Journal of Oral Rehabilitation 2003 30; 501–506
Fatigue resistance of removable orthodontic appliance
reinforced with glass fibre weave
L . I . R A N T A L A * , †, T . M . L A S T U M Ä K I * , T . P E L T O M Ä K I ‡ & P . K . V A L L I T T U *
of Prosthetic Dentistry and Biomaterials Research, Institute of Dentistry, University of Turku, Turku, †Department of Dental Technology,
Helsinki Polytechnic, Helsinki and ‡Department of Oral Development and Orthodontics, Institute of Dentistry, University of Turku, Turku,
Finland
SUMMARY The aim of this study was to measure the
fatigue resistance of fibre-reinforced composite
(FRC) reinforced polymeric parts of a removable
orthodontic appliance beside the clasp. The effect of
quantity and position of FRC-reinforcement were
investigated. In addition, the influence of water
storage on the fatigue properties was determined.
The test specimens for eight groups (n = 6) were
manufactured from autopolymerizing acrylic resin.
Polymethylmethacrylate pre-impregnated woven
glass fibre was used as reinforcement of acrylic resin
specimens at the region of steel wire clasp. The test
specimens of the control group were not reinforced.
In the second group, the test specimens were rein-
forced with one fibre layer (thickness: 0Æ06 mm) on
the tension side, and in the third and fourth group
Introduction
Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA)-based polymers are
the most common materials used when manufacturing
denture bases and polymeric parts of removable ortho-
dontic appliances. These polymers, are mainly two
component systems, which contain the PMMA powder
beads, methylmethacrylate (MMA) monomer liquid
and a small quantity of crosslinking agent such as
ethyleneglycol dimethacrylate. Numerous studies have
been published on reinforcing of the two component
polymers (Jennings & Wuebbenhorst, 1960; Schwicke-
rath, 1966; Bowman & Manley, 1984; Carroll & von
Fraunhofer, 1984; Deboer, Vermilyea & Brady, 1984;
Ruffino, 1985; Yazdanie & Mahood, 1985; Ekstrand,
ª 2003 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
*Department
with two fibre layers. Fatigue resistance was meas-
ured by applying repeated bending force to the
clasp. The highest fatigue resistance values were
achieved when the test specimens were fibre-rein-
forced with two fibre layers. The lowest fatigue
resistance values resulted when the test specimens
were not reinforced (P = 0Æ046, ANOVA). Water stor-
age had a tendency to decrease the fatigue resistance
in all fibre reinforced test specimen groups. The
results suggest that use of the woven polymer pre-
impregnated glass FRC-reinforcement increases the
fracture resistance of orthodontic appliance made of
acrylic polymer.
KEYWORDS: fatigue resistance, orthodontic appli-
ance, fibre reinforcement, clasp
Ruyter & Wellendorf, 1987; Vallittu, 1995, 1998, 1999;
Vallittu, Vojtkova & Lassila, 1995; Vallittu, 1996a, b).
The traditional method to reinforce the dental polymers
was to use different kind of metal strengtheners,
stainless steel wire being the most popular of all
(Vallittu, 1995). However, it has been showed that
metal strengtheners do only have a minor effect on the
strength of polymeric structures (Vallittu, 1996a).
Carbon ⁄ graphite, glass, aramid and polyethylene fibres
have been tested as reinforcement of two component
polymer. Of those fibres, glass fibres have an ability to
considerably increase the mechanical properties of
polymer (Vallittu, 1996a, 1999).
Tendency of orthodontic appliance to fracture is
caused by the occlusal biting force and the mechanical
501
502 L . I . R A N T A L A et al.
Brand Manufacturer
StickNet StickTech Ltd, Turku, Finland
Palapress Heraeus Kultzer GmbH,
Wehrheim, Germany
Remanium, 1Æ0 mm Dentaurum, Ispringen, Germany
springhard
Laboratory-Putty Coltene AG, Altstätten, Switzerland
strain beside the clasps. It is unlikely that a steel wire
clasp with good surface quality suffer from fatigue
failures on contrary to brittle, two-component acrylic
