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Biochar Activities in South Africa (Full Text)

Research · December 2018

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.22676.76163/1

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 Biochar in South Africa – an Informal Survey.

John Hofmeyr, December 2018.

0. ABSTRACT
The work is an informal summary of South African activities relating to biochar. It
considers aspects of biochar from feedstock through synthesis technologies and
equipment to some of its applications. It also contemplates soil improvement
through augmentation of biochar with adjuvants as well as non-soil applications
such as livestock farming.

It is intended as a work-in-progress and as a discussion document; it is presented

for addition, comment, updating and correction by interested parties. In order to
accommodate such updates, the headings are rather comprehensive, making
allowance for the future, even if no such activity is currently reported in South
Africa. While not exhaustive, an attempt has been made to simplify navigation
within the document by cross-referencing, highlighted in grey.

Best efforts were used to record information which is in the public domain or which
has been reported personally without restriction. All errors are sole responsibility of
author, who invites corrections and updates.

Author has been involved in the development, operation and evaluation of some of
the equipment configurations. With permission from the owners, these are
described in more detail than others which are less familiar. Comment is also
included on the evaluation and characterisation of biochar with reference to
deficiencies in evaluation techniques which are used in South Africa. Apart from
those two involvements, the information herein is derived from websites or by
communication with involved organisations and persons.

Table of Contents
0. ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................... 1
1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 3
2. BIOCHAR SYNTHESIS .......................................................................................................... 4
2.1. Made-on-purpose biochar technology and equipment .......................................... 4
2.1.1. Pyrolytic technologies .................................................................................................. 4
2.1.2. Hydrothermal liquefaction .......................................................................................... 7
2.2. Biomass boiler ash............................................................................................................ 7
2.3. Biomass gasifier ash ........................................................................................................ 8
2.4. Feedstock ............................................................................................................................ 9
2.5. Biochar Characterisation Techniques ........................................................................ 10
3. BIOCHAR AUGMENTATION / BLENDING...................................................................... 10
3.1. Synthetic Fertilizer Majors ........................................................................................... 11
3.2. Other suppliers of compounds with biochar ........................................................... 11
4. BIOCHAR IN AGRICULTURE............................................................................................. 13
4.1. Sugarcane ......................................................................................................................... 13

All rights reserved. John Hofmeyr, Lanstar. Ph: +27-11-788-7040. E: lanstar@global.co.za

4.2. Vegetables......................................................................................................................... 14
4.2.1. PEDI................................................................................................................................. 14
4.2.2. Izindaba Zokudla ......................................................................................................... 14
4.2.3. Siyakhana ...................................................................................................................... 14
4.3. Turf ...................................................................................................................................... 14
5. BIOCHAR IN PASTURE RESTORATION ......................................................................... 15
6. BIOCHAR IN HORTICULTURE .......................................................................................... 16
7. BIOCHAR IN ARBORICULTURE ....................................................................................... 16
7.1. Tree-planting in Knysna ................................................................................................ 17
7.2. Afribam (Malawi) ............................................................................................................. 17
8. BIOCHAR IN AQUACULTURE ........................................................................................... 17
9. BIOCHAR IN WATER TREATMENT .................................................................................. 17
9.1. Decontamination of Knysna Stormwater ................................................................. 18
9.2. Sluicing of dairy premises ............................................................................................ 18
10. BIOCHAR IN LIVESTOCK FARMING ............................................................................... 18
10.1. Benefits in livestock Feed ............................................................................................. 19
10.2. Benefits in litter and Bedding ...................................................................................... 19
11. BIOCHAR IN REMEDIATION............................................................................................. 19
11.1. Minedumps / Slimes dams ........................................................................................... 19
11.2. Coal opencast mine rehabilitation ............................................................................. 19
12. BIOCHAR IN ANAEROBIC DIGESTION (AD) ............................................................... 19
13. BIOCHAR IN ACADEMIA AND CONSULTANCIES ....................................................... 20
13.1. Combined Congress ....................................................................................................... 21
13.2. University of Stellenbosch - Dr Ailsa Hardie & students: ................................... 21
13.3. Rhodes University, Prof Joanna Dames & Student: ............................................. 22
13.4. University of Venda – Prof. Jude Odhiambo & Students .................................... 22
13.5. Centre of Excellence in Food Security ...................................................................... 22
13.6. ZZ2 aka Bertie van Zyl.................................................................................................. 22
13.7. The Green House ............................................................................................................ 23
13.8. Colloquium ........................................................................................................................ 23
14. BIOCHAR AND CLIMATE CHANGE.................................................................................. 23
14.1. Carbon Tax........................................................................................................................ 23
14.2. Mitigation and offsets .................................................................................................... 24
14.3. Quantification of emissions .......................................................................................... 24
14.4. Government Departments............................................................................................ 25
14.4.1. Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA) ...................................................... 25
14.4.2. Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (DAFF) ............................ 25
14.4.3. Department of Science and Technology (DST) .................................................. 25
1. INTRODUCTION
This is a semi-formal commentary about biochar activities in South Africa. Author
uses the term "speculates" frequently. This is intentional, as a device to invite
confirmations, corrections, denials and elaborations.

There's an Afrikaans adage in South Africa's farming community: "Boer jy aleen,

boer jy agteruit." (If you farm alone, you're farming backwards.) However, that
phrase does not hold true for biochar in South Africa; information about who is
doing what in the biochar arena has not been shared widely. Maybe the secretive
nature of the biochar industry is the reason why uptake of these technologies has
been rather slow. Several organisations assert that they make or buy biochar and
augment it with other soil adjuvants. Few organisations[1], indicate selling prices on
their websites. Only two organisations[2] acknowledge that biochar is purchased and
identify their supplier/s. Another[3] identifies the price for small quantities.

It is hoped that this document will open up communication channels and cross-
fertilisation of ideas.

A possible contributor to South Africa's biochar activities having lagged behind

other regions is the confusion about the three possible meanings of the term
"organic":

 Chemical meaning (covalently-bonded carbon compounds excluding

carbonates, oxides etc)
 Agricultural meaning (using no synthetic pesticides or fertilizers)
 Genesis meaning (derived from once-living matter)

Non-chemists are forgiven for regarding biochar as 'organic' (per the last bullet-
point above) because it's derived from once-living matter, notwithstanding its
overarching quasi-graphitic character, making it mostly elemental, inorganic
carbon.

A further complication lies in the nomenclature used in South Africa: What is

internationally quite well-known as 'biochar' is also referred to in South Africa
variously as 'biocarbon', 'biocoal' (as one word or two or hyphenated) or 'active
carbon', even in the agricultural arena[4]. The last term is easily confused with (a)
activated carbon and (b) bio-available soil carbon both of which biochar is not. This
adds enormously to the complexity when conducting an internet search, it is easy
to miss a reference.

South Africa's uptake of biochar technologies and the amount of research has been
paltry by comparison with the East, Europe and the Americas. Many persons and
organisations have dabbled in biochar synthesis technologies and applications but
few commercial ventures have developed. It is hoped that this document will open

1
Organics Matter, maybe others. Previously, C FERT also declared pricing but as at 20180902 their website was
down.
2
Biogrow and Organics Matter, qq.v.
3
Jamie's Garden Shop. See Section 5e).
4
For example, see http://www.mdseedlings.co.za/index.cfm?Aid=1885892565 .
up the communication channels, albeit because author may have included out-of-
date or incorrect information which requires correction.

