Communication Skills Sem 2 (May 2021) S2 Final Prof.

May 2021
Communication Skills II 2020/2021
2020-2021 ACADEMIC YEAR

COURSE PLAN FOR COMMUNICATION SKILLS II (158)
SEMESTER TWO: MAY – AUGUST 2021 (MON [vle], WEDS & THURS) [L&T])
LECTURE (L) 2 HRS

WEEK MON. – FRI. REMARKS
&TUTORIAL (T)1HR
Lectures Begin for the Semester on Tuesday, May
May UNIT 1:
1 11, 2021
10-14 INTRODUCTION
UNIT 1: Assigning a Topic for Good Paragraph Writing:
2 17-21 INTRODUCTION ‘The ‘galamsey’ fight (Individual Work)
UNIT II: DEVELOPING
3 24-28 WRITING SKILLS II:
PARAGRAPH LEVEL
UNIT II: DEVELOPING
4 31 May-4 June WRITING SKILLS II:
PARAGRAPH LEVEL
UNIT III: DEVELOPING
June Submission of Good Paragraphs
5 WRITING SKILLS III:
7-11 QUIZ I
THE WHOLE ESSAY
UNIT III: DEVELOPING
6 14-18 WRITING SKILLS III: Presentation of Good Paragraphs
THE WHOLE ESSAY
UNIT IV: DEVELOPING
7 21-25 WRITING SKILLS IV:
STYLE
UNIT IV: DEVELOPING
8 28 June-2 July WRITING SKILLS IV:
STYLE
July UNIT V:
9 QUIZ II
5-9 DOCUMENTATION
UNIT V:
10 12-16 DOCUMENTATION
11 19-23 REVISION NB: Assessment of Course Delivery
12 26-30 REVISION CA (40) READY
August EXAMINATIONS
13
2-6 START: AUG. 2, 2021
EXAMINATIONS
14 9-13 CONTINUES
EXAMINATIONS END:
15 16-20 NB: Students Depart: AUG 19, 2021
AUG. 17, 2021
(CE & RN; PG & RP 158) Assoc Prof Mrs P B Mireku-Gyimah, Tech Comm Dep’t, Dean, International Programmes, UMaT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENT PAGE
LECTURE I: INTRODUCTION TO COURSE 1

1.1 Lecture Objectives and Expected Outcomes 1
1.2 Course Aim, Objectives and Expected Outcomes 1
1.3 Course Outline and Instructional Methodology 2
1.4 Assessment 2
1.4.1 Parts of the Student Assessment 2
1.4.2 Assessment of Course and Lecturer 3
1.5 Reference Material 3
LECTURE II: WRITING SKILLS II: PARAGRAPH LEVEL 5

2.1 Lecture Objectives and the Expected Outcomes 5
2.2 The Good Paragraph (After Frank Chaplen) 5
2.2.1 The Controlling Idea 5
2.2.2 The Topic Sentence 7
2.2.3 Support of the Controlling Idea 8
2.2.4 The Topic Sentence and its Placement 9
2.2.5 Development Patterns of Paragraphs 11
2.2.6 The Concluding Sentence 11
2.2.7 Paragraph Development: The Different Ways 17
LECTURE III: DEVELOPING WRITING SKILLS III: THE WHOLE ESSAY 22

3.2 The Essay 22
3.2.1 Demands of Essay Writing 22
3.2.2 Knowing what the Topic is Demanding 24
3.2.3 Important Words in Essay Questions 24
3.3 Forms of Discourse 26
3.3.1 Discourse 26
3.3.2 Discourse Form 1: Narration 26
3.3.3 Discourse Form 2: Description 27
3.3.4 Discourse Form 3: Argumentation 28
3.3.5 Discourse Form 4: Exposition 30
3.4 Ensuring Cohesion in Essays 31
3.4.1 To indicate a list of items 32
3.4.2 To indicate an illustration or example 32
3.4.3 To indicate a cause and effect relationship between one idea and another 32
3.4.4 To indicate an opposing point/idea 32
3.4.5 To indicate a conclusion or summary 32
3.4.6 To indicate comparison 32
3.4.7 To indicate results 32
3.4.8 To indicate emphasis 32
LECTURE IV: DEVELOPING WRITING SKILLS IV: STYLE 34

4.2 Register 34
4.2.1 Word Families:- Computers 36
4.2.2 Foreign Elements in English 47
4.2.3 Idioms 48
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4.3 Spelling 48
4.4 Punctuation 52
4.4.1 The Comma (,) 52
4.4.2 The Semi-colon (;) 55
4.4.3 The Colon (:) 56
4.4.4 Quotation Marks (“ ” or ‘ ’) 57
4.4.5 The Apostrophe (’) 58
4.4.6 The Question Mark (?) 60
4.4.7 Parenthesis ( ) 60
4.4.8 The Full Stop or Period (.) 61
4.4.9 The dash ( – ) 61
4.4.10 The hyphen (-) 61
4.5 Editing 62
4.5.1 Follow the checklist below to edit your essay/work 63
4.5.2 Editing: Trial Exercises 64
LECTURE V: DOCUMENTATION 67
5.2 The Features of an Academic Document (e.g. Thesis, Project Report etc.) 67
5.2.1 Academic Document 67
5.2.2 Form and Structure of Theses, etc. 67
5.2.3 Body of the Work 71
5.2.4 Introductory Chapter 71
5.2.5 Main or Central Chapters 71
5.2.6 Other Central Chapters 71
5.2.7 Conclusions and Recommendations 71
5.2.8 Appendices 72
5.3 How to Prepare the Table of Contents 72
5.3.1 The Table of Contents 72
5.3.2 Preparation of the Table of Contents 72
5.4 References and Bibliography 74
5.4.1 Distinction between References and Bibliography 74
5.4.2 References and Documentation 74
5.4.3 Referencing Systems 75
5.4.4 The Harvard System 75
5.4.5 Citations 76
5.5 Tables and Figures 76
5.5.1 How to title Tables and Figures 77
5.5.2 How to refer to Information on Tables and Figures in the text 77
5.6 Footnotes 78
5.6.1 How to make and use Footnotes 78
5.7 The Curriculum Vitae (CV) 80
5.7.1 The Features of a CV 80
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LECTURE I
INTRODUCTION TO COURSE
(CE, RN; PG, RP 158)
1.1 Lecture Objectives and Expected Outcomes
The objectives of this lecture are to present:
• The course aim, objectives and expected outcomes;

• The course outline and instructional methodology;
• The assessment procedure;
• The recommended reference material.
At the end of the lecture, the student is expected to:
• Appreciate the nature and scope of the course;

• Understand his or her input for better understanding.
1.2 Course Aim, Objectives and Expected Outcomes
Communication Skills (CS) II is a continuation of CSI and the general aim of both CS 1
(157) and CS II (158) is:
• To help the student become an effective communicator.
CS I enabled the student to:
• Grasp some theoretical insights into communication;

