Discourses of Charisma: Barack Obama's First 6 Months as the President of the USA

Author(s): Tuomo Takala, Sanja Tanttu, Anna-Maija Lämsä and Aila Virtanen
Source: Journal of Business Ethics , June 2013, Vol. 115, No. 1 (June 2013), pp. 149-166
Published by: Springer

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/23433911

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J Bus Ethics (2013) 115:149-166
DOI 10.1007/s 10551-012-1389-0

Discourses of Charisma: Barack Obama's First 6 Months

as the President of the USA

Tuomo Takala * Sanja Tanttu - Anna-Maija Lämsä

Aila Virtanen

Received: 5 August 2011 / Accepted: 16 June 2012/Published online: 3 July 2012

© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012

Abstract This study aims to investigate discourses of the Introduction

charisma of Barack Obama in articles in a leading Finnish
newspaper during the first 6 months of his presidency. The Personal appeal evidently played a major role in Barack
results show that the media created a very enthusiastic Obama's election as president of the United States. Oba
atmosphere around Obama. His charisma was built up ma's highly visible and successful election campaign cre
mostly around his person, with the emphasis on an ated a picture of him throughout the world as an influential
exceptional personality, life story and behaviour. In addi leader who inspires hope. In everyday language use, he is
tion, the various crises that arose were used to reinforce the described as a charismatic leader about whom people have
picture of Obama as charismatic. The findings undermine strong opinions. Obama, the Democratic presidential can
the idea of a single form of charismatic leadership and didate and a former senator from Illinois, received 52.7 %
provide empirical support for the framework put forward of the votes and was elected 44th president of the United
by Steyrer (Organizational Studies 19(5), 807-828, 1998), States on 4 November 2008. His official inauguration took
that various types of charismatic leadership exist: In this place on 20 January 2009 in Washington, DC. What makes
study paternalistic, heroic, missionary and majestic are his electoral victory historic is the fact that by winning the
identified. The study contributes to Steyrer's framework by election, he became the first black president of the United
showing that certain types of charisma occur in different States of America. Besides with his challenge to white
social contexts. The results also suggest that ethics is male elites, i.e., to those who occupy high and powerful
constructed as a crucial part of charismatic leadership, but leadership positions in many societies and organizations,
the construction of Obama's charisma in contrast to others Obama's election is said to mark a historical and cultural
raises ethical concerns. shift, reducing white male dominance among great-man
leaders (Brown 2011).
Keywords Charisma • Charismatic leadership • Ethics In this article, we are interested in charismatic leadership
Barack Obama • Discourse analysis • Media • Social and specifically the charisma of Barack Obama. The focus
constructionism is on the discursive ways used by the media to describe and
represent Obama's charisma. We draw on the discourse
analytic approach to study the topic. Unlike traditional
T. Takala (E3) • S. Tanttu • A.-M. Lämsä • A. Virtanen
approaches in leadership (e.g., trait, behavioural or situa
School of Business and Economics, University of Jyväskylä,
P.O. Box 35, 40014 Jyväskylä, Finland tional approaches), which tend to fix leadership in the per
e-mail: tuomo.a.takala@jyu.fi son, the situation or person-situation combinations
S. Tanttu (Fairhurst 2011), our approach emphasizes the active role of
e-mail: sanja.tanttu@jyu.fi communication in the creation of social reality (Berger and
A.-M. Lämsä Luckmann 1966). In other words, we see leadership and
e-mail: anna-maija.lamsa@jyu.fi specifically charismatic leadership in this article as a phe
A. Virtanen nomenon which is created through language use and com
e-mail: aila.k.virtanen@jyu.fi munication (Lämsä and Sintonen 2001; Fairhurst 2011).

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 150 T. Takala et al.

One crucial and

reality nowadays
and maintain mea
and acting (Fairc
The media make c
on in the world,
different implica
charisma can be a
of new social nor
discourse may ch
colour and thus
(Brown 2011). T
represent the ch
ential and visible
kind of ideas and
ferent parts of
In this article, w
singin Sanomat,
during the course
dency. This first
the president is g
directions and cr
actions are not y
article is to inve
is constructed in
implications of th
charismatic lead
lowers, they can
and create depen
1992; Sankowsky 1995). has largely been dominated by a single method—namely,
To achieve our aim in this article, we conducted an the quantitative questionnaire (Bryman 201
empirical qualitative study and sought to answer the fol- ies have typically derived from a positivis
lowing four questions: (Kerr 2008). Avolio et al. (2009a, b) say that quantitative
(1) How is charisma reasoned in the texts? (2) What is strategies for investigating leadership ha
the content of charisma in the discourses? (3) What are the in the literature for the past 100 years and
functions of the discourses of charisma? and (4) What kind sents a particularly North American view o
of a social context calls for a particular discourse of cha- ological state of the field. However, as Collins
risma to occur? (2005) suggest, our understanding of leadership is best
Charismatic leadership has been much discussed in prior developed by applying more diver
research (e.g., Burns 1979; Bass 1985; Bryman 1992; by exploring a variety of researc
Howell and Avolio 1992; Conger and Kanungo 1994; This article proceeds as follo
Steyrer 1998; Conger 1999; Shamir and Howell 1999; concept of charisma, particularly
Aaltio-Marjosola and Takala 2000; Conger 2011). A sub- move on to present our theoretic
stantial body of research has emphasized a specific per- parts: Firstly, we describe the
spective, such as the outcomes (e.g., Conger et al. 2000; Steyrer (1998) and Yukl (2002) a
DeGroot et al. 2000; Judge and Piccolo 2004) and ante- research on charismatic leadership
cedents (e.g., Campbell et al. 2008; Hayibor et al. 2011) of view. Next, we describe the d
charismatic leadership. Research has also focused on the used in this study. We then present
characteristics and behaviour of the charismatic leader and the final section, we present
his or her followers, or on situational factors and sub- sions, with a discussion of the
sequent influence (e.g., House et al. 1991; Shamir et al. results for charismatic leadershi
1993, 1998; Shamir and Howell 1999; Conger et al. 2000; research limitations of the study
Conger 2011). implications for future research.

