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25 Introduction
26 The quest to understand consciousness has been an old one. Questions about our existence, "Who
27 am I?", "What is the world?", "Where am I?" has baffled philosophers for centuries. A plethora of
28 philosophical systems were developed in India to answer these questions which eventually con-
29 densed into six orthodox schools and at least four unorthodox schools (Box 1). Sankhya school
30 dealt with the nature of reality broken down in it’s constituent parts (Box 2). Yoga emerged as a
31 more practical philosophy to realize the true reality and has been practiced since the Indus Valley
32 civilization. The philosophy matured for a few thousand years when the rules and principles were
33 compiled into the brief sutras by Patanjali (Box 3).
34 Consciousness as a field of study gained momentum in the Western world when Descartes de-
35 scribed the mind-body problem and stated the popular statement, "I think therefore I am". The de-
36 velopment of Electroenchephalogram (EEG) and other medical devices made it possible to record
37 people when they apparently lost consciousness either during sleep (Borbély et al., 1981) or al-
38 tered their states during anesthesia (Akeju et al., 2016) or during meditation (Travis and Wallace,
39 1999; Baijal and Srinivasan, 2010). Crick and Koch stimulated an interest in the field with their
40 works (Crick and Koch, 1990; Francis Crick and Christof Koch, 2003).
41 The recent development of neuroimaging and stimulation modalities like fMRI, TMS, tDCS in-
42 creased the quest to understand our different states of consciousness and many theories have
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43 developed to allow for better experiments including Integrated Information Theory (IIT) (Tononi
44 et al., 2016), Higher Order Theories (Lau and Rosenthal, 2011), Global workspace theory (Dehaene
45 and Changeux, 2011), and recent ones like Attention Schema Theory (AST) (Graziano, 2020) and
46 Dendritic Integration Theory (Aru et al., 2020; Bachmann et al., 2020). Though the current theories
47 offer many explanations for the different day to day experiences, it does not integrate well with
48 the internal states as experienced during meditation, samadhi or even sleep.
49 We present a new theory called the Yogic Theory of Mind and Consciousness (YTMC) which is
50 based on Sankhya and Yoga philosophy. Instead of taking the materialistic emergent approach to
51 mind, consciousness, and intelligence, Sankhya takes a holistic approach to the description of the
52 world. Sankhya postulates that the reality is composed of consciousness (Purusha), also called seer,
53 soul, brahman etc., and nature (Prakriti). The approach is convergent to what some philosophers
54 have begun to hypothesize that consciousness could be a fundamental property (Kastrup, 2018)
55 and it is "hard" to "understand" it (Chalmers, 1995).
56 YTMC proposes that mind and seer are separate entities. The mind is emergent in nature and
57 it depends upon the number and type of sensory data streams an organism can receive (sense
58 organs) and the number of ways it can act (action organs). Tanmatras or the sensitivity and sensory
59 specificity of sense organs separates the individuals within species and across species to have
60 a different percept of the world. Consciousness of an organism includes the role of the sense
61 organs, action organs, mind along with intellect, ego and memory systems which represent the
62 internal faculties and the seer which is the seat of awareness. YTMC can be generically applied
63 to different animals as recent studies have demonstrated that a wide variety of animals including
64 corvids display consciousness (Nieder et al., 2020; Birch et al., 2020).
65 YTMC includes the concept of modulations of mind like sleep, memory, mind wandering, per-
66 ception and inference from the Yoga Sutras which suggests that the mind is aligned with the seer
67 unless the mind is in one of these modulations. Meditation and finer states like samadhi can occur
68 when the mind reins in the modulations and becomes aware of the seer. Being established in the
69 seer consciousness has been the goal for self-realization according to the Yogic texts.
70 In this paper, we first introduce the organization of consciousness utilizing the Sankhya-Yoga
71 philosophies in our YTMC model followed by a discussion on the modulations of mind and how
72 activity and connectivity of systems of the YTMC model could result in these modulations. We
73 then describe various internal states as experienced during Yoga and the finer states of samadhi
74 with explanation of how they can be modelled using YTMC and propose some experiments to test
75 such states. We discuss how YTMC can explain various disorders of consciousness. We end by
76 listing some predictions we can make using the YTMC model and the description of modulations,
77 internal states and finer states. YTMC is one of the first theories of consciousness that integrate
78 both internal and external states and can provide testable predictions and experiments to establish
79 these results.
