a Ot +i) Department of Applied Physics Def LAB MANUALS APPLIED PHYSICS LAB II AP-102a b ne ] l | [ I. l L «f ro f Pika DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS DELHI TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY VISTO. Consolidating teaching and learning process covering all aspects of pure and applied physics that promotes research and development leading to creation of new knowledge, inventions and discoveries fostering institute-industry linkages and entrepreneurial culture for betterment of all its stake holders and society at large...” MISSIO. * To establish global and industry standards of excellence by generating new knowledge all the endeavors concerned to teaching, learning, research and consultancy. + To develop close linkages with industry to undertake collaborative projects so as to enable young engineers to be a part of fast changing technological scenario. + To help our students in developing human potentials, intellectual interests, creative abilities and be lifelong learners to meet the challenges of the national and global environment and be true professional leaders. + To stand up to the needs and expectations of our society by equipping and trai ing our students to be good citizens, aware of their commitments and responsibilities, to make this world a better place to live. © To be a world class centre for edueation, research and innovation in the various upcoming fields of Applied Physics. © To focus on the development of cutting-edge technologies and to foster an environment of seamlessness between academia and industry.DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS DELHI TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY UG-APPLIED PHYSICS Programme Educational Objectives (PEOs PEO 1: To educate professionals in the current and vibrant emerging areas of Applied Physics PEO 2: To develop the professionals to understand and enrich with fundamental knowledge of Applied Physics to use as platform for various core engineering subjects PEO 3: To provide an environment for students to be interested, motivated to tackle the complex problems and capable of self-leaming. PEO 4: To equip students with integrity and ethical values so that they become responsible Engineers UG-Engineering Physics Program Educational Objectives (PEOs: PEO 1: To provide quality education in engineering physics to advanced areas of engineering and technology. PEO 2: To produce world class skilled engineers, which meet the needs of industry, academia and society PEO 3: To mould as an engineer with knowledge, research and innovation, skills, judgement to be leaders along with humanistic values for the development of the society by providing quality education. PEO 4: The students will be able to work in team, competent enough to make an entrepreneur and also to pursue research and higher education,Program Outcomes (POs) 1. Engincering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of muli- disciplinary community of science and engineering to the solution of complex en « problems 2. Problem analysis: An id nalyre ability to identity, formulate, review research literature, a complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using engineering 3. Design/development of so ions: An ability to design system components or processes that Ith and safety, a meet the specified needs with appropriate consideration for the public h the cultural, societal, and environmental considerations. and research Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modem engineering including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations. 6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice. 7. Em solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and ‘onment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering need for sustainable development. 8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and noms of the engineering practice. 9, Individual and teamwork: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in diverse teams, and in multiisciplinary settings. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the 10. engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive clear instructions. 11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of theSagincerng and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and leader ina team, to manage projects and in multdiseiplinary environments 12. Lifelong learning, Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change. OEE SEE KEKE BEEo OOOO BD. OoOod © © oOo © © € ee euueee EEK KE SE Department of Applied Physics APPLIED PHYSICS LAB B.Tech 2™ Semester Paper Code: AP-102 Paper Title: Applied Physics Lab-lI OBJECTIVE: To impart experimental skills which are useful in various branches of Engineering and Technology. The practical course is based on experiments designed to illustrate various Phenomena in different areas of physics and hence provides thorough understanding of the Subject. This course is also aimed at enhancing the analytical capability of the engineering students List of Experiments 1. To determine the Hall coefficient and hence find the density of charge carriers in a semiconductor at room temperature by Hall effect measurement. To determine the Planck's constant by photoelectric effect, To determine the energy band gap of a semiconductor by four probe method. To verify Biot Savrat's law. To determination of Joule’s Mechanical Equivalent of Heat. To draw the I-V characteristics for light emitting diode (LED) and determine the value of Planck's constant oaron 7. To determine the magnetic susceptibility of hydrous manganese chloride (MnCl,.4H;0) by Quinck’s tube method. 8. To study the variation of magnetic field with distance along the axis of a circular coil carrying current and to find 1) the radius of the coil 2) horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field, 9. Measurement of high resistance by Ballistic galvanometer. 10. To determine the ratio of charge to mass (e / m) ratio for an electron.Department of Applied Physics EXPERIMENT NO. AIM: To determine the Hall coefficient and hence find the density of charge carriers in semiconductor at room temperature by Hall effect measurement. APPARATUS: Power supply for electromagnet (0-16 V, 5 Amps), Power supply (Constant Current source) ( 0-20 mA), Gauss meter with Hall Probe, Semiconductor (Ge single crystal) mounted on a PCB (p-type Ge Crystal, thickness: 0.5 mm, Width: 4mm Length: 6mm), Multimeter for measurin Hall Voltage, Hall Effect Apparatus. HEROY: In 1879, E.H. Hall observed that on placing a current carrying conductor perpendicular to both the magnetic field and the current. t was observed that the charge carriers, which were assumed to be electrons, experienced a sideway force because of applied magnetic field. This force causes the accumulation of the charge carrier at one face of the conductor which develops an electric field across the two faces of the conductor. This field is known as Hall field and the voltage is Hall Voltage. ‘The number of conducting charges and the sign of charge carries cannot be determined by the ‘measurement of conductivity of a specimen. In conductors, the current carriers are only electrons whereas in semiconductors, both electrons and holes act as current carriers, Therefore, in semiconductor, it is quite necessary to determine whether a material is of n-type or p-type. The Hall Effect can be used to distinguish the two types charge carriers and also to determine the density of charge carriers When a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to a current carrying specimen (metal or semiconductor), @ voltage is developed in the specimen in a direction perpendicular to both the current and the magnetic field. This phenomenon is called Hall Effect. This voltage so generated is called Hall voltage. We know that a static magnetic field has no effect on charge unless they are in motion. When the charges flow, a magnetic field directed perpendicular to the direction of flow produces a mutually perpendicular force on the charges. Consequently, electrons and holes get separated by Io nnnIenEEnEE EERIE B.Tech(Common to all)/ AP-102/2n4 semester Page 1Department of Applied Physics opposite forces and produce an electric field Ey, thereby setting up a potential difference between the ends of a specimen, This is called Hall potential Vi. Consider a semiconductor in the form of a flat strip. Leta current ‘I’ flow through the strip along X-axis. P and PY are two point on the opposite faces a, b, c, d and a’. b,c’. d’ of the semiconductor respectively. If a milli volmeter is connected between point P and P', it does not show any reading, indicating that there is no potential difference set up between these points. But, when @ magnetic field is applied along Y-axis, i. perpendicular to the direction of current, 4@ deflection is produced in the millivoltmeter indicating that a potential difference is set up between points P and P". The potential difference is known as Hall Voltage or Hall Potential Vi, As shown in fig. 1. If a current is passed along