Preface

Membrane structures in architecture have come a long way from prehistoric times to
the present. Nevertheless, Western histories of architecture and treatises on building
construction have often ignored them due to their temporality, circumstantial use, or
alleged lack of representation, even though they have been present throughout history
in all climates and regions around the world.
However, in recent decades, circumstances have changed and have catapulted the
use of structural membranes as structural elements or even building systems for
many applications. Technical advances in materials, products, elements, systems,
design methods, and comfort, together with growing environmental concerns have
increasingly placed structural membranes as a favourable alternative to conventional
construction methods. This book is dedicated to this evolution of structural
membranes, and it includes recent contributions to materials, design, construction,
and new applications, including developments that are not yet well documented.
For readers who wish to go beyond the content of this book, sources for further
information and references are listed at the end of every chapter.
In the first chapter, Professor R. Kronenburg begins with a historical overview of
the development of fabric structures in architecture that illustrates their continuity
throughout history and across geography. He focuses on innovations that produced
the most significant changes, including new materials, multilayering, longevity, and
technology transfer from maritime navigation, framed structures, and cable nets.
The scope of the chapter includes mobile, portable, deployable, temporary, permanent,
air supported, modular, and large-span spaces that are qualified as current practical and
viable methods of building.
Professor José S
anchez S
anchez brings one of the texts he wrote with his partner
Felix Escrig, in which the fundamental equations of structural membranes are set.
They establish a definition and list a typology to introduce point-loaded cables,
cable-stayed and prestressed structures, cable grids, internally tensed structures,
prestressed membranes, and pneumatic structures.
Materials are discussed in the following section, beginning with the presentation by
Rogier Houtman, regarding the most commonly used fabrics and foils in membrane
architecture. He highlights their constitution and specific characteristics that are
required to build double-curved – only in tension – prestressed surfaces, and to distin-
guish them from conventional materials and buildings. Fabrics, fibres (cotton, polya-
mide, polyester, fibreglass, fluoropolymers, and aramids), woven base materials, and
coatings (PVC, PTFE, and silicone) are described. ETFE is given special attention
xxviii Preface

because of the interest it has recently attracted due to its translucency, flexibility, and
very low dead weight, which compares favourably with glass.
B€ogner-Balz, Blum and K€ ohnlein examine the properties of polymeric materials
(thermoplastics, elastomerics, and duromers), yarns (polyester, fibreglass, and polyte-
trafluoroethylene), fabrics, coatings (PVC, PTFE, and silicone), top coats (to add better
properties to the coatings), and films (ETFE, THV, PES, PTFE, Polycarbonate, and
Soft PVC). Mechanical properties, material laws, experiments, and simulations
provide rough approximations to the anisotropic, nonlinear, nonelastic, time-
dependent, creep and relaxation behaviour that plays an important role in design.
Heinzelmann and Teuffel address new concepts in overcoming the disadvantages of
developing single-layered, multifunctional materials that are able to fulfil architectural
functions, structural performance, acoustic control, energy production, artificial and
natural lighting, heat storage, self-cleaning, and sustainability. The authors focus on
three promising proposals: (1) a green, textile roof that provides the basis for environ-
mentally friendly structures with new aesthetic qualities, (2) translucent, and insulating
fabric skins, which pass natural light into buildings, and (3) photosynthesis
membranes, which contribute to energy production.
Barbara Pause also addresses the low thermal insulation capacity of architectural
membranes, and concludes the Materials section by discussing the possibilities of
phase-change materials based on salt hydrates, stabilized by chemicals, and integrated
into a silicone-rubber coating. Physical data and measurements of different membranes
with phase-change materials are provided. Their main advantages are shown: the
control of heat flux, the enhancement of thermal comfort, the reduction of air condi-
tioning demands, energy savings, light efficiency, fire resistance, and longevity.
Finally, possible applications are mentioned for tensile structures, namely, façade
systems, greenhouse coverings, emergency shelters, and swimming pool covers.
Some design aspects are addressed in the third section, beginning with the exposi-
tion by J. Chilton and B. Lau of the visual environment. They emphasize the need for
appropriate luminous conditions, defined not only by the illumination level, but also by
the quality of the interplay between light variations, colour, brightness, and shadow,
including the effects on emotions. Membranes may provide uniform illumination
from the ceiling, depending on their optical properties. The designer may plan light
variation and contrast to enhance visual comfort. Other available resources for this
end are the layout of seams (which reveal the double-curved surface), the transparency
of ETFE or glass skylights, and the use of artificial lighting or solar protection devices.
Several case studies illustrate most of these concepts.
Dr. Harvie deals with thermal behaviour, starting with the expectations of users,
followed by the constraints imposed by the thinness of the membrane that is selected
that only provides limited protection from outside conditions. Thermal comfort
requires stable conditions achieved by thermal mass and insulation, but architectural
membranes lack both, and they behave unconventionally. So, the thermal design
has to be based on other mechanisms, namely the transmission of solar radiation
and heat that is retained by their internal surface. As a result, the principal properties
to consider are transmittance, absorption, and emissivity, rather than thickness, mass,
and thermal conductivity. Computation fluid dynamics (CFD) is recommended for
Preface xxix

