INDONESIAN JOURNAL OF APPLIED LINGUISTICS

Vol. 12 No. 1, May 2022, pp. 201-211

Available online at:

https://ejournal.upi.edu/index.php/IJAL/article/view/46544

https://doi.org/10.17509/ijal.v12i1.46544

Smartphone apps as a motivating tool in English language

learning
Nagaletchimee Annamalai1, Muhammad Kamarul Kabilan2, Deepa Soundrarajan3
1,3
School of Distance Education, Unviersiti Sains Malaysia 11800 Penang, Malaysia
2
School of Educational Studies, Unviersiti Sains Malaysia 11800 Penang, Malaysia

ABSTRACT
Since smartphones are getting cheaper, sophisticated, and multifunctional, there are
opportunities for learners to engage in more meaningful English language learning. This study
employs a mixed-method research design, with the purpose of identifying the use of English
language apps outside the classroom and depicting students’ English language apps use
behaviour i.e. motivation from the Self-Determination Theory (SDT). The findings show that
students use the apps related to grammar the most and followed by English apps related to
speaking, reading and, vocabulary. Findings also reveal students in this study display three
types of motivation from the perspective of SDT i.e. autonomy, competence, and relatedness.
Based on the findings, a model of Pedagogical Considerations of Using Smartphone for English
Language Learning (PCUSELL) is suggested. As a conclusion, the authors suggests that
educators in higher educational institution educators should consider the potential of
smartphone English apps in their teaching and learning activities, particularly in this new
normal of teaching and learning i.e. epoch of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Keywords: Apps; Mobile-Assisted Language Learning; smartphone

First Received: Revised: Accepted:

23 June 2021 15 May 2022 20 May 2022
Final Proof Received: Published:
27 May 2022 31 May 2022
How to cite (in APA style):
Annamalai, N., Kabilan, M. K., & Soundrarajan, D. (2022). Smartphone apps as a motivating
tool in English language learning. Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 12(1), 201-
211. https://doi.org/10.17509/ijal.v12i1.46544

INTRODUCTION learner engagement (Rosell-Aguilar, 2018),

Mobile phones before 2007 only carried software
that was provided by the device. However, this
changed with the arrival of smartphones as they
included software applications commonly known as
apps (Rosell-Aguilar, 2017). The availability of
apps has provided many possibilities to learn at any
time anywhere with greater learner autonomy and
self-paced learning programs (Burston, 2014;
Godwin-Jones, 2011; Rosell-Aguilar, 2017). As for
language learning, García Botero et al. (2018)
describe the fleet of language learning applications
that suggest mobile learning's potential benefits in
this context. Empirical studies have reported on
positive outcomes towards reading and grammar
skills (Liu et al., 2013), vocabulary skills (Ketyi,
2015), autonomous learning (Rosell-Aguilar, 2017),
personalised learning (Steel, 2012), and translation
activities (Steel, 2012). In fact, low achieving
students have used mobile apps to practice their
language skills in the virtual environment to
communicate effectively in face-to-face interaction
(Sandberg et al., 2011).
Despite the popularity and adoption of
smartphone apps for language learning, its
effectiveness in higher education largely depends on
students’ attitudes and facilitating conditions as
these applications are usually used outside of class
(García Botero et al., 2018). Mekhzoumi et al.
(2018) observe that students would abandon
language learning apps that are not infused with
motivation elements. The students will only
continue using a mobile learning tool if it benefits

* Corresponding Author
Email: naga@usm.my
201
 Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 12(1), May 2022
them in terms of learning languages (Steel, 2012),
supports their learning (Farley, et al., 2015), or
facilitate them to achieve their learning goals (Ozer
& Kilic 2018). We concur with Farley et al.’s (2015)
view that “understanding of how students are
supporting their learning” using the mobile apps
may prompt “educators to examine the way their
courses and programs are delivered” (p. 11) and use
smartphones to engage and enrich students’ various
language skills in a meaningful manner (Nami,
2020), leading to quality teaching and learning.