• Communicate well as a listener, reader, speaker and writer;
• Develop his/her reading skills;
• Take and make notes effectively;
• Construct good grammatically correct sentences; and
• Avoid ambiguity.
CS II, the present course, seeks to:
• Strengthen the skills acquired and or developed in CS I through writing, presentation and
documentation of the student’s own ideas and other information.
The objectives of this course (CS II) are:
• To assist the student to express himself/herself confidently and succinctly, in both spoken
and written English;
• To enable the student to respond meaningfully to different patterns of communication;
• To make the student appreciate and use existing knowledge to reinforce his or her own;
• To help the student to acknowledge the sources of information correctly;
• To guide the student to appreciate and use editing as an important part of writing.
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Expected Course Outcomes:
At the end of the Course, the student is expected to:
• Appreciate the Communication Skills course as a powerful tool for effective studies;
• Be able to write and present his or her reports, theses, project works, seminar papers,
curriculum vitae and answers to examination questions neatly, concisely and logically (with
a touch of class);
• Be able to spell and punctuate correctly;
• Avoid plagiarism (breach of copyright);
• Be able to communicate effectively in English.
1.3 Course Outline and Instructional Methodology
The course content is as follows:
• Developing writing skills II: Paragraph Level (the controlling idea, the topic sentence, the
supporting sentences, the concluding sentence/statement, ways of developing the paragraph,
transitional devices);
• Developing writing skills (III): The whole essay (forms of discourse, inductive and
deductive reasoning);
• Developing writing skills (IV): Style (register, diction, spelling, punctuation, editing);
• Documentation (referencing and bibliography, use of footnotes, writing of curriculum vitae
(CV) etc.).
The course is presented through lectures, class discussions and individual as well as group-based
learning tasks and presentations. The tutorials which will be used to reinforce these, will count as
part of each lecture. This is to enable each student to apply and demonstrate the skill (s) he or she
has acquired or developed. The student is expected to read the lecture notes and any supplementary
material (s) before attending lectures so that he or she can learn better by actively participating and
meaningfully contributing to class discussions. As a student, you will greatly benefit from the
course and appreciate it by:
• Attending all lectures and tutorials;

• Avoiding lateness;
• Reading materials (notes, handouts, references etc.);
• Completing all assignments on time;
• Participating actively in group work;
• Taking part in all quizzes and examinations.
1.4 Assessment
1.4.1 There are two parts to the student assessment, namely:
• Continuous assessment; and

• Semester examination.
The continuous assessment will carry 40% of the total mark and will involve marks from quizzes,
tests and tutorial work. Assignments will be given at the end of each topic treated so that the
student will be encouraged to test and reinforce his or her understanding of the course. The quizzes
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and tests may or may not be announced. Groups will be assigned some specific problems in
writing to solve. The approach and the solution will be presented to the class for discussion.
Attendance at lectures and tutorials will be checked regularly and marks awarded as part of the
continuous assessment.
The Semester Examination will be taken at the end of the course as indicated on the University
academic calendar. The Communication Skills II (158) exam will consist of a 3-hour paper of
between three and five sections covering the whole course for the semester and will carry 60% of
the total mark. Some 5% of the 60% may be reserved and awarded as follows:
• Good handwriting (1.5 mark);

• Good presentation (1.5 mark);
• Good use of English including correct spelling and punctuation (2 marks).
1.4.2 Assessment of Course Lecturer
At the end of the course, every student is expected to assess the course lecturer’s performance by
answering a questionnaire specially designed for the purpose by the Planning and Quality
Assurance Unit of the University. Your sincere views, etc. on the course lecturer will be needed.
You are therefore encouraged to be objective and candid when the time comes for the evaluation of
the course lecturer.
1.5 Reference Material
1. Algeo, J. and Pyles, T. (2004), The Origins and Development of the English Language,
Fifth Ed., Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, Boston USA, 370 pp.
2. Anderson, P. V. (2007), Technical Communication: A Reader-Centred Approach, Sixth Ed.,
Thomson Wadsworth, Boston USA, 722 pp.
3. Anon. (2011), Format for the Presentation of Theses and Project Reports, UMaT, Tarkwa,
36 pp.
4. Arnold, G. T. (2007), Media Writer’s Handbook. A Guide to Common Writing & Editing
Problems, McGraw-Hill Companies Inc., New York, 4th Ed., 341 pp.
5. Asante, E. K., Koranteng L. and Yemeh, P. N. (1996), Communication Skills, IEDE,
UCEW, Winneba, xxx pp.
6. Beer, D. and McMurrey, D. (2005), A Guide to Writing as an Engineer, 2nd Ed., John Wiley
& Sons Inc, USA, xxx pp.
7. Chaplen, F. (1979), Paragraph Writing, OUP, Oxford, xxx pp.
8. Connelly, M. (2006). Get Writing: Sentences and Paragraphs, Thomson Wadsworth,
Boston USA, 499 pp.
9. Glenn C. and Gray L. (2011), The Writer’s Harbrace Handbook, Wadsworth, Cengage
Learning, USA, 4th Ed., 615 pp.
10. Langan, J. (1996), College Writing Skills, McGraw-Hill, New York, xxx pp.
11. Littell, M. (1985), Basic Skills in English, Blue Level, McDougal, Little & Co, Evanston,
Ilinois, USA, xxx pp.
12. Markee, K. (2007), First Steps In Research. Van Schaik Press: Pretoria. p. 97
13. Mireku-Gyimah P. B. (2014), “Analysis of Errors in the English of Final Year University
Students: A Case Study at the University of Mines and Technology” Journal of ELT
and Applied Linguistics (JELTAL), Vol. 2, Issue 4, pp. 23-46.
14. Opoku-Agyemang, N. J. (1998), A Handbook for Writing Skills, GUP, Accra, 143 pp.
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15. Sekyi-Baidoo, Y. (2003) Learning and Communicating, Akonta Publications, Accra, 2nd
Ed. 544 pp
16. Stanford, A. N. (1977), Using English, HBJ Inc., San Francisco, 545 pp.
17. Stewart, M. M. and Zimmer, K. (1982), College English and Communication, 4th Ed.,
Gregg Division, McGraw Hill Bk. Co, 584 pp.
NB: Internet Sources:
http://www.thomsonedu.com/english/anderson click on desired chapter(s).
http://www.scribd.com/doc/391505/Paragraph-Writing
http://www.kent.ac.uk/careers/cv.htm
www.buowl.boun.edu.tr/students/Paragraph Writing Exercises.htm
http://cbse-notes.blogspot.com/2012/04/english-grammar-editing-exercise.html
CBSE Papers, Questions, Answers, MCQ.. English Grammar – Editing Exercise – 1
http://cbse-notes.blogspot.com/2013/02cbs-class-910-editing-exercise-2.html CBSE Papers,

Questions, Answers, MCQ...CBSE – Class 9/10 – Editing Exercise – 2
https://www.brighthubeducation.com/help-with-writing/34215-methods-of-paragraph-
development/
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LECTURE II
WRITING SKILLS II: PARAGRAPH LEVEL
2.1 Lecture Objectives and the Expected Outcomes
The objectives of this lecture are to:
• Discuss ‘The Good Paragraph’;

• Discuss the topic sentence and its placement; and
• Present different ways of developing the paragraph.
• Master the basic principles of paragraph writing;