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 Discourses of Charisma 151

Concept of Charisma traits, and specifically as traits of charismatic leadership

(Bryman 1992, pp. 43-48). Two studies highlight
Charisma has been discussed for a long time; Plato talked understanding of charismatic le
about charisma, leadership and society (Takala 1998). The ity-centred viewpoint are prese
concept of charisma has its origin in ancient Greek: more detail as they focus on preside
'Charis' means favour and the suffix 'ma', added to the our focus in this article.
root, forms a concept which means 'gift of favour'. The best A study by House et al. (1991) investigated the effec
known and most widely used definition of the concept was tiveness of American presidents and found that it largely
put forward by Max Weber (Steyrer 1998). According to depends on their personality and charisma. Charisma,
Weber, the concept of charisma 'will be applied to a certain together with the age of the presidency, and the crises and
quality of an individual personality by virtue of which he is needs that have arisen during its course could explain from
considered extraordinary and treated as endowed with 25 to 66 % of presidential performance. The researchers
supernatural, superhuman, or at least specifically excep- also expressed some reservations about their findings, as
tional power or qualities' (Weber 1978, p. 241). their study ignored the influence of social situations, for
Steyrer (1998) says that Weber's definition illustrates example. Indeed, social circumstances and social interac
two important aspects of charisma. Firstly, the leader's tion can sometimes explain charisma better than the lea
exceptional and exemplary qualities are of importance. der's personality alone (House et al. 1991). Fiol et al.
Secondly, those qualities are evaluated by followers, that (1999) investigated the US presidency in the twentieth
is, charisma lies in the eyes of followers. According to century. In this study, Theodore Roosevelt, Franklin D.
Weber (1978), while traditional leaders, e.g., kings, base Roosevelt, John F. Kennedy and Ronald Reagan were
their authority on custom and bureaucratic leaders, e.g., named as charismatic presidents, whereas, for example,
managers in large organizations, get their authority from Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford and Jimmy Carter were found
rules, the authority of charismatic leaders is typically to be non-charismatic. In the study, a process model of
understood to be drawn from their own unique and unusual charismatic leadership was developed for empirical testing,
attributes. Their most important attribute is evidently the Empirical exploration of the model suggests that the
ability to recast the world in a new light, providing fol- presidents who were seen as charismatic leaders employed
lowers with a life-changing vision (e.g., Conger and Kan- a consistent set of communication strategies for effecting
ungo 1987; Kirkpatrick and Locke 1996; Glynn and Dowd social change (Fiol et al. 1999).
2008). Crant and Bateman (2000) investigated the relationship
During the last few decades, research on charismatic between a lead
leadership has increased considerably. One of the first ity, finding a
researchers to discuss charismatic leadership was Robert study, proac
House (House et al. 1991), who claimed that charismatic action to influ
leadership not only derives from the leader's behaviour but instead of jus
also involves specific personality traits and situational covers new op
factors. The importance of the theory proposed by House tures of
et al. can be seen to lie in its multidimensionality: It not proactivity:
only considers the leader's behaviour and personality but ations, a po
also accounts for subordinates and situation-specific fac- other things
tors. The theory has been utilized in later research to study result was re
the effect of charismatic leadership on followers' motiva- proactivity of
tion, among other things (e.g., Shamir et al. 1993; Conger and perform
1999). Besides personal factors, situational factors have also
The most common way to define charisma is as a kind of been see
personality trait which a leader either has or does not have. (Bryman
Thus, charismatic leadership studies are frequently based changes
on trait theory, in particular, great man leadership theory charismatic
(Brown 2011), and any discussion of potential charismatic studied th
leaders tends to bring up the question of personality (e.g., ined political
Conger and Kanungo 1987; House et al. 1991; Brown (e.g., Hous
2011). Such personal attributes as physical appearance, matic leade
energy, trustworthiness, perseverance, use of voice and among fol
rhetorical skills have also been examined as leadership future. Toda

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 152 T. Takala et al.

which is full of
suited to a chari
communicating
followers. Const
totally new vision
of people's myt
p. 245). father, hero and saviour. To these three archetypes initially
Charismatic leadership can also be defined as a socially defined by Neuberger Steyrer a
and culturally bound phenomenon (Aaltio-Maijosola and Unlike Neuberger's three arch
Takala 2000; Ball and Carter 2002). It emerges in social Christianity, the background o
interaction and its occurrence requires different behav- charisma lies in European folk
ioural models and contextual factors in different cultures Let us now look in more detai
(Bryman 1992, p. 56). Ospina and Foldy (2009) investí- Steyrer's (1998) typology of char
gated the role of ethnicity and specifically of race in rela- hero, saviour and king.
tion to leadership. Their literature review examined the According to Steyrer (1998),
ways in which scholars have treated the relationship referred to as a father, represent
between race-ethnicity and leadership. The review illus- as fatherly love, wisdom and ca
trated an enormous range of topics, approaches and of heaven and earth (Steyrer 199
methods related to the issue. The classifying of the litera- Neuberger (1990, see Steyrer
ture is organized around three issues; how race-ethnicity archetype of the father can a
affects the evaluation of leaders, how race-ethnicity affects 'despotic father' and the 'infanti
how leadership is enacted and how leaders grapple with the in a patriarchal society, the fathe
social reality of race-ethnicity (Ospina and Foldy 2009). lord and generator. While the i
Barack Obama's election as the first black president of the the father's superiority, strength
United States has made a cultural and social approach to the infantilizing father represen
charismatic leadership of particular interest. More attention as understanding, forgiveness, p
needs to be paid to studying both race and cultural ethnicity also harder values, such as
in charismatic leadership (see, e.g., Brown 2011). dominance and punishment. The
Explanations for the emergence of charisma have been can be called paternalistic char
sought particularly by studying examples offered by based on both love and power: B
political leaders. Weber (1978) divided charisma in a the leader expects his followers t
political environment into supernatural and natural com- orders, and thus he exercises
ponents. Supernatural components were involved in value (Steyrer 1998; Lämsä and Ha
charisma, faith charisma, providential charisma and nalistic charisma embodies thus su
ephemeral charisma, whereas emotional charisma, ecstatic dependability, demandingnes
feelings and venerational feelings were natural components moralism (Steyrer 1998, p. 818).
of charisma. In fact, Weber's work implies what might be The concept of a hero derive
called the prototypes of political charisma, namely, dem- word kel, which originally m
ocratic and revolutionary charisma. Research on political duty of a shepherd was to defen
charisma also continues—as evidenced by our present even at the risk of his own life
study, for instance (Schweitzer 1974, pp. 179-180). came to refer to a brave fighter w
do. In the Christian faith, Jesus is metaphorically
'Good Shepherd' who will do everything to pr
Steyrer: Archetypes of Charismatic Leadership followers. In folklore, the hero is
has exceptional power and gains admiration and p
Drawing on an idea by Neuberger (1990), Steyrer (1998) overcoming dangers in the accom
built a theoretical typology of the archetypes of charismatic his task. The hero is someone w
leadership. The concept of an archetype that Steyrer used takes great risks to defend his foll
goes back to C.G. Jung and highlights the phenotypes of the hero relates to heroic charisma,
leadership which people assume to be reality in a very of strength and superiority, with
fundamental way. The archetypes in a particular field of as in heroic tales. Even if the h
life, for example, in leadership, exert a remarkable hold on possess such praiseworthy values
the behaviour of individuals, groups, organizations and and self-assurance, the heroic

