its end.

Other turmoil is exerting an impact on the market. In November 2017, leading flash supplier
Toshiba agreed to sell its chip making unit to a group of corporate and institutional investors led
by Bain Capital. Toshiba sold the flash business as part of its effort to cover financial losses and
to avoid being delisted on the Tokyo Stock Exchange.

Leading NOR vendor products

Major manufacturers of NOR flash memory include Cypress Semiconductor Corp. -- through its
acquisition of Spansion Inc. -- Macronix International Co. Ltd., Microchip Technology Inc.,
Micron Technology Inc. and Winbond Electronics Corp.

Cypress Semiconductor acquired NOR flash provider Spansion in 2015. The Cypress NOR
portfolio includes FL-L, FL-S, FS-S and FL1-K products.

Macronix OctaFlash uses multiple banks to enable write access to one bank and read from
another. Macronix MX25R Serial NOR is a low-power version that targets internet of things (IoT)
applications.

Microchip NOR is branded as Serial SPI Flash and Serial Quad I/O Flash. The vendor's parallel
NOR products include the Multi-Purpose Flash devices and Advanced Multi-Purpose Flash
devices families.

Micron sells Serial NOR Flash and Parallel NOR Flash, as well as Micron Xccela high-
performance NOR flash for automotive and IoT applications.

The Winbond serial NOR product line is branded as SpiFlash Memories and includes the W25X
and W25Q SpiFlash Multi-I/O Memories. In 2017, Winbond expanded its line of Secure Flash
NOR for additional uses, including system-on-a-chip design to support artificial intelligence, IoT
and mobile applications.

This was last updated in September 2019

∙∙
m Continue Reading About flash memory
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∙∙
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A guide to flash memory interfaces and standards

∙
Protocols such as NVMe enable flash storage devices to keep pace with use cases

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Related Terms
memory management
Memory management is the process of controlling and coordinating a computer's main memory.
See complete definitionq

solid

A solid is a state of matter that retains its shape and density when not confined. See complete definitionq

Transistor

A transistor is a miniature semiconductor that regulates or controls current or voltage flow. See complete definitionq

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