Obstacles to the uptake of biochar include the paucity of rigorous research which
proves the techno-commercial benefits which biochar can achieve. Author has
repeatedly applied for grant funding to achieve such rigorous[5] proof without
success.

2. BIOCHAR SYNTHESIS
This section deals with suppliers of equipment and/or technology for the
manufacture of biochar.

2.1. Made-on-purpose biochar technology and equipment

This section deals exclusively with organisations which only provide equipment or
use own technology to manufacture biochar for captive use or for sale.

2.1.1. Pyrolytic technologies

a) Enviro Carboniser:
The first "Enviro Carboniser" was built in the late 1900s or early 2000s under the
company name "Enviro Charcoal"[6],[7]. Its principle of operation is "continuous
batching", similar to the OET Calusco (former Carbolisi) process[8] but the capacity
is smaller; only about 10 tons per day of wood with maximum 25% moisture.
Standard mild steel 210-litre (55gallon) drums loaded with firewood-size biomass
pass through a tunnel. It produced char with a fixed carbon content reproducibly
above 80% and a conversion efficiency of 43% (both percentages dry basis) but
was rather labour-intensive.
Green Charcoal[9] operates Enviro carbonisers.
In 2006 the IP was sold to a Canadian company, Alterna Energy (aka Alterna
Biocarbon, since defunct). During 2009, US Patent US8226798B2 (based on a
variation of the Enviro Carboniser) was granted and assigned to Alterna Energy Inc.
Author understands that the patent has lapsed and the technology is presumed to
be in the public domain.

b) Vuthisa Transportable 3-Drum Retort

Vuthisa Technologies offers a range of 'green' equipment including two
developments for making biochar:

 Vuthisa 3-drum retort[10]. See https://vuthisa.com/biochar/kilns/

This mid-scale transportable unit is designed to avoid transporting biomass to the
pyrolysis equipment. Several retorts can be operated at the same site with a

5
The proposed test regime was endorsed by Dr Diana Marais, then President of the South African Society of Crop
Production.
6
See https://www.linkedin.com/company/hva-technologies
7
Author was a director of Enviro Charcoal from about 2004 until 2011.
8
See the description, schematic and photo of the OET Calusco process described by Morten Grønli (slide 39/41) at
http://www.bioforsk.no/ikbViewer/Content/71499/Biokarbonseminar%20%C5s%2011-03-2010%20Morten%20Gr%F8nli.pdf .
9
See http://www.greencharcoal.co.za/
10
Author declares involvement in the genesis of this technology.
moderate increase in labour requirement A comfortable rate of production from one
retort is one "burn" per day producing about 40kg of reproducible good quality
biochar. The term "reproducible" is used because it is a 'light-it-and-leave-it"
technique. (No human intervention is needed after lighting and sealing. Specifically,
no quenching is required, so variable degree-of-carbonisation is avoided. When
processing the invasive alien plant Black Wattle (Acacia mearnsii) at 25% moisture
(6-months-dry), the fixed carbon content of the biochar is reproducibly about 84%
(dry basis) using the procedure described in "An approach to evaluating Biochar"
on Researchgate at https://bit.ly/1TcsWAc[11] .

 Faecal sludge dryer integrated with pyrolysis.

This was under development as at end June 2018. Faecal sludge / sewage sludge
dryer and carboniser, suitable for small-scale operations. The separate dryer is
heated by rocket stoves to reduce the moisture content prior to pyrolysis. The
experimental burns can be seen at https://youtu.be/xsJb8kAyJxs .
The cylindrical kilns shown in the video are first-generation. Improvements have
been made towards integrating the two steps, using the heat from pyrolysis for
drying.

As at end October 2018, a cooperative venture involving (a) Vuthisa / SA Biochar,

(b) Biochar Kilns International[12] and (c) Amanz' abantu[13] / Impilo Yabantu[14] is
experimenting with a battery of six kilns linked for thermal efficiency. A schematic
of the configuration can be seen at https://bit.ly/2AD7iDx. The concept is designed
for drying and pyrolysing sewage sludge on small and mid-scale (such as from VIP-
type latrines at rural schools) but could be used for any lignocellulosic biomass as
well. Author has warned to beware of woodgas becoming exposed to air and
sources of ignition simultaneously.

c) Adam and Partner

No Adam Retorts in South Africa are known to author. Unfortunately using a Google
search string "Adam Retort" within South Africa generates multiple 'hits' being
Asian trading organisations offering crushing equipment. Maybe the dormant or
archaic domains within "....co.za" have been hacked?

d) "Flame Curtain" Technology

Gert van Deventer[15] supplies Kontiki kilns under licence.

e) Carbon Processing & Technologies

From the early 2000s, CPTech originally operated an 'O.E.T. Calusco / Carbolisi'
plant[16] which was integrated with carbon activation equipment. The plant was

11
The procedure is based on ASTM D1762 (proximate analysis) but with different temperatures. The reasoning for
using non-standard temperatures is included in the Researchgate reference.
12
See videos at https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC9348gZ5KUyaxV34e6RmP_Q
13
Amanz’ abantu Services (Pty) Ltd is a private company whose shareholders include both Eastern Cape and
nationally based companies, representing the full range of skills and experiences required for implementing rural
water supply and sanitation projects.
14
Impilo Yabantu Services is a newly established company that is a subsidiary of Amanz’ abantu Services. It was
established to focus on Operation & Maintenance problems in the Water & Sanitation sector using Social
Franchising as a model to implement these services.
15
Gert van Deventer <gertvdev@googlemail.com>
demolished in 2015-2016[17]. A photo on the web page of the holding company[18]
shows the original Carbolisi plant and states that tailor-made charcoal is offered.
According to photos on another website[19] a rotary kiln is involved but that may be
the carbon activation process. The plant may not be in operation. The company did
not respond to request for information.

f) Eland Holdings
Author's personal communications with this company reflect that three large
pyrolysis plants are to be established in KwaZulu-Natal. No further detail was
forthcoming.

g) Senfore:
Senfore provides biochar (maybe augmented?) to BioGrow (q.v.) and to Organics
Matter (q.v.) maybe to others. The company claims no rights to the technologies in
the six videos referred to Section 2.30.a). Previously, "Vaper" gasifiers /
carbonisers were used but improvements are being made using a new
configuration.

h) EcoPlanet Bamboo / Core Carbon / Kowie Bamboo Farm

This company[20] is a subsidiary of EcoPlanet Bamboo headquartered in Chicago/
Barrington, IL. The South African company operates a bamboo plantation near
Bathurst in the Eastern Cape Province. They also provide bamboo charcoal using a
proprietary pyrolysis process but the primary focus is bamboo fibre and feedstock
for biorefinery processes.

i) New Carbon/ NewCarbon

The website http://www.newcarbon.co.za/ refers to 10 years of experience in
synthesis and applications of biochar. The Vuthisa 3-drum retort described in
Section 2.1.1 b) which had been operated by Eden-to-Addo (Section 2.1.1 j) is now
in custody of this company. They refer to labour-intensity but can use it to make
biochar for comparison with the product from their new prototype under
construction and for evaluation in comparison with other biochars[21].

j) Eden to Addo
In 2015, the Eden to Addo Corridor Initiative (https://edentoaddo.co.za/) operated
a Vuthisa 3-drum retort (q.v.). The output from that unit, from another Vuthisa
unit and from the Green Charcoal unit (see Section 2.1.1 a) were evaluated by
Protechnik Laboratories[22] according to modified ASTM procedures so that the