X-axis, then the electrons move along negative direction of x-axis, then the electrons move along negative direction of x-axis. The force on electrons due to the applied magnetic field B is given by F=e(vxB) F=evBsin90° OrF=evB ao Where, v is the drift velocity of electrons and ¢ is the charges of electron. Fee(vxB) Using Fleming's left hand rule it is seen that force on the electrons will be directed towards the face a b cd, ice. along positive Z ~axis, thereby making the face a b ¢ d negative and a’ b' c’ d’ positive If the current is carried by positive charged carries i.e. holes, the carriers move in the same direction as that of the current. The magnetic force causes the positive charge carriers to move towards the face ab ¢ d, thereby making the face a b ¢ d positive and a! b’ c’ d’ negative. Thus, — meme B.Tech(Common to all)/ AP-102/2™4 semester Page 2G OO 6 oo eee Ge HE KLEOH Department of Applied Physics by determining the polarities ofthe surface of the strip, we ean determine the sign ofthe charges carries. Atthermal equilibrium, when the Lorentz force ‘exactly matches the force due to the electric field Vii (the Hall voltage) we have evB=eVy . Q) IF be the width and ¢ is the thickness of the specimen (Crystal), its eross sectional area A is given by: Axbt @) The current density J= V/A a) Or eva -) Where, n is the number of charge carries per unit volume, Using above equations (2-5) we get Une = Vuib/BL gece (6) The Hall coefficient is given by: Ru=Vab/1B om And charge carrier density is given by n=VeRy cB) So the Hall coefficient Ru=1/ne a O) There is another interesting quantity called the Hall angle defined by equation tan 4 = Vat / Vx. eereree (1) Where Vx is the applied electric field inside the specimen in X direction and Vw is hall field produced perpendicular to V. EW E, ce p> type, r n-type Ey " E EW) Fig. 1- Vector diagram to calculate Hall angle for p and n type semiconductor But Ey= vBy (12) Hence tan Ou = VxB/Ex = jt B = : (13) ‘ech(Common to all)/ AP-102/2"! semester Page 3Department of Applied Physics Note: Ex is in mV while Ex in V so the Hall angle is come out to be very small (few minutes) BLOCK DIAGRAM OF EXPERIMENT SET UP: Ge Crystal ‘Multimeter for Voltage measurement Zara set PcB Power Supply| 0-16 VOC. Constant urrent source 0-20 mA DC Gauss Meter Coil A Hall Probe Fig. 2 Fig, ~ 2 Block diagram for experimental set up Fig. 2 shows the block diagram for experiment set up with connections. A p-type Ge crystal is ‘mounted on PCB. PCB is provided with four sockets and a plot to make the Hall Voltage zero, when there is no current flowing through the crystal and also when there is no magnetic field. ‘The lower two sockets are connected to a constant current de source and the upper two to miillivoltmeter. DRMUL (1) Hall Coefficient Ru = Vib / BL (me) Where, Vij = Hall Voltage in volts. b= width of the sample in m. B= magnetic flux density in Tesla (2) Concentration of charge carriers per unit volume /e RH carriers density (m”) B.Tech(Common to all)/ Al Page 4Department of Applied Physics Where, e= 1.6 x 10°C 3) Resistivity of the material of the sample p=VibVIL Where, Vi. = voltage between two points situated L em apart on one face of sample L = length of the specimen b= width of the sample in m. 1= thickness of the specimen in m (4) Mobility ig=Ry/p mvs! . Fig. 3 Fig. 3 - Image of the experimental set up used in the lab SER EE EES PROCEDURE: 1, Mount the PCB (with mounted crystal) on one of the pillars and hall probe in another pillar. 2. Complete all the connections as shown in fig.2 3. Switch ON the Gauss Meter as X1 and using the adjustment knob of the gauss Meter, adjust the reading of the Gauss Meter as zero. B.Tech(Common to all)/ AP-102/2"4 semester Page 5 ede beeecseeu Department of Applied Physics ee B.Tech(Common to all)/ Al DO NOT SWITCH ON THE CTROMAGNET AT THIS STAGE. Switch ON the constant current source and set the current, say at S mA in constant current source. Keep the maj etic field at zero as recorded by Gauss meter. DO NOT SWITCH ON THE ELECTROMAGNET AT THIS STAGE. Set the voltage range of the multimeter at 0-200mV. If needed set the voltage as recorded by multimeter to be zero by adjusting the zero set pot, as shown in fig.4, provided on the PCB using a screw driver. When a current of 5 mA is passed through the crystal without application of magnetic field the hall voltage as recorded by the multimeter should be The zero set should be adjusted carefully and gradually. DO NOT SWITCH ON THE ELECTROMAGNET AT THIS STAGE. Bring the current reading of the constant current source to zero by adjusting the knob of the constant current source. Switch ON the electromagnet (say at about 17V, 3.5A). Select the range of the Gauss meter as x10 and measure the magnetic flux density at the center between the pole pieces. The tip of the Hall Probe and the crystal should be placed between the center of the pole pieces ‘The pole pieces should be very close to the erystal and the tip of the Hall Probe. POLE PIECES SHOULD NOT TOUCH THE CRYSTAL OR THE TIP OF THE HALL PROBE FOR CARRYING OUT THE EXPERIMENT THE MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY SHOULD BE MORE THAN 1500 GAUSS. Do not vary the current in the electromagnet ie. keep the magnetic field constant throughout the experiment Vary the current through the constant current sources in small increments. Note the current | (mA) from the constant current sources passing through the sample and the Hlall voltage (mV) as recorded by the multimeter. Record these values in the observation table. Reverse the direction the magnetic field by interchanging the “+” and *-" connections of the coils (ie. by interchanging Red and Black wires to the coils of the electromagnet) Again note down the Hall Voltage for the same values of the same values of current as in step 10 02/24 semester Page 6Department of Applied Physics Take the magnetic of magnetic flux density. In this particular case the hall voltage should be noted without taking care of negative sigh of voltage. OBSERVATIO} Width of the specimen = b= = 4 mm = 4x10%m Length ofthe specimen = 1 = 6mm = 6x10 m Thickness of the specimen, 1 = = 0.5mm = sx10“m Magnetic flux density, Bo =... Gauss Fess X10" Tesla OBSERVATION TABLI ® ® [SNO. | Current Reading of millivolimeter Mean Vall | (mA) (mV) value of | (ohms) 2 B&linone | B&Tinveversed | Vn 9 direction direction (mV) ; : : 2 3 4 ° 5 6 s u 8 @ 9 10 . n 7 12 eee B.Tech(Common to all)/ AP-102/2% semester Page 7 ebescbeeSerco Department of Applied Physics TABLE FOR RESISTIVITY CALCULATION -¢ between Iwo points Vi (mV) | p= Vi bv IL [ SNO.]“Gurrentt Dis (mA) | between which potential difference (am) wured L(cm) ——_| B& lin one 1B & Lin reversed ae direction direction 1 3 4 1, Mean value of Vi 2. Ru =Vub/lxB . oe 3. Sign of Hall coetTicient is positive, thus the semiconductor erystal is of p-type. (to check whether a erystal is of p-type or n-type we have first used a crystal of known type) For this the direction of magnetic fields is very important so coils should be put in the standard configuration and direction of current through the coil should be as per standard configuration 4, Concentration of charge carriers per unit volume n=WeRy Carriers m? 1.6x10"C Where, € 5. Resistivity of the material of the sample p=VibU/LI Cm) Where, Vj = voltage between two points situated L cm apart on one face of sample b= width of the sample in m. L = length of the specimen in m. 6. Mobility jtn=Rwp — (m? V's") B.Tech(Common to all)/ AP-102/2! semester Page 8se ted . Department of Applied Physics 1. Hall voltage developed is very small and hence it must be measured very carefully by a high input impedance device such as electronic digital voltmeter or electrometer. 2. Sometime Vy is not zero for zero magnetic fields. This is due to imperfect alignment between th ontacts for measuring Vi. This offset voltage should be taken care of. th 3. The theory assum all the carriers are moving only lengthwise. Practically it has been found that a closer to idcal situation may be obtained if length of the sample is at least three times its width. 