Several studies reflect the above tenet of
motivation and smartphones. For instance, Leis et
al. (2015) examined the effects of using
smartphones in the classroom and found that
students tend to be autonomous in language
learning. Nevertheless, the elements of motivation
were not exclusively highlighted as an outcome of
smartphone use for language learning but rather the
motivation to use the smartphone. Similarly, Barrs
(2011) observed the students’ willingness to use and
actual usage of smartphone for language learning,
and not on motivation as an outcome of its use. The
reason for this is because for users (i.e. students),
the design of a smartphone is important for them to
“continue learning beyond the formal institutional
setting” (Godwin-Jones, 2017, p. 10). Such
continuous learning presents the opportunity for
teachers to “leverage those digital devices and
online experiences to enable and encourage in our
students’ life-long learning, learner autonomy, and
critical digital literacy” (Godwin-Jones, 2017, p.
13).
Therefore, in this study, we will focus on the
use of smartphone and the language skills that
students were engaged with, as well as the
motivation aspects and challenges experienced by
the students. The specific research questions are:
1. What are the language learning skills that
students were engaged with during their
use of smartphone language apps?
2. What are the motivation aspects
experienced by the students during their
use of smartphone apps?
3. What are the challenges experienced by
students during their use of smartphone
apps?
The Findings of this study would enable
educators to develop more meaningful learning and
teaching practices via smartphone apps. Newman
and Beetham (2017) point out that smartphones are
often viewed as a convenient tool rather than a
useful pedagogical tool. Therefore, without a clear
vision of how learners use smartphone apps for
English language learning, it is challenging to
identify effective learning apps consistent with how
students learn. Furthermore, there has been limited
research on how apps enhance English language
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202
learning, particularly in Malaysian higher
institutions. Existing studies on language learning
apps are limited to intervention studies and are
mostly led by researchers and practitioners with
limited sample size (Rosell-Aguilar, 2018) or
treatment time (Ma, 2017). By using only particular
apps initiated by educators, research has overlooked
language learning skills. Similarly, most mobile-
assisted language learning (MALL) applications
mainly focus on vocabulary and speaking skills and
overlook the importance of writing and grammar
learning (Mekhzoumi et al., 2018).
Theoretical Perspectives
Self-Determination Theory (SDT) is the framework
utilized in this study as it focuses on motivation and
the psychological needs of learners. SDT details two
types of motivation: intrinsic and extrinsic
motivations (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Intrinsic
motivation is concerned about students' willingness
to carry out certain activities because they are
interesting, fun, and enjoyable. In contrast, extrinsic
motivation is driven by rewards or gifts or to avoid
punishment. Previous studies had shown that
learners’ motivational levels increased especially
when mobile learning (Al-Azawei & Aloyar, 2020),
flipped classrooms (Zainuddin & Perera, 2019), and
cloud base learning (Chang, 2019) are applied.
Motivation is concerned about energy, direction,
and persistence that drives humans to act and geared
towards a goal (Harmon-Jones & Price, 2013).
Another sub-theory of SDT is the three innate
psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and
relatedness (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Competence is
illustrated as the desire to be effective when dealing
in an environment while relatedness refers to the
universal propensity to interact and experience
working with other people (Deci & Ryan, 2008).
Autonomy is concerned about people's universal
urge to causal agents, experience volition, and act
with their integrated sense of self. To be
autonomous means to be willing to perform an act,
whether an action is independent or in response to a
request from significant other (Deci & Ryan, 2000).
In this study, motivation of students is defined by
the three innate psychological needs: autonomy,
competence, and relatedness, as described here.
Mobile Apps and English Language Teaching &
Learning
The growing access to mobile applications has
brought language learning apps into focus
(Annamalai, 2019; Annamalai & Kumar, 2020;
Moroz, 2013). The literature related to mobile apps
in education and language learning apps offers some
guidance for the current study. A study by Aljaoud
et al. (2019) used a clicker app for peer interaction
with peers and responded to teachers' questions
reported that smartphone clicker apps promoted
student-teacher and student-student interaction
 Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 12(1), May 2022
resulting in active collaboration among students and
improved learning performance.