16
See the description, schematic and photo of the OET Calusco process described by Morten Grønli (slide 39/41)
at http://www.bioforsk.no/ikbViewer/Content/71499/Biokarbonseminar%20%C5s%2011-03-2010%20Morten%20Gr%F8nli.pdf.
17
See GoogleEarth images over that time period.
18
http://www.bonatla.com/subsidiaries.html
19
http://www.cptechnologies.co.za/
20
See https://www.ecoplanetbamboo.za.com/
21
For example author's potential cooperation with PEDI, Izindaba Zokudla and Siyakhana as referred to in Section
4.2 . This could be valuable because biochars made in Vuthisa retorts have already been characterised by
Protechnik using (a) BET/CO2 rather than BET/N2 to indicate sorption capacity and (b) proximate analysis using
reduced temperatures for appropriate determination of fixed carbon. The arguments in favour of these variations
to the normal procedures are adduced at https://bit.ly/1TcsWAc .
22
Section 2.5
results are indicative of biochar characteristics rather than activated carbon or
fossil coal. (BET using CO2 rather than N2 and proximate analysis using different
temperatures.) The retort was subsequently taken over by New Carbon. See
Section 2.1.1i).

2.1.2. Hydrothermal liquefaction

In March 2017 the department of Mass and Heat Transfer Technology (MHTT) at
Northwest University launched South Africa’s first continuous hydrothermal
liquefaction plant. Typical of such technology, in addition to 'biochar', it will produce
bio-oils, biochemicals and 'biogas'[23]. (https://bit.ly/2JsWnOz). This is understood
to be the only such plant in South Africa, designed to produce renewable fuels.
MHTT uses the term "biochar" to apply to the solid fraction, notwithstanding the
intended usage as a solid fuel, rather than as soil improver, water purification
medium or component of livestock feed.

Author understands that the biochar has not been evaluated for applications other
than fuel. The unit was used to prepare 'biochar' and bio-oil from sweet sorghum
bagasse for experimental co-firing with fossil coal[24]. The characteristics of the
biochar were not forthcoming.

2.2. Biomass boiler ash

We understand that this is the source of the greatest tonnage of biochar used in
first-world countries but that appears not to be the case in South Africa.

a) Adsorb Technologies[25] and York Timbers[26] cooperate in a CDM-concept

project[27] using fly ash from biomass boilers at sawmill/s.
Maybe other organisations do the same.
b) Blue Crane Green Energy: No operating plants yet. The company is familiar
with biochar's potential. The business model involves power generation via
pyrolysis in place of combustion if the demand for biochar justifies this. It is
anticipated that the power will be traded via the licence of PowerX with
Makana[28] as the first target.
c) In 2014 author evaluated fly-ash and bottom ash from the boilers fired with
sunflower hulls but the carbon content was too low to be interesting at that
time[29].

Comments about the sugar industry are in in Section 4.1 and Footnote 39.

Other similar initiatives are requested to report.

23
The terms 'biochar' and 'biogas' are according to terminology used by MHTT, not the conventional meanings.
24
See http://www.saimm.co.za/FullJournal/SAIMM-201804-Apr.pdf
25
See www.adsorb.co.za
26
See www.york.co.za
27
Go to https://cdm.unfccc.int/ and search "Adsorb Technologies". The search function returns ' York Timbers
Wood Fly Ash Project, Adsorb Technologies, South Africa '
28
See http://www.makana.gov.za/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/Legal-Notice.pdf
29
Fixed carbon values: bottom ash = 41.4% and fly-ash 5.3%.
 d) Biomass CDM projects:
In the 2017 list titled "SOUTH AFRICA'S CLEAN DEVELOPMENT MECHANISM
PROJECTS PORTFOLIO"[30], the word "biomass" appears 44 times. Most of the
projects involved a fuel-switch from fossil coal to biomass. Therefore it is presumed
that biomass combustion was involved, rather than pyrolysis or gasification. Hence
biomass boiler ash would be the result which could be used as a carboniferous soil
amendment if the boilers can be operated in fuel-rich mode. Author did not contact
all of the companies involved because it seems that not all of the projects were
implemented. Comments and advice are invited.

2.3. Biomass gasifier ash

a) "Vaper" biomass gasifiers / carbonisers
Carbon Industries aka Carbon Organics[31] introduced Vaper biomass gasifiers /
carbonisers in about 2013. The original configuration is shown at
https://youtu.be/byR2xV4HXyM.
Six videos showing artisanally-built configurations which are similar in appearance
can be seen at https://bit.ly/2l3UD3Q. The videos were uploaded by Senfore (q.v.
below) but Senfore does not claim rights to the technology. Vaper gasifiers are still
operated by Carbon Industries.
The rights to the technology are moot: The systems were reportedly developed by
a consortium of Central University of Technology, Carbon Industries and HVA
Technologies. A provisional patent was registered in 2013 but was not pursued.

Carbon Organics supplies biochar to Martindale Seedlings, Malati Dairy Farm,

Gravelotte Feed Mills (Piet Warren Farms) and Quality Agri.

b) OneGreen Engineering
The concept was to make biochar in a gasifier integrated with power generation.
The website www.onegreen.co.za is still extant but contact with the company was
not possible.

c) Senfore
This company previously operated Vaper gasifiers to produce biochar and is
developing an improved carboniser[32].

d) System Johansson Biomass Gasifier (SJBG)

An academic description of the components can be found at https://bit.ly/2lIYOCn.

o A-Thermal Retort Technologies:

Prior to 2016, Carbo Consult & Engineering (CCE) owned the IP of the SJBG
(biomass gasifier, gas-cleaning and power generation). A-Thermal's website[33]
refers to CCE. A-Thermal's project to build an improved version stalled with the
gasifier and power generation sections partly complete. Being optimised for gas
production, the expected biochar production rate is only 5kg/hour. Author

30
https://bit.ly/2uRNKas
31
See https://www.facebook.com/carbonorganics/.
32
See https://za.linkedin.com/in/luke-boshier-85136285
33
See http://athermal.co.za/gas-production-technology/ for a description of the technology.
speculates that this can be increased if operated in fuel-rich mode with suboptimal
power output.

o SJBG at Rosherville:
The unit which was at the Eskom Research & Innovation Centre at Rosherville [34]
was moved to Melani village (see below).

o SJBG at Melani
The gasifier at Melani (Eastern Cape; details are at https://bit.ly/2K3AdTh) appears
to be owned by the townsfolk. It has been partly cannibalised and is no longer in
working order but can be revived. Melapi et al. published some characteristics of
the SJBG biochar in 2016[35]. A proximate analysis of the pine feedstock was
reported but no prox of the char was included.

Inputs and outputs when it was operating were reported follows[36]:

 Wood feed-rate: 100 to 110kg.h-1

 Woodgas temp 700°C
 Woodgas pressure: ambient
 Woodgas production: 300Nm3.hr-1
 Nameplate electrical power: 150kWe
 Biochar production rate: not measured

e) Ranger Electrical
This company applied for the right to operate a gasifier and gas engine
combination[37] near Uitenhage in the Eastern Cape. The company did not respond
to a request for further information.

f) Torretech
"Parked" their biomass gasification business in 2014 and are no longer pursuing.
They commented: "Still lots of biomass available in the Stutterheim region."

g) Recor
Provides biomass gasification equipment but did not provide a substantive answer
about the characteristics of the ash. Primary focus is electricity [38].