polymer which are prone for fatigue failures (Vallittu,
1996b). Earlier studies also showed that unidirectional
fibre reinforcement considerably increased transverse
strength and stiffness of polymers while bidirectional
fibre weave had minor effect on these parameters.
However, fibre weave has been shown to increase
strain at fracture, i.e. toughness of polymer, which is a
desired property for polymeric parts of orthodontic
appliance (Vallittu, 1999).
Dental appliances are affected by water sorption in
the oral cavity. It is known that water sorption of two-
component PMMA is approximately 2 wt% (14). It is
also known that plasticization effect of water reduce the
mechanical properties of polymer to some extent
(Miettinen & Vallittu, 1997). It is therefore also likely
that water sorption influences the fatigue resistance of
material.
The aim of this study was to determine the fatigue
resistance of non-reinforced and glass fibre-reinforced
polymers with steel wire clasps. In addition, the effect
of water storage on the fatigue resistance was studied.
Materials and methods
The materials used in this study are listed in Table 1.
Autopolymerizing two component acrylic resin Pala-
press Vario (PPV) was used with a powder-to-liquid
ratio of 10 g:7 mL and mixed for 30 s according to
manufacturer’s recommendations. The clasps used in
the test specimens were manufactured from Remanium
stainless steel wire (diameter 1Æ0 mm) (Fig. 1). The
woven PMMA pre-impregnated glass fibre reinforce-
ment StickNet (SN) (thickness 0Æ06 mm) was further
impregnated with a low-viscosity mixture of PMMA
powder of PPV and monomer liquid of PPV (powder-
to-liquid ratio 10 g:10 mL) on a polyethylene sheet.
Laboratory putty polyvinyl siloxane was used to fabri-
ª 2003 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Journal of Oral Rehabilitation 30; 501–506
Table 1. Materials used in the study
Lot no.
1990906-W-0037
Powder: 012100, 012109
Liquid: 010970,010984
58096
JE 43
cate the mould for manufacturing the test specimens
(Fig. 1). The clasp was placed into the retentive
impression of the mould and the mixture of PPV was
poured into the mould. In the cases of reinforced test
specimens, the further impregnated SN weaves were
placed into mould before pouring the PPV mixture. The
fibres of the weave were oriented
45 angle to the
long axis of the specimen. The test specimens were
polymerized in water at 55
1 C for 15 min under air
pressure of 200 kPa (Ivomat-type IP2*). After polymer-
ization, the test specimens were wet-ground with 320
gritt (FEPA) silicon carbide grinding paper to the
thickness of 3Æ0 mm. The test specimens were cleaned
in distilled water in an ultrasonic cleaning device
(Quantrex 90†) for 15 min. The cleaned test specimens
were conditioned in a desiccator at room temperature
for 5 days or stored in water at 37
1 C for 30 days.
The test specimens were divided into eight groups and
each group included six test specimens according to the
reinforcing type and storing conditions (Table 2).
A constant deflection fatigue test was carried out dry
at room temperature 23
1 C. The cycle frequency of
testing machine (Custom-made fatigue resistance test-
ing device, University of Kuopio, Kuopio, Finland) was
500 cycles min)1 and the maximum initial load was
20 N with the magnitude of deflection of 1Æ0 mm. The
test was carried out to the limit of 100 cycles. Number
of loading cycles required to cause fracture to the
specimens was considered as fatigue resistance of the
specimen. Twenty-four test specimens were immersed
to distilled water in a thermostatically controlled water
bath at 37
1 C. Water uptake level, i.e. sorption was
followed by weighing procedure repeated on days 1, 2,
4, 7, 8, 11, 14, 16, 21, 28 and 30. The mean values and
standard deviations of the water uptake were calculated
before fatigue-testing procedures.
*Ivoclar AG, Schaan, Liechtenstein.
†
L & R Ultrasonics, Elm, NJ, USA.
 FATIGUE OF REINFORCED APPLIANCE 503