Tai and Ting (2020) examined how engineering
students use the authoring tools of the mobile app to
innovate an English-learning app that aims to
provide feedback for revision. Analyzing students’
self-reports, students’ designed apps, and
presentations, the study found that engineering
students viewed their work from a different
perspective and appreciated their English teachers'
comments. In terms of vocabulary, smartphones
assisted learners to learn new English vocabulary
that facilitated ubiquitous learning, enabled
corrective feedback, and helped in their preparation
for examination (Klimova & Polakova, 2020; Nami,
2020). Annamalai and Kumar (2020) examined how
distance education students used smartphones to
complete their English course work. The study
reported on how smartphones create opportunities
for students to interact collaborate, create content,
listen, read, view, and browse the web. Kacetl and
Klímová (2019) conducted a systematic review on
the application in English language learning in Web
of Science and Scopus databases from 2015 to April
2019. The findings reported that smartphone
applications have great potential to enhance English
language learning as they promote personalized
learning, autonomy, and confidence. The study also
importantly emphasized the need to design, plan and
implement the use of smartphones wisely based on
learners' needs.
Loewen et al. (2019) highlighted the positive
uses of Duolingo apps by emphasizing its flexibility
and gamified lesson integrated into the apps.
However, they also highlighted students' frustration
with instructional materials in Duolingo. A study by
Butgereit and Botha (2009) in Africa claimed that
the Hadeda app was useful to learn vocabulary by
encouraging the learner to practice spelling the
words. Similarly, Sandberg et al. (2011) found that
the deHadeda app allowed the language teacher to
create spelling lists or vocabulary lists in English
and Afrikaans. Hadeda then generated a fun cell
phone application using multiple text-to-speech
engines to encourage pupils to practice spelling the
words. Steel (2012) investigated the use of apps
with Japanese, French, and Spanish language
learners for out-of-the-classroom learning in an
Australian university. The study concluded that the
apps allow them to learn on the go. The above
review indicates that language learning apps, by and
large, have been teacher-selected apps for language
learning. There is limited research on students’
experiences of using smartphone apps
independently. According to Nami (2020), app-
based language learning is still at the infancy level
and there have been relatively few studies on the use
of smartphones in language learning. Hence, more
investigation of students’ personal use of mobile
apps for language learning is required.
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203
METHOD
A mixed method was adopted as a mode of inquiry
for this study so that the strength of quantitative and
qualitative, in tandem, could be utilized (Sun &
Buripakdi, 2021) to understand better the use of
smartphone apps for English language learning by
the undergraduate students in this study. In this
study, the quantitative findings (descriptive
statistics) indicate the use of smartphone apps for
various English language skills while the qualitative
findings provide descriptive accounts of
participants’ motivation related to autonomy,
competence and relatedness, and challenges of using
English language apps
Research Participant
The participants were from undergraduate students
from a Malaysian University and were enrolled in
the General English Language course in the
2019/2020 academic year. A total of 200
participants were selected using purposive and
convenience samplings, allowing the researchers to
select the participants based on accessibility and
proximity (Creswell, 2008). Accessibility and
proximity refer to the students who have registered
for the university's English language course where
the study was conducted. Out of the 200
participants, 20 participants volunteered to be
interviewed to provide rich information and an in-
depth understanding of the use of smartphone
English language apps. We wanted to “further
safeguard the rights of the participants” of the
research and hence, the main criterion of sample
selection for the interview (Ramli et al., 2021, p.
3740). At the beginning of the semester, students
were given the flexibility to use various apps to
enhance their English language skills related to
vocabulary, grammar, listening, speaking, reading,
and writing. They were encouraged (but not forced)
to use the language apps in whichever way they
liked or preferred in preparing for their assessment
related to listening, speaking, reading, and writing
skills outlined in their learning outcomes. After 12
weeks, students were asked to answer a
questionnaire and invited to participate in interviews
based on their experiences of using the apps in
learning English.