2.4. Feedstock
Like many countries, South Africa has lignocellulosic waste at some sawmills,
pulpmills and sugar mills[39]. Considering that a carbon tax is to be phased in from
2019, author speculates that these sources will become scarce. Agricultural waste

34
Referred to on slide 3 at https://bit.ly/2K3AdTh .
35
See https://bit.ly/2MCWrwm
36
Author understands these values are maxima.
37
See https://bit.ly/2mqDhPa
38
https://www.recor.co.za/250kw-wood-to-electricity-gasifiers
39
As a rule-of-thumb, sugar mills producing white sugar burn all of their bagasse efficiently for steam-raising and
power generation. If brown sugar is produced, an excess exists but in order to avoid incurring a disposal fee or
registering an incinerator with the Department of Environmental Affairs, the boilers are operated rather
inefficiently. Surrounding communities complain of carbonised bagasse emitted from the stack.
(prunings, stover etc) is available in a range of quanta, widely dispersed, as is
normal.

Another source of waste biomass is the 'Working for Water' programme which
seeks to eradicate invasive alien plants (IAPs). The teams move about
continuously, therefore mobile pyrolysis units are likely to be more appropriate
than static ones.

Small-scale pyrolysis of faecal sludge from ventilated improved pit (VIP) and urine-
diversion (UD) latrines is also being investigated. Vuthisa[40] has modified their
retort equipment to dry the sludge and pyrolyse it on a developmental basis.

2.5. Biochar Characterisation Techniques

South Africa has several independent laboratories which can perform proximate
analyses in accordance with the procedures for fossil coal, although it can be
argued that those procedures can give somewhat skewed results when used to
characterise biochar.[41]

Commercial coal laboratories can perform proximate analyses using the fossil coal
procedure (too-high temperatures) – Bureau Veritas, SGS and many others.

Protechnik[42] has developed the competence to evaluate biochar according to the

procedure described at https://bit.ly/1TcsWAc.

The South African Bureau of Standards can ostensibly conduct tests but seems to
be in a bit of a mess. See https://bit.ly/2NXZmk6.

The Agricultural Research Council has been shown to provide deficient service in
respect of characterising biochar. See Section 14.4.2 .

3. BIOCHAR AUGMENTATION / BLENDING

This section involves the blending of biochar with other adjuvants such as
microbiota, plant nutrients and fertilizers (organic and synthetic) for sale to others.
Agricultural businesses which do their own blending are referred to in Section 4.

• Augmentation of biochar with soil adjuvants

o Vermicast / Frass
o Thermophilic compost
o Microbiota
 Mycorrhizal fungi
o Micro- and macronutrients
 Organic
 Synthetic
o Others?

40
Section 0.b)
41
See Section 3.1 of 'An Approach to Evaluating Biochar' at https://bit.ly/1TcsWAc
42
See http://www.sanas.co.za/af-directory/testing_record.php?testingPage=9&lab_id=55 and
http://www.armscor.co.za/?page_id=3429
 3.1. Synthetic Fertilizer Majors
Author speculates that manufacturers of synthetic fertilizers would typically
discourage the use of biochar because of its potential to reduce demand for their
core products. The results are unsurprising:

a) Omnia:
Currently not using biochar but under investigation.

b) Kynoch
Did not respond to query sent to info@kynoch.co.za .

c) Sasol:
Query bounced at sasolqueries&enquiries@sasol.com. Clarification was requested
at postmaster@sasol.com. No response.

d) Triomf:
Did not respond to query sent to info@triomfsa.co.za .

e) Innofert
Did not respond to query sent to info@innofert.co.za .

f) Bulk Fertilizer
Did not respond to query sent to info@bulkfertilizer.co.za

g) Oro Agri
Does not use biochar in any of its compounds.

3.2. Other suppliers of compounds with biochar

a) Granublaze / Allsize
This company[43] procures biochar from unspecified sources, augments it with NPK
and other nutrients and granulates or pelletises it for domestic use by Wonder
(garden fertilizers; see Section 6) and for agri-industrial use.

b) Tola Organics
The website is still extant but author understands this company has been
subsumed into VitaSoil q.v.

c) VitaSoil (successor to Tola Organics)

This company procures biochar from unspecified sources and augments it with
nutrients and microbiota.

d) Carbon Fertilizer Technologies aka CFT-SA

CFT (Patensie, Eastern Cape, not to be confused with Carbon Fertilisers = C FERT
q.v.) distributes soil improvers country-wide. The pelletised products include
biochar compounded with poultry manure and "CARBOTECH™", a proprietary

43
See listing at http://www.fertasa.co.za/member-directory/directory-list/
"liquid carbon product derived from plant extracts"). The compound including
biochar is procured from GrowMaster (Section 3.2 e) in Port Elizabeth.

Crop results are published at http://www.cft-sa.com/results.html.

e) GrowMaster
The company[44] formulates compounded, pelletised fertilizers for CFT (Section3.2
d) and possibly for others.

f) C FERT aka Carbon Fertilizer

Do not confuse this company "Carbon Fertilizer" with "Carbon Fertilizer
Technologies" (Section 3.2d).

C FERT[45] makes and sells biochar in the form of fines and pellets as well as
biochar compounded with other fertilizers[46]. An MSc thesis[47] "Evaluating different
value adding processing systems for bamboo developments" includes the following
comment as part of the commercial evaluation of bamboo: "CFert (sic) sells biochar
at R 5130.00 Inc. VAT." The work is silent on the subject of logistics cost
consequent upon the very much lower bulk density of bamboo biochar compared to
wood-based.

g) Biogrow
This company[48] supplies a range of crop adjuvants including biochar procured
from Senfore (q.v. in Section 2.3). They supply as granules to Western Cape fruit &
vine growers, recommending inclusion in the planting hole. They tried adding
granules to the fertilizer bucket of mechanical planters. The density difference
between NPK fertilizers and the biochar granules made that unsatisfactory. They
are experimenting with a pelletizer to achieve less of a density differential.

They are also experimenting with addition of biochar to their 'Bioneem' and also to
their 'Biotrissol' when adapted for use in the soil rather than extant
recommendation as a foliar application[49]. They are also considering adding biochar
when brewing their compost teas.

h) Turfnet
This company reports[50] using biochar from Adsorb Technologies (Section 2.2a) ,
blended with vermicast and thermophilic compost.

i) Meppcon
In late 2017 this company asked author about biochar to be augmented with other
soil adjuvants. Progress has been slow.

44
Plot 53, Seaview Road, Greenbushes, Port Elizabeth. Author could find no website.
45
See http://www.carbonfertilizer.co.za/ (Note: Previously the website was extensive including selling prices. As at
20180902 this URL returned "Reserved for ...".)
46
See slides (in Afrikaans) at https://www.slideshare.net/Karen888/c-fert-aanbieding.
47
https://bit.ly/2oygr9F
48
See https://biogrow.co.za/
49
See https://biogrow.co.za/products/biotrissol/
50
Personal communication 20180706.
 j) Regenerative Agricultural Specialisation (RAS)
Interest in biochar is beginning. The company[51] is involved mainly in trials,
development and marketing of biological soil adjuvants. They market beneficial
microbes, chelated nutrients, seaweed extracts, and biological fermentation
products for plant growth regulation. Synergy with biochar is under investigation.

k) Organics Matter
This is a small-scale supplier[52] of biochar and garden products, some augmented
with biochar, procuring their biochar from Senfore and maybe elsewhere. The
website offers direct purchase option.

l) Insect Protein
Offers compost of Black Soldier Fly larvae castings blended with 10% biochar
procured from Carbon Industries. No website found.

m) Talborne Organics
This company[53] does not make or use or formulate with biochar. But they do
distribute products from Biogrow (Section 3.2g) some of which include biochar.

n) eThekwini Municipality / Khanyisa Projects

The concept[54] was to process faecal sludge from urine-diversion toilets using Black
Soldier Fly Larvae and then to pyrolyse the residue to biochar. It was funded by the
Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. The wet processing continues but the pyrolysis
was unsuccessful / abandoned for the time being. Some of the obstacles are
described at https://bit.ly/2KL8bvy and https://bit.ly/2KudhB7 . The pyrolysis
process is unknown but the reference to " ...biochar briquettes .." suggests that
they were thinking of barbecue charcoal rather than biochar as we understand the
term. This project is unrelated to the faecal sludge pyrolysis referred to in Section
2.1.1 b).