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Discourses of Charisma 153

dark side. The hero can b

seedy in carrying out
The third archetype of
Christian tradition, the s
idea of God as the Holy G
animator in the Holy Tri
saviour represents vital
(Steyrer 1998, p. 820). H
tends, the archetype of
mythology and ancient
charismatic innovator an
for the better. He is able
so that they will gladly e
leader's or for a commo
the charisma of the sav
and perhaps inexplicabl
sionary charisma is inn
changes. This type of cha
called for and appropriate
to fill in value voids an
Missionary charisma in
terms of mission, vision
strategies to overcome
visionary, transformatio
aspects of this type of
saviour-like missionary
dogmatic and other-wo
Finally, the fourth typ
European folklore desc
become king. To becom
hero's maturing process
the wise old man. Majes
nobility by birth: Anybo
through noble acts and
charisma is linked to he
in a triumphant heroic
charisma level of a king.
described as wise, self-c
reproach, a man who se
growth and nurturing fo
majestic charisma is lin
politeness, tolerance, wis
this type of charisma c
passivity and lack of aw
pp. 821-822; Lämsä an
and goals to
allows them t
Yukl: Four Perspectives
can be promo
Yukl (2002) distinguishes
leadership, each of which
at charismatic traits, le
processes and situationa

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 154 T. Takala et al.

According to Sha
concepts helps to
have wider impac
offer ideologic
identity, show c
their values and
This kind of lead
on followers' sel
with the leader,
shared values. In
improved self-co
ted in the organi
and self-sacrific
Another import
according to this
even if it is diff
goals. People tend
a better tomor
The Freudian ps
one explanation f
himself did not
ership have been
leader-follower
has been widely
question of how
although it can h
ismatic leadershi
man 1992, pp. 3
explains the occu
leadership by fo
regression, tran
Freudian thinkin
from childhood
childhood exper
an individual fro
easily identify w
identification d
situation: It is g
enees. This theo
Hitler's popularit
the First World W
state of fear an
quite favourable t
(Bryman 1992, pp. 38-39; Northouse 2004). of ideal values, attitudes and behaviour, which is deter
We can agree with Bryman (1992) when he states that mined by the group. The leader and followers form a close
the Freudian approach has some possible use in the context knit group, where leadership can be seen, for example, in
of a Weberian viewpoint to understanding charisma, the way in which followers view the leader as an exem
because the Freudian approach attempts to deal with the plary group member with whom they want to identify. The
vexing problem of psychological mechanisms that prompt group members define their own social identity in relation
some individuals to develop a vision and to attract a fol- to the leader's model behaviour. In favourable condit
lower to bring that vision to fruition. The approach may and situations, follower admiration and respect for
have a role to play in our understanding of some of the leader can evoke charisma. Here, charisma is understoo
psychological mechanisms that lie behind the emergence of a product of a social cognitive process, not as a personalit