(a)

(b)

Fig. 1. Schematic drawings of the

test specimen and loading conditions.
(a) Dimensions of the test specimens
and orientation of the fibre weaves
and (b) direction of the repeated load
(F) and location of fibre weaves in
Group PMMA + 1·SN + 1·SN.

Table 2. Codes for the test groups

Code Explanation

PMMA Polymethylmethacrylate
PMMA + 1·SN Polymethylmethacrylate + 1 layer of StickNet
PMMA + 2·SN Polymethylmethacrylate + 2 layers of StickNet
PMMA + 1·SN + 1·SN Polymethylmethacrylate + 1 layer of StickNet on both sides of clasp

The values obtained from the fatigue test and water
uptake were statistically analysed with two-way ANOVA,
with a significance level of 0Æ05. Kaplan–Meier
survival function analysis was calculated for the
fatigue resistance values of the test specimen. Dry
and water-stored specimens were pooled for the
analysis.
Results
Mean value of loading cycles required to cause the
fracture of the test specimens of group PMMA (dry,
non-reinforced) was 25Æ849 cycles (Fig. 2). The highest
fatigue resistance was achieved when the dry test
specimens were fibre-reinforced with a fibre layer on
both sides of clasp (64Æ800 cycles) (Fig. 2). The lowest
fatigue resistance values resulted when the test speci-
mens were unreinforced and water stored (25Æ817
cycles). Mean values of loading cycles differed signifi-
cantly (P ¼ 0Æ046, F ¼ 91Æ249, n ¼ 6). Figure 3 shows
Kaplan–Meier survival function curves for the test
groups. Water storage had a tendency to decrease the
fatigue resistance in fibre-reinforced test groups (Fig. 2)
but no statistical significance of this variable was found
(P ¼ 0Æ236, F ¼ 1Æ446, n ¼ 6). Water uptake after
30 days water immersion varied between 1Æ12 and 1Æ2
wt% (Fig. 4).
Discussion
This study demonstrated that correctly placed woven
glass fibres at the region of clasp can considerably

ª 2003 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Journal of Oral Rehabilitation 30; 501–506

504 L . I . R A N T A L A et al.

120 000 enhance fatigue resistance of acrylic polymer appliance.

Number of loading cycles

100 000 Earlier study showed that continuous unidirectional

glass fibre reinforcement increased fatigue resistance of
80 000
dental appliance up to 100 times compared with unre-
60 000
inforced appliance (Vallittu, 1996a). According to the
40 000
Dry
Wet present study, the woven glass fibres had similar
20 000 influence on the fatigue behaviour of the construction.
0 The placing of fibres in the polymer matrix affects the
PMMA

PMMA + 1 X SN

PMMA + 2 X SN

PMMA + 1 X SN + 1 X SN
–20 000
Fig. 2. Mean values of the number of loading cycles required to
cause fatigue fracture to the specimens (n ¼ 6). Vertical lines
present mean error values. For symbols, see Table 2.
Fig. 3. Kaplan–Meier survival function curves of the fatigue
resistance of specimens. For symbols, see Table 2.
Fig. 4. Water uptake of test specimens plotted to the storage time.
mechanical properties of fibre-reinforced composites
(FRCs). The importance of this factor is emphasized in
dental construction having only small quantity of
reinforcing fibres at weakest part of the construction.
These, so called partial fibre reinforcements have shown
to decrease considerably, the number of fractures in
removable dentures (Narva, Vallittu & Yli-Urpo, 2001).
The results of this in vitro study seems to support this
earlier clinical finding. However, in the case of remo-
vable orthodontic appliance with a clasp, some specific
aspects should be taken into consideration. A fibre
weave with
45 fibre angles reinforce the polymeric
parts equally in two directions on contrary to continuous
unidirectional fibres giving reinforcing effect only in one
direction, i.e. in the direction of fibres. The increased
strength and modulus by using unidirectional glass fibres
with the highest reinforcing capacity (Krenchell’s fac-
tor ¼ 1) (Murphy, 1998) might not be necessary in the
case of removable orthodontic appliances. In orthodon-
tic appliances, the fatigue failure is often caused by
repeated loads transferred from the clasp to the base
plate which result in tensile stress at certain areas beside
the clasp, and finally leads to fatigue fracture formation.
The bidirectional fibres of the fibre weave of the
polymeric part act as crack stoppers and hinder the crack
propagation. Simultaneously by acting as crack stoppers,
the
45 angle fibres increased the toughness of the
polymer. This has been reported previously (Vallittu,
1999). On the other hand, the placing of fibres with
45
angle did not result in highest possible static strength of
the FRC with that specific fibre quantity.
Comparison of water-stored and dry specimens
showed that the water saturation had a tendency to
lower the fatigue resistance. This can be explained by
the fact that water has a plasticizing effect on polymers
and polymeric composites and can therefore decrease
the mechanical properties of polymeric parts of the
orthodontic appliances (Ruyter & Svendsen, 1980;
Ruyter, 1995; Vallittu, Ruyter & Ekstrand, 1998). In
the fatigue test, the polymer chains of the polymer are
forced apart from each other by the applied stress and