Research Instrument
A questionnaire was administered to the students
anonymously using a Google form. The researchers
developed the two-part questionnaire, measuring
participation demographics and English language
learning skills. A yes/no questionnaire was used to
identify the language skills learned via smartphone
apps. The research question and relevant literature
reviewed in this study guided the researchers in
developing the items for the questionnaire (Siddiky,
2021), which focused on the six main tenets of
learning language i.e. writing, listening, speaking,
 Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 12(1), May 2022
reading, grammar and vocabulary. Section 1
collected demographic information, while there are
six items in section 2:
i. I use apps related to writing skills to
improve my English
ii. I use apps related to speaking skills to
improve my English
iii. I use apps related to vocabulary to improve
my skills
iv. I use apps related to listening to improve
my English
v. I use apps related to grammar to improve
my English
vi. I use apps related to reading to improve my
English
SPSS was utilized to obtain frequencies and
percentages. Statistical analysis was carried out
using IBM SPSS Statistics Version 27.0.
The questionnaire and interview items were
constructed based on studies conducted by Garcia
Botero et al. (2019), Şad et al. (2020), and
Zainuddin and Perera (2019). Face and content
validity of the questionnaire and the interview items
were conducted by three independent researchers
Table 1
The Interview Questions and Purpose of Each Question
1.What motivates you to use the English language apps.
Please describe with examples.
2. What are the challenges or limitations that you experience
when you use the apps for English language learning?
3. Is there any other experience that you would like to
share?
Both inductive and deductive analysis were
considered in this study to code the students’
interviews (Armat et al., 2018). An inductive
approach permits additional emerging themes from
the interview transcripts. The inductive approach
allowed emerging themes that did not fit the SDT
framework. The six Steps Thematic Analysis by
Braun and Clarke (2006) guides the categorization
of emerging themes in this study. The steps are
familiarization of the data, generating initial codes,
searching for themes, reviewing themes, defining,
and naming themes and producing the report. Three
coders were trained to categorize the data.
Trustworthiness of Qualitative Data
The four criteria for qualitative research suggested
by Guba and Lincoln (1994) were considered in this
study: confirmability, credibility, dependability, and
transferability were considered in analyzing the
qualitative data. The notion of credibility was
addressed by using member checking to establish
accuracy in the findings (Creswell, 2009). The
interview transcript was taken back to the
Copyright © 2022, authors, e-ISSN: 2502-6747, p-ISSN: 2301-9468
204
who are experts in the area of English language
teaching and learning. Based on their suggestions,
two items in the questionnaire and one interview
items were revised to reflect the objective and the
research questions of the study, as well as the
literature used.
Interview Settings
The selected respondents were contacted via
telephone calls. The nature of the study was
explained to them and appointments to meet the
interviewer were arranged according to participants’
convenience. The interview was conducted in the
research assistant’s office in January 2020. The
interview lasted for 20-30 minutes and was
conducted in the English language. The interviews
were recorded and transcribed verbatim. However, a
few of the participants used the bilingual medium of
English and Malay language. An independent
research assistant was employed to gather frank
opinions and avoid biases. Table 1 illustrates the
interview questions and the purpose of each
question.
The purpose of this question is to know how competence,
autonomy and relatedness motivate students to use the
English language apps?
Does this question probe the challenges and limitations of
the app?
This question is helpful in identifying some of their
experiences related to motivation and challenges?
participants to determine whether the information
provided during the interview is the same as the
information in the data. Transferability was
achieved with a description of the setting and
participants. Investigator triangulation was achieved
when three experienced lecturers in qualitative
research coded the emerging themes. They reached
85% agreement among the coders. Hence, the
findings are reliable, convincing, and accurately
reflecting the real situation. The interview questions
were also validated by a panel of experts in the field
of technology and educational research.