4, Reading for Vi should be taken 2-3 minutes after switching on the magnetic field, 5. While determining the Hall coefficient, variation of Vix with I is preferred over the variation of Vi with B due to the difficulties arising in accurate determination of B, 6. The current through the sample should not be large enough to cause heating. ‘The magnetic field should be measured carefully. a B.Tech(Common to all)/ AP-102/2% semester Page 9ee VvUEC eve Department of Applied Physics EXPERIMENT NO. AIM: _To determine the Planck °s constant by Photoelectric effect APPARAT Mercury lamp, optical bench, photo cell, lens, filters of various colours. THEORY:Elcctrons can be liberated from the surface of certain metals by irradiating them with light of a sufficiently short wavelength or high frequency. This phenomenon is known as the photoelectric effect and the emitted electron are called photoelectrons. The energy of the ejected electron depends on the frequency (v) of the incident light, but not on the intensity; the intensity only determines the number of liberated electrons. This effect was first interpreted in 1905 by Albert Einstein. He postulated that energy in light is not spread out over wavefronts but is concentrated in small packets, called photons. Each photon of light of frequency v has the energy E, which is proportional to frequency: E=hv a) ‘The proportionality factor h is known as Planck’s constant, and is regarded as a constant. In this particulate concept of light, each photoelectron is released by a photon and exits the atom with kinetic energy (Bui) Ejin = hv-Wi 2 Where Ws is the work function of the electrons, which is dependent of the irradiated material ‘The Planck’s constant h can be determined by exposing a photocell to monochromatic light, i. light of a specific wavelength, and measuring the kinetic energy Exia of the ejected photoelectron. WORKING PRINCIPLE: Figure 1 shows the schematic representation of an experiment for ‘measuring the Planck’s constant with the aid of well known photoelectric effect. Monochromatic light (produced by wavelength filter F) falls on cathode K of a photocell. The excited photoelectrons travel to anode A and charge capacitor up B.Tech(Common to all)/ AP-102/2% semester Page 1Department of Applied Physics to the limit voltage or stopping, potential Up, Some of the ejected photoelectrons travels to anode, where they constitutes photoelectric current 1, If the photoelectrons a cjected against a hegative potential which is gradually inereased, the photoelectric current continually decrease. The voltage which the photoelectric current re: thes zero is called the limit voltage or stopping pot il Up. At this level, even the electrons with the weakest bond, i.e. those with the lowest work function Wk and thus the greatest kinetic energy, can no longer overcome the anode his experiment, the anode voltage is generated using a capacitor which is charged by the incident electrons up to a mit voltage Up (sce Fig. 1). We can use this limit voltage Uo to calculate the kinetic energy of these weakly bound electrons using the following equation: (eUy = hv-Wi ) OPTICAL SETUP: 1. Connect the mercury supply to the mains via the power cord. Mount the mercury lamp at the 0 em marked position on the optical bench. Mount the photocell at the marked position using transversal saddle (L= 90 em). Mount the lens at the 60 em marked position. Adjust the heights of the lamp and photocell at the same level 6. Switch ON the mercury lamp, keep 580 nm filter at the photocell inlet and adjusts the lens and photocell position so that a sharp light spot seen at centre of 580 nm filter. 7. Vary the height of the Iris diaphragm and the lens to achieve a sharp image. ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT: The photoelectrons incident on the metal ring of the photocell, charges a capacitor, thereby generated the limit voltage Uo required for determining the kinetic energy. The electron amplifier is used to measure the voltage at the capacitor. 8 Connect the 100 pF capacitor at Cyr and push switch at switch. 9. Connect photocell +ve ad -ve terminal to input of electrometer amplifier ground, 10. Connect the multimeter to the output of the electrometer amplifier. 11. Connect the 0-12 V AC power supply unit (12 V AC) to the electrometer amplifier via yellow leads as shown in the below diagram. 12. After the complete set up is ready, the photocell is irradiated with different frequency, upon inereasing the frequeney of the incident light by Av, the electron energy increases by hAv. The limit voltage must also be increase by AUO to compensate for the rise in the photoelectric current (ee B.Tech(Common to all) / AP-102/2 semester Page 2eesaver Department of Applied Physics 13. The plot of limit voltage Us(v) as a function of v, as given in equation 3 gives us a straight line with the slope: AU, _h 4 AV e sed For a known value of elementary charge equation 4 gives the value of Planck’s constant ELECTROMETER ae Fer Supls (cerns matinee PusH swirl PROCEDURI 1. Switch on the multimeter and set the range to 20 V DC. 2. Take the reading for the 580 nm filter. 3. Discharge the capacitor by holding down the push switch until the multimeter reads zero volts. 4, Start the measurement by releasing the push switch; wait about 30 s to 1 minute, until the capacitor has charged to the limit voltage Up and note down the measured value for Up. 5. Rey eal the procedure in above step number 3 and 4 four times, each time measuring and recording the stopping voltage for zero current, and resetting the zero by push switch in cach time, 6. Change the filter by 546, 436, & 405 nm and repeat steps 3 to 5. OBSERVATION: B.Tech(Common to all)/ AP-102/2" semester Page 3via Department of Applied Physics [Wavelength x (nm) Stopping Potential or Limit Voltage Uo (V) Trial T Tal? Trial Mean Viotet O=405 nm) EVALUATION: 1. Calculate the Planck's constant (h) by using coefficients of the fit and the value of the elementary charge, ¢ 2. Calculate the experimental error in your determination of Planck’s constant. 3. Would the stopping potential you measured is intensity dependent at fixed frequency source. 602176 x 10" Coulombs Percentage Error = Standard value-Caleulated value ‘Standard value RESULTS In the photoelectric effect, the kinetic energy Exis of the liberated photoelectron depends on the frequency, and not on the intensity of the incident light. Planck's constant h can be detemmined by measuring the limit voltage Up above which the electrons can no longer ‘escape as a function of frequency. The experimentally’ determined value of the Planck's constant Ise. The standard value of h = 6.625 x 10™ J. see Percentage error is = % SOURCES OF ERROR & PRECAUTIONS: — B.Tech{Common to all)/ AP-102/2™! semester Page +Department of Applied Physics 1. The mercury lamp reaches its full intensity after a five minute warm-up period. Switch on the mercury lamp when you begin setting up the experiment, so that you can start measuring as soon as you are finished. 2. After adjusting experiment setup, be sure not to change the setup again. 3. In this experiment, narrow band interference filters are used to select the wavelengths; each filter selects precisely one spectral line from the light of a ‘mercury lamp. The wavelength specification on the filter refers to the wavelength of the transmitted mercury line with a specific frequency. 4, Connect the optical bench to the ground connection of the electrometer amplifier, and connect this terminal to the extemal ground of the mains unit. 5. The mercury lamp also emits light in the UV range, and can thus damage the eyes. Never look into the directed or reflected beam of light from the high pressure mercury lamp. a B.Tech(Common to all)/ AP-102/2e4 semester Page 5SSSR eee GCHKKCEKC EH ete Department of Applied Phys! ics XPERIMENT NO. -3 AIM: To deter the energy band gap (E,) of a semiconductor (Germaniurs, (Ge) oryval) ty Four ~ Probe method. APPARATUS: Four-Probe 1 O%8795 (rath), rangement, P-type Ge ery source, voltmeter, an oven to heat the sample, thermometer THEORY: The four-probe method is the most common method to measure semiconductor material. The four-probe arrangement consists of § ‘metal tips with finite radius. The probes have springs attached on the other end contact with the semiconductor sample. Since, no soldering is required for the cont in resistivity measurements due to contamination of the surface, recifi Properties is avoided. Four sharp probes are placed on @ semiconductor sex impedance current source is used to supply current through the outer probes (1,4) measures the voltage developed across the inner two probes (2, 3) to determine resistivity and hence, the energy band gap of the semiconductor sample. Figure 1 schematic diagram of four-probe arrangement. ‘The whole arrangement is mounted on 2 su stand and leads are provided for current and voltage measurements. An oven is used to the temperature of the sample, At the top of the four probe arrangement stand, a bole is provides for inserting a thermometer to measure the temperature of the sample. The sample is in the form of thin wafer with non-conducting bottom surface. ‘Spring loaded ‘Semiconductor ‘Sample Figure 1: Schematic diagram of Four-Probe arrangement oo B.Tech{Common to all)/ AP-102/2! semester Pageteee ese GE eee ea Department of Applied Physics ORMULA, Resistivity (p) is given by ee F(w/s) p where Po = 7X 2a Po : Resistivity of the sample : Resistivity of the sample with correction applied F(w/s) : Comection divisor and is a function of the ratio of the thickness of the sample (»#) to the probe-spacing (s) ¥-: Voltage across the two inner probes 1 Current through the two outer probes s: Probe Spacing w: Thickness ofthe sample ‘The variation of resistivity with temperature is given by the formula p = pyetel2et where Eis the energy band gap and kis the Boltzman’s constant. Taking log on both side of above equation Inp = Inpy + 2 7 or logiop = loge Po + sass ‘Thus, a graph between > and logs p would be a straight line. From the slope of this line, the energy band gap, E, of the semiconductor can be determined as follows Slope = “2 Baan loge 1/T 2% 2.303 xk logiop 2x 2.303 x k x ———— cae ——— B-Tech(Common toall)/ AP-102/2" semester Page?