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 Discourses of Charisma 155

trait that determines t

2005, pp. 53-74). are good at impression management, at presenting what
they do in such a way that it seems to conform t
others regard as good and right. Dramaturgical le
Charismatic Leadership and Ethics has been regarded as an extreme case of impression man
agement, in which the leader's actions are highly system
Charismatic leadership can be very useful in developing atic and calculated (Conger 1999, p. 158). Using
organizations and society because it can cause fundamental impression management techniques, unethical charismatic
change, create meaning in followers' lives, provide an leaders can manipulate others with their excellent corn
inspiring vision and create hope. However, as history munication skills. For example, such impression manage
shows, charisma has both positive and negative sides ment abilities as presenting oneself as a worthy role model,
(Conger 1999; Howell and Avolio 1992; Takala 2009). For making oneself attractive to others, presenting oneself as
every example of a positive charismatic leader such as highly competent and as a powerful person who is willing
Mohandas Gandhi or Martin Luther King, one can find an and able to hurt others or appearing needy to solicit aid
example of a negative charismatic leader, such as Adolf from others, can all be influential (Takala 2009).
Hitler or Jim Jones (Yukl 2002). The question of ethics is, In general, leaders who are skilled in impression man
therefore, an important part of any discussion of charis- agement make themselves easy to identify with. They also
matic leadership. According to Howell and Avolio (1992), seek to appear more attractive and confident than they
charismatic leadership can be divided into ethical and actually are. To be more visionary and inspirational, they
unethical charisma. They say that even if charismatic paint a view of the future that is more fantasy than reality
leaders can be effective leaders, they may not always have (Bass 1985, p. 173). However, as Bass (1985) notes, a
very high ethical standards. certain level of impression management is the norm in
On the basis of an empirical study, Howell and Avolio current societies, and there are many occasions whe
(1992) propose that ethical and unethical charismatic be appropriate for a leader to soften the hard
leaders can be distinguished by five main features. Firstly, situation. So impression management can also be
ethical charismatic leaders use power constructively to and optimistic without being deceitful and
serve their followers, aiming to contribute to their fol- (Bass 1985, p. 174).
lowers' welfare. Unethical charismatic leaders for their part According to Bass and Riggio (2006, p. 5),
use power in dominant ways to serve their own self-interest mational leadership theory, charisma is a crucial e
and to manipulate others for their own purposes. Secondly, leadership. Bass (1985, p. 31) views charis
the visions of charismatic leaders are responsive to the component of transformational leadership, but
interests of their followers, and the visions are developed in charisma alone does not make anyone a transfo
interaction with their followers, while unethical charis- leader. What is required of transformational l
matics derive their visions only from within themselves, to an ability to activate, motivate, develop an
advance their personal goals. followers. Bass (1985) argues that transformational lead
The third feature is that ethical charismatic leaders listen ership has been found to suit a variety of situat
to the ideas and wishes of their followers and facilitate two- cultures and can occur anywhere. However, there
way communication with them. Furthermore, they learn charismatic than transformational leaders, an
from critical feedback and are not afraid of it. Unethical rence of charisma is more strongly dependent on s
charismatic leaders stress one-way communication and are factors. Charismatic leadership also tends to
closed to other people's ideas and suggestions; they look powerful emotions in followers, and to divide opinio
for admiration from others and do not accept disagreement. vehemently. In other words, a charismatic leade
Fourthly, the intellectual development and stimulation of attracts not only admirers and followers but also
followers are important for ethical charismatic leaders and (Yukl 2002, p. 261).
they encourage their followers to look at the world from There continues to be disagreement about t
different angles. Unethical charismatic leaders, on the other ship between the transformational and charism
hand, are insensitive to their followers' needs and aspira- ship theories. Many writers find a fundamental sim
tions to develop. Finally, ethical charismatic leaders tend to between transformational and charismatic leader
follow their own principles and can act against the opinion others consider them to be quite distinct and disa
of the majority if the action is in line with their principles, whether they can co-occur. Research on these t
which are conducive to the good of both the organization and especially a comparison of the two, has been d
and society. Unethical charismatic leaders follow standards because of the vagueness of the related concepts,
that serve their self-interests (Howell and Avolio 1992). why the theories have been easy targets of cr

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 156 T. Takala et al.

Yukl 2002,
tool, to get things done (Potter p.
and Wetherell 1998).
2 For
theories have
example, Obama m
can be described using concepts that refe
ferences. The
to fatherly caring, and thus his charisma can be constructed
as that of a father.
follower relatio
tional leader
Discourses are context bound. In particular,is
Potter and
sibilityWetherellto follo
(1998, p. 33) emphasize this aspect of discourse
whereas a charismatic leader tends to behave so as to while interpreting the functions of discourses. In this study
preserve the followers' image of a superior and competent
we are specifically interested in the different social con
leader (Yukl 2002, p. 261). texts in which particular discourses of Obama's charisma
occur. Language use does not operate in a vacuum, but
rather it maintains and perhaps transforms the social con
Methodology and Data texts from which it emerges, although the links between
language use and social contexts are complex (Phillips and
Discourse and Discourse Analysis Hardy 2002). According to Fairclough and Wodak (1997)
the links are best seen as indirect and mediated rather than
direct.
The research literature contains a range of definitions for
the concept of discourse (Phillips and Hardy 2002). Despite
Research
the variety of approaches, Hardy et al. (2000) contend that Data and Method
research on discourse is associated with the study of texts,
and in this study that means specifically media articles.
TheFor
data for this study were collected from the media, and
the purposes of this article, we define discourse as acomprise
rela texts dealing with Barack Obama that were
published in the leading Finnish newspaper, Heisingin
tively integrated system of meanings which are constructed
in language use (Fairclough 1998; Phillips and Hardy Sanomat,
2002; between 20 January and 20 July 2009. We refer
Jokinen et al. 2002). Consequently, we are interested to
in the
thesource material here as texts and the results of our
discourses that bring the charisma of Barak Obama dis
interpretation as discourses. The texts are derived from
various sections of the newspaper and include different
cursively into being (Parker 1992). We are not analysing,
for example, any deep psychodynamic processes types
lyingof journalistic writing: news stories, columns, edi
torials and different kinds of features. Most of the texts
behind Obama's charisma, but analysing the meaning
systems of Obama's charisma in these texts. The content
wereofwritten by the paper's own journalists or correspon
dents,
the discourses may or may not involve ideas that are part ofbut some of them were written by visiting writers.
This broad selection enabled us to obtain a varied set of
the psychodynamic theory (and/or other adopted theories).
Because meanings in social life are created as well asfrom one newspaper, making it suitable for discourse
data
discovered through discursive practices, we can say analysis.
that
discourses create a space for particular representationsThe
of data were gathered from the electronic archives of
the charisma of Barack Obama (Fairclough 1998; Lämsä
Heisingin Sanomat. The search engine found altogether
and Sintonen 2001). lib results for the search word 'Barack Obama' dated

Discourse analysis is a methodological approach which within the 6-month study period. Of these 776 results,
is qualitative, interpretative and constructionist (Hardy picked out those texts that referred to Obama's image
et al. 2004). According to Hardy et al. (2004), discourse actions as a leader, obtaining the sample of 268 texts fo
analysis differs from other qualitative methodologies this
in study. We used Heisingin Sanomat because it is
land's most widely read daily newspaper and its read
that where other qualitative methodologies try to interpret
broadly represent the population of the country. Ab
social reality as it exists, discourse analysis tries to uncover
the way that reality is produced. Descriptions of the940,000cha Finns read the paper daily, and the combin
risma of Obama are thus not direct observations of him, but
readership of the printed and electronic versions is arou
1.7 million (Heisingin Sanomat Medianetti 2010). Th
are discursive constructions located in time and place.
A focus on language function is a component of disnewspaper's reach is considerable in proportion
the
course analysis (Potter and Wetherell 1998). It refers terms,
to the given that Finland's total population is 5.3 millio
idea that language is used to perform social actions.
The In
paper follows events in the United States quite close
and the content of its articles and news reports is mor
other words, language is used to do things that are socially
situated, for example, to persuade readers of the diverse
impor than in other Finnish newspapers.1
tance of charismatic leadership, to emphasize some aspects
of charismatic leadership or to downplay the occurrence
1 HSofis an abbreviation for Heisingin Sanomat. The date of the tex
others, and so on. We may say that language is used announced
as a at the end of each piece of text or other references.