modelling the thermal behaviour, provided that the properties and environmental
conditions are known. Two examples (Abu Dhabi Stadium and Millennium Dome)
of modelled behaviour illustrate the results.
Another common challenge of membranes is acoustic comfort. S. Chiu, D. Noble,
and E. Valmont summarize the principles of sound, and deal with the case of ETFE
pillows. ETFE pillows are nearly transparent at low frequencies, but the majority of
the sound is reflected at mid-range and high frequencies. Transparency may
disturb the surroundings, yet at the same time, it allows for the passage of exterior
noises to the inside, thus disturbing the occupants. On the other hand, reflected sounds
enhance acoustic energy in a space, but they cause reverberation and unintelligibility.
Additionally, the drumming noise of rain requires mitigation. In the case of the
National Aquatic Centre in Beijing, three approaches were considered: (1) adding
an exterior surface, (2) adding interior insulation, and (3) increasing the damping
within the roof structure. The conclusions emphasize the need for acoustic concerns
at early design stages.
Professor J. Cremers provides an overview of the environmental issues of mem-
brane materials and structures. He begins by citing environmental objections that
are allocated to plastics due to the energy they require for manufacturing and the pol-
lution they cause when they are disposed of. But the net balance is favourable due to
(1) their low weight, which reduces the primary structure, (2) their strength, which
reduces the secondary structure, (3) their flexibility, which avoids oversizing in order
to obtain rigidity, and (4) their transparency or translucency, which reduces artificial
lighting, service lifetime, and maintenance. To evaluate these and other environmental
impacts, the life cycle assessment (LCA) based on the Environmental Product
Declarations (EPD), together with their benefits for the membrane sector are exposed
without ignoring the constraints arising from the current status of recycling and
uncertainties of available LCA data.
Professor J. Llorens devotes his chapter to the detailing of membrane structures in
architecture. The first part focuses on detailing principles and requirements, including
(1) visual expression (coherence, homogeneity, lightness, simplicity, balance, propor-
tion, smoothness, and style), (2) structure (strength, stability, and flexibility), (3)
geometry (load path, space, scale, and coordination), (4) weather exposure (imperme-
ability, ventilation, natural light, and durability), (5) installation (hinges, auxiliaries,
adjustability, accessibility, and security), (6) sustainability, and (7) cost. In the second
part, the typology is reviewed: seams, edges, ridges and valleys, corners, high and low
points, base plates for masts, cables, and anchors. Finally, the Joints, Connections,
Fittings and Anchors Data Bank is presented. See: http://sites.upc.es/ca1/cat/recerca/
tensilestruc/portada.html.
The fourth section deals with installation, pathology, and maintenance issues.
K. Kaltenbrunner and M. Kiefer begin with a significant statement: “The secret of a
successful course of the project is not really a secret: it is in fact just a good installation
concept and installation process.” They review the main characteristics of the planning
and installation concept, the installation process and execution, scheduling, and
control, as illustrated by three completed projects: (1) the Beaufort Skating Ring,
Luxembourg, (2) the Wiesloch-Walldorf Railway Station, Germany, and (3) the
xxx Preface