4. BIOCHAR IN AGRICULTURE
This section involves the use or potential use of biochar in the production of crops.

4.1. Sugarcane
The 2012 Technical Symposium of the Fertilizer Society of South Africa [55] contains
multiple references to biochar. Studies have been executed[56] but no progress
towards commercialisation seems to have been made.

The South African Sugar Technologists Association website has but 3 references to
biochar. As mentioned in Section 1 there is some confusion about the

51
Author unable to find a website.
52
https://www.organicsmatter.co.za/
53
Personal communications 2018.08.13. www.talborne.co.za
54
See https://bit.ly/2P2eLkC
55
https://bit.ly/2J6lm9G
56
Example: https://bit.ly/2KRVRxt
nomenclature, witness the sentence "Torrefaction is a pyrolysis process by which
the trash[57] is transformed into biochar."[58].

According to communications with the 'Grower Affairs' section of the South African
Cane Growers' Association and the South African Sugarcane Research Institute,
there are no plans to use biochar in the South African sugarcane industry. Author
speculates this may be because most South African cane is grown on rather fertile
soils under significant influence from synthetic fertilizer suppliers.

4.2. Vegetables
This section deals with organisations which have displayed interest to investigate
biochar. To author's knowledge none are using biochar yet, although ZZ2[59]
continues to investigate as described in Section 13.6 and Du Toit Agri[60] asked for
additional information specific to expected effects of biochar on the yield of
vegetables on agri-industrial scale.

4.2.1. PEDI
The Philippi Economic Development Initiative operates a significant food-garden in
the low-income region of the Cape Flats, near Cape Town. It runs an agricultural
academy[61]. There is collaboration with author to seek funding to investigate and
quantify synergy between biochar and other adjuvants and interventions.

4.2.2. Izindaba Zokudla

"Conversations about Food": Based at the University of Johannesburg (UJ), this
organisation encourages urban agriculture in the "townships". There is collaboration
with author to investigate and quantify synergy between biochar and other
adjuvants and interventions.

4.2.3. Siyakhana
Also based at UJ (previously at the University of the Witwatersrand), this
organisation runs a number of food gardens, the 'flagship' enterprise is only 5 miles
from the centre of Johannesburg. Author has engaged with this organisation for
several years; biochar is subject to research[62].

4.3. Turf
Considering South Africa's wonderful climate, the popularity of outdoor sports
suggest that the cultivation of turf should be a good market for biochar but that
application seems to be of limited scope. Author speculates that the risk of
introducing a novel product or technique is seen as being high, bearing in mind the
value generated by the use of the sporting surface.

a) Turfnet

57
"Trash" refers to tops and leaves of the sugarcane plant
58
The publication focusses on energy recovery, not on soil improvement. See https://bit.ly/2m0Hby8.
59
http://zz2.biz/
60
www.dutoitagri.co.za/
61
http://pedi.org.za/pedi-agriculture-academy-taking-shape/
62
See the reference to biochar at http://www.siyakhana.org/what-we-do/research/siyakhana-research/.
This company makes its own turf growth media and prepares golf-courses and the
like. See entry at Section 3.2 h).

b) Nanturf
No response to query sent 20180730. Author speculates that the phrase[63] "The
carbon source nourishes soil and increases available nutrients to soil microbial life,
which mineralizes nutrients to be more plant available" indicates that the carbon
referred to on their website is labile to chemical and/or biological degradation. i.e.
not biochar.

5. BIOCHAR IN PASTURE RESTORATION

The procedure described by Stephen Joseph et. al. involves feeding biochar to
livestock and allowing dung-beetles to distribute and bury the biochar-loaded
faeces[64]. This should be applicable in South Africa. Indeed some South African
species of dung beetles were use in that work. To author's knowledge that has not
gained traction in South Africa notwithstanding the dire need for such an
intervention. Notwithstanding the above, embryonic activities are as follows:

a) Malati Dairies, Gravelotte

The first step in the procedure (biochar included in the feed regime of the cattle)
has resulted in improved feed-usage-efficiency and weight-gain of cattle[65]. The
second step (evaluation of the improvement in the quality of pasture) has not been
undertaken.

b) Gravelotte Feed Mills (Piet Warren Farms)

This organisation includes biochar as a prophylactic in their cattle feed and in the
salt-licks provided for wildlife[66]. This is as a result of groundwater being
contaminated by nutrients and pesticides from commercial agriculture.

c) Trace and Save / Woodlands Dairy:

Trace and Save[67] cooperates with agricultural producers relating to the evaluation
of "green" initiatives. A link on their website refers to " The Underground
Revolution"[68] which in turn refers to biochar. Woodlands Dairy[69] appeared to be
interested to evaluate the procedures described by Stephen Joseph (above) but
eventually declined. The reason seems to be bureaucratic, restricted by the
contractual mandate between Trace and Save and Woodlands. After author
explained that no endorsement of the concept was being sought, but
experimentation, Trace and Save wrote: "Unfortunately, we are not able to test
specific products or specifically examine the positive impact that products have
unless these are products our farmers have chosen to use themselves." Author
requested Woodlands to confirm interest to Trace and Save but without response.

63
http://www.nanturf.com/img/Content_Imaging/Turf_Nutrition/Spec_Sheets/Carbon_Lawn_5_1_5.pdf
64
See https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1002016015300473
65
Biochar was originally introduced in response to acute poisoning of cattle from contaminated feed. It was
subsequently included as a prophylactic. (Personal communications with Carbon Industries 2018.04.30.)
66
Personal communications with Carbon Industries 2018.04.30
67
See www.traceandsave.com/about-us/
68
See http://traceandsave.com/the-underground-revolution/
69
http://www.woodlandsdairy.co.za/
 d) Boschendal
This iconic wine farm also runs a herd of Black Angus cattle[70]. They expressed
interest in the idea of biochar included in the feed regimen but have no additional
time available while they are involved in several new initiatives. Maybe later.

e) Spier Wine Farm

In addition to its vines and wines, this organisation is active in cattle, laying hens,
pigs, broiler chickens and lambs. There was active resistance to the inclusion of
biochar in the feed regimen[71]. But this may change; a recent blog refers to
biochar being made from the removal of Eucalypt trees[72].