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81
80 Box 1. Indian Philosophical Systems
82 Indian philosophical system starting with the Vedas illumined in various Upanishads, became
83 concentrated in six major schools not necessarily independent of each other. Indian thought
84 was divided into six schools of philosophy - Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimansa and
85 Vedanta which highlighted various aspects of reality and the association of living beings with
86 that reality. Other schools of philosophy also emerged in India which did not consider the
87 Vedas as a means of knowledge and were considered unorthodox schools including Bud-
88 hhism, Jainism, Charvaka and Ajivika.
89 The Nyaya school, one of the oldest schools of philosophy emphasized the use of logic and
90 reasoning to arrive at any conclusion about the world. The purpose of the senses was to
91 gain knowledge of the world. Nyaya school emphasized epistemology or the ways to ac-
92 quire knowledge about the world. It relied on four out of the six means to gain knowledge
93 (epistemes) - Pramaana/observation, Anumaana/inference, Agama/written testimony and Upa-
94 maana/comparison, and excluded derivation and negative proof.
95 Vaisheshika was expounded by Kanada, one of the earliest atomists. He explained the reality
96 as having different types of padarathas/categories by which any matter could be understood
97 namely substance, quality, activity, commonness, particularity, and connectednes. Kanada
98 also integrates the concept of space, time, and mind. Vaisheshika also deals the theories of
99 motion, epistemology, ontology, the description of dharma, a case for atman or soul and dis-
100 cussions on enlightenment and moksha (Kak, 2016).
101 Sankhya school enumerated and categorized reality in its constituent parts. It was a dualistic
102 school which empasized that the unmanifest reality (Purusha) interacts with the manifest re-
103 ality (Prakriti), and upon its interaction forgets its true nature. And believes that the purpose
104 of the human existence is to realize the true nature of themselves which is the Purusha and
105 not the creation (Prakriti).
106 Yoga is the school of practice and illumines the way of realizing Purusha being one with our true
107 nature by slowly clearing away the seeds of identification with the Prakriti through dedicated
108 practice upon which the false association drops and one gets enlightened and realizes its true
109 nature (Virupakshananda, 1995; Shankar, 2010).
110 Mimansa school focused on the concept of Dharma, loosely translated as duty of an individual,
111 and described and studied the ritualistic practices as mentioned in the Vedas.
Vedanta, which translates to the "end of the Vedas", summarises the knowledge of the Vedas
112
as expressed in various Upanishads which are philosophical discussions on the nature of re-
113
ality. Badrayana wrote the Brahma Sutras or the Vedanta Sutras which is a terse set of apho-
114
risms that deal the existence and nature of reality, concept of soul or atman, relation with
115
Brahman, the purpose of life and the theories of cause and effect.
116
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119
120 Box 2. Sankhya Philosophy
Purusha
(Seer)
Speech
Sight Eye Fire
Movement
Sound Ear Air
Grasp/Hold
Manas
(Mind) Touch Skin Space
Excretion
Taste Tongue Water
Procreation
143 Box 2 Figure 1. The twenty four tattvas of the Sankhya including Purusha.
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144
145 Box 3. Yoga Sutras
146 The Sutra or aphorism system of exposition as practiced in ancient India was used to sum-
147 marize the conceptual understanding to as little syllables as possible without being repetitive
148 and being as terse and condensed. The systems allowed easy transmission of knowledge but
149 being terse were prone to incorrect interpretations. The Sankhya philosophy is summarized
150 in 72 sutras Virupakshananda (1995) whereas the Brahma sutras are expounded in 555 su-
151 tras (Vireswarananda, 1936). Yoga is the practice focused philosophy aimed at the reduction
152 of misery, increase of joy and eventual enlightenment through realization and being firmly
153 established in the nature of the seer. Misery is attributed to seeds of ignorance (Avidya) or
154 impressions that the subject is different from the world. There are 196 sutras divided into
155 four chapters. The first chapter describe the different modulations of mind, internal states,
156 types of samadhi, coming to the state of Yoga through practice and dispassion. It also lists out
157 some techniques to help a quivering mind settle down when faced by various obstacles. The
158 second chapter talks about the practice in more detail, what to practice and how to practice,
159 it describes the eight limbs of Yoga - Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dharana,
160 Dhyana and Samadhi. The state of samadhi has many finer nuances explained in the main text.
161 Samadhi allows to burn the seeds of ignorance and get established more and more in the true
162 nature of the seer which is bliss, joy and peace.