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 Discourses of Charisma 157

The methodological
being due not only to his efficiency but also to the factappr
that
analysis, his behaviour is ethical.
but we Obama's ethical
used behaviour is a
research typically framed in the texts
method. Thefrom his followers'
me perspec
driven tive. For example, followers' talk about
qualitative conte Obama's favou
able impact on the (Krippen
interpretation US is praised by his followers as
2006). Miles and
evidence of Huberm
an open and unprejudiced way of acting and of
ven his willingness tocontent
qualitative make sacrifices. Obama's followers
a
which is confidence in his vision
what we of the future is constructed as
follow
The important. Texts like these provide
phase first involvea reasoning for Oba
study data,ma'swhich
charisma along lines particularly
meant highlighted in
that was Conger and Kanungo's (1987) attribution
irrelevant theory, which t
for
second claims that charisma
phase, the emerges through follower experiences
reduce
according and identification.
to their In other words, it is the opinion of
conten
was others—followers—that plays a major role in the creation
conceptualization, or
the study of Obama's charisma.
and Followers are presented as attribut
formulati
this, the ing numerous positive and exceptional
research traits and behaviour
findin
with the to Obama, which according to attribution
adopted theorie theory is a con
tions were dition
added for a leader's charisma (Tuomi
(e.g., Conger 1999, p. 157).
Another reasoning for Obama's charisma may be linked
Reasoning of Obama's
to the self-concept Ch
theory (Shamir et al. 1993). This theory
suggests that a leader can appeal to his or her followers'
Obama's charisma is
weaknesses by his or her own behaviour rea
and personality
him as a and thereby influence with
person the emergence of charisma.a Although
po
the our data do not reveal how
willingness to conscious or calculated Oba
cooper
productivity. The
ma's actions may have reaso
been in this respect, the descriptions
constructedof his in
followers' views
the suggest that his behaviour appeals
texts
that draws on the traditional Weberian idea of charisma as to many individuals and groups of people. Obama's cred
a certain quality of an individual personality (Weber 1978) ibility is explained by emphasizing a number of relevant
as well as a certain behaviour of the individual (House ideas, for example, his followers' need to consolidate their
et al. 1991; Howell and Avolio 1992; Shamir et al. 1993; self-image in the midst of an economic crisis.
Conger 1999). Obama's above-mentioned exceptional Crisis is known to be a situational factor that often

personal qualities and behaviour are thus presented as a key causes psychological pressures, and so this more psycho
reason for his charisma. logical model of the self-concept theory is also relevant to
Obama is constructed as a realistic leader whose words any attempt to explain Obama's charisma. Attribution
and deeds are in line. Thus, his charisma is constructed as
theory similarly gives situational factors a particularly
strong role in the emergence of charisma. Consequently,
even if personal traits and behaviour are constructed as key
reasons for Obama's charisma, situational factors are also
mentioned in the texts to strengthen the image of his
charismatic leadership. Crisis is seen as an important sit
uational factor that heightens the demand for charismatic
leadership and enables social contagion among followers
(Conger 1999, p. 161). It must be remembered that the
study data were gathered at a time when the United States
and the rest of the world were in the throes of an economic

Grouping
crisis. This can be a fruitful situation for the occurrence of
personal charisma (House et al. 1991). Weber (1978) even
argued that crisis is a necessary condition for the emer
gence of charisma.
Finally, Obama's communication style is seen as an
important factor contributing to his charismatic leadership.
Fig. 1 The content analysis process in this study (adapted from It is frequently described in the texts as especially attrac
Tuomi and Sarajärvi 2006, pp. 110-115) tive. Indeed, Obama's public appearances are generally

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 158 T. Takala et al.

considered succe
his being sincer
Obama's political
fact that his ap
tive may have b
build up his po
ismatic leader
contagion, as in
draw other fo
visibility appar
charismatic leader. refers to the change from the previous president's way of
operating. In many places, the texts in this discou
Discourses of Obama's Charisma to construct Obama as a very empathetic and understanding
leader. Obama's attitude to U.S.-Cuban relations is actu

Paternalistic Charisma ally depicted as 'softer' (HS. 14.4.2009). Again, the point
of comparison is Obama's predecessor, George W. B
An analysis of the texts shows that Barack Obama's cha- The discourse of paternalistic charism
risma is strongly associated with Steyrer's paternalistic the ability to evaluate one's own act
charisma. Paternalistic charisma is connected to care, love, acknowledge facts even when they ar
the wisdom of a father and to God, but also to punishment requires strong self-esteem and self-con
and order. A leader's paternalistic charisma arises from his 1998p. 819). Obama's interview with the A
protection and care of his followers, from his strength, channel points to just this type of
demandingness, benefaction and forgiveness. In this 28.1.2009). These same factors were dee
respect, the ongoing economic crisis was constructed as an terms of Obama's leadership when his fir
especially significant context for Obama's leadership, Secretary of Health in his administratio
because crisis situations tend to make people yearn for a because of tax issues. The withdrawal
protective leader (Steyrer 1998, p. 818). The following major defeat for Obama (HS. 4.2. 2009
quotation reflects just this kind of fatherly, calming stance: evaluation of his own actions is an
'Obama was interpreted as calming down the Canadian importance is emphasized in the discour
government's fears of increased protectionism' (HS. of Obama to his predecessor in the Whi
22.1.2009). Reassurance here is explicitly personified in Some texts in this discourse refer to
Obama—not in the US or in the US government. which also display a clearly paternalis
The reporting of Obama's visit to Africa can also be protective aspect of this type of charis
interpreted as reflecting a very paternalistic charisma. The evident in news reports about the
president's partly African heritage is presented as being methods. Here too, the underlying ide
crucial in his high popularity among Africans. When Oba- opposition, in the US as elsewhere in
ma's speech to Africans during his visit is described, he is techniques used during the Bush administ
constructed as displaying great authority, and the general 2009, HS. 18.4.2009). Obama is describ
tone of his speech could be regarded as caring and protec- techniques, but also as being able to d
tive. Especially significant from the African standpoint was officers of responsibility and rule out p
said to be the great trust shown in an outsider and their acting in accordance with former regulatio
respectful and attentive attitude to his words. For instance, in In the field of military operations, O
his address to Africans, Obama authorized them to take a a leader of both issues and people, b
more active role in building a better future, and also moti- charisma in this subject area are rather
vated and encouraged them—using themes and patterns of dealing with war construct Obama ev
speech that fit a leader with paternalistic charisma: 'There is his actions are described as suspected of
no reason why Africa shouldn't be self-contained in terms of national security (HS. 14.7. 2009). Repo
food production' (HS. 11.7.2009). His presentation of a arms ban is the only instance where Ob
caring attitude gives rise to feelings of safety and inspires charisma is referred to. 'The President of
dedication: 'A change in policies towards poor countries so his goal of a nuclear weapon-free world on
thatthey are better able to take care of their food security was same time he strongly denounced No
welcomed by the aid organizations' (HS. 11.7. 2009). In a experiment. North Korea broke the rules and
way, Obama is constructed as being able to open the soul of to accept the consequences' (HS. 6.4.