6. BIOCHAR IN HORTICULTURE
a) 'Wonder'[73]garden fertilizers:
Some of the products in the "Wonder" range of garden fertilizers contain 8%
biochar. This is indicated by the symbol "+C8" on the packaging. Their product is
formulated by Granublaze / Allsize (q.v. in Section 3.)

b) Martin Dale Seedlings[74]:

Uses and sells biochar from Carbon Industries. While not quantified, the following
benefits were noted when biochar was added to the growing medium:

 Fertilizer costs reduced

 Spraying for pests reduced
 Some growing times were reduced, especially tomatoes (6 weeks reduced to 5)

c) Crop Supplies[75]:
"Will maybe use biochar in future".

d) Hermetia Vermicompost[76]:
Compounds biochar with the frass[77].

e) Jamie's Garden Shop

Retailer of horticultural intermediates including biochar[78].

7. BIOCHAR IN ARBORICULTURE
Author has off-and-on for many years engaged Forestry South Africa and
Sawmilling South Africa to evaluate biochar as a soil amendment without success.

70
See http://www.boschendal.com/blog/article/boschendal-black-angus-cattle#.W1TqzdIzZhE
71
The response included "I am not interested to feed biochar to my cattle; they are herbivores and they graze the
pasture on the farm."
72
https://www.farmerangus.co.za/tag/spier-wine-farm/page/2/
73
http://wondergro.co.za/fertilisers/
74
http://www.mdseedlings.co.za/
75
See https://bit.ly/2zfY2qk. Company occupies the premises previously used by Hortimex/Plantimex in
Honingklip, Gauteng. Personal communications 2018.07.04
76
See https://bit.ly/2u2FlkS
77
Personal communications.
78
See https://www.jamiesgardenshop.co.za/shop/biochar-50l-r325/
That is not to say that none is being used in forestry; maybe beyond author's
knowledge.

7.1. Tree-planting in Knysna

This comment is duplicated in Section 9.1 below because the underlying objective
of the small-scale reforestation is the reduction of contaminants carried by
stormwater into the Knysna Lagoon.

The Southern Cape town of Knysna was ravaged by fires during 2017. In addition
to damaged and destroyed houses, the urban vegetation was badly impaired. This
causes fears of incremental carriage of contaminants into the Knysna Lagoon by
the consequent increased flows of stormwater. A project called Sustainable Urban
Drainage Systems (SUDS) is underway. It includes revegetation which is co-
designed to include tree-clusters which will treat the stormwater. The vegetation is
being re-planted in holes 1x1x1metre which hold builders rubble (partly from
houses which succumbed to the fires) underneath a layer of biochar underneath a
layer of compost. The biochar is made using a Vuthisa 3-drum retort (light-it-and-
leave-it technology for reproducible biochar) described in Section 2.1.1.

Isidima (Cape Town) was the successful bidder for management of the SUDS
project. The scope of work is in the RFQ at https://bit.ly/2sMMYv0. Discussions are
underway to do some plantings without biochar for comparison.

7.2. Afribam (Malawi)

Author was requested to include this company albeit in another sub-Saharan
country 2000km to the north. The company has an extensive bamboo plantation[79]
and makes charcoal using Kontiki kilns. The primary focus on charcoal[80] for
cooking but there is also interest in promoting biochar as a soil amendment. Adam
Retorts (Section 2.1.1 c) are under consideration.

8. BIOCHAR IN AQUACULTURE
This section excludes the removal of contaminants from water used in aquaculture.
See Section 9 for that form of water treatment.

Roof-top aquaculture is a rapidly-expanding practice in Johannesburg and other

metropoles. However, author does not know of any biochar being used in this way.
Comments and advice will be welcomed.

9. BIOCHAR IN WATER TREATMENT

This section deals with biochar in the treatment of municipal stormwater and
wastewater from farming activities such as sluicing of dairy premises.

79
See video at https://bit.ly/2L9UHyE
80
See https://bit.ly/2L4Fhf1
 9.1. Decontamination of Knysna Stormwater
This comment is duplicated in Section7.1 above because the underlying objective of
the small-scale reforestation is the reduction of contaminants carried by
stormwater into the Knysna Lagoon.

The Southern Cape town of Knysna was ravaged by fires during 2017. In addition
to damaged and destroyed houses, the urban vegetation was badly impaired. This
causes fears of incremental carriage of contaminants into the Knysna Lagoon by
the consequent increased stormwater runoff. A project called Sustainable Urban
Drainage Systems (SUDS) is underway. It includes revegetation which is co-
designed to include tree-clusters which will treat the stormwater. The vegetation is
being re-planted in holes 1x1x1metre[81] which hold builders rubble (partly from
houses which succumbed to the fires) underneath a layer of biochar underneath a
layer of compost. The biochar is made using a Vuthisa 3-drum retort (light-it-and-
leave-it for reproducible biochar) described in Section 2.1.1.

Isidima (Cape Town) was the successful bidder for management of the SUDS
project. The scope of work is in the RFQ at https://bit.ly/2sMMYv0. Discussions are
underway to do some plantings without biochar for comparison.

9.2. Sluicing of dairy premises

No instances of the use of biochar in this application in South Africa are known to
author. Contributions are invited.

10. BIOCHAR IN LIVESTOCK FARMING

Carbon Organics (q.v.) report supplying biochar[82] for incorporation in cattle feed
during starting in 2015-2016[83]. Initially the biochar was used to treat dairy cows
which had been poisoned by contaminated feed. This was successful, so the project
was expanded to incorporate biochar in livestock feed as a standard procedure.
This protects livestock from toxic runoff / leaching from intensive commercial
agriculture which is reported to contaminate the water in the Tzaneen/ Gravelotte
region of Limpopo Province. Feed-conversion rates are also improved. A wildlife
breeder is reported to be doing the same to protect his valuable herds of rhino,
buffalo and sable antelope[84]. No other instances of this activity have been found in
South Africa.

In the hopes that such activities will be adopted in South Africa, the reported
benefits are listed as follows:

81
At the suggestion of author, future plantings will involve placing the components in an annulus at and
immediately beyond the drip-line of the trees where feeder roots occur.
82
Biochar was synthesised using Vaper equipment q.v.
83
Results are available from author or from Carbon Organics
84
Author's personal communications.
 10.1. Benefits in livestock Feed
Biochar is reported to serve multiple purposes when included as a component of
livestock feed[85]:

 Adsorbent for pathogens in the gut

 Reduced methane emissions from eructation and flatulence in bovine species
 Distribution of biochar over the pasture in faeces, with or without
dungbeetles.

10.2. Benefits in litter and Bedding

When biochar is included as a component of poultry litter and animal bedding, it
serves to control moisture content and reduce ammoniacal odour. It adsorbs
nutrients from urine and faeces. Afterwards it is later used as a soil amendment
after composting.

11. BIOCHAR IN REMEDIATION

11.1. Minedumps / Slimes dams

Johannesburg's landscape is dotted with extensive waste dumps from 130 years of
mining for gold and uranium. Dust from these has been linked to respiratory
diseases in the surrounding communities. Author speculates that using augmented
biochar as an adjuvant to vegetate these should reduce the consequent suffering of
people living close-by. It is further speculated that phytomining to scavenge the
residual metals may prove self-financing.

Author introduced these ideas to executives of the City of Johannesburg in

September 2017. Extreme interest was shown during the meeting but inaction was
encountered later. The concept will be mentioned in the colloquium described in
Section 13.8.

11.2. Coal opencast mine rehabilitation

Comprehensive legislation requires the rehabilitation of open-cast mining sites but
this requirement is more 'honoured in the breach'.[86] Author believes that the use
of augmented biochar would greatly improve matters. [87]

Contributions to the section are invited from the biochar community.