163 Chapter three relates to the abilities gained through the practice of Dharana, Dhyana and
164 Samadhi and the final chapter talks about the method and the process towards kaivalya or
165 enlightenment when the fetters of ignorance or ego has left the mind and it can totally become
166 one with the seer.
180 then sends the output signal to the motor organs which are an abstraction including the motor cor-
181 tex, parts of the cerebellum (for simplicity not included in the figure), and the peripheral nervous
182 system.
183 As compared to the Sankhya model described in Box 2 which refers to the twenty four tattvas
184 related to external sense perceptions in humans, we have also included the internal sense organs
185 in the YTMC model. And our abstraction can be generalized over different species of animals and
186 not just humans. Though we have not shown sub cortical regions in the representations on Fig. 1
187 they are assumed to be a part of the sense organs. We look closely at each individual system in
188 the sections below.
197 Tanmatras
198 The concept of Tanmatras is unique to Sankhya and represents the subtle dimension of the senses.
199 The idea of tanmatras have been unexplored in consciousness sciences and in our model, we con-
200 sider tanmatras as composed of two aspects: specificity and sensitivity of a sense organ. Sensitivity
201 refers to the range of sensory data to which the sense organ can respond, for example, humans
202 have a hearing frequency of 20 Hz to 20 KHz, dogs have a sensitive olfactory sense with up to 40
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Intellect Ego
Sense
Organs
Seer Mind
Action
Organs
Memory
A) Organization of Consciousness
Nocioception Grasp/Hold
Movement
Interoception
Speech
Balance Excretion
Propioception Procreation
Internal External
Default
Network
(Mind)
Default
Network
(Mind)
Medial
Memory
Prefrontal
Regions
cortex
(Memory)
(Ego)
D) Internal Faculties
Figure 1. Yogic Theory of Mind and Consciousness: A) The organization of consciousness according to YTMC. Sense and action organs represent
external faculties which enable interaction with the world. The direction of the arrows represent the flow of information or cause effect
relationship, the width of the connecting arrow depicts the strength of the connection, faded region and arrows represents temporary reduction
in activity and connection respectively, broken arrow represents physical disconnection whereas red cross represents damaged or broken
physical connection B) Sense organs comprise of external senses like taste, touch, smell, sight and hearing, and internal senses like nocioception
(pain), propioception, introception and balance. Tanmatras or sensitivity and specificity of each sense organ is an internal property and not
described in the figure here. Brain regions like occipital cortex are considered a part of the sense organ in the YTMC, similarly for the
somatosensory cortex, auditory cortex, and olfactory region. C) Action organs of movement, hold/grasp/push, speech, excretion and
procreation are represented in the motor cortex which is considered part of the action organs in YTMC. D) Internal faculties of the intellect, ego
and memory interact through the mind. The mind constitutes the default network and the attention network (not all regions of the networks
represented in the figure). The intellect is represented in the prefrontal cortex also called cognitive control network (which includes
frontoparietal control network, not all regions are represented in the figure) and the ego (self referencing) in the medial prefrontal cortex
(mPFC). The hippocampus and amygdala are the regions associated with memory. All these faculties working in conjunction perceives, cognizes,
thinks, remembers and acts. Seer, separate from the others, is the centre for awareness.
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203 times more receptors than humans (Porter et al., 2007; Craven et al., 2010). Specificity determines
204 the amount of sense data required to trigger a conscious perception of that sense. The sensitivity
205 and specificity which determine the corresponding tanmatras can change across species and even
206 within individuals of the same species. Specificity of sense organs would depend on modulations
207 (explained in section below) including attention, inference, mind wandering, and sleep. Attention
208 has shown to modulate perception (Carrasco et al., 2004; Ling and Carrasco, 2006) via amplifica-
209 tion of signals specific to a sensory type, time and location.
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251 Intellect
252 The intellect subsystem is a part of the internal faculties and is related with decision making, fil-
253 tering thoughts that come up in the mind and is represented by the Cognitive Control Network
254 (CCN).