FINDINGS
Smartphone Apps and English Language
Learning
The first research question concerned the type of
apps that the students engage in most to improve
their English language learning outside the
classroom. Findings show that the students use
grammar-related apps (GRA) the most (f=145,
72.5%), followed by speaking related apps (SRA)
 Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 12(1), May 2022
(f=93, 46.5%) and vocabulary related apps (VRA)
(f=84, 42.0%). Writing-related apps (WRA) via
smartphones are the least used (f=22, 11.0%) (see
Table 2). Using the Chi-square test, it is found that
there is no statistically significant difference
between male and female students with regards to
VRA (0.277), GRA (0.114), SRA (0.929), and
Table 2
Types of Apps Used to Improve English Language Learning
Types of Apps Male Female
f (%) f (%)
Grammar 61 (67) 84 (77.1)
Speaking 42 (46.2) 51 (46.8)
Vocabulary 42 (46.2) 42 (38.5)
Listening 27 (29.7) 34 (31.2)
Reading 19 (20.9) 34 (31.2)
Writing 5 (5.5) 17 (16.6)
English language learning using Smartphone
Apps and Motivation
In answering the second research question, data for
this section will be presented according to the three
main aspects of motivation, examined from the SDT
perspective i.e., autonomy, competence and
relatedness.
Autonomy
Learning a language demands time, commitment,
and effort. Autonomous learning takes place when
students are responsible for their learning. Students
are more conscious of the process of meaning-
making. With the help of language apps, students in
this study are able to acquire knowledge and engage
in language learning independently. PP1 describes
how the Memrise app allows,
immersion in English in the comfort of our own
home, and by listening to thousands of audio-files,
we can work on how to improve our English
pronunciation and intonation at our own pace and
terms. At Memrise, their basic English course cuts
the learning into short sessions that we complete
every day, so we can always find time for some
practise either at home or on the go. (PP1).
The students are not able to access the apps if
they are in "a place with a poor Internet connection"
but with the “summary notes” (PP4) or
“downloaded (notes) from the toolkit that can be
viewed offline” (PP5), The students admit that there
can be “no more excuses to not study English”
(PP14). This supports the concept of ubiquitous
Copyright © 2022, authors, e-ISSN: 2502-6747, p-ISSN: 2301-9468
reading-related apps (RRA) (0.100). Only writing-
related apps (WRA) was found to be statistically
significant in the analysis (p<0.05), where a higher
number of female students were using WRA, as
compared to male students. Table 2 illustrates the
types of apps used to improve English Language
learning.
Total p-value Examples
f (%) (less than
0.05)
145 (72.5) 0.114 Learn English Grammar,
Hello English
93 (46.5) 0.929 Speak English, TALK
ENGLISH
84 (42.0) 0.277 Dictionary.com, BBC
English Apps
61 (30.5) 0.816 L.E.O EDUs
53 (26.5) 0.100 English Grammar Book
22 (11.0) 0.023* Knudge.me, Speedy
English Grammar Practice
App
learning, where their learning is possible anywhere,
anytime with the use of such language apps.
Additional tools available in the apps support and
reinforce learning, (PP4), who also explains that
"the video with the explanation" helps him "to
understand more about each lesson". In addition, the
available tools in the apps, according to PP16, are
“easily accessible tools for studying 'on the go'” as
the students are constantly “unlocking the ability to
incorporate self-study into our hectic lifestyle”.
With the language apps, the students are learning
much more freely, with freedom willingness, and
independence, where they do not “need to refer to
anyone” and show their “abilities in a language”
(PP26). He explained:
Personally, I feel so easy and comfortable to use
apps and become my ruler to measure my ability
to speak and listen to correct English. I wish there
are more apps there to make us feel free to use and
let us communicate in English (PP26).
Competence
Students have the opportunity to extend their
English language learning via “user friendly (PP5)”
apps that provide them the opportunity to choose
their apps according to "basic, intermediate and
advanced levels” (PP5). The apps seem to promote
opportunities for language stimulation. One student
gave an example of how “The Shaw Academy apps
instructor speaks slowly and very clearly so that one
can listen to pronunciation in English words. In my
opinion, if we listen to the correct English
pronunciation, we can improve our oral skills and at
205
 Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 12(1), May 2022
the same time, we can improve our listening ability”
(PP3). The virtual interactions seem to be viewed
positively and assist them in “conversation
categories related to bank, selling a house, travel,
etc. This enables the students to introduce
themselves, ask for directions and communicate
effectively. It also “comes with different levels from
beginner to advance, which makes this app user-
friendly to everyone. With practice, we will be able
to understand English and begin to enjoy
conversation in the English language”. The students
experience byte size learning via Improve English
by Knudge Me where there are a lot of mini-courses
on English content such as vocabulary builder,
English idioms, phrasal verbs, commonly confused,
and many more and eventually “memorize the
wordlist easily” (PP14). Besides that, this app puts
“interactive games in ten different kinds of users to
challenge their English language skills in a fun way
and provides a section known as A Word A Day to
let the user learn new words every day (PP14).