-6¢66be FGeue @€G¢Ge eevuveuseeUUoS Department of Applied Physics 4- Probe Sample (on Mica) Base Plate Figure 2: Four-probe arrangement for mounting the sample, Figure 3: Various parts of four-probe apparatus. B.Tech(Common to all)/ AP-102/2" semester Page 3Dep: rt tof Applied Phy: PRG RE 1. there is any need of replacing or mounting the P-type Ge sample then proceed i per the following procedure (i) Unscrew the pipe of the four probe arrang ind place the sample an the base plate such that the 4-point probe lie in the middle of the sample as shown in figure 2 sition so th (Gi) Gently apply some pressure and tighten the pipe in this p I the A-probes are in good contact with the sample. (Waring. : Application of excess pressure may break the sample) 2. Connect the RED and BLACK plug leads of the 4-probe arrangement to 4 mn sockets (7) marked as “Voltage” 3. Connect the YELLOW plug leads to 4 mm sockets (6) marked as “Current”, 4, Switch “ON” the apparatus using switch (1). Note that voltage should be positive. If itis not so then interchange the current leads, 5. Set the current to a desired value (say 8 mA) using current adjusting knob (2) as shown in figure 3. Also, select the range of multiple as X1 or %10 of the voltage display. (It is awa ys better to start with lower range ie. x1) low (Lo) or 6. Using the switch (9) as shown in figure 3, select the rate of heating of ove high (Hi) as per requirement. 7. Switch “ON” the oven using switch (8) as shown in figure 3. Green LED will glow, indicating that oven is “ON”. 8. Note down voltage, V in the voltmeter (4) for different temperatures while heating the sample and record the readings in table 1 9. Switch off the oven and record the voltage while cooling the sample. 10. Repeat the experiment for another value of current, Find the mean voltage V for cach temperature. 11. From the values of w and s supplied by the manufacturer, find the correction divisor M(wis) using the table A. 12. Calculate resistivity (p) for each reading and plot a graph between logy p_ along y-axis and 2 along x-axis rs BTech{Common to all)/ AP-102/2%* semester Page 4Department of Applied Physics OBSERVATION: 1. Least count of thermometer °C Distance between probes (s) = 0.24 em. Thickness of the sample (w) = 0.05 em 3S. Correction divisor, F(sv/s) Fos Observation Tables: SET-[: Table 1 Current / mA S.No. | Temperature T | Temperature T Voltage 7 Mean co (kK) (my) v | While | While | (mV) Heating | cooling Set Make a similar table for Current CALCULATION 1. Find the resistivity, corresponding to different temperatures using expression Po F(w/s) e where F(w/s) can be found from the table A. (NOTE: For different values of V, there will be different values of po) 2. Make an observation table as shown below. B.Tech(Common to all)/ AP-102/2m4 semester Page Stof Applied Ph. Vable 2: Temp. | Resistivity | 1 | loon pokxD i act ) 3. Plota ph Logyo p versus tT and find the slope of the curve as shown in the typical graph figure 4 4. Calculation of energy band gap (E,) is as Follow Slope x 2.303 Xk Ej, = 2X 2303 x k x Slope eV E, = 0.396 x 10-* x Slope eV Now, k= 1.38% 10773 VK = 8.6% 1075 eV/K The percentage error in the experimental result is calculated by the following formula Sep Standard value ~ Calculated value yy eae Standard value GRAPH: oo0 8 Figure 4: Plot between logy p and T! oe B.Tech(Common to all)/ AP-102/2ss semester Page 6Department of Applied Physics RESUL The band gap (E,) for the given semiconductor at room temperature = Standard Value = % Error = PRECAUTIONS AND SOURCES OF ERROR: 1. Current should be constant while performing the experiment, 2. Reading should be taken not only while heating the sample, but also, while cooling it. Better results are expected while cooling since more stable conditions prevails. 3. The top of the sample should be cleaned very carefully with the finest quality sand paper to remove any coating formed on it. 4. The pressure on the probes should be just appropriate to make a contact. As too much pressure can break the crystal 5. The tip of the thermometer should be well inside the hole and temperature should be read carefully, 6. The surface on which the probes rest should be flat with no surface leakage. 7. The four probes should lie in a straight line. ‘Table A: Values of F(w/s) for different combination of w/s for non-conducting bottom surface, wis_| 0.100 [0.141 [ 0.200 [ 0.333 [ 0.500 1.000 1414 2.00 | 3.33 | 5.00 | 1000 Fowls) | 13.863 | 9.704 | 6.931 | 4.159 | 2.780 | 1.504 | 1.223 | 1.094 | 1.0228 | 1.0070 | 1.0004 B.Tech(Common to all)/ AP-102/2! semester Page7Department of Appl d Physi: NT NC 1. Measuring the magnetic field of circular conductor loops as a funetion of the current 2. Measuring the magnetic field of circular conductor loops as a function of distance from the loop. THEORY: According to the Bior-Savart's law, the magnetic field B at a point P for a conductor traversed by the current I is made up of the contributions of the infinitesimal parts of the conductor, the length and direction of which are described by the vecto” (1) fen Where, 14 =47.107 © ; permeability of free space. ; eo am ty of fice sp on . : - Mei The position vector from the part of the conductor under consid Fig. es given by r (see Fig. 1) » Calculating the total magnetic moment thus means evaluating an integral. Analytic , solutions can be given only for conductors with certain symmetries. 5 The magnetic field of an infinitely long a wire, for example, is 4, re) Ata distance r from the axis, and the : 4 field lines are concentric around the & cylinder axis (see fig. 2). Fig. 2 —_ . B.Tech(Common to all}/ AP-102/2" semester Page 1Department of Applied Physics eld of a circular conductor loop with The magnetic the radius R is (Riexy at a distance x on the axis through the centre of the loop. Its field lines are parallel to the axis (see Fig. 3) In this experiment, the magnetic field of above mentioned circular conductors is measured by means of an axial probe respectively. The Hall sensors of the axial probes, which particularly thin, are sensitive to the field components perpendicular to their surface. Therefore, not only the strength of the magnetic field can be determined, but also its direction. At the straight conductor, the dependence of the magnetic flux density B on the distance r is studied, at the circular conductor loops the dependence on the space coordinate x. moreover, the proportionality between the magnetic induction B and the current | is verified. EXPERIMENTAL SETUPS: ‘The experimental setup is illustrated in Fig. 4 (below). B.Tech(Common to all) / AP-102/2s# semester Page 22 eeevae™ Department of Appl d Physics CRIPTIO Components: 1, Optical bench, 2. Optical saddle, 3. Plug-in element, 4. Hall sensor, 5. Probe mount, 6. Axial Probe, 7. Digital gauss meter, 8. Rheostat | ohm, 20 A, 9. High current supply, 10. Circular conductor 180 mm. PROCEDURE: Set the opti Mount the holder for plug-in elements (3) with an optical saddle. Clamp the circular conductor loop 180 mm diameter (10) and connect it to the high current power supply 5 A. 4. Connect the axial probe to the digital gauss meter, set selector switch at X1, switch ON the gauss meter and adjust the zero of the gauss meter via adjustment knob. 5. Align the axial probe towards the centre of the conductor loop. 6. Align the conductor loop as precisely as possible with Hall sensor (4). 7. Increase the current I from 0 to 5 A in steps of I A. Each time measure the magnetic field °B’ at a distance of 5 or 10 em, and take the measured values bench in experimental table and align it horizontally. down. 8. Now set the current ‘I’ = 3 A, move the axial probe to the right and to the left step by step, measure the magnetic field B as a function of the space coordinate x, and take the measured values down. MEASUREMENTS: (A). Magnetic field of circular conductor loop of fixed diameter 180 mm at a distance of Sor 10cm: ‘The magnetic field B as a function of the current I. Care T(A) | Magnetie Weld B (gauss of 180 mim loop | Magnet field B (gauss) of 180 mm at fixed distance of cm loop at fixed distance of 10cm (o 1 joes et z iB B.Tech(Common to all)/ AP-102/2"4 semester Page 3eee Department of Applied Physics (B). The magnetic field B of the conductor loops as a function of the distance x at 34 current, R= 180 mm J] Dissncex | Magnecic field B LUATIO! The dependence of the magnetic field B of a circular conductor loop on the current I. In this case too, the agreement between the measured values and the straight line through the origin drawn in the graph confirms the proportionality between the magnetic field B and the current I. The dependence of the Magnetic field B on the space coordinate °x’ is shown for the three circular conductor loops. The curves drawn in the graph have been calculated according to Eq. (2) with the current I= 3 A. Sample Data (A) Magnetic field of circular conductor loops: \ B.Tech(Common to all) / AP-102/2"4 semester Page 4Department of Applied Physics (B) The magnetic field B of the conductor loops as function of the distance x at 3 A current. 