• Understand the paragraph and its structure;
• Appreciate the importance of good paragraphing;
• Be able to write paragraphs with clear topic sentences, well-developed controlling ideas and
good concluding sentences;
• Be able to write different types of paragraphs.
2.2 The Good Paragraph (After Frank Chaplen)
A paragraph is a unit of information unified by a controlling idea. (It is a group of related sentences
which form a portion of a longer text, usually small, used to isolate a thought, and it usually
contains several sentences. A new paragraph shows a shift in focus, time, place, or speaker in a
passage of a dialogue). The paragraph is a good one only if the reader completely understands the
unit of information it contains, and if its controlling idea is completely developed.
2.2.1 The Controlling Idea
The controlling idea is the central idea that is developed in a paragraph. Therefore, the controlling
idea is the summary of all the information contained in its the paragraph. Consequently, no
information that cannot be summarised by the controlling idea can be included in a paragraph.
Thus, the controlling idea is a restricting idea element because it limits the information that can be
included in its paragraph.
The Importance of Completely Developing the Controlling Idea
The controlling idea must be completely developed and explained in its paragraph. Having read a
paragraph, the reader is not expected should not have to ask questions that should have been
answered in that paragraph. For example, read the paragraph that follows:
There are three reasons why John is not going to university. In the first place, his father is dead; and
if John went to university, his mother would be left all alone. She has a few friends, but they do not
live very near; and she would probably have to spend most evenings alone. Consequently, although
John wants to go to university very much, he is going to get a job near home instead.
The controlling idea of the above extract is there are three reasons why John is not going to
university. Consequently, the reader expects to read about those three reasons in the remaining part
of the extract. However, only one reason is given: ‘if John went to university, his mother would be
left alone'.
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The reader is left asking where and what the other two reasons are. Therefore the paragraph is a bad
one because the controlling idea is not completely developed. This paragraph could therefore be
said to lack adequacy.
If the controlling idea of a paragraph states that there are three reasons why John is not going to
university, three reasons must be given. For example:
There are three reasons why John is not going to university. In the first place, his family is quite
poor; and since he has four young brothers and a sister still at school, he feels that he should help
his family financially as soon as possible. Secondly, if he went to university, his mother would be
left alone to look after the young children. Finally, he has been offered a good job with excellent
chances of promotion. Consequently, although he wants to go to university very much, John is
going to take the job instead.
Now study the following example paragraph.
I admire my friend Alex because he is so talented, intelligent and kind. He is also very intelligent
and can understand complex problems very quickly. Above all, he is very kind to others. I admire
my friend for all those reasons.
The example paragraph above has a clear controlling idea - the three reasons why the writer
admires his friend. In addition, the reader has no difficulty in understanding the paragraph. Thus, it
has two of the characteristics of a good paragraph. The controlling idea is not completely or even
partially developed. After four sentences, the writer has provided little more than the information
that was given in the first sentence.
To develop the above example paragraph completely, the writer must give examples of
his friend's talents, intelligence and kindness. Compare it with the paragraph below:
I admire my friend Alex because he is so talented, intelligent and kind. Not only can he play most
sports well; he is also a good musician and an actor. He has always been the best student in his
class, and in the recent pre-university exams, he placed third in the entire country. Although he is
so intelligent and gifted, he is not standoffish or boastful. Instead, Alex is one of the kindest people
I know. If anyone is ill, he is always the first to visit them; and if anyone is sad, he is always very
quick to cheer them up. If a person has such wonderful qualities, I think you will agree that it is
impossible not to admire him.
The meaning of the word 'development' in our definition of a good paragraph should now be clear.
Each sentence in a paragraph must add a piece of information until the controlling idea is fully
explained. A good paragraph, like a good story, must have a beginning, a middle and an end.
Excluding material that does not develop the controlling idea
The controlling idea restricts or limits the information that can be included in a paragraph. For
example, take the controlling idea 'I heard some good news from Mary Smith last week'. The writer
should not write about Mary Smith but only about the good news he has heard from Mary Smith.
Finally, he should not write about just any news he heard from her last week. Thus, the paragraph
must contain nothing but the good news the writer heard from Mary Smith last week.
Since the controlling idea restricts the information that can be included in a paragraph, it follows
that a writer must exclude information that does not develop it. For example, take the controlling
idea 'why Mrs. Smith is always so busy between 5:45 and 7:45 in the evening'. The information
included in the paragraph must explain only why 5:45 to 7:45 in the evening is a very busy time for
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Mrs. Smith. Information about other times in Mrs. Smith's day is irrelevant, and should be excluded
from this particular paragraph.
In the paragraph that follows, the writer has included information that is irrelevant. Study it and,
before you continue reading, decide which sentences do not develop the controlling idea.
It is easy to understand why Mrs. Smith is always so busy between 5:45 and 7:45 in the evening.
Her two young boys go to school at 7:45 in the morning, and Mr Smith goes to work at 8:00. The
boys eat lunch at school, and Mr. Smith takes sandwiches to work for his lunch. Therefore, Mrs.
Smith is not usually very busy at lunchtime. Mrs Smith's youngest child is only eleven months old,
so she spends most of the afternoon sleeping. At about 5:45, Mrs. Smith has to start cooking
because Mr. Smith gets home at 6:30 and wants his dinner soon after he arrives. At the same time,
she has to keep an eye on her two sons to see that they do their homework. At 6:45, it is time for
the baby to be fed, bathed and then put to bed. The two boys have to start getting ready for bed at
about 7:15, and if Mrs. Smith does not watch them carefully, they do not wash very well. Finally,
she has to wash up the dirty dishes and tidy up the living room and the kitchen. Only very rarely
does she finish this before 7:45.
The controlling idea of the above example paragraph is why Mrs. Smith is always so busy between
5:45 and 7:45 in the evening. Consequently, the information in the paragraph should be limited to
explaining why she is busy at that time. Therefore, the second, third, fourth and fifth sentences
should not be included in this paragraph because they do not develop the controlling idea.
2.2.2 The Topic Sentence
If the controlling idea is contained in one sentence, that sentence is called the topic sentence. It is
called the topic sentence because it contains the idea or topic that is developed and explained in the
rest of the paragraph. This sentence may be found in any position in a paragraph – at the beginning,
in the middle or at the end.
Whenever possible, the topic sentence should be placed at the beginning of a paragraph. In that
position, it is very serves as a helpful guide to both the writer and the reader. The writer can more
easily see what information to exclude. The reader knows immediately what the paragraph is going
to be about and is therefore more prepared to understand it than if the topic sentence is placed at the
middle or end of the paragraph.
The Importance of Composing a Clear Topic Sentence
One of the first steps in writing is to choose what information to include in a paragraph and what
information to exclude from it. This is very difficult unless the writer composes a topic sentence
containing a controlling idea that really does limit his subject. He/She must compose a topic
sentence that provides a clear guide both to himself/herself and to the reader.
Take the topic sentence 'I saw Mary Smith last week', and 'Dayton is a city in the state of Ohio'.
Neither of these topic sentences contains controlling ideas that announce exactly what the
paragraph is to be about. The writer could wander from idea to idea and never to take the reader to
a definite conclusion. Thus, using the first topic sentence, the writer could describe what Mary
Smith was wearing, how she looked, what she said, where they met, whom she was with, even what
the weather was like. Using the second topic sentence he could talk about Dayton from cultural
point of view, about its geography, or its history, its industry or its weather. There is no clear
central idea in either of these topic sentences that could guide either the writer or the reader.
By contrast, take the topic sentences 'I heard some good news from Mary Smith last week' and
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'Sheffield is an industrial city'. Both of these topic sentences contain a controlling idea that
announces the true topic of the paragraph. The first topic sentence example would force the writer
to concentrate only on the good news he had had from Mary Smith the previous week. Unless it
helps to explain this good news, information about how she looked, where they met, etc. would be
irrelevant. The second example topic sentence would force the writer to concentrate only on
showing that Sheffield is a great industrial city. Unless it helps to explain why it is a great industrial
city, information about Sheffield culture, history, geography, etc. would be irrelevant in this
paragraph. Thus, each of these topic sentences contains a clear controlling idea that would be a real
guide to the writer.
2.2.3 Support of the Controlling Idea
With the exception of the topic sentence, each sentence in a good paragraph may be classified into
one of two groups: major support sentence or minor support sentence.
Major Support Sentence
A major support sentence has only one job: it develops the controlling idea of a paragraph by
telling the reader something new or different about the idea. It directly supports the controlling idea
by making that idea easily understood.
Minor Support Sentence
A minor support sentence has two jobs:
1. It develops its major support sentence by telling the reader something new or different about
that sentence, and at the same time, it helps its major support sentence develop the controlling
idea.
2. It directly supports the controlling idea of the paragraph by making it more easily understood. It
indirectly supports the controlling idea of the paragraph by helping its major support sentence
make the idea more easily understood.
2.2.4 The Topic Sentence and its Placement
You should know by now that the topic sentence is the sentence in the paragraph that contains that
idea that is explained and developed by other sentences in the rest of the paragraph.
The controlling idea is to be found in the topic sentence and as you have been made aware, the
topic sentence may be placed at the beginning of the paragraph or in the middle or even at the end.
Sometimes the topic sentence comes in the second paragraph. However, it is strongly
recommended that you place the topic sentence in the first paragraph and at the beginning since it is
easier to develop etc.
Let us now consider the topic sentence when located at the three different positions.
1. The Topic Sentence placed at the Beginning of the Paragraph
Refer to the previous paragraph starting