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 Discourses of Charisma 159

However there, too, c

tialism and motivation
which are features of p
hand, for some people,
exemplary action, whi
charisma. Paternalistic
texts where Obama is
without nuclear weapo
on our own but we ca
the nuclear-free era wi
life time. "I am not n
quickly. But we must r
(HS 6.4. 2009). In this
creator of world pea
To sum up, the context
the economic crisis, po
operations, which are
paternalistic charisma b
the power to protect
course thus functions
between Obama and h
them, caring and pro
enforces peace and puni
rules. Thus, he is presen
future. Distancing Oba
cessor functions as a d
ma's charisma. (HS. 24.2.2009). The comparisons also describe both risk
taking and adherence to principles, both o
Heroic Charisma characteristic of heroism (Steyrer 1998, pp. 819-820):
'Obama wants to break away from the exc
In general, heroism requires strong and powerful leader- George W. Bush era. Hi
ship, and people tend to rely on a strong hero. The hero with this' (HS 24.1. 20
himself is confident of his competence and, therefore, will The texts also portra
not subject himself to criticism or evaluation (Steyrer reputation of the US, and
1998). Obama's strength as a heroic leader can be illus- point of comparison. 'In t
trated, for example, by this headline: 'Clinton is again unquestionably returned
peeking out from behind Obama's powerful shadow' (HS. that the Bush years had cor
17.7.2009). The following excerpt also indicates a certain US leadership, which is
power and greatness: 'Obama has made things happen on a (HS 29.4.2009). Even
huge number of fronts, and his actions simply absorb all the only beginning in the pe
oxygen in the media airspace' (HS. 17.7. 2009). practical accomplishments and results were so far quite
According to Steyrer (1998, p. 819), heroic charisma modest, the texts already contain descriptions of praise
emerges when the shepherd fights for his flock and protects worthy and admirable sides of his leadership. Outside the
it from danger. Often there is also a moral dimension in US, Obama was described as being admired at least in
heroism and heroic tales, with the hero pursuing good and Europe, and it was said that many nations would gladly
defending his followers against evil. In the texts of Hel- have welcomed the popular president for a state visit. For
singin Sanomat, this kind of heroic charisma for Obama, instance, a headline in Heisingin Sanomat reads: 'Europe's
based on the idea of his shepherding his flock, is con- leaders are fighting for visits from Obama' (HS. 7.2.2009).
structed when the texts refer specifically to the defence of Another example comes from texts about the G8 summit
the United States. For instance, one of the ideas behind the meeting in Italy in July 2009, which noted the need for
wars in which the US has been engaged has been to oppose stronger leadership and expressed the belief that Obama
terrorism, and this has involved contrasting good and evil, would rise to the occasion: 'In its Wednesday editorial, the
with the US and Western nations representing good and most influential US newspaper The New York Times

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 160 T. Takala et al.

described Italy
gested that US
the way' (HS. 9.7.2009). payers have received their financing back' (HS. 5.2.2009).
Thus, the discourse of heroic charisma functions here to A kind of national heroism is also im
distance Obama from Bush and distinguish between the texts: 'The Democrat president,
values and behaviour of Bush and Obama. Obama is pre- Tuesday, said that these decisions
sented as a leader who stands for the whole nation and is to the intentions of the founding
admired internationally. He is constructed as a cooperative Constitution' (HS. 23.1. 2009). T
and transforming leader, able to overcome the former further strengthened by the su
distinction of the USA from other countries as well as to reforms are directed towards sav
change the former negative image of the United States in Acuities. 'The goal of President B
other parts of the world. In terms of the social context strongly in favour of the [economic sti
which calls for this kind of heroic charisma, in which create 3.5 million new jobs for t
Obama's ability to cooperate is emphasized in contrast to which is suffering from a deep r
Bush's hostile attitude, that is the context of international Some of the reports include referen
politics, such as defence, climate change and international classic hero who stands up for th
cooperation in general. For example, the following state- public good: 'Obama hopes that in
ment concerns climate change and the contrast between to sign a law giving taxpayers' mon
Obama and Bush: 'Barack Obama, the President of the and renovation of schools, among ot
United States, again on Monday gave a new turn to the cut back tens of billions of euros and ra
decisions of his predecessor George W. Bush, when he cuts in the package' (HS. 11.2. 200
showed support to the limitations of California and other A similar type of heroism in d
states on car emissions. Obama announced that "the United constructed in the context of justice
States is ready to lead" the world in action against climate hero of the women's movement
change. He said that the aim is to release Americans from because his first legal amendme
the authority of oil dictators in the Middle East, to increase employee equality, particularly equ
"green workplaces" and to guarantee the future of the The enactment of a law does not as
planet to future generations' (HS. 27.1.2009). (1998) view of heroism, but in this pa
A hero acts for the good of his herd and is prepared to for an important cause can be conside
take daring action and make daring decisions for the cause and risk taking on the leader's part,
he pursues (Steyrer 1998, p. 819). This side of heroism is Thus, the discourse of the heroic
evident in the texts of heroic discourse reporting on Oba- distance Obama from the advantaged
ma's declaration that he will focus on the economic crisis society in favour of the more dis
as well as reform of the health care system at a national people by juxtaposing the two groups.
level. These are described as being huge and important Obama is represented as a moral,
measures for America's future, but tackling them demands geous leader who defends the less ad
bold action because such reforms are opposed by many those who are already privileged
Americans. Charismatic personalities are known to arouse context, then, with issues such
strong emotions in their followers (Conger et al. 2000). justice and the US economy, that
However, heroes are able to take risks; they have cour- heroism emerges,
age—to defend their cause, principles and values (Steyrer
1998) even if they meet with resistance.
In the following text, Obama is clearly presented as Missionary Charisma
being able to stand up against powerful and privileged
people in American society and to defend the population at Missionary charisma often emerges i
large, including the disadvantaged: 'The new president and change. A leader with this ki
Barack Obama, a Democrat, on Wednesday dramatically risma is able to influence large m
attacked the bonus culture of Wall Street by setting a salary secure their support for new ideas
constraint of 500 000 dollars or about 390 000 euros for Obama began his presidential term
managers whose companies are supported in future with economic crisis, and great expect
tax payers' money. Obama and the finance minister, Tim- solve the crisis were attached to him
othy Geithner, also rejected golden handshakes for man- (HS. 20.1.2009). Many of the texts in th
agers resigning from companies. According to Obama and hopeful and expectant of saviou