2R= 180mm Distance x (mm) | Magnet field B (gauss) 50) o0 40) 04 ai 30, 14 20) 37) 59) 75 10 38 - 20 32. 30, 20 40 Ls : ‘ *) 7 if an ann ts | BTech(Common to all)/ Al P-102/2! semester Page SDepa’ ‘tment of pplicd Physics RIMENT No. -5 AIM: To Determine Joule’s Mechanical equivalent of heat by using an electric calorimeter. IS: Electric Calorimeter, set of masses, ice for cooling water, 10 Amp current APPARAT sou ler. HOC thermometer, stop watch, distilled Heating coil O Current source ig. 1: Cireuit Diagram THEORY ‘A measured potential difference and current are maintained for a given time in an electric calorimeter. The heat evolved is measured by the usual calorimetric methods. The value of electrical equivalent of heat, joule’s constant J, is determined from the ratio of the electric energy expended to the heat produced. Potential difference is defined as work per unit charge, vewiQ a Where W is the work done in moving the charge Q through the circuit. The most frequently used units are V in Volts, W in Joules and Q in Coulombs, If equation (1) is written in the form W=VQ, and the substitution Q = It and V=IR are made, the basic equation for electrical energy may be written in the form W=VQ=Vit=PRt Q) This equation indicates that 1 joule of work must be done in maintaining current of | amp in a resistor of 1 ohm resistance for | second, In a circuit containing only resistance, a direct proportionality, between the expenditure of electric energy W and the heat H developed. This fundamental law is represented by the conservation of energy CO B.Tech(Common to all)/ AP-102/2 semester Page 1Department of Applied Physics W-JH - B) Where, J is the proportionality factor called the mechanical (or the electrical) equivalent of heat. In equation (3), J has the value of approximately 4.18 joules/cal. A usefull form of the equation for the heat developed in a resistor is obtained by combining equation (2) and (3) Ww _ vit _ IR J 418” 418 H @ Calories, The variation of the heating effect of an electric current with various factors as represented by the equation H = PRvJ is usually referred to as Joule’s Law. From this equation it is evident that the heat developed in a resistor varies directly with (j) the current I (when R and t are kept constant), (ii) the resistance R (when I and t are constant) and (ii) then time t (when I and R are constant) Variation of heating effect with time Connect the apparatus as in figure-1 2. Arrange the apparatus so that the observer can conveniently watch the ammeter on the pane! of the current source, 3. Never switch ON the current source unless the heating coil is immersed in water, as otherwise the resistance element might be bumed out 4. One can make a short test run, using tap water in the calorimeter and a current of about 2 Amp Practice the technique of carefully stirring the water and nothing rise of temperature. This is optional 5. (a) Empty the calorimeter and refill it with 250 gm of distilled water (to which a little ice has been added to reduce the temperature to about 10°C). (b) Stir the water thoroughly until the temperature approached the equilibrium value. (©) At an accurately noted time, switch ON the current source, quickly set current at the desired value (2 Amp). (@) Continue stirring the water and record the temperature every minute until about ten observations have been made. Record the current and the voltage. ——_—s B.Tech(Common to all)/ AP-102/2"4 semester Page 2Department of Applied Physics Heating effect as a function of current 1. Take observations of temperature rise of same mass of water as in Step-5 of part-, beginning with cold water each time. Note the temperature rise in 5 min, and record the final temperature after water had risen to its highest temperature, 2. Repeat observations for a total of five different currents. Data recorded in Step-5 of Part-I can be used for one observation. 3. Do not heat the water above 40°C, as otherwise the effects as much below room temperature as the final temperature is above that of the room. If necessary the water should be cooled with ice to produce this condition. Record each voltage. OBSERVATIO! Mass of the calorimeter Mc = 85.3 gin Mass of the calorimeter + water = 335.5 gm 250 gm Resistance of the coil R= 3.0 ohm Mass of water My Specific heat of water Sy = 1 Cal/gmi"C Specific heat of cupper $.= 0.093 Cal/gmC TABLE-L S. | Time interval] Initial Temp. | Final Temp. | Temp. Difference No. | (sec) T,CC) TCC) ATCC) B.Tech(Common to all)/ AP-102/2»4 semester Page 3Department of App! 'd Physics TABLE-I: Time interval = 5 minutes S. |Current] Initial Temp. | Final Temp. No. | 1(A) (a) (°C) T:°C) H z 3 - 3 CALCULATION: 1. Use the data of step-5 of Part-I to plot a curve showing the variation of the heating effect with time, all other factors being constant. In this case the rise in temperature is direct measure of the heat developed. Discuss the significance of the shape and intercepts of curve 2. Use the straight line curve of AT against I? which was plotted in Part-II as the basis for the computation of the average value of J from the observed data 3. The working equation may be written as jo%e PR HH (MwSw+McSe)(T2-T1) (5) Where the symbols have the usual significance of those used in calorimeter. The reciprocal of the slope of the curve gives I?/(T; — T,). Use proper value for the water equivalent of the heating coil, stirrer and electrodes. Determine the percentage difference between the average values of J obtain by the use of the curve and curve and eq. (5) and the standard value of 4.18 joules/cal. RESULT: The value of mechanical equivalent of heat (J) is found to be .... Standard value of J = 4.18 Joule/Cal B.Tech(Common to all)/ AP-102/2m semester Page 4 --- Joule/eal.eaeauwr Department of Applied Physics Standard value~Experimental value Standard value x 100% Percentage error = PRECAUTIONS AND SOURCES OF ERROR: 1. Stirring should be uniform and slow 2. Check that current does not vary during the observation. 3. While taking masses of the calorimeter and water care should be taken to ensure the initial balancing of the balance. 4. The coil should not touch the calorimeter. 5. Temperature should be measured carefully. B.Tech(Common to all)/ AP-102/2™ semester Page SDepartment of Applied Physics EXPERIMENT NO. —6 AIM: To draw the I-V characteristics for light emitting diode (LED) and determine the value of Planck's constant. APPARATUS: Power Supply, Patch cords and Training board. THEORY: The ener of a photon is given by the equation: E=hv a Where E is the energy of photon v is its frequency, and h is a constant. In the photoelectric effect, an electron is emitted from a metal surface when a light is incident on the metal surface. The emission of electrons is deeply connected to the frequency of the light incident upon the surface. If the energy of the incident photon is greater than the work function of a given material then the electron emitted possesses energy Fy, which is given by: E,=hv -W Q) Where, Ej is the kinetic energy of the emitted electron, W represents the work function of the material Figure 1: Emission of Photoelectrons Laws of Photoelectric emission: 1. Fora given metal and frequency of incident radiation, the rate at which photoelectrons are ejected is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident light. For a given metal, there exists a certain minimum frequency of incident radiation below which no photoelectrons can be emitted. This is called the threshold frequency. 3. Above the threshold frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photo electron is independent of the incident light but depends on the frequency of the incident light SS B.Tech(Common to all)/ AP-102/2! semester Page 1Department of Applied Physics 4. The time lag between the incidence of radiation and the emission of a photo electron is very small less than 10° s econds, In this experiment, the current-voltage relationship of a set of light emitting diodes (LEDs) are used to measure Planck's constant. An LED is a semiconductor device that emits electromagnetic radiation at optical and infrared frequencies. The device is a p-n junction diode made from p-type and n-type semiconductors, usually GaAs, GaP or SiC. They emit light only when an extemal applied voltage is used to forward bias the diode above a minimum threshold value, The gain in electrical potential energy delivered by this voltage is sufficient to force electrons to flow out of the n-type material, across the junction barrier, and. into the p-type region, These excited electrons recombine with holes in that region and Photons are emitted having energy approximately equal to the band gap energy. pete P . Se © eraerserserse | eletecec| We Fam) Fig. 2 p-n junction of LED Fig. 3 IV characteristics for different LED colour If ¥, is the minimum voltage required for the emission of light, then The light energy emitted during forward biasing is given as , GB) where c-velocity of light, hh -Planck’s constant. 