Students tend to choose “conversation sessions
through videos that provide the right English
grammar and proper English” (PP4) which is in line
with the objectives outlined by the courses to excel
in their vocabulary and grammar skills. One student
concluded that “lecturers should consider these apps
for those who do not have a good foundation of
English by using the apps" (PP11). Apps allow them
to practice English language skills without having
the face-to-face practices.
Relatedness
The apps provided them with interactive learning
opportunities where their “speaking and writing
exercises are corrected by native speakers”. This
helps them “to perfect [their] accent” (PP20),
exchange information with other users, and develop
their critical thinking and problem-solving. Users
expressed their satisfaction when their “speaking
and writing exercises are corrected by native
speakers. From this learning can help to perfect my
accent with English recognition exercises” (PP20).
In addition to this, app users can connect with other
learners to share ideas, opinions, and co-construct
knowledge when they “interact with friends and
family members through its multiplayer games,
quizzes and practice English with other learners
across the globe. It has the advantage of allowing its
users to do their training at home or anywhere
wherever we are free” (PP16)
The content interaction helped the learners to
explore in greater detail. The content interaction in a
way guides students to study independently and take
responsibility for their learning. They seem to regain
a sense of accomplishment in their language
learning. One of the participant's excerpts is as
below.
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206
PP12: With Duolingo, you can set your weekly
goals and complete the different modules. The new
modules will only be activated once you complete
the previous one. New vocabulary is often taught
with grammar and images, and grammar points
are taught in speech bubbles. There are also
listening exercises where you need to type what
you hear and speaking exercises where you say
what you hear.
Students claim that the interactions were so
engaging that they enjoy the session. PP29
expressed that:
a series of question and answer sessions interest me
in the use of English. The systematic manner and
arrangement of sentences and interesting videos
have made us unaware of the passing of time while
viewing it.
Challenges
In answering the third research question, 5 main
challenges were identified by the learners –
limitations of apps, limited visual but costly, pop-up
advertisements, health issues, and lack of human
touch.
Limitations of Apps
Participants are aware that there are many apps
available on English language learning (PP17, PP25,
PP28), but it is the learners who are responsible to
“find an application that is compatible” with them
(PP17) by analyzing, comprehending, and choosing
“wisely rather than dwelling on negativity and
disadvantages of these applications” (PP28). PP17
believes that “there is no one perfect application”
and hence, one has to “keep trying different
applications" and identify the most suitable one.
Once identified, the next consideration is how the
students are going to “make the learning of English
much smoother” (PP25) and eventually, improve
their learning of the language (PP21) with the use
and aid of the language apps.
Limited Visual but Costly
Although the development of technology tools has
opened up unlimited possibilities for students to
engage with learning sources, at times, problems
and issues arise. Students were concerned about the
“phone screens that accommodate a lot less content”
(PP15). They were also dissatisfied when the apps
demanded “a fee of 5-10L per month depending on
the duration of the course depending on whether it is
for 1,3,6, or 12” (PP4) and for “English
certification, live tutors, resume writing services
premium courses and live video chats with teachers.
It is more disappointing when video chat in English
is available “for a one-time fee that can range from
$1 to $140 depending on the user's need” (PP13).
 Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 12(1), May 2022
Pop Up Advertisements
The app is also swamped with too many
advertisements. These “Pop up advertisements
asking users to install other applications” (PP14). It
is more frustrating when “the advertisement takes a
long time to load the content and sometimes users
must restart the application again” (PP7). It is a
“distraction when users want to focus on the
content” (PP2). The pop-up advertisement seems to
be irritating for his “nasty accent.” (PP3).