“I admire my friend Alex because he is so talented, intelligent and kind”.
Read the whole paragraph again.

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What are some of the advantages you can isolate when the topic sentence is placed first as in
this particular paragraph?
2. The Topic Sentence placed in the Middle
Read the following paragraph carefully:
But the waste of time is not the only, or even the major problem. If after wasting some 50%
of the child’s time, the public schools would have the learning materials for their pupils, we
would have to deal with only half of this illiteracy problem. The real problem is the absence
or inadequate supply of the promised free textbooks and other materials. Some public
schools cannot afford the supply of free books so every pupil must, and does, buy all the
required books and stationery regardless of quantity or cost.
In the above paragraph, the topic sentence, as you probably found out, is placed in the middle.
It reads:
The real problem is the absence of or inadequate supply of the promised free textbooks and
other materials.
The key words in the topic sentence are those underlined. Any comment on where it is placed
with regards to the focus of the paragraph as one begins to read?
3. The Topic Sentence placed Last
We might observe that placing the topic sentence at the end is even more common than placing
it in the middle.
Consider the paragraph below:
In simple language, we should follow our timetable. We do all our non-classroom work
after, and not during, the time given to classroom work. Also, it is probably about time we
asked parents to buy textbooks for their children. The best the government can do is to
subsidise the prices. These, in the view of many, are the practical solutions to the problems.
It should be clear to you that the topic sentence is the very last sentence. Now, what are the key
words and what is the controlling idea? Can you say what the effect is for placing the topic
sentence last?
Exercise
Read through the following paragraph carefully and answer the questions on it:
The next problem is the waste of time. It has been observed that in many public
schools, pupils spend nearly as much time on extra-curricular activities as on
academic work; some schools spend over 70% on the former during the term.
Preparing for and taking part in national day parades are important, but they hurt
when they take full weeks. Training for and participating in inter-sectional,
inter-school, inter-zonal and inter-regional sports sometimes occupy eight hours
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a day for the better part of the term. Similarly, such patriotic activities as cultural
drumming and dancing are allowed to eat too deep into periods for other
subjects on the timetable. The private schools, by contrast, follow their
timetables a little more religiously.
1. State the controlling idea of the paragraph.
2. What is the topic sentence?
3. Number the sentences in the paragraph. How many did you get in all?
Now, can you analyse how the remaining sentences support the topic sentence and develop the
paragraph?
Compare your answer with the following:

Sentence 2, for instance, starts with a broad statement.
It has been observed… many public schools… spend… much time on extra-curricular
activities …
This is then narrowed down to it to:

… some schools spend over 70% (of time) on extra-curricular activities.
It is clear that this sentence is elaborating on the waste of time – it is telling us why the writer
thinks that time is wasted on activities other than academic work, so we say that sentence 2 is
supporting the topic sentence. In the same way, sentences 3, 4 and 5 elaborate on the topic
sentence.
Why do you think sentences 3, 4 and 5 support the general idea of the paragraph?
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2.2.5 Development Patterns of Paragraphs
Two major development patterns may be isolated:
When the structure of the paragraph is such that the topic sentence – which states the general idea
of the paragraph – comes first followed by a series of supporting sentences that add particular
details to clarify the general idea, then, we say the development is from the general to the
particular.
Figure 1 represents this form.
GENERAL
PARTICULAR PARTICULAR PARTICULAR
Fig. 1: From the general to the particular
To illustrate, let us refer to the “My friend Alex” paragraph.
When the topic sentence is placed at the end, we realise that the supporting sentences come first.
Such a paragraph development, we say, is from the particular to the general. Figure 2 represents
this development:
PARTICULAR PARTICULAR PARTICULAR
GENERAL
Fig. 2: From the particular to the general
For illustration, let us turn to the paragraph starting “In simple language, we should follow our
timetable”. Sentence one says:
In simple language, we should follow our timetable. This is one particular idea – a practical
solution to the problem stated by the topic sentence. Sentences 2, 3 and 4 are each particular ideas –
which are practical solutions to the problems.
So, all these come together in the general idea of … practical solutions.
2.2.6 The Concluding Sentence
A concluding sentence signals the end of the paragraph. Often, it should summarise the main points
made in a paragraph. It should also give a final comment on the topic and leave the reader with the
most important ideas to think about. It can be in the form of a question, a quotation or a restatement
of the topic sentence. Often, concluding sentences start with expressions like: in conclusion, on the
whole, finally and consequently. These are called end-of-paragraph signals.
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Study the good concluding sentences of the following three paragraphs:
There are three reasons why John is not going to university. In the first place, his
family is quite poor, and since he has four young brothers and sisters still at school,
he feels that he should help his family financially as soon as possible. Secondly, if
he went to university, his mother would be left alone to look after the young
children. Finally, he has been offered a good job with excellent chances of
promotion. Consequently, although he wants to go to university very much, John is
going to take the job instead.
I admire my friend Alex because he is so talented, intelligent and kind. Not only
can he play most sports well, he is also a good musician and actor. He has always
been the best student in his class, and in the recent pre-university exams, he was
placed third in the entire country. Although he is so intelligent and gifted, he is not
standoffish or boastful. Indeed, Alex is one of the kindest people I know. If anyone
has a problem, he is always the first to visit them; and if anyone is sad, he is always
very quick to cheer them up. If a person has such wonderful qualities, I think you
will agree that it is impossible not to admire him.
In simple language, we should follow our timetable. We can do all our non-
classroom work after, and not during, the time given to classroom work. Also, it is
probably about time we asked parents to buy textbooks for their children. The best
the government can do is to subsidise the prices. These, in the view of many, are
the practical solutions to the problems.
The concluding sentences are those underlined. Study them and note all the features that make
those last sentences good concluding sentences.
Exercise
Try to construct a good paragraph. Think of the topic sentence. Put it at the beginning or at the end.
Then plan the supporting sentences that will give the structure of general to particular or vice versa.
Finally, construct a good concluding sentence.
Practise writing paragraphs more often. After all, it is a series of paragraphs that form an essay and
you should be able to write good essays.
NB
Qualities of a Good Paragraph (see “Paragraph Writing Exercises” at
www.buowl.boun.edu.tr/students/Paragraph Writing Exercises.htm [accessed 1/29/2013, 12:08
PM])
You should not only know what a good paragraph is; you should also be able to write one.
Therefore, remember some of the characteristics of a good paragraph:
• In a good paragraph, the writer carefully selects details and uses them to develop a central
idea.
• In a good paragraph, the controlling idea or topic is easy to identify; it is clearly stated and
its meaning is clear to the reader.
• In a good paragraph, the language used is appropriate and the paragraph is interesting to
read.
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Now, to some of the attributes of a good paragraph:
A paragraph is a group of related sentences. A good paragraph is unified, coherent, and well-
developed. Following are examples of awful, bad, fair, and good paragraphs. Let us analyse them
carefully.
Paragraph 1: Shoes should be good-looking. They should also be durable. A jacket should be
good-looking and durable too. The most important quality of shoes is comfort. Shoes should be
inexpensive too.
Comment: Paragraph A above is awful. It has three serious problems: It lacks unity, coherence,
and development. (It also has some other problems, but we won’t worry about those here.)
Paragraph 2: An ideal pair of shoes would have four qualities. They would be good-looking. They
would be durable. Most importantly, they would be comfortable. They would not be expensive.
Comment: The above paragraph is a little better than Paragraph A, but it is still a bad paragraph.
It is unified (a topic sentence has been added; the sentence about a jacket has been deleted), but it
still lacks coherence and development.
Paragraph 3: An ideal pair of shoes would have four qualities. First, they would be good-looking.
Second, they would be durable. Third, they would not be expensive. Fourth, and most important,
they would be comfortable.
Comment: Paragraph 3 above is also bad, but it is much better than paragraphs A and B. It is
unified and coherent (the sentences have been arranged in a logical order; transitions have been
added) but it still lacks development.
Let us now examine some qualities that make a good paragraph.
A. Unity: A good paragraph has unity. This means that all the sentences in the paragraph
contribute to the development of the controlling idea, and that there is no sentence in the
paragraph that is not related to the controlling idea. A paragraph that has unity contains only
one topic or main idea and it is this that the paragraph concentrates on throughout, without
deviating from it. All the other sentences in the paragraph support and clarify the
controlling idea or the main thought. When a paragraph lacks unity it creates confusion
because the reader finds it difficult to know the purpose of the paragraph and to follow the
development of the controlling idea. He may even not be able to know the meaning of the
paragraph. You should therefore ensure that all sentences or supporting details in your
paragraph that do not help to develop the controlling idea are deleted.
Study this paragraph and give reasons to show whether or not the writer took steps to ensure
that the paragraph has unity.
Exercise 1: I live in a flat with my family. We have two bedrooms and a living room. We have
a garden and we have some flowers there. In weekdays I arrive home at five o’clock and I have
lunch. Then I do my homework and go to bed. I had a computer but now it doesn’t work. I have
a brother and a sister and I think I am very lucky to live with them. Sometimes our relatives
visit us. Our flat becomes very crowded sometimes but I like it.
Comment: In a unified paragraph, we expect all the sentences to be about the main idea of the
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paragraph. The main idea in this paragraph is “the description of your house”. If we examine
the paragraph, we see that some sentences do not describe the house, such as:
In weekdays I arrive home at five o’clock and I have lunch.

Then I do my homework and go to bed.
I had a computer but now it doesn’t work.
Now, rewrite the main idea of the example paragraph so that it covers all the sentences the
writer has written.
B. Coherence: It means that the sentences should be organized in a logical manner and should
follow a definite plan of development. Good writers always make a conscious effort through
the use of different types of devices to establish links between the sentences in their
paragraphs. They strive to do this because such links make their paragraphs easy to read
since they facilitate the smooth flow of ideas from one sentence into another. When ideas
flow smoothly and effortlessly, the reader does not feel that he is reading isolated and
unconnected sentences. When the sentences are isolated and unconnected the reader gets the
impression that something might have been consciously or unconsciously left out of the
paragraph by the writer. Therefore, the thought in one sentence must be logically linked to
the thought in the preceding sentence. Let us examine the paragraph below to see whether it
is coherent.
Exercise 2
I live in a house in Izmit. It isn’t old or modern. It’s a normal Turkish house. We can say it
is near the sea. It takes about 10 minutes to go to the sea side on foot. We have one
bedroom, one living room. We also have two other rooms, too. We use them as a dining
room. Naturally, we have a kitchen, a bathroom, and a toilet. I live with my parents. And
our house has a little garden; my parents spend their time there to grow vegetables and
fruits.
First, let’s see the order of the ideas:

1. Where the house is; 2.Type of house; 3. The location; 4. The rooms in the house;
4. the fact that he lives with his parents; 5. The garden
The paragraph is well organized until he says “he lives with his parents”. It looks like this
idea interrupted his description of the house. It should be put somewhere else in the
paragraph. Rewrite the paragraph in the correct order of ideas.
C. Completeness/Development of the Ideas:

Your paragraph must also be complete. This means that the controlling idea must be
completely developed. In other words, every idea discussed in the paragraph should be
adequately explained and supported through evidence and examples.
We generally believe that people would easily understand us when we write. Unfortunately, our use
of language may not be perfect and our ideas may be different. If we want our ideas to be
understood, we need to explain them and give specific details, examples, illustrations, etc. of each
to support the controlling idea. This will make the reader realize that you have done exactly what
you promised to do in the paragraph. Listing our ideas is never enough. See the example below:
Exercise 3:
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First of all, a friend mustn’t tell lie. He must always tell me the truth and he must be honest
because if there is honesty between two friends, their relationship will last until death. In
addition to honesty, helping or being near a friend on a bad day is very important. Another
point to consider is that he must criticize me if I make a mistake.
Comment: If we list the ideas, here is what we get:

A friend must:
• Not tell a lie
• Be there for him on a bad day
• Criticize when necessary
The list and the paragraph are the same length because the ideas in the paragraph are also listed
without explanation. This means, the ideas are not developed. It also lacks a topic sentence. Let’s
write the paragraph again creating a topic sentence and some explanation of the ideas provided.
Let us examine the paragraphs below to see if they are complete or well-developed.
Paragraph 1
An ideal pair of shoes would have four qualities. First, they would be good-looking. Second, they
would be durable. Third, they would not be expensive. Fourth, and most important, they would be
comfortable.
Paragraph 2
An ideal pair of men’s shoes would have four qualities. First, they would be good-looking. I don’t
like shoes with pointed toes, high heels, or a lot of unnecessary decoration. I like a plain brown or
black shoe made of good leather. Second, they would be durable. I don’t want a pair of shoes that
will wear out in a few months. I expect a good pair of shoes to last a few years. When I buy shoes,
I look for good materials (leather uppers, hard rubber soles and heels) and good workmanship.
Third, they would not be expensive. Of course, I expect to pay for quality, but I don’t think I should
need to get a bank loan to buy shoes. I think the kind of shoes I like should cost around $120.
Fourth, and most important, they would be comfortable. I spend a lot of time on my feet. I’m a
lecturer, and I’m usually standing or pacing around when I’m in the lecture hall. I also like to walk
and I get most of my regular exercise by walking. An uncomfortable pair of shoes would make my
life miserable. If I could find a pair of shoes with these four qualities, I might buy two or three
pairs. Then I wouldn’t have to buy shoes again for a long time.
Comment: The first paragraph is brief but it is unified and coherent because the sentences speak on
the four qualities of a shoe and the sentences have been arranged in a logical order; (i.e. First,
Second, Third and Fourth points) but the paragraph still lacks completeness/development.
However, the next paragraph is a good paragraph. It is unified (i.e. it has a topic sentence; all the
sentences are related to one idea); it is coherent (i.e. the sentences are arranged in a logical order;
transitions have been used); and it is well-developed (details and a conclusion have been added).
How to Achieve Coherence:
The most easily used mechanical devices that help a writer to achieve coherence are: transitional
words and phrases, pronoun reference and repeated key terms.
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Transitional Words and Phrases

Using transitional words and phrases is the basic way of relating one sentence to another. These
words and phrases are used all the time in all levels of writing. They can be used within sentences,
between sentences, and between paragraphs. They can be found in any grammar book and in most
writing manuals. Usually, they are separated into groups according to their general meaning.
(see LECTURE 3, Section 3.4 “Ensuring cohesion in essays” of this handout for a list of
transitional expressions. They are mostly appropriate for technical writing).
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2.2.7 Paragraph Development: The Different Ways
A paragraph may be written to play many different roles. For example, to announce an
introduction, to identify a problem, to compare and contrast or to draw a conclusion, but whatever
the specific role, a paragraph is always written to develop an idea. This shows that a paragraph
follows a certain pattern as it carries its information in its sentences. Paragraphs may be developed:
1. By Using Details particularly in Descriptive Paragraphs.

Details are specific elements that make a general statement clear. In descriptive paragraphs,
observations of sight, sound, smell, touch and taste make good details.
For example, consider the following descriptive paragraph:
That Friday night, I was in a great rush. I hurried out into the chilly autumn air, not stopping to
grab a sweater. The sweet smell of damp pine was all around me as I drove off. Headlights
glared out of the dark at me. My burning eyes smarted. I slid into a tight parking spot at the
shopping centre, snapped off the ignition and the lights, and jumped out. Suddenly, there came
a shrill scream, a blow from a giant steel fist, and then the feel of slick, hard pavement beneath
my hands and body.
2. By Using Incidents.
An incident is a brief story, and it can be written for one of two purposes:
(a) To entertain readers, as any story would; and

(b) To make a point clear.
Incident to entertain
Think of an incident that once happened to you, or that you witnessed, which other people
might enjoy reading about. It could be exciting, sad or funny. Write a paragraph relating the
incident as you remember it. Include enough details to help the reader visualise the scene.
Describe the events that took place and the feelings you had at the time. Remember you are not
trying to prove a point. You are simply writing to entertain.
Select one of the points listed below, or decide upon your own point. Write a paragraph using
an incident to make the point clear.
1. Love makes the world go round.

2. Where there’s a will there’s a way.
3. Those who live in glass houses must not throw stones.
4. Every cloud has a silver lining.
5. Punctuality is the soul of business and the habit of a good organisation.
3. By Using Reasons
Reasons are used to develop paragraphs that explain, prove, persuade or state an opinion.
Remember the paragraph – “There are three reasons why John is not going to university”?
Can you compose a paragraph to explain or prove a point? Try using the following topic also:
“There are three reasons why AWCON 2018 was so exciting” or “Three major reasons account
for Ghana’s abysmal performance in Brazil 2014”
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4. By Using Examples
Examples are illustrations or instances given to demonstrate, prove, or explain a point.
Examples are often used to develop points in paragraphs as you probably know by now.
Which of the following would be effective examples to prove the statement “Childhood is the
best time of life”?
1. Some men and women spend a great part of their adult life trying to relive their childhood.
2. Many adults feel they grew up too quickly.
3. Children are more playful and spontaneous than adults.
4. Older people often mourn their misspent youth.
5. Explorers went in search of the mythical fountain of youth.
Write a paragraph on one of the following topics. Compose a topic sentence that makes a point
about the topic. Then use examples to develop the paragraph.
1. Ebola!
2. The National Health Insurance Scheme.
3. Matriculation ceremonies at UMaT
By Using Comparison or Contrast

Comparison shows the likenesses between two or more things. Contrast shows the differences.
Paragraphs can be developed either by comparison or by contrast.
Write a paragraph of comparison on

• Algeria and Cote d’Ivoire
• Ghana and Guinea
• Teachers and Pastors
Write a paragraph of contrast on

• Doctors and Farmers
• Entertainment and Sports
• Africa and Asia
5. By Using Comparison and Contrast

Comparison shows the similarities or likenesses between two or more things; contrast shows
the differences.
Paragraphs can be developed by using both comparison and contrast. Consider the following:
In some ways, adolescence is merely a continuation of childhood. In other ways, the two periods of
life are different. Adolescence involves personal responsibility, schoolwork, household chores and
family activities, just as childhood does. Both provide an opportunity for leisure time, hobbies and
activities with friends. During adolescence, however, boys and girls usually exercise greater
responsibility in every area of their lives both at school and at home, than they did as children.
Adolescents must take on more individual duties without supervision than they did as children. The
adolescent years are often more troubled and emotional than the childhood years. Adolescents are
offered a variety of experiences with peers and family members, which present opportunities for
emotional and mental growth different from what they have experienced previously.
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Write a paragraph of comparison and contrast on:

1. Life in the village and life in the city
2. The Faculty of Mineral Resources Technology and the Faculty of Engineering of UMaT
3. The Departments of Mining Engineering and Mineral Engineering; or Geomatic
Engineering and Geological Engineering; or Mechanical Engineering and Electrical and
Electronics Engineering; or Mathematics and Computer Science and Engineering.
You may also choose your own topic.
7. By Using Definitions
To define certain terms clearly may take an entire paragraph. The topic sentence of such a
paragraph should give a general definition of the terms. The other sentences in the paragraph
should give details that clarify and extend the general definition given in the sentence.
Look at the paragraph below:
Graphology is a method used to analyse a person’s character and health from his or her hand
writing. There is no scientific proof that the interpretations of graphology are correct. Therefore, as
it is ordinarily practised, graphology is considered a pseudoscience or imitation science. Some of
the facts on which it is founded are true, however. For example, a person’s handwriting does
change with old age. You can also notice a difference in handwriting during illness or when a
person is under emotional strain. Guesses, opinions and the techniques of fortune telling are used
by most graphologists. For example, persons who write in lines that slant upwards are said to have
ambition. Lines that slant downwards indicate pride. Heavy lines and thick strokes in crossing are
thought to show power and force. Quiet, reserved people usually close their a’s and o’s and timid or
bashful people use fine lines. Tests have indicated that graphology may contain some truth.
However, its principles have never been decisively proved. At best, graphology will probably offer
us only limited knowledge about people’s personality, health and character.
Read the model paragraph. What general definition does the author give of graphology? How does
the author clarify and extend the general definition? Write a paragraph defining the following:
1. Friendship
2. Soccer
3. Fashion
4. Patriotism
5. Leadership
8. By Using a Combination of Methods