ª 2003 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Journal of Oral Rehabilitation 30; 501–506


strain. This allows water molecules to penetrate more
efficiently to the spaces between the polymer chains.
By the end, the water molecules have increased the
distance of the polymer chains which decrease the
secondary chemical bonding forces (van der Waals
forces) between the polymer chains. As a result, the
fatigue resistance, as well as other mechanical proper-
ties of the polymer is lowered. However, in the case of
FRC, the influence of water sorption on mechanical
properties is more complicated than in the case of plain
polymer.
It is recognized that water sorption of composites is
dependant on the degree of impregnation of fibres on
the resins (Peltonen & Järvelä, 1992; Miettinen &
Vallittu, 1997). In the case of the existence of exposed
fibres and voids in the structure of FRC, they absorb
water by means of capillary forces. This fastens the
water saturation of the polymer matrix by increasing
the surface area, and at the same time, increase the
quantity of absorbed water in the FRC. In the case of
poorly impregnated fibres of FRC without exposed
fibres, the absorbing water has to penetrate to the voids
through the polymer matrix. However, by the end, the
voids between the fibres are filled with water. In
addition to the plasticization of polymers by water
molecules, the water can deteriorate the silane-promo-
ted adhesion of glass fibres to the polymer matrix. For
these reasons, the high degree of impregnation plays an
important role in long-term stability of FRCs. Polymer
pre-impregnation of fibres has been shown to help the
final impregnation of impregnation with the autopo-
lymerizing acrylic resin. In practice, the high degree of
impregnation of fibres by resin can be seen in translu-
cent light; the well-impregnated FRC parts of the device
are translucent. In this study, there was no noticeable
difference in water sorption between the unreinforced
and FRC-reinforced groups. This suggests that the
impregnation of fibres used in this study was adequate.
With higher fibre quantities the water uptake values for
reinforced specimens would obviously be lower. The
lower water uptake of acrylic polymer found in this
study compared with those measured earlier (Miettinen
& Vallittu, 1997) can partially be explained by the
existence of stainless steel wire clasp in the specimen.
From the clinical perspective, the present study
addressed an important aspect related to use of a
removable appliance in orthodontics, namely secure
retention of the appliance (Proffit & Fields, 2000). Even
the best springs and clasps of a removable appliances
ª 2003 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Journal of Oral Rehabilitation 30; 501–506
FATIGUE OF REINFORCED APPLIANCE 505
are ineffective if the appliance moves away from the
underlying structures. Thus, by reducing likelihood of
fracture of polymeric parts beside clasps and springs
increase the stability of the appliance and together with
proper fitting of the clasps determine how well a
removable appliance performs.
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Correspondence: Dr Pekka Vallittu, Department of Prosthetic Dentis-
try, Institute of Dentistry, University of Turku, Lemminkäisenkatu 2,
FIN-20520 Turku, Finland.
E-mail: pekka.vallittu@utu.fi