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 Discourses of Charisma 161

Obama: 'People are fer

speech, especially becau
pressures in the economi
is expected to relieve wit
character in a fairyt
A leader with missiona
of people into willingly
(Steyrer 1998, 820). Oba
early days of his electora
happen and to create an a
data, these ideas are mo
nalistic than with missio
missionary charisma we
Obama's exceptionally h
beginning of his presidency. groups in the US. Barack Obama made history by rising
In the discourse, there are also some suggestions of the from a multicultural middle-class family to
euphoria that Obama caused in the US. This is especially America's leader, which is constructed as having g
seen in texts at the start of the study period, when Obama majestic charisma. A clear sign of his regal charisma
had just begun his term in office and hopes were high after he is said not to have been born a king but to have
his victorious presidential campaign. The mood at Obama's from a simple background, and to have defeated
inauguration was described as follows: 'People screamed mies, in this case white presidential candidates, i
ecstatically, waved American flags, jumped on each others' '...already before the election the Finnish media
backs, and wept when Obama ended his oath with the that the only thing that could prevent Obama from
words: "So help me God'" (HS.21.1.2009; HS 24.1. 2009). was the prejudice of white Americans' (HS. 27.1.2
Even though the event must indeed have been rapturous for To become king is a goal whose realisation entails g
many followers, this type of description may also have sacrifices. The king is usually expected to be an
been used to emphasize its historic nature. Similar frenzy is Obama, however, is not old, but he is described as b
found nowhere in the data in connection with Obama's part of a succession of struggles that have alread
routine work, although his popularity is referred to in later place before him: "'This is the reason Martin Luthe
texts as well. lived and died. His dream has become reality", said Janice
The situation changed in the course of the study period. Washington, 54, from Dalla
If we look at the data as a whole, we see that it is in texts brown and Americans of al
relating to economic issues where Obama is not described praise when they con
as an especially charismatic leader. This is interesting, Tuesday for the history o
because the situational factors prevailing at the time would A leader with this type of
have been particularly favourable to the emergence of and beyond all criticism
saviour-like, missionary charisma. Texts dealing with the usually be in a powerfu
economy are also those that most distinctly display both the gives him additional pow
positive and the negative aspects of Obama's leadership. ciation (Steyrer 1998, pp
Indeed, descriptions of his actions remind one more of a also described as having
survival story than a 'victory through hardship' style heroic father was a Muslim. Thi
tale. According to the texts, Obama remained confident Obama set out to improv
from the start that the economic crisis would be overcome, world with a confidence a
which is an indication of credible leadership: 'Barack majestic charisma: 'Preside
Obama believes that the severe economic crisis provides an with the cliquishness
opportunity to reform the United States in a revolutionary slowing down the achievem
manner' (HS. 10.3.2009). necessary to secure stability' (HS. 21.2.2009).
As a summary of this discourse, the social context in In this discourse around Obama, t
which the missionary charisma occurs is the political and spirituality, and he is sometimes s
economic arena, in America and the world. The discourse of fate: 'The accession of Obama
functions to control change and crisis, and protect against President closes the circle which was d
threats. The content of the discourse is to bring hope to the of the U.S. constitution, by Lincoln
US and the world. for civil rights' (HS. 13.2. 2009). Obama's heroic life story

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 162 T. Takala et al.

reflects majesti
the great expec
responsibilitie
structed by the
indeed for him
country's black
him, even tho
accomplishme
The social cont
for is American culture and race relations, which has than in Finland.
separated whites and blacks, and includes the struggles for Our first research question concerned the explanations
justice, equality and civil rights. His life story, coming for Obama's charisma given in the studied texts. On the
from a simple background to become the President of the whole, Obama's charisma was explained mostly from a
US, strengthens the charisma. He is understood to be a wise personal point of view with the emphasis on his excep
leader who can offer his followers high hopes and expec- tional and attractive personality as well as his efficiency,
tations and even change the history of his people. his morality and his excellent communication skills. In
particular, followers' attitudes were presented as having a
key role in the construction of Obama's charismatic per
Summary and Conclusions sonality and behaviour. In addition to having extraordinary
personal characteristics and to behaving in an exceptional
Summary of the Findings way, the crisis situation provided a platform for explaining
Obama's charisma in the texts. We conclude that present
The aim of the study was to examine how Barack Obama's ing charismatic leadership features and behavio
charisma was constructed discursively in the Finnish press based on followers' needs and evaluations, com
during the first 6 months of his presidency. We used a a crisis situation, is a powerful discursive w
discourse analytical research method to study texts related and reason charismatic leadership, such a
to Obama in Finland's leading newspaper, Heisingin San- also suggests that in the study of charismatic lea
omat. On the whole, the expectations for Obama's presi- integrative approach combining several di
dency were extremely high in the texts. The articles in our points can be fruitful.
study data created a very enthusiastic and optimistic The main findings concerning the discours
atmosphere around Obama. There was excitement, but also marized in Table 1, in which the discou
a sense of caution not to rejoice before anything concrete charisma are presented in types with
had been accomplished. Some texts talked about Ameri- research questions 2-4.
cans who were overjoyed by the mere fact of Obama's Our findings question the idea of a single
election as the first black US president. However, this charismatic leadership and give empirical