2. wavelength of light used, If V, is the forward voltage applied across the LED when it begins to emit light (the knee voltage), the energy given to electrons crossing the junction is, E=cV, «® Equating (3) and (4), we get ev aft sae a B.Tech(Common to all)/ AP-102/2%! semester Page 2Or (6) The maximum wavelength of the LED can be measured to a resolution of a few nanometers with a good spectrometer. If the turn on Voltage Vo, is measured for several diodes of different colour (different maximum wavelength), a graph of V, wt should be linear with a slope (iie/e), PROCEDURE: 1, ‘Take the Planck’s constant Determination Trainer. Make the connections as shown below in Fig.4 Power Nv6025 _Planck’s Constant Determination Using LED | on sv DC Voltmeter Display [Input / Fig. 4: Block diagram and connections in Trainer Board 2. Connect positive termi 1 (+) of power supply to positive (+) terminal of DC voltmeter and negative (-) terminal to negative (~) terminal of DC voltmeter. 3. Now take another patch cord and connect positive (+) terminal of power supply to positive (+) terminal of any one LED. ‘Connect negative (-) terminal of power supply to negative (-) terminal of ammeter. Connect positive terminal (+) of ammeter to negative (~) of selected LED. Set the voltmeter at the range of 20 V and ammeter at the 200mA. Connect the mains cord and Switch ‘ON’ the power supply. i B.Tech(Common to all)/ AP-102/2" semester Page 38. Now increase the DC voltage at the fix interval of 0.1V or 100mV. Note the sponding current by DC ammeter. 9. Now take the current on Y- axis and voltage on X-axis and plot a graph between current and voltage 's shown in Fig, 3 and evaluate threshold voltage (¥,). 10. Note the reading of voltage at which the current flow suddenly through the LED, at this point the graph suddenly change the direction. Say this point be knee voltage or threshold voltage. 11. Put this value in given formula (eq. 6) and calculate the Planck’ constant. OBSERVATIONS: Make the observation for V- as shown in Table I for different colour LEDs. Table 1 LED Blue Green Yellow Orange Red SSN | eee ae ee es Wee eee | (Volts) | (ma) | (Volts) | (mA) | (Volts) | (mA) | (Volts) | (may | (Volts) | (mA) I 2 3 : 4 a : 5 —KH + Plot a graph between current and voltage as shown in Fig, 3 and evaluate threshold voltage (V,). Table 2 SNo. Colour of light i 7 v, emitted (am) (m") (Volts) i Blue Basa 72 21 x 10 2. Green 350) 1.81 x 10 3 Yellow 590) 1.69 x 10) 4 Orange 650 153.x 10 5 Red 695 144 x 10) Plot a graph between current and voltage and evaluate threshold voltage (V,). 1 Plot a graph between V, vs-> —. B.Tech(Common to all)/ AP-102/2"4 semester Page 4Department of Applied Ph : : i The slope of the straight line in “V, vs>-* graph is iven as Figure:5 Curve between threshold voltage and wavelength of different LEDs. Slope = “ Ym h=“xslope = J. sec where, e = 1.602 x 10" C and ¢=2.98 x10 m/s Standard value-Calculated value 1g Standard value Percentage Error RESULTS: The experimentally deter Sec 1ed value of the Planck’s constant ‘The standard value of h = 6.625 x 10™ J. see Percentage error is = % PRECAUTION: 1. The zero error of the ammeter should be checked prior to the start of the experiment. The connections should be made tight. Use the grating spectrometer to look at the wavelength distribution from each diode. Ben DC voltage should be varied at a fixed interval of 0.1. ar annrnrnannne B.Tech(Common to all)/ AP-102/2" semester Page 5ment of Applied Phy ee XPERIMENT NO. -7 AIM: To determine the magnetic susceptibility of hydrous manganese chloride (MnC1;.410) by Quinck’s tube method APPARAT Electromagnet with supply. Quinck’s tube fitted on stand, Travelling microscope, Experimental solution, FORMULA USED: Mass susceptibility is given by z,, =2s,g-y m'iky Here p42 < 107 Vs/Am, Gis in m/s*, his in meters and B is in Wb/m” PROCEDURI 1, Put the tube on stand and fix it with clamp. 2. Insert the narrow limb of the quinck’s tube vertically between the pole pieces of the uniform magnetic field or in the centre of the poles and the wide limb is placed outside the field as shown in Fig. 1 3. Adjust the crosswire of the eyepiece of travelling microscope on the meniscus of water i.e. 0% and note the reading of the microscope. It will be the initial position of the meniscus. Record this reading (hy) in table as shown below 4, Switch on the electromagnet power supply and adjust the current in the range of | ~ 3 amp. Bring the cross wire again on the meniscus and also record this reading (hz) in the table. 5. Increase the power supply current in steps of 0.5 amp and note the corresponding, position (hz) of the level of the liquid. Note all these readings in table 6. Repeat the experiment for different concentration (30%, 15%, 7.5%) of the solution, Fig.1 B.Tech(Common toall)/ AP-102/2e semester Page 1Dep: nent of Applied Ph: OBSERVATION: count of travelling microscope S.No. | Power supply | Magnetic field | Initial position position | Fallin current B (Tesla) | of the meniscus | of the height 1(Amp) (hy) em meniscus | (hy-h;) em el hy (em) CAL LATIONS Plot a graph each for different concentrations between B” Square of magnetic filed in Tesla along the X-axis and the h change in height in meter along Y-axis which gives a straight line as shown in Fig. 2 Ye Change in height of A liquid column (Mh) B oO a x Fig.2 From the graph calculate the slope Page 2 B.Tech(Common to all)/ AP-102/2% semester(1 Tesla = 1 weber /m? = 10" gauss) Now put above value in the equation written below and calculate the mass susceptibility as alts B Similarly calculate the value of mass susceptibility for other concentration of the solution and make table as shown below for the results RESULT: The table shows the mass susceptibility of the given solution for different concentration S.No Concentration of the solution, ‘Mass susceptil PRECAUTIONS: 1. The initial level of the liquid meniscus in the tube should be noted for each observation as it is liable to change due to residual magnetism 2. Salt should be completely dissolved while preparing the solution SOURCES OF ERROR: 1. Ithas been assumed that the magnetic field at the wider end is zero which is not true. 2, Due to residual magnetism the rise in capillary is not correct. 3. Results obtained are slightly less than the actual value due to evaporation of water. ee B.Tech(Common to all)/ AP-102/2%4 semester Page 3Department of Applied Physics EXPERIMENT NO. -8 AIM: To study the variation of magnetic field with distance along the axis of a circular coil carrying current and to find 1) the radius of the coil 2) horizontal component of earth's magnetic APPARATU Tangent galvanometer of the Stewart and Gee type, a constant current source, compass box, plug keys, meter scale and connecting wires THOERY AND CIRCUIT DIAGR. A magnetic field can be produced by moving charges or electric currents. The basic law governing the magnetic field due to a current distribution is Biot-Savart Law: The magnetic field at a point P, due to a current element, is given by dix Where j1ois magnetig permeability of free space, iis current, dis the length-vector of the current element and Tis the vector joining the current element to the point P. The expression for magnetic field can be calculated as Fi 1 magnetic field due to current element [aL of a circular coil of radius R 8 Tech(Common to all/ AP-102/2 semester Page 1Department of Applied Physics Compass box Fig. 2 Schematic of the experimental set up for the experiment FORMULA: ‘The magnitude of the field B along with the axis of a coil is given by nl? ‘po eee afr ex? Where, n= numbers of tums in the coil. r= radius of the coil 1 current flowing in the coil in amperes. x= distance of the point from the center of the coil. Ho = permeability of the free space. If when the coil is placed in the place of magnetic meridian for tangent law B=B, tan6 Where Be is horizontal component of earth's magnetic field. tong = 2 8 Tech(Common to alll/ AP-102/2" semester Page 2Department of Applied Physics As B is proportional to the tan 0, the graph plotted between tan 0 and x is similar to the graph between B and x. AL X= 0, ta 0= (LAM Mya and At x= £r/2tan0=0.715 (tan 0) wax ‘Therefore the distance between the points on the curve for which, tan @ = 0.715 (tan 8) wax is equal to the radius of th coil Fig. 3 typical variation of the magnetic due to a current carrying coil along its axis, PROCEDURI 1. Place the magnetometer compass box on the sliding bench so that its magnetic needle is at the center of the coil. By rotating the whole apparatus in the horizontal plane, set the coil in magnetic meridian roughly. In this situation/ case the coil, needle and its image all lie in the same vertical plane, Rotate the compass box till the pointer ends read 0-0 on the circular scale. 