255 Memory
256 Memory subsystem centered in the hippocampus and amygdala is associated with memory forma-
257 tion but there are evidences of the wide scale cortical involvement in long term memories. A ton of
258 work have been done in this field with regards to the actual dynamics of memory formation, extinc-
259 tion, affect based memories, spatial memories etc. (Gabrieli, 1998). In our model, memory holds
260 the information for any event. It is also related to one of the modulations of the mind, when the
261 connectivity between the mind (default network) and the memory region is high, the mind spends
262 a lot of time thinking about the past.
263 Ego
264 Ego subsystem is associated with self referential processing, risk taking and centered around the
265 medial prefrontal cortex. Many studies put it as a part of the default network (Christoff et al., 2016)
266 but it is closely linked with the mind, intellect and memory. Damages to this region has shown
267 reduced risk aversion (Spaniol et al., 2019). We further hypothesize that increased connectivity
268 between the ego and default subsystems could be linked to narcissistic personality traits.
269 Seer
270 Seer is the most fine aspect of consciousness and represents the seat of awareness. It perceives the
271 world through the mind which is affected by modulations. Yogic texts relate to it as the source of
272 conscious awareness, joy and happiness. Self realization or kaivalya is found when the practitioner
273 becomes totally aware of the seer through the reduction of memories and modulations. Indian
274 philosophers consider realization of the seer as one of the most important goals of life (Shankar,
275 2010) . We are of the thought that current neuroscientific research has looked into the aspects of
276 the mind and the modulations of the mind but has not clearly investigated the neural correlates of
277 the seer. Research into the meditation techniques especially where the modulations do not exist in
278 the mind (Nirvichara/Nirvikalpa Samadhi), can show a better understanding of the seer. We discuss
279 in a section below whether seer is a fundamental property or an emergent quality.
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298 laughing and you think to yourself, if they were laughing on you? Vikalpa or imagination follows
299 from word and knowledge of the word but devoid of any object. Memory (smriti) or remembering
300 the past, reliving the experiences from the past, or thinking about events from the past which are
301 not existent now is also considered a modulation of the mind along with sleep nidra where the
302 mind has no content (Shankar, 2010; Hartranft, 2003).
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A) Deep Dreamless Sleep
Intellect Ego
Sense
Organs
Seer Mind
Action
Organs
Memory
B) REM Sleep
Intellect Ego
Sense
Organs
Seer Mind
Action
Organs
Memory
Figure 2. Sleep as a modulation of mind: Our model argues that instead of understanding sleep as an altered or different state of
consciousness, it should be thought of as a modulation of the mind where A) the mind either has no content (deep dreamless sleep), the
connections with the sense and action organs are reduced and the internal faculties have decreased communication with each other, and also
have reduced activity. B) REM (Rapid Eye Movement) phase of sleep involves vivid dreams and occurs every 90-120 minutes where memory
consolidation happens along with CSF recycling (Fultz et al., 2019). In our model, the mind and the memory subsystems are strongly connected
during the REM phase with some activity in motor organs and possibly some in the visual regions.
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A) Proof of Perception (Pratayksha Pramaana) B) Proof of Inference (Anumaana Pramaana)
Intellect Ego
Sense Intellect Ego
Sense
Organs
Organs
Seer Mind Seer Mind
Action
Action
Organs
Organs
Memory
Memory
Figure 3. Means of Knowledge or Pramaana as a modulation of the mind. Yoga Sutras describe three means of knowledge: Prataksha or
Perception, Anumaana or inference and Agama or documented evidence. A) Proof of perception decreases the connectivity between the mind
and the seer, and the mind engages with the outside world through the sense organs, increasing the sensitivity and specificity of the incoming
sensory signals, and the signals from the memory regions are also reduced. B) Inferential proof engages the mind, intellect and memory
subsystems to make an inference about indirect perception. C) Documented proof relies on the memory and assimilates with the intellect to
gain and confirm knowledge. D) Sensory attention is very similar to perceptual proof (Pratayksha Pramaana)
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A) Memory (Smriti) B) Imagination (Vikalpa)
Intellect Ego
Sense
Organs
Seer Mind
Action
Organs
Memory
Figure 4. Mind wandering as modulation of the mind: A) When the mind is engaged in the memory or the remembrance of the past events, the
sensory data is unattended to and the mind engages strongly with the memory system, and the connectivity with the seer is reduced. B) During
imagination or vikalpa, a word or a thought in the mind starts a stream of self referential processing involving the ego and the intellect
subsystems with sensory data unattended and awareness from the seer reduced. C) During wrong knowledge of a percept, the connectivity with
the intellect, memory systems and sense organs is increased whereas it decreases with the seer subsystem.