More than one method of paragraph development may be used in a single paragraph. The model
paragraph below has been developed by using facts and examples:
Characterisation in short-story writing must be simpler than in any other form of fiction. There is
no time for subtle or complicated characterisation in the short story. Because of the necessary
brevity of this kind of story, characters can only show a few important character traits. They
should, therefore, do nothing during this course of the story that contradicts or weakens those traits.
Some young writers experience difficulty in creating their fictional characters, because they do not
fully understand what character creation really is. The successful writer, for example, begins by
creating characters for himself or herself. Unless the writer knows his or her characters completely,
he or she cannot give the readers the details necessary for them to recreate these characters in their
minds. The writer must select only those details that most clearly portray character. From these
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details, each reader, using his or her imagination and personal experience of human nature, will
create for himself or herself the characters that the author intended.
9. By Using Time (Chronological Order)

Time usually refers to the natural sequence of things – from first to last. This method therefore
begins with what happens first and proceeds to each of the next points in the order they occurred.
Chronological order is often used in narrative and expository paragraphs.
Study the following example paragraph:
Even in the early morning, the weather in Port Royal that June was hot and still. Some people in the
Jamaican city called it earthquake weather. But even they did not know that June 7, 1672, would
mean the end of their town. The great earthquake struck Port Royal just before noon. There was a
strong shock and a minute later, a ‘tsunami’ swamped the city. Houses and people slid under sea.
As soon as the ground had stopped shaking, survivors ran to see what had happened to their
families and homes. After-shocks continued all day. By nightfall, almost all of Port Royal was in
ruins, and more than half of the city had vanished forever.
The event described in the above paragraph begins in the early morning and extend to nightfall on
June, 7, 1692. Several words or phrases show sequence of events: Before noon, a minute later, then
and within minutes. Other words you can use to help establish a time framework are in the
beginning, next, later and finally.
Exercise
Write a paragraph of five or six sentences on the topics below using time (chronological order) to
develop it:
1. My first day at lectures as a university student

2. My experience of a Watch night Service (31st December, 2016)
3. The Christmas break.
10. By Using Space (Spatial Order)

Some paragraphs may be organised by details of space. This helps your reader see the setting in
which events occur.
For example:
The top of Hawaii’s high volcano was no place for a middle-aged British woman in 1872. But
Isabella Bird was here. She has startled everyone, including herself, by insisting on climbing here.
Now she knew that her urge to come had been right. The view was like nothing she had ever seen
before. In front of her the rose-red lilies of molten lava stretched out dozens of acres. Fountains of
fire shot up from it, hundreds of feet in the air. Heavy clouds hid the base of the mountain below
her, but Isabella saw in her mind’s eye the tortured mounds of hard lava she had crossed to get
here. And below those, the friendly people of the city of Hilo were asleep. How far away they all
seemed!
You would realise that special words help give the location of details in space. The prepositions of
place, such as in front of and below, are important in the above paragraph, as are adverbs that tell
where.
Exercise
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Try to write a paragraph of seven sentences on one of the topics below using space in its
development or organisation:
• Workers hustled about their job at the construction site (or at the ‘galamsey’ work camp)
• In the days of “dumsor”
• The final match of AFCON/AWCON 2018 was a thriller!
• Ghana played at AFCON/AWCON 2018.
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LECTURE III
DEVELOPING WRITING SKILLS III: THE WHOLE ESSAY
The objectives of this lecture are:
• To make students move from the paragraph to the whole essay (full text);
• To discuss the essay;
• To introduce the forms of discourse – narration, description, argumentation and exposition;
• To present ways of ensuring cohesion of ideas.
• Understand the demands of essay writing;

• Be able to use transitional devices and other words to link the ideas together;
• Be able to develop and link a number of good, error-free paragraphs to form coherent and
meaningful texts (e.g. job application letters, reports, or project works and theses);
• Be able to narrate, describe, argue or debate (speak or write to convince) and do exposition
(e.g. give an example, detail a process of doing or making something, analyse cause and
effect, compare and or contrast, define a term or concept and divide something into parts or
classify it into categories).
• Be able to write confidently.
3.2 The Essay
The essay has its origin in the French word ‘essayer’ meaning ‘to try’ or ‘to attempt’. An essay
refers to a composition in which a writer tries to present his or her views and to discuss various
types of issues in such a way as to attract the reader’s interest. The topic will show what type an
essay will be, but an essay may be reflective, scientific, historical, political, religious, literary or
sociological in which case an in-depth analysis will be required. Aside these, however, there may
be “imaginative essays” where the writer needs to exercise his or her imagination on the unknown
future or to place himself/herself in some imaginary situations in the present or past. Sometimes,
essays may deal with general debatable issues on society or human beings. Such essays require that
the writer argues out a case or justifies a particular stance.
When students complete their studies and enter the world of work, they are invariably required to
do assignments and present reports on a wide range of subjects. It is, therefore, necessary that they
are well-equipped with the skills or tools for writing logical and lucid essays.
3.2.1 Demands of Essay Writing

• Original and logical thinking. Although you can make use of other people’s ideas, it is
important to express your thoughts logically and coherently.
• Application of all that you know about language. This seriously calls for knowledge of the
mechanics of the English Language e.g. grammar, spelling, construction, vocabulary and
punctuation. It is interesting to realise that all the rules of language accumulated throughout
your years of study are tested in any one single work/essay!
• Ability to construct a variety of sentences. (Notice that variety is the spice of life).
• Ability to relate one idea to another (use of connectors).
• Ability to organise ideas in an acceptable manner (following the different formats and formal
features).
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In writing an essay, you are applying your basic knowledge of orderly presentation of ideas within
and between sentences and within and between paragraphs.
• Ability to use language in all its appropriate situations (formal and informal languages)
You should notice by now that essay writing is a complex activity. You must therefore plan your
essays (e.g. using the Outline Method). A plan or outline helps you isolate and clarify in your mind
the main points and the most appropriate sequence in which to use them. It also helps to do away
with irrelevant or unwanted material which, sometimes, joins the good material to crowd our mind
when we think. With a plan, you have the skeleton of the essay to which you only add flesh. A plan
gives a sense of purpose. The writer achieves confidence to start writing and also enjoys the
activity of writing. When you have worked out your plan, you can, if there is a choice, decide
which topics you should eliminate for lack of facts or ideas.
Stages in Planning the Essay
1. Think about the topic