Health Issues
One student expressed his concern that the apps:
"indirectly impacts our health, especially the eyes. it
is caused by the blue rays of the cell phone. Blue
rays have very short wavelengths, which results in
higher amounts of energy. Studies show that
excessive exposure to blue light over the long term
can cause serious damage to the eyes” (PP7).
Lack of Human Touch
Students emphasized the importance of traditional
classroom teaching and expressed that one should
not neglect the conventional “conventional way of
learning through frequent practice and exercises in
the printed sources or medium such as books,
puzzles, and more in our quest to improve our
English language”(PP28). The face-to-face
interaction in the traditional class is still appreciated,
and they opine that " apps are a great alternative for
English learning, but the need for direct learning
instructions can be found in classroom is more
effective in language learning" (PP28). However,
students felt that “human touch is needed to enhance
English language users’ power through real-life
communication and not by depending on the
application solely.” (PP26). Students preferred “a
formal class to understand much to understand much
better and upgrade our confidence level” (PP30).
PP30 explained that “by browsing an application
online once a day”, it would not be a practice that
improves their English language proficiency.
Human interaction is important to help us learn from
others and share our knowledge together” (PP30)
and communication with a smartphone will "only
help you to have words and practice pronunciation
all in silence” (PP5).
DISCUSSION
The descriptive analysis reveals that undergraduate
students use English language learning apps mostly
to enhance their grammar. This is followed by
speaking, reading, and vocabulary activities. The
possibility for grammar apps to be popular among
students is because acquiring grammar skills is the
key to speaking and writing effectively (Cam &
Tran, 2017; Zhou, 2018). The popularity of using
grammar and listening apps can also be related to
the learning outcomes of the General English paper.
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207
The General English paper intends to enhance non-
English major students of grammatical aspects,
vocabulary, comprehension skills, and speaking
skills. Listening and writing skills are attended
peripherally in the General English paper.
Since students are keen to use apps to learn
grammar independently, educators can further focus
suggest effective apps related to grammar and
further enhance their listening, speaking, reading,
and writing skills during the online and traditional
lectures. Previous research (Klimova, 2018;
Morgana, 2015; Şad et al., 2020) also suggests that
language apps can be exploited to improve listening,
speaking, and reading skills. The findings of this
study are contradicting with the findings of Nami
(2020), who reported that Iranian students prefer
grammar aspects to be taught in a traditional
classroom and their less positive attitudes towards
grammatical apps. Iranian students are said to be
more comfortable with the teacher approach-
teaching. This study demonstrates that students are
able to work independently, and for this reason,
English language apps can be part of the English
lessons and integrated into the learning objectives as
students have the “flexibility and choice over their
own learning” and could manage and direct their
learning (Demouy et al., 2016, p. 11).
The findings also reinforced the idea that
smartphone apps can be used to enhance vocabulary
learning (Hassan Taj et al., 2017; Yaman et al.,
2015). The writing app was not favoured by the
students, and this is probably due to the size of the
smartphone, which is confirmed in the qualitative
data. The findings have important implications for
educators. Writing skills should not only be
emphasized in the class and, writing activities via
apps should not only be minimized, but more
crucially, teachers should be implementing “a
unified instructional approach” combining language
apps and perhaps other conventional teaching
techniques that is “solidly grounded in L2 writing
theory to guide instruction” (Menke & Anderson,
2019, p. 408).
The second research question makes
contributions to both theories as well as practice.
The findings can explain learners’ English language
app use behaviour. Our study has extended the
scope of existing research on SDT. It is evidenced
that the English language apps have supported the
three physiological needs mainly autonomy,
relatedness, and competence as illustrated by SDT.