345 is separate from Smriti, which is remembrance of events and from Viparyaya where the mind per-
346 ceives and infers incorrectly. There has been recent attempts to study mind wandering (Schacter
347 et al., 2017; Scheibner et al., 2017; Smith et al., 2001; Christoff et al., 2016; O’Callaghan et al., 2015)
348 but still it is in its nascent stage. Current neuroscientific research on the mind wandering contex-
349 tualize thoughts either generated spontaneously or deliberate and with constrained focused to-
350 wards a task at hand. (Christoff et al., 2016). Frontoparietal control network can exert a deliberate
351 control over the thoughts but spontaneous thoughts are generated in the Middle Temporal Lobe
352 (MTL) subsystem of the default network (DN). The core network of the DN comprising of Posterior
353 Cingulate Cortex (PCC) and posterior Inferior Parietal Lobule (pIPL) automatically constraints the
354 thoughts related to the individual. The activity of the brain during wakeful rest is found to be in two
355 prominent states (Karapanagiotidis et al., 2020) that corresponds to the modulations of memory
356 (smriti) and imagination vikalpa.
357 Mind wandering is usually thought of as noise in the mind, and behaviorally estimated out
358 using reaction times and accuracy on task. But such experiments and studies ignore the state of
359 mind wandering, an important aspect of the mind. When we understand that mind wandering
360 and attention are modulations of the mind, it can help us design better behavioral experiments.
361 Though the study of mind wandering is dispersed and there are no cohesive methods to detect
362 when the mind wandered without probing Weinstein (2018), we believe that full neural correlates
363 of consciousness would include both the neural correlates of attention and mind wandering.
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368 to be in the state of Yoga. There are further states of dharana, dhyana, samadhi and samapatti.
369 The state of samadhi is further divided into sabeeja samadhi and nirbeeja samadhi. The latter is
370 experienced after years of practice and is considered a goal for yogis and practitioners but the
371 former has nuances and subtle states within it. We’d look closely at each of these states and how
372 YTMC can model and experimentally investigate them. Buddhist literature also mentions the state
373 of Jhanas or dhyana in Sanskrit which are probably close or similar to the states described here as
374 mentioned in the Yoga Sutras but comparative studies across the two traditions are lacking.
411 1. Sabeeja Samadhi: The states of samadhi with the seeds of ignorance, they are further divided
412 into
413 (a) Sampragyat Samadhi: State with awareness where one can observe spontaneous thoughts,
414 special logic about oneself, feeling of bliss and joy and the mind is established with the
415 seer, it is further divided into:
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A) Pratyahara B) Dharana
Memory Memory
E) Samapatti
Intellect Ego
Sense
Organs
Seer Mind
Action
Organs
Memory
Figure 5. Description of the Internal states according to the Yogic Theory of Mind and Consciousness: A) Pratyahara translates to giving alternate
food to senses, the attention is drawn from all the external senses to internal sense perceptions. B) Dharana or concentration is a practice to
take attention to an object, a sensation in the body, a repeated word or mantra, but with a singular focus on one object or location, the signals
to which the mind then amplifies. C) Dhyana or meditation happens when the modulations start subsiding, the intellect and memory becomes
less connected to the mind. The content of the mind is singular and continuous. D) Samadhi or transcendence is a equanimous state where the
mind drops the content it is holding onto during dhyana, modulations have subsided and focused onto the seer (aware of simply being), the
inputs from sense organs are still coming but not changing the content of the mind. E) Samapatti is a state of being aware of both the seer and
the scenery, modulations are subsided, impressions or memory not active as not many associative memories are formed.
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416 i. Savichara: with spontaneuos thoughts, we propose that in such a state, the MTL
417 subsystem of DN would be active.
418 ii. Nirvichara: without spontaneous thoughts and no firing of the DN-MTL subsystem.
419 iii. Savitarka: with special logic, frontoparietal network and cognitive network would be
420 active and connected with default network.
421 iv. Nirvitarka: without special logic, frontoparietal network would be inactive and dis-
422 connected.
423 v. Asmita Arupa: with a feeling of I-ness, the medial prefrontal cortex would be active
424 with connectivity with default and attention region.
425 vi. Anand: with feelings of bliss and joy.