2. To set the coil exactly in the magnetic meridian set up the electrical connection as shown in fig.1. Send the current in .one direction with the help of commutator and note down the deflection of the needle. Now reverse the direction of the current and again note down the deflection of the needle. If both the deflection are equal then the coil is in magnetic meridian otherwise tum the apparatus a little, adjust compass needle ends to read 0-0 till the both the deflection becomes equal. — B.Tech(Common to alll/ AP-102/2" semester Page 3Department of Applied Physics 3. Using rheostat Rj adjust the current the current such the at the deflection af nearly 10° is produced in the compass needle placed at the center of the coil, Reads beth the ends of the pointer. Reverse the direction of current and again read both the ends of the yrnter and take the mean of deflection at x = 0 4 Now shift the compass needle through 5 cm cach time along, the axis of the coil and for each position take the mean deflection. Continue the pro «till the compass needle reaches al end point of the bench along the axis of the coil 5. Repeat the measurement exactly in the same manner on the other side of the coil 6. Plot the graph taking X axis as distance from the center of the coil along X axis and tanks along Y axis, 7. Mark the points of inflection on the curve. The distance between the two points will be the radius of the coil. OR Draw a line parallel to X-axis through the point x = 0, 7 0.715 (tan 0) sax. This line will cut the curve on both side at a distance 1/2 from the center. 8, Directly measure the radius of the coil by a meter scale and compare with the experimental results OB: VATIONS: Table —1 aes ‘On east arm ‘On west arm No. | (cm.) ‘One way | Reverse | Mean0 | tan | Oneway | Reverse | Mean | tan current | current | (0,+0;+0:+0) current | current | 8 | _ TOPO) oe 0 07% |G] %) 9 (degree) (aegree) | 1 i | 2. | . | 4 | i— 2 | 6. 1 B.Tech(Common to alll/ AP-102/2" semesterDepartment of Applied Physics CALCULATION: From the graph between tan 0 and X (tan Ost. = tan 0 = 0.715 (tan Osta RESULT Radius of the coil from the graph is cm. Radius of the coil measured by meter scale is em PRECAUTION! 1. The coil should be carefully adjusted in the magnetic meridian. 2. All the magnetic materials and current carrying conductors should be at a considerable distance from the apparatus. 3. The current passed in the coil should be of such a value as to produce a deflection of nearly 70°, 4, Current should be checked from time to time and for this purpose an ammeter should be connected in series with the battery 5. Parallax should be removed while reading the position of the pointer, both ends of the pointer should be read. 6. The curve should be drawn smooth. 7. ‘The pointer ends should be at zero each time before sending the current through the coil. If they are not at zero, the top of the glass cover should be gently tapped to bring them to zero, 8.Tech(Common to all/ AP-102/2" semester PagesDepartment of Applied Physics NO. 9 Mea urement of high resistance by ballistic galvanometer. APPARATUS REQUIRED: Ballistic galvanometer, accumulator, Morse key, two way key ance, stop watch and connection wires. Capacitor box, lamp and scale arrangement, high res FORMULA USED: tance R is given by, oe 2.303C log, 2! 4, (a) Or where, t_ : time period of the leakage a : first throw of ballistic galvanometer when initially the condenser is discharged through ballistic galvanometer for a period of t seconds. © first throw of spot of light when the condenser is discharged through the ballistic galvanometer after a leakage of charge for time ¢ through R. C : capacity of the condenser. tan ¢: slope of the straight line passing through the origin obtained by plotting log,, 7 against t by taking the former on the y-axis and the later on the x-axis. THEORY: Discharge of a condenser- Let us consider a RC circuit which is fully charged from an external source and then connected to the resistance R as shown in Fig. 1 R Fig. 1 B.Tech(Common to all)/ AP-102/2m semester Page 1Department of Applied Phy: In this setup, discharge of a condenser through the resistance takes place. If charge “Qu” is: the maximum value of charge on the condenser, then the charge *Q” after it has discharged through the resistance *R’ for a time of *t'sec, is given by 9 Q This equation forms the basis of determining the value of resistance. 2) Ballistic galvanometer: The ballistic galvanometer is used to measure the charge and hence it is used for the determination of high resistance. Let the condenser of capacity *C’ is fully charged so that it acquires “Qy° charges on it. If it is immediately discharged through the ballistic galvanometer then it will give rise to its first throw 0p. The amount of charge ‘Qo’ is ) @) decrement. Similarly, if the given by: 2 =Ko,{t Where K is @ proportionality constant and 2. is the logarith same fully charged condenser is allowed to discharge through the resistance R for ‘t’ sec thereafter, is discharged through the ballistic galvanometer then it will give rise to the first throw ay. The amount of charge *Q’ causing the flow is given by a = Ka, {144 (a) f a 3) Using Eq, (3) and (4) we have a, =0,{% SI o-a(2) m ‘Comparing Eq. (2) and (5) we have 6) or (7) 2 anictoe,(“) a However, the formulation given above is the case of an ideal condenser. In fact the condenser is leaky, ic. if a fully condenser is left to itself for some time then the condenser leaks its charge as if were discharging through a resistance ‘r’ (known as leakage resistance) Although the amount of leakage is small but it is appreciable hence, while considering the B.Tech(Common to all)/ AP-102/2 semester Page 2Department of Applied Physics discharge through the condenser the leakage resistance ‘r’ has to be accounted. Thus the first throw a, as discussed above will not be due to the discharge of the condenser through the high resistance r alone but through the equivalent resistance R’ formed by the combination of R and r. Hence, eq (7) takes the following form: R= £ (3) 2. 308C ep ( 2 a, where ee 0) R Rr ‘Therefore, in order to determine the correct value of high resistance *R’ we have to determine the leakage resistance “r’ by performing the experiment for the self-leakage of the condenser. Let the corresponding first throw of the galvanometer i.¢ without high resistance be aa, then using Eq. (7) we get —— (20) 2.303C teu ( 2] a, Now, using Eq. (7)-(10) we have it pas by ra (22) Or t22 ae wse( 2] (22) Further, the slope of eo \» t (as shown in Fig. 2(a)) gives the value of (2.303 CR)" a, Henee, set? (a3) D Similarly, the slope of to a \= t (as shown in Fig. 2(b)) gives the value of (2.303 Cr)! Hence, rr eeannnanni B.Tech(Common to all)/ AP-102/2e semester Page 3t of Applied Physi cots (14) 2.303€ lg tise) ® Fig. 2(a) Fig. 2(b) OCEDURE: The experimental setup is shown in Fig. 3. Full charging of the condenser: 1. Initially set C to 0.1nF. Set the supply to voltage 1V and connect the two way key ic. green plug °K,’ towards the P point (Fig. 3), press the Morse key and wait for 5 sec: the capacitor gets charged. 2. Release the Morse key and note the fi st throw on the scale, Now increase the charging time in steps of 5 secs and repeat this process till the further increase in the charging time doesn’t result in any further inerease in the first throw. 3. Note this time. This is known as charging time ‘to’ of the condenser and every time the condenser has to be charged at least upto this time. At this time the spot on the a at (0 (if the deflection is less than 20 em or out of lamp and scale arrangement adjust the voltage or scale reaches the maximum possible deflection (00) i capacitance or both so that the deflection is about 20cm). 4. Now release the lever and press the damping key, i.e. discharge the capacitor. After ascertaining the charging time and follow the follow 1g procedure. (Note that on releasing the Morse key the condenser discharges through the galvanometer) B.Tech(Common toall)/ AP-102/: semester Page 4Morse Key Fig. 3 Experimental set up Measurement of ‘R': 1 Press the Morse key, tum the key Ky to power supply side and wait till charging time to sec and keep the stop watch ready. Quickly move Kj from the power supply side to the high resistance side (I¢ point P to Q shown in Fig. 3), At this instant the Morse key would remain pressed. The charges on the condenser will leak through the high resistance R. Allow the charges to leak for a period 5 sec. immediately, after this time release the Morse key. Now the condenser will discharge through the galvanometer. The first throw in this case will be a, Repeat the above step and take several observations of a by changing the leakage time. a] Repeat the complete experiment for at least 3 values of C. Draw log, of vs t and find its slope. ‘Table 1: Determination of a; and a; for C=........F 'S. No | Leakage time, t (sec) | First throw of the galvanometer after (2) \ (2) | | lose] the charge has leaked through Resistance “Itself a (mm) (mm) B.Tech (Common to all)/ AP-102/2% semester Page 5A. Calculation for high resistance *R’ (a, ) From log,.