12. BIOCHAR IN ANAEROBIC DIGESTION (AD)

This section is included because of the perceived benefits of increasing the calorific
value of the biogas while loading nutrients onto the biochar. To author's knowledge

85
See https://bit.ly/2Ge6jJO for cattle farming and https://www.biochar-journal.org/en/ct/10 for poultry.
86
For example see https://bit.ly/2MTTzfu.
87
At https://cer.org.za/news/in-pictures-what-coal-is-doing-to-the-mpumalanga-highveld an extensive set of
photos and a commentary may be found.
no AD operators in South Africa are using this technique yet. Using biochar in
association with a natural zeolite may show additional advantages [88].

It applies to two applications:

a) The upgrading of biogas from AD to higher calorific value[89].

b) The use of the digestate to "charge" biochar with plant nutrients and
microbiota[90].

A number of digesters have also been built at abattoirs, pig farms and juice making
factories and wastewater treatment works (WWTW). Notwithstanding several large-
scale biogas projects, no instances of upgrading the CV of biogas using biochar on
a commercial scale have been found in South Africa.

Drs Samson Masebinu at the University of Johannesburg is working on a doctoral

thesis ‘Anaerobic digestion process stabilisation and in-situ upgrading of biogas
using biochar’[91].

"Johannesburg Water", a department of the City of Johannesburg operates AD

cogeneration plants at its Northern and Driefontein works. During 2017, author
proposed both (a) and (b) above to the City of Johannesburg as components of an
integrated project. The City displayed no interest but the concept is to be revived
with urban farmers mostly from Soweto[92] in the colloquium referred to in Section
13.8.

13. BIOCHAR IN ACADEMIA AND CONSULTANCIES

In academia, a pervasive problem is the paucity of detail about the origin,
production processes and edaphic characteristics of the biochar which was trialled.
Often, biochar's characteristics are poorly reported in the "Materials and Methods"
sections. This is especially true of pore-size distribution which is not extensively
reported as indicated in Table 1 below. A Google Scholar search using sequential
search strings provided the following results which indicate the symptom[93].

No of
Search string
publications
"South Africa" biochar 2730
"South Africa" biochar "surface area" 850
"South Africa" biochar "pore size" 302
"South Africa" biochar "surface area" "pore size" 245

88
See https://bit.ly/2LMEk6s
89
For example, see https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306261915009411
90
It is common cause that plant pathogens are typically associated with anaerobic microbiota. It is de rigeur to
convert the character of the digestate from anaerobic to aerobic before associating it with biochar or application
to (or disposal on) soils. Author's extensive Q&A session may be found at https://bit.ly/1WVVfXd. It includes
quoted commentary from Dr Elaine Ingham, Director of Soil Foodweb Inc.
91
See https://bit.ly/2KcmNsA
92
See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soweto
93
Evaluation was conducted on 2018.06.30. Author acknowledges that this cannot be regarded as a rigorous
analysis but it illustrates the point. It is further acknowledged that this quick evaluation only included the term
"biochar" and not the variants referred to in the previous paragraph.
Table 1 A superficial look at the reporting of biochar pore size in academic
publications

In addition to the brief examples below, a Google search will find publications by
Prof Jude Odhiambo (University of Venda), Prof Kuto (Northwest University) and
others. The Agricultural Research Council has been less than helpful. See Section
14.4 (Government departments.)

13.1. Combined Congress

This congress is held annually with combined inputs from The South African
Societies of Crop Production, Soil Science, Horticulture and Wheat Production. A
text-search of abstracts[94] for the word "biochar" results in multiple 'hits', referring
to poster presentations. It's not clear whether or not any progress has been made
to the widespread uptake of the concept.

13.2. University of Stellenbosch - Dr Ailsa Hardie & students:

Author understands that most (maybe all) of the biochar used by Dr Hardie and her
students (Sika and Zeelie[95], maybe others) was provided by organisations using
ersatz (unauthorised) replicas of the Enviro Carboniser. (See Section 2.1.1 above).
If that is correct (and if the clones behaved similarly to the genuine Enviro
Carbonisers) then the reported "carbonisation temperature" is the temperature of
the circulating pyrolysis gases in the carbonisation zone of the tunnels. Hennie van
Aardt (the original equipment inventor, not the manufacturer of the clones)
speculated[96] that the temperature of the pyrolysing biomass inside the containers
within the carbonisation zone of bona fide Enviro Carbonisers reaches >1000°C[97].
That is a consequence of the carbonisation exotherm and the insulating
characteristics of the char. Author believes that the clones would behave in the
same way as bona fide retorts because the principle of operation is the same.
Therefore it seems that the characterisation of the biochar (as reported in the
subject publications using conventional metrics) may have returned spurious
results.[98]

94
For example, see http://combinedcongress.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Poster-Booklet4.pdf
95
For examples, see (i) Zeelie "Effect of Biochar on Selected Soil Physical Properties of Sandy Soil With Low
Agricultural Suitability " (http://scholar.sun.ac.za/handle/10019.1/20344) and (ii) Sika "Effect of biochar on
chemistry, nutrient uptake and fertilizer mobility in sandy soil" (http://scholar.sun.ac.za/handle/10019.1/20272)
96
Personal communications with inventor.
97
One of the suppliers of biochar to University of Stellenbosch, a brick manufacturer named "Allbrick" (since
closed down), used such clones of the Enviro Carboniser equipment in support of their application for a Clean
Development Mechanism project involving a fuel-switch from fossil coal to charcoal. See
(http://www.energy.gov.za/files/esources/kyoto/2011-10-21-Allbrick%20PDD.pdf.
98
For example: (a) Only part of the adsorbed moisture is driven off at the temperatures used for "drying". In
consequence, the reported volatiles percentage may be too high. (b) Calcium carbonate equivalence of the ash
content (as used in description of the liming potential of the biochar) may be too low because, at the high
temperatures in the carbonisation zone, carbonates were likely converted to oxides.
The National Research Foundation no longer funds this type of research. Author
finds that curious considering that "Only 39% of households with an African as the
head are food secure .."[99]

13.3. Rhodes University, Prof Joanna Dames & Student:

For research into biochar as a carrier for mycorrhizal fungi, author provided biochar
which was prepared as in Section 2.1.1a). It was not further characterised by the
University. An unpublished report[100] from Prof Dames and her student, Thulisa
Mqhedlana, at Mycorrhizal Research Laboratory, ends with the following: "In
conclusion Biochar combined with selected fungal isolates can enhance mycorrhizal
colonisation thus contributing to sustaining natural populations."

13.4. University of Venda – Prof. Jude Odhiambo & Students

A Google Scholar search using the string 'University of Venda biochar' (without
quotation marks) identifies about 20 publications. Author provided biochar for such
research over several years. The deficient characterisation of the biochar on one
occasion is described in Section 14.4.2.

13.5. Centre of Excellence in Food Security

Typing "biochar" into the search function on the landing page generates four 'hits',
all relating to water treatment. Typing "soil" into the function also returns a paucity
of results. The "INNOVATION" page[101]includes one reference to soil degradation
and one to soil health. Consequently, soil improvement does not seem to be part of
the Centre's core mandate.

13.6. ZZ2 aka Bertie van Zyl

This company[102] is a major producer of vegetables and conducts academic
research, notably into the cultivation of tomatoes. A Google Scholar search shows
Dr Bombiti Nzanza's work, especially on biochar-amended soils in conjunction with
mycorrhizae.