426 (b) Pragyapoorvak Samadhi: The states of samadhi which are reached being aware and in the
427 state of action where the mind spontaneously drops off the modulations and becomes
428 one with the seer.
429 i. Shraddha: a spontaneuos state of samadhi reached during intense periods of reli-
430 gious or spiritual activity.
431 ii. Veerya: When valor is invoked, it brings in about a spontaneous state of being aware
432 of the self and the seer.
433 iii. Smriti: Memory of a deep experience of samadhi can itself take one into samadhi.
434 iv. Prakriti Laya: When we see a beautiful sunset across the ocean and the mind totally
435 settles in, for brief moments prakriti laya samadhi occurs which translates to being
436 in unison with nature.
437 2. Nirbeeja Samadhi: The state of samadhi where there is no seeds of ignorance left and the
438 modulations of mind have ended, the individual is totally one with the creation kaivalya or
439 enlightenment is experienced.
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A) Sampragyat Samadhi B) Pragyapoorvak Samadhi
Figure 6. Description of the finer states of Samadhi: A) Sampragayat Samadhi: State of samadhi or equanimity with awareness where in sensory
activity decreases, spontaneous thoughts arise, some logic about the mind and body can form and accompanied with the feeling of elation and
joy with a sensation of "I am experiencing" or "I am being". The B) Pragyapoorvak Samadhi: A state that comes after awareness and can be
invoked using memory of an event, valor or faith. Runner’s high, deep religious and spiritual experiences comes under this classification of
Samadhi. C)Nirvichara Samadhi is a state similar to (A) but without spontaneous thoughts, and similarly a state is called Nirvitarka Samadhi which
does not involve any logic in the mind. D) All these states of samadhi come under Sabeeja Samadhi which means a state of equanimity where the
memory, impressions and seeds are still active whereas Nirbeeja Samadhi is a state that one goes beyond the limits of the mind and memory
and is free from any impressions or seeds, also called as state of enlightenment of Kaivalya where only the seer remains and the feeling of
oneness with the whole creation is observed.
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464 administer cause chemical based increase or decrease in GABA or NMDA receptors, whereas Nir-
465 beeja Samadhi comes through years of training and thus more natural and would involve long term
466 changes in the brain that can sustain the state closest to pure awareness and not effected by the
467 modulations and activity of the mind.
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A) Locked In Syndrome B) Coma
Intellect Ego
Sense Intellect Ego
Organs Sense
Organs
Seer Mind Seer Mind
Action
Organs Action
Organs
Memory
Memory
Figure 7. Explanation of disorders or altered states of consciousness using the YTMC model. A) Locked-In Syndrome is represented by the lack
of motor movements but the subject is conscious, we propose that the connection with the motor organs is severed resulting in conscious and
aware subject with no movement. B) Comatose patients have shown to have a degree or level of consciousness of sensory percepts though they
can not move. In our model, we suggest that there is disconnection with the action organs and reduced connections with the sense organs,
some senses might be more damaged than others. Though there are different types of coma, we represent here, a case where there is no
damage to the internal faculties. Some other forms of coma, resulting from injury, built up of toxins, irregular functioning of the internal
faculties of mind, intellect, ego and memory and may have a range of symptoms and corresponding relation to the level of consciousness. C)
General Anesthesia using chemicals like ketamine and propofol has been researched extensively, we hypothesize that the sense, action organs
and the internal faculties are all shut in the sense that there are no long range communication across the subsystems and activity is reduced
within the subsystem. D) Local Anesthesia results in the temporary disconnection with the specific sense organs including the sense of pain
(nocioception) which results in reduced signals from the sedated part of the body.
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508 Predictions
509 YTMC provides us a tiered model of understanding the external world, internal faculties which
510 perceive and act upon the world and the innermost faculty or the seer which is aware of the world.
511 The concept of bringing together the modulations of the mind along with inner states of meditation
512 and Yoga can provide a better interpretation of various phenomena.
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556 to “normal” resting state and explicit intrinsic processing paradigms (Jessica R. Andrews-Hanna,
557 2012).
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Table 1. Different states of mind and consciousness.