King Abdullah Petroleum Studies and Research Centre, Riyadh. They conclude by
highlighting the need for experience and planning, and concluded by reminding that
installation costs make up a substantial share of the total cost.
Professor J. Monjo deals with structural failures and maintenance. In the first part,
he lists the most common pathological processes, together with their corresponding
causes and preventive measures. Five main pathological processes are mentioned:
tearing, ponding, wrinkling, soiling, and corrosion. The list of causes is much longer:
overstretching, cutting, folding/unfolding, fluttering, flatness, deformation, tearing,
slackening, relaxing, design or manufacturing errors, installation defaults, lack of
protection, and faulty maintenance. Avoiding these failures requires preventive meas-
ures to be taken in the design, manufacturing, and installation phases. The basic main-
tenance tasks are exposed in the second part, namely regular re-stretching, anchorage,
inspection, cleaning, membrane replacement, and rust-proofing. The content of this
chapter may not be so appealing as the most innovative topics presented elsewhere,
but it essential material in order to succeed in the application of structural membranes
to architecture.
Recent applications and examples are the subject of the fifth section. C. Monticelli
deals with membranes for envelopes in architecture. They are used in both new con-
struction and refurbishment in order to reduce weight, to ensure high performance
(mechanical, thermal, energy, waterproofing, and durability), to reduce installation
time, to perform substitution and maintenance, and to allow for customization and
different effects. They offer a diversified range of products for new buildings and
refurbishment, solving the entire envelope as a single façade material (the so-called
high couture way), or added as a second skin to the principal façade system (the
prêt-a-porter way). The design of the fixing systems is given special mention, as an
integral part of the whole building (1) from its beginning, (2) later juxtaposed in a
subsequent operation of refurbishment or improvement, and (3) emphasizing the
effect of the frame/covered area ratio on the environmental impact of every solution.
A selection of examples gives an idea of what can be achieved. As a conclusion, final
warnings express the difficulties of designing, detailing, and manufacturing membrane
façade systems, as well as the need to optimise their acoustic behaviour.
A. Zanelli introduces her chapter with a review of the relationship between culture
and development and how they have increased the requirement for lightweight
construction techniques and reversible options in order to refurbish and to preserve
the cultural heritage, including archaeological sites. Structural membranes prove to
be of increasing interest on this front due to their lightness, recoverability, and
capability of protecting the monitoring equipment used to control environmental
factors. Archaeological sites are particularly sensitive, because protecting them is a
compromise between effectiveness and environmental impact. The cases of
Caprosano, Malta, and Bibracte complete the chapter. Regarding the use of mem-
branes for cultural heritage buildings, three main goals are considered: (1) replace-
ment, (2) extension, and (3) highlighting differences between old and new parts.
These points are illustrated with the following examples: the Nîmes Arena, a retract-
able roof in Salzburg; the Bellver Castle in Mallorca; the Thierstein Ruins; the Serpen-
tine Sackler Gallery in London; and the Tuballoon Pneumatic Pavilion in Kongsberg.
Preface xxxi

The following chapters illustrate architectural membrane structures built in Japan,

China, Latin America, North America, and Europe. Particularities of each area, recent
developments, and future trends are discussed. These chapters provide the current
state-of-the-art and evidence the widespread use of structural membranes in architecture
all over the world.
Josep Ignasi de Llorens