Dr Nzanza's doctoral thesis[103] shows biochar made from Eucalyptus globulus

subjected to 450°C for 1 hour in a fixed-bed reactor. The total carbon content is
shown as only 33.8%. The carbon analysis procedure was not easy to find.
Considering the deficiency described in Section 14.4.2 this value may warrant
reconsideration.

The MSc thesis of Silent Taurayi at Stellenbosch University evaluates the

"natuurboerdery" (nature-farming) at ZZ2 using biochar made in an archaic earth-

99
"Food security in South Africa: human rights and entitlement perspectives": South African Journal on Human
Rights, Volume 33 Number 3, 2017, p. 513 – 518.
100
Author's personal communications with Prof Jo Dames.
101
https://foodsecurity.ac.za/programmes/innovation-and-technology-for-enterprise-development/
102
See http://zz2.biz/
103
See https://repository.up.ac.za/bitstream/handle/2263/27737/Complete.pdf?sequence=8
mound kiln[104]. It is common cause that such a procedure provides char of variable
composition radially and vertically through the mound as a result of the variable
time-temperature regime to which the biomass has been exposed. It seems that no
attempt was made to quantify the nature of the biochar or the application rate in
the soil.

13.7. The Green House

This company prepared the study of biochar as a way to sequester atmospheric CO2
referred to in Section 14.4.1.

13.8. Colloquium
Towards the middle of September 2018, sixty urban farmers will attend author's
colloquium on the subjects of biochar synthesis and characterisation, as well as
synergy when combined with other adjuvants. Biochar will be advocated in
combination thermophilic composting, vermicomposting and bokashi. to speed up
decomposition of feedstocks. Effective do-it-yourself technologies will be described.
The application of biochar in both agriculture and livestock farming will be
considered. Author will conduct the workshop under the joint aegis of the Process,
Energy and Environment Technology Station[105](PEETS) and iZindaba Zokudla.

The latter is characterised as follows:

"Izindaba Zokudla (isiZulu for ‘Conversations about Food’) is a monthly forum
hosted by the University of Johannesburg where urban farmers meet to dialogue on
issues pertaining to farming and the agricultural value chain. [106]

14. BIOCHAR AND CLIMATE CHANGE

South Africa is a signature to the UNFCCC Paris Agreement. A carbon tax is mooted
and there is an embryonic "voluntary" carbon offset market.

This arena is potentially a strong driver for the uptake of biochar but establishment
of the protocols is complicated and expensive. Justifying the expenditure up front is
a 'big ask', particularly because:

 The carbon tax will not kick in immediately; it is structured to provide a 'soft
landing' to taxpayers for a period of time.
 The Draft Bill seems to be silent on the matter of simultaneous or sequential
emission of greenhouse gases and sequestration of atmospheric CO2 during
biochar synthesis and usage.

14.1. Carbon Tax

The Draft Carbon Tax Bill can be viewed at https://bit.ly/2M8Wqkl. It is to be
administered by the Department of Finance through the Customs and Excise Act in

104
Figure 20(b) at https://bit.ly/2JPAKay
105
See https://bit.ly/2xd318e
106
See https://bit.ly/2wwGGSc
much the same way as environmental levies[107]. That works hand-in-hand with the
Greenhouse Gas Emission Reporting Regulations which came into effect on 3 April
2017. The Carbon Tax Bill is expected to be enacted by late 2018 and
implementation of the carbon tax is expected to be in effect from 1 January 2019.
Provision is made for a range of phase-in allowances. Government activities appear
not to be exempt prima facie, but the Commissioner is empowered to prescribe
modifications to the implementation by publication of rules[108].

14.2. Mitigation and offsets

Biochar in the soil reduces atmospheric greenhouse gases by at least four
mechanisms:

a) Perdurable sequestration of atmospheric CO2 in the form of recalcitrant

elemental quasi-graphitic carbon in the soil.
b) Cycled sequestration of atmospheric CO2 in the form of the carbon fraction
of incremental quantities of plant material and macro- and microbiota.
c) Reduced emissions of CH4 and N2O from soil.
d) Reduced emissions of GHGs attributable to the reduced or eliminated
consumption of synthetic fertilizers and fossil fuels for tilling.

However, biochar is in an odd situation where large-scale manufacture will be

subject to the carbon tax because of GHG emissions during synthesis, while the
utilisation of biochar is known to reduce CO2e[109] emitted to atmosphere from
agricultural soils as well as by flatulence and eructation in cattle farming.

The Carbon Tax Bill referred to in Section 14.1 above makes no provision for
trading tax liabilities for mitigation measures. Hence it is important to reduce the
impact of tax liabilities by quantifying the removal of CO2 from Earth's atmosphere
by the application of biochar as well as the reduction in GHG emissions.
Quantification of these is complicated and specific to the physico-chemical
characteristics of the biochar, soils, crops and other variables. To the best of
author's knowledge, no efforts have yet been made to achieve recognition of these
complex mechanisms and to establish offsets, apart from (a) above. Reference to
that is made in the 2015 DEA document mentioned in Section 14.4.1.

14.3. Quantification of emissions

An internet search for organisations offering carbon-footprint services include
Promethium Carbon, Ecometrix, GCX, The Carbon Report and conventional auditing
firms such as Deloitte. There are doubtless many others.

107
Use the search string “environmental levy” to see what the proposed amendments will be to the Customs and
Excise Act.
108
The Draft Response Document from National Treasury and the South African Revenue Service as presented to
the Standing Committee on Finance dated 2018.06.07 contains a list of 59 respondents to the draft bill. The Draft
Response is published on the Parliamentary Monitoring Group’s subscriber website at www.pmg.org.za .
109
Carbon dioxide equivalents.
 14.4. Government Departments

14.4.1. Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA)

The DEA commissioned a report "Assessment of the potential to produce
biochar and its application to South African soils as a mitigation measure"
which was published online in 2015 at https://bit.ly/2qZ6EgD. The assessment was
conducted by The Green House consultancy. A superficial reading of the document
suggests that the only carbon-sequestration benefit claimed is the recalcitrant
fraction of the biochar which remains in the soil. The other mechanisms of
mitigation of- and adaptation to- climate change mentioned in Section 14.1 are not
evaluated.

14.4.2. Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (DAFF)

Although the "Assessment of the potential to produce biochar ..." referred to in
Section 14.4.1 above includes two representatives of DAFF on the "Biochar Steering
Committee", DAFF appears not to be interested in biochar. Entering "biochar",
"biocarbon" or both on the search function of the DAFF website
(http://www.daff.gov.za) registers "No Results Found".

The Agricultural Research Council (ARC; falls under DAFF) rebuffed author's request
to discuss the potential for agricultural extension activities to include the beneficial
edaphic attributes of biochar and augmentation with organic soil improvers.
Further, at least one academic publication was sullied by deficient evaluation of
samples by ARC's laboratory.[110]

14.4.3. Department of Science and Technology (DST)

The search function on the website http://www.dst.gov.za/ using the search string
"biochar" returned zero results. However, that may be a deficiency in the search
engine because https://bit.ly/2zkecyO refers to the use of biochar for water
treatment funded by the National Research Foundation (within DST). No
information was available on the characteristics of biochars indicating suitability for
this application. Regeneration of fully-loaded biochar was not evaluated.

110
The deficiencies are described in detail in an email from ARC to Prof Jude Odhiambo of the University of Venda.
The email was sent: 15 June 2015 14:04 with a copy to Author. It is speculated that ARC's rebuff may be a
consequence of drawing the attention of ARC and the University of Venda to ARC's deficient evaluation of the
biochar.

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