Table 1 Discourses of Obama's charisma by the types of charisma

Discourses research Father: paternalistic charisma Hero: heroic charisma Saviour: missionary King: majestic c
questions charisma

What is the content Strong peace

of charisma in the a better wo
discourses? cooperation and hope, capability to capability to make the
defender of the manage changes and dreams to true and change
disadvantaged people crises history
What are the To underline the significance of To distance Obama from To bring new hope to To show through Obama's
functions of the care, protection and peace; to Bush and the USA and the world; to life story that success is
discourses of show the bad results of advantaged and greedy highlight that saving possible to all; to
charisma? unethicality; to distance Obama people and protecting people is convince that justice can
from Bush possible be achieved
What kind of a social Poverty and famine, militar
context calls for a operations, diplomacy cooperation, national crisis human rights
particular discourse economic and health
of charisma to care reforms
occur?

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 Discourses of Charisma 163

Steyrer's (1998) framew

types of charismatic lead
contributes to Steyrer'
ferent social contexts g
The contexts of poverty
and diplomacy were cr
paternalistic charisma.
requiring care, protecti
as the ability to punish
paternalistic charisma
described as being a fath
better world for poor
The contexts of intern
economic and health c
background against wh
Because a hero needs to
able to accomplish his
constructed in this disc
different from his pred
the problems caused b
George W. Bush as wel
people generally in th
Obama from these atti
opposite actor were ke
his heroism. point. Obama's charisma was constructed clearly in the
Obama's missionary charisma was constructed in the heroic discourse as w
context of the worldwide political and economic crisis, nalistic discourse as
which calls for a leader who can give hope to the world. opposite force to, for exa
Hope and change, both elements of visionary leadership, greed in American societ
were described as being important themes in Obama's charisma is often use
electoral campaign and as continuing into his presidency. political leadership, it ra
Especially at the start, his missionary charisma was built ethicality should and
strongly on his earlier personal background. The vision and its extreme form redu
the goals for change defined by Obama called for com- and dialogue betwee
mitment to a better future in the long term. important for people to be able to live constructively
This is also seen in the discourse of majestic charisma, together,
which occurred in the contexts of past injustices and fights
for human rights in the US. In this type of discourse, Discussion on Research Limitations and Further
Obama's life story from a black family to being Number Research
One in the world was used as an important discursive way
to build his majestic charisma. His exceptional life story The limitations of this study must be borne in mind. Our
was described as attracting interest in him as well as study only captures the view of one leading Finnish
inspiring, motivating and convincing people of his excel- newspaper, Heisingin Sanomat, and ignores both other
lence. In this discourse, he was created as the black king societies and other types of data. However, with its large
who can put right the unjust history of the US. sample of articles from the beginning of the period of
Consequently, even if Obama's charisma was con- Obama's presidency it, provides a broad and varied picture
structed in many convincing ways in this study, we con- of the topic in Finland. When considering societal differ
clude that it is particularly his exceptional life story which enees in relation to leadership, any generalization to other
had a key role in creating Obama as a charismatic leader. In societal circumstances should be made with caution,
general, we think that positive personalization, particularly Because interpretations of charisma can differ in different
in a narrative form when it has its roots in practice, can act societies, we suggest that the question of how this subject
as a powerful discursive means of constructing charismatic makes sense in the US and other societies should be studied
leadership in publicity. empirically in the future. Furthermore, the use of other

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 164 T. Takala et al.

types of
the Muslim world. In Turkey,data,
issues of peace and war were
deepen of the
ourgreatest importance, including theunde wars in Iraq and
to investigate Afghanistan, as well as peace and security between Israel t
charisma and Palestine. Obama's goal in
in Turkey was to build a kind
the
should be taken into consideration because charismatic of model partnership, and to this end he carefully avoided
leadership is often understood as a male phenomenon Turkey's own political issues with the Kurds or in Armenia
(Steyrer 1998). For example, Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, (Aliriza
the 2009). As for Europe, Russia turned out to be
president of Liberia who received the Nobel Peace Prizeproblematic for Obama in some ways. In 2008, Obama
for 2011, would be an interesting woman presidentialhinted
case to President Medvedev that the US might not build
for future research. missile defence sites in Europe after all. Obama has also
Because our study was carried out only in Finland, discouraged NATO enlargement to Georgia and Ukraine,
which is a northern European society, it is appropriateandto
he has discontinued the US practice of urging Russia to
democratise
briefly discuss the situation in other parts of the world. In (Valasek 2009). Here, we can see hints of a
heroism
general, if the study had taken place in another continent or that both aims to build cooperation in international
country, there might have been some differences butpolitics
also and distances Obama's actions from those of his
some similarities in the construction of Obama's charisma. predecessor.
For example, in Africa, the expectations for Obama's This short discussion shows that it seems possible that
administration were extremely high (Prendergast anddiscourses of Obama's paternalistic, heroic, missionary and
Norris 2009). As the first president of the United States majestic charisma could be found in other parts of the
with immediate African roots, Obama had the chance to world as well as in Finland. However, the details of the
change relations between the USA and Africa, and to be a discourses might not be the same. In general, we high
peacemaker in or between countries at war such as Sierra lighted four different discourses of Obama's charisma in
Leone, Mozambique, Burundi and southern Sudan. Histhis study, but others could be found as well in different
diplomatic capacity for peace and change in many differenthistorical and socio-cultural environments. That is a topic
political and economic circumstances in Africa was highlyfor future studies.
valued (Prendergast and Norris 2009). He was evidently a
king with majestic charisma for black Africa, as we found
in this study. In Africa, the election of a black US president
had great symbolic value (Erikson 2008).
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