Whilst it is debatable whether English language
apps can be considered as an independent solution
to English language learning, these apps can support
learner autonomy and users' interest in acquiring a
language. The interviews have demonstrated that
students have cultivated independent learning and
ubiquitous learning (autonomy). The popularity of
students engaged in vocabulary, grammar, listening,
speaking, reading, and writing skills apps can be
 Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 12(1), May 2022
related to these elements. Students’ exposure to
independent learning and ubiquitous learning should
further be manipulated by instructors with
innovative pedagogical practices. According to
Keengwe and Hussein (2014), effective pedagogical
practices will improve students’ autonomous
learning and motivation. In terms of relatedness, the
findings show that interactive activities gave
learners the opportunity for learners to practice and
improve their communication skills, which resulted
in a positive impact on their motivation to improve
their English language learning. Deci and Ryan
(2002) reported that learners are intrinsically
motivated when they interact with others. In terms
of competence, students felt more competent with
the activities offered by the apps that motivated
them to embrace self-directed learning. They tend to
be more competent and take ownership of their
learning and learn during class and in between
classes. The activities help them to understand and
prepare for their English language skills. The
positive findings added to those by Sharples et al.
(2007) that there are some aspects of mobile phones
that are worth considering in higher education
learning environments. The language apps have
allowed students to personalize their learning,
experience, flexibility, and convenience 21st-
century learning skills.
According to Şad et al., (2020), smartphone
use emphasized the advantages of using
smartphones in education and neglected the adverse
effects. Therefore, this study not only offers
information related to motivation but also provides
information to app providers and marketers. The
challenges reported in this study are related to cost,
restricted space, pop-up advertisements, lack of
human touch and health issues. These challenges
and limitations found by the users should be a guide
for marketing strategies. If smartphones need to be
used in language learning, app designers need to
work hand in hand with the curriculum developers
for students to embrace language learning apps.
Educators should also consider language apps as
part of learning and completing assignments.
Integration of effective instructions and pedagogical
practices will reduce the challenges faced by
students. Educators and institutions must address
technology barriers, such as access to devices and
Wi-Fi connectivity. Also, educators can advise
students on the effective use of language app which
is freely available. Shadiev et al. (2020) have
recommended that educators can give a collection of
language learning apps that is suitable for their
courses for them to benefit in language learning.
Participants were also concerned about the size of
smartphones for learning activities. Such
dissatisfaction has been voiced out by Şad et al.
(2020) that the size of smartphones has hindered the
learners from using smartphones for education.
Iqbal and Bhatti (2020) have suggested that web
Copyright © 2022, authors, e-ISSN: 2502-6747, p-ISSN: 2301-9468
208
content developers should ensure that the content is
appropriate with the size of the smartphone screen.
CONCLUSION
The findings of the study were not only limited to
the psychological needs of motivation but also the
challenges related to the use of smartphone apps.
Although the study has suggested that competence,
autonomy, and relatedness are evident in the use of
English language apps, students might not
experience such benefits if learning activities are not
carefully planned. Therefore, based on the findings
of the research, we were able to derive a model that
is an amalgamation of pedagogical approaches (see
Figure 1) that would be able to address the above
issue. Teachers and educators may want to consider
this model when integrating smartphones into
teaching and learning the English language. The
emphasis is on the four approaches of learning i.e.
interactive learning, ubiquitous learning, bite-sized
learning, and independent learning, where teachers
and educators need to be well-versed with the four
learning approaches as using them would maximize
learners’ effective and meaningful learning
experiences using smartphones. The critical
elements of these four approaches would inform and
guide teachers in utilizing the features of the
smartphone and relevant apps maximally and
effectively in the planning and implementation of
language learning activities, tasks, and assessments.
Simultaneously, the teachers and educators need to
consider the limitations and drawbacks mentioned
by the respondents in this study. Finding a balance
between the four approaches and the limitations is
crucial so that more impactful learning could be
attained.
Figure 1
Pedagogical Considerations of Using Smartphones
for English Language Learning in Distance
Education
The above-suggested model may assist
teachers in effective utilization of smartphones for a
proactive and meaningful language learning as well
as planning and implementing effectual language
learning experience in the context of education that
 Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 12(1), May 2022
is copiously supported and guided by independent,
personalized and interactive learning. Future
research pertaining to the use of smartphones for
language learning should and could be developed
using this model and examined its relevancy,
appropriateness and effectiveness using both
quantitative and qualitative studies. Findings from
such studies would help strengthen this model or
further improve the model and thus, provide
practitioners and researchers with concrete options
in implementing and evaluating students’ learning
of the English language (or other languages) using
smartphones.
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