| | st graph, the slope. R= cote 33036 RESULT: The value of high resistance R= (MQ), PRECAUTIONS: ves freely on th 1. Galvanometer should be carefully levelled so that the spot of light moves freely on the scale ‘The cross wire should coincide with the zero of the scale ee ‘The charging time of the condenser should be determined before any observa Page 6 ne B.Tech(Common to all)/ AP-102/2% semesterERIMENT NO-10 AIME To determine the ratio of charge to mass (¢/m) for an electron. APPARATUS: om tube, Power supply with voltmeter and ammeter, Variable measuring seale BRIEF INTRODUCTION OF THE SET UP: / nthe charge to mass ratio of the electron is a simple set up The arrangement for measuring and is based on Thomson's method. The ¢ / a1 tube is bulb like tube and contains a filament, a cathode, a grid, a pair of deflection plates and an anode. The filament heats the cathode which emit electrons, The electrons are accelerated through a known potential applied between eathode and anode. The grid and the anode have a hole through which the electrons can pass. The tube is filled with helium at a very low pressure, Some of the electrons emitted by the cathode collide with the sam thus leaves a visible helium atoms which get excited and radiate visible light. The electro track and all manipulations on it can be seen. The tube is placed between a pair of fixed Helmholtz coils which produce a uniform and known magnetic field. The socket of the tube can be rotated so that the electron beam is at right angles to the magnetic field, The beam is deflected in a circular path of radius r depending on the accelerating potential V, the magnetic ficld B and the charge to ‘mass ratio ¢/m. This circular path is visible and the diameter d can be measured and e/m obtained from the relation e/m=8V / Bd* The deflecting plates are interesting for visual observation of how the electron beam gets deflected when a potential difference is applied between the deflecting plates. THEORY : RELATION CONNECTING ¢/m TO ACCELERATING POTENTIAL V, MAGNETIC FIELD B AND RADIUS R OF THE CIRCULAR PATH. B.Tech(Common to all)/ AP-102/2% semester Page 1Department of Applied y' When the electrons are accelerated through the potential ¥, they gain kinetic enerjey equal te ? their charge times the accelerating potential. Therefore, EV — mv! 12. The final (non relativistic) velocity of the electrons is therefore PZ) on When these electrons pass through a region having magne! icld 1B, they are acted upon by Lorentz force, given by ev x B. If the electrons are initially moving along the x-axis and ‘magnetic field is along z-axis, the electrons describe a circular path in the ay- plane with the centripetal force balancing the Lorentz force. evB = mv’ /r or v=eBr/m (2) Eliminating v between Eqs. (1) and (2), we get e/m=8V / Bd’ (3) Where d is the diameter of the circular path. This result assumes uniform magnetic field, ‘This in the apparatus is produced by a pair of Helmholtz coils. Ifn is the number of turns in a coil and a is the radius, then the magnetic field B, midway between the coils is given by | 225107 fresta When a current of / amp is flowing in the coils. 44, is permeability of free space and is given by #4, = 4210" N/A®. The field is uniform in the region where electrons are moving, Substituting the value of B in Eq. (3), we get © _ (125. v —=|——\ x10" |—— 4) m ies \e nc B:Tech(Common to all)/ AP-102/2™ semester. Page 2Department of Applied Physics The coils in this apparatus have 160 turns each and their radii is 0.14m, Using these values, we get e . Vivo — = (7.576 x 10") x —— (ve Meese coul/kg (5) m F (amp’ )d'(m') etum Fed acum Tube “> Detlecion Piates Fig. 3: Electron Gun Fig2:eim Tube im Experiment, EMX-01 none AYN Ke =. soceuaawe sane = ‘VOLTAGE ‘CURRENT Power or rs hecereeg momen _Curmeen Control Contro! Pant DESCRIPTION OF THE EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP. B.Tech(Common to all)/ AP-102/2! semester Page 3Department of Applied Physic: The central part of the set-up isthe e/m-tube, This is energized by (i) Filament current supply, (41) Deflection plates voltage supply, (it) Continuously variable accelerating voltage supply to the anode. The tube is mounted on a rotatable socket and is placed between a pair of Helmholty-coils, The tube can be rotated about a vertical axis, varying the orientation of the electron bearn with respect to the Helmholtz coils. This allows deflection of the beam to be demonstrated for various orientations of the beam direction, circular, helical or undeflected paths can be seen. The direction of the current can be changed. The magnetizing current I and the cly measured by an ammeter and a voltmeter mounted accelerating voltage V are respecti on the front of the panel. The diameter of the clectron beam path is measured by a detachable scale mounted in front of the bulb of the tube. This scale has a slider with hollow tube (fitted ith cross wires at its both ends) to fix the line of sight while making the measurements of the beam path diameter. Base of the unit contains the power supply that provides all the required potentials and the current to the Helmholtz coils. The entire ‘apparatus is contained in a wooden case for convenient storage. SPECIFICATION Helmholtz coils of radii l4em Number of turns 160 on each coil Accelerating Voltage 0-2s0v Deflection plates voltage Sov -250V Operating Voltage 220V AC/ SOHz PROCEDURE. 1. Before the power is switched ‘ON’, make sure all the control knobs are at their minimum position. Neen en Erne B.Tech(Common to all)/ AP-102/2 semester Page 4Department of Applied Physics Turn the power switch to “ON*. The indicator lamp will glow Wait a little for the cathode to heat up. 4. Tum the celerator voltage adjust knob clockwise to increase the voltage. Reetilinear electron beam emerging from the cathode will be visible. Adjust the accelerator voltage at about 200 volt It should be clear that the electrons themselves in the beam are not visible. It is the glow of the helium gas in the tube which is observed on the collision of electrons with the atoms of the gas. We actually see the glow of gas atoms which have been excited by collis ons with the electrons. 6. Rotate the e/m tube so that the electron beam is parallel to the plane of the Helmholtz coils, 7. Earth's magnetic field interferes with the measurements, However thi magnetic field is weak compared to the field generated by the Helmholtz coils and we could ignore its effect as first approximation. 8. Slowly tum the current adjust knob clockwise to increase the current for Helmholtz coils. The electron beam will get curved. Increasing the current will increase the curvature of the electron beam. 9. In case the electron beam does not make a complete circle and the circular path is skewed, rotate the socket of the tube until the path is a closed circle. This happens when the tube pointer is set at about 90° 10. Measure the diameter of the electron beam. This measurement has been fi ated by fixing a hollow tube on the slider of the s ale. This tube fixes the line of sight during measurements. IL. Note the ammeter reading for the current to the Helmholtz coils and the voltmeter reading for accelerating voltage. 12. Decrease the accelerating voltage by a small amount (20 volt, say) and measure the diameter of the electron beam. 13.Carry on the observations, The voltmeter reading should not be increased beyond 250 volt, A value lower than 80 volt is also not advisable. Similarly the current to the Helmholtz coils should not be more than 2 amp. B-Tech(Common to all)/ AP-102/2! semester Page 5Measurement of accelerating voltage V, magnetizing current Hand diameter d of the electron beam path | Accelerating |Current to th Diameter of the | (Diameter)? | V/Pd? Voltage (volt) | Helmholtz coils | beam path (m) (m) —__—{amp) _ €/m form graph = Chg Average e/m from calculations Chg Standard value of e/m 1.76 x 10" Chk (Glametr vs. AeceteatngVoage | zara Volos ot) PRECAUTIONS : 1, Range of all meter should be properly chosen. 2. Handle the apparatus carefully and do not leave the beam ON for long periods of time. Se B.Tech(Common to all)/ AP-102/2"! semester Page 6Department of Applied Physics Obs ation of the electron be of the electron tube should be done by first inere ing the current more than required, when the curvature of the electrons path is Well inside the tube, Then start decreasing the current and observe the curvature till it touches the edge The value of the filament current should remain constant throughout the experiment DISCUSSION = The main source of error in this experiment is the velocity of the electrons. Ther S a hole in the anode to allow the electrons to pass through it. This makes the velocit of the electrons non uniform and slightly less than the theoretical value. Further the collisions of the electrons with the helium gas in the tube decrease their velocity a little Dit. The effect of these errors can be minimized by measuring the outer radius of the electron beam path and by not using low values of the accelerating voltage: Other source of error is the measurement of he diameter of the electron beam, B.Tech(Common to all)/ AP-102/2! semester Page 7