State Type
Nidra (Sleep) Modulation
Smriti (Memory) Modulation
Pramaana (Proof) Modulation
- Pratayksha (Perception) Modulation
- Anumaana (Inference) Modulation
- Shabd (Documented evidence) Modulation
Viparyaya (Wrong Knowledge) Modulation
Vikalpa (imagination) Modulation
Pratyahara Yoga
Dharana Yoga
Dhyana Yoga
Samapatti Yoga
Samadhi Sabeeja (with seeds) Samadhi
- Sampragyat (with Awareness) Samadhi
— Savichara (with thoughts Samadhi
— Nirvichara (without thoughts) Samadhi
— Savitarka (with logic) Samadhi
— Nirvitarka (without logic) Samadhi
— Anand (with bliss) Samadhi
— Asmita Arupa (with I-ness) Samadhi
- Pragyapoorvak (arising out of awareness) Samadhi
— Shraddha (Faith) Samadhi
— Veerya (Valor) Samadhi
— Smriti (Rememberance) Samadhi
— Prakriti Laya (Synced with Nature) Samadhi
Samadhi Nirbeeja (without seeds) Kaivalya
602 seer as just a schema to aid in attention does not fit with the YTMC but the generation of schemas
603 of attention as a modulation integrates well with YTMC.
608 Conclusions
609 We present a neuroscientific perspective of the Yogic theory of Mind and Consciousness as pre-
610 sented in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali and the Sankhya Philosophy. From the first person perspec-
611 tive, reality is classified as Purusha and Prakriti (composed of the ego, mind, intellect, sense organs,
612 action organs, subtle sense dimensions (tanmatras) and elements). The Purusha is the seer or self
613 or the consciousness, and the mind interacts with the world through the organs of action and per-
614 ception. We present that the development of the mind depends on the number and type of sense
615 and action organs and the tanmatras (sensory specificity) which can allow us to better model mind
616 and consciousness of other species. We also suggest that species specific findings may not be
617 generalizable.
618 The mind acts as a gateway to the perceived world for the seer. The mind has modulations like
619 attention, inference, memory, sleep, imagination and wrong knowledge which alter perception,
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636
637 Box 4. Glossary
638 Sankhya: Enumerationist Indian philosophical system which breaks down the reality in its con-
639 stitutents parts.
640 Yoga: Indian Philosophical school associated with the practice of achieving enlightenment and
641 taking over the illusion of the mind relation with the scenery.
642 Tanmatras: Subtle sense organs which can be thought of the combination of range of each
643 sense organ in terms of physical reality it captures (for a species) and the specificity of sense
644 organs (for each individual)
645 Mann/Manas: Mind
646 Buddhi: Intellect, an individualized abstraction of Mahat which is the intelligence of the nature.
647 Ahankara: Ego sense which gives the illusion of separation of one individual from the other.
648 Samadhi: State of equanimity with or without perception
649 Samapatti: State of equanimity with perception
650 Chitta: Individualized consciousness comprising of the intellect, ego, mind, memory.
620 and thus the conscious awareness of the percept. Attentional modulations affect perception and
621 the content of the mind is enhanced at the cost of non-attended stimuli. Active inference based
622 modulations affect our sensory signals as well as motor responses. Mind wandering through imag-
623 ination, wrong knowledge and memory modulates the intrinsic and self-referential processing at
624 the cost of extrinsic modulations and in turn affects consciousness.
625 The practice of Yoga is having a say over these modulations and truly “perceive” our conscious-
626 ness. Modern scientific literature on meditation has suggested the presence of unique neurobio-
627 logical signatures for such states. We elucidate the different states of mind like Dhyana, Dharana
628 and Samadhi and characterize them which can help improve current approaches to neuroscience
629 of Yoga and meditation. Our specification of the internal and external states of mind can better
630 our understanding of the neural correlates of consciousness.
631 Our theory is one of the first to integrate the aspects of organization, evolution and develop-
632 ment of mind, modulations of mind and how it affects perceptual consciousness, and intrinsic
633 states of meditation in a cohesive structure. YTMC is an overarching theory and works in conjunc-
634 tion with the current neuroscientific theories of consciousness which addresses specific parts of
635 the understanding of mind and consciousness.
651 Acknowledgments
652 We acknowledge the teachers, and philosophers who contributed to the Indian philosophies and
653 their unpublished lectures and commentaries which could not be referenced here beginning with
654 Gurudev Sri Sri Ravi Shankar, Maharishi Patanjali, Adi Shankara, Maharishi Vyasa, Swami Vivekananda
655 amongst others. All figures were created using BioRender.
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