2. Gather material for the essay
3. Get some ideas onto paper
4. Organise the material.
5. Write a first draft.
Principles to Follow
One may follow the following principles for writing essays:
1. Organisation
(A) Plan an effective opening (introduction) and ending (conclusion).
(B) Ensure good paragraphing i.e. harmony or unity of ideas within each paragraph.
(C) Ensure a logical and sequential arrangement of material.
2. Contents
(A) Avoid irrelevant details and present facts or opinions that relate to the topic.
(B) Ensure that the different parts of the contents are linked and that the ideas stick
together.
3. Mechanical Accuracy
(a) Use correct spelling
(b) Use correct punctuation
(c) Use correct grammar
Use the dictionary regularly to ascertain these.
On Mechanical Accuracy, you are greatly encouraged to learn to write good and correct sentences
so that your paragraphs are correct and meaningful. In other words you must know the mechanics
of writing.
Mechanics means the method of constructing a piece of work. Here it means the art of writing
words – words to form sentences which, in turn, will give the paragraph. Included in mechanics are
capitalisation, abbreviation, punctuation, grammar and spelling.
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Examples of grammatical items include:
• Subject-verb agreement
• Tense agreement
• Gender (e.g. he/she). Don’t confuse them
• Number – e.g. it/they
You must also learn to edit your essay.
3.2.2 Knowing what the Topic is Demanding
It is very necessary that you understand the topic very well. Inadequate understanding of the topic
often poses many problems in essay writing. Students usually mix up terms like “analyse”,
“discuss” and “evaluate”. They take them for synonyms not knowing exactly what is demanded of
them with each. This is unfortunate. Each word demands that you look at the topic from a different
point of view. If you do not know exactly what is asked for, you might write a lot but not answer the
question asked.
3.2.3. Important Words in Essay Questions
Account for Explain the reasons for, giving an indication of all relevant circumstances. Very
different from Give an account of, which asks only for a detailed description.
Analyse Study in depth, identifying and describing in detail the main characteristics.
Assess Examine closely, with a view to measuring ‘weighing up’ a particular situation.
Consider in a balanced way: strengths and weaknesses, points for and against. In
conclusion, state your judgement clearly.
Comment State clearly and in a moderate fashion your opinions on the material in question.
Support your views with references to suitable evidence or with explanation as
appropriate.
Compare Look for qualities or characteristics that resemble each other. Emphasise similarities
but be aware also of points of difference.
Contrast Stress the dissimilarities and differences between the items in question, but do not
ignore points of similarity.
Criticise Express your balanced judgement about the merit or truth of the material in
question. Give the results of your scrutiny, establishing both strengths and
weaknesses. Be specific.
Define Give concise, clear and authoritative meanings. Do not give too many details, but be
sure to state the limits of the definition. Show how the thing you are defining differs
from things in other categories.
Describe Recount, characterise, sketch or relate in sequence or story form.
Discuss Examine and analyse carefully, giving reasons pro and con, advantages and
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disadvantages. Be complete, and give details. You must consider all sides of the
issue and reach a balanced conclusion.
Enumerate State in list or outline form, giving points concisely one by one.
Evaluate Carefully appraise the matter in hand, citing both advantages and limitations.
Emphasise the views of authorities as well as your personal estimation.
Explain Clarify, interpret and spell out the material you present. Give reasons for important
features or developments, and try to analyse causes.
How far Similar to question based on the To what extent … approach. Here you are expected
to make your case or present your material in the usual way, while remaining aware
of the possible need to introduce contradictory or counter-balancing evidence. You
are unlikely to be making a ‘one hundred per cent case with this sort of question;
careful assessment and weighing are needed.
Illustrate Use specific examples, allusions, figures or diagrams to explain, demonstrate or

clarify a problem, situation or view.
Interpret Translate, give examples of, express in simple terms or comment on a subject,
usually giving your judgement about it.
Justify Prove, make out a case or give reasons for decisions or conclusions, taking pains to
be convincing.
List As in enumerate, write an itemised series of concise statements.
Outline Provide a framework description under main points and subordinate points, omitting
minor details and stressing the arrangement or classification of the material.
Prove Establish that something is true by citing factual evidence or giving clear logical
reasons.
Relate Show how things are related to or connected with each other, or how one causes
another, correlates with another, or is like another.
Review Examine a subject critically, analysing and commenting on the important points and
stages of development.
State Present the main points in brief, clear sequence.
Summarise Give the main points or facts in condensed form, omitting details and illustrations.
Trace Describe in narrative form progress, development or sequence of events from some
point of origin.
Sometimes the topic will contain a combination of two or more of the above instructions. For
example Describe and explain …., which calls for a balance of a factual account and b analysis of
reasons. In this sort of question it is vital to ensure that you attend to all aspects of the instruction.
If you do not, you will be marked out of only half or perhaps one third of the total.
Thus, your first task must be to understand precisely what the title is requiring you to do.
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3.3 Forms of Discourse
3.3.1 Discourse
Discourse is communication in speech or writing. Also, a speech, piece of writing, or discussion

about a particular, usually serious subject: a discourse on/upon the nature of life after death
(Cambridge International Dictionary of English).
The forms of discourse correspond to the forms of communication. Usually, the types of essay a
student has to deal with correspond to the four basic forms of communication namely:
1. Narration, for narratives or narrative essays;

2. Description, for descriptive essays;
3. Argumentation, for argumentative essays (Persuasion for persuasive essays);
4. Exposition, for expository essays.
Each essay we write is usually a combination of different forms. For instance, in narration, you
may need to describe; and in argumentation, you may find yourself explaining arguing and
narrating at different points.
You should know the different features of the different forms of essay and use this knowledge to
write good essays including job applications, minutes, reports and dissertations.
3.3.2 Discourse Form 1: Narration
To narrate means to tell. You must develop your ability to narrate, tell, recount, relate or present a
written account of events or experiences.
Narration is simply telling a story or reporting an event in which you or some other person took
part. Develop your narrative skills by using:
(a) Appropriate words

(b) Chronological order or coherence for plausibility
(c) Appropriate tense
Also try to catch your reader’s attention with a captivating introduction or beginning, and let your
narrative be brisk and active by eliminating unimportant material. Keep each stage of the narration
in a paragraph. Finally, give your narration a memorable ending.
Topics to consider
(i) MMESA celebrations are due again on UMaT campus. Tell your colleagues on a different
campus how interesting and educative the programme is expected to be.
(ii) Your room was broken into and thieves made away with a number of precious personal
effects. With the help of a policeman, you were able to recover everything. Narrate the
incident to your friends.
(iii) You have just returned from an exchange programme in one of the universities in the United
States of America. Write a letter to your friend narrating/recounting your experience(s).
26
(iv) A big medical store in your area was recently gutted by fire. Tell your Regional Minister
about the disaster and describe your feelings during the raging fire.
(v) You were a member of a fact-finding committee assessing the environmental problems
associated with “galamsey” or illegal mining practices in the community. Give an account of
your investigations.
(vi) You have heard or read about the deadly ebola virus disease. Trace the menacing occurrence
of this disease in West Africa in the year 2014 and the effect on you as a student in Ghana.
3.3.3 Discourse Form 2: Description
To describe is to create a picture with words. In a descriptive essay, you put into words (describe)
how you see events, people, actions, places and things. The main objective of a descriptive writing
is to describe events or situations in such a way that they come to life.
Techniques
(i) Use picturesque vocabulary. For instance, “in a flash, a knife-wielding lunatic, soaked in filth,
burst upon the scene and charged dangerously at the panic-stricken guests who began to flee
helter-skelter”.
(ii) Use appropriate words.
(iii) Use spatial coherence
Spatial coherence means starting your description from a spot and progressing systematically to
another, then another, up to the end. Supposing you have been asked to describe the UMaT Library,
a place you are very familiar with. Your description may start from the parking lot.
Two basic forms of description can be isolated:
Objective and Subjective
Objective Description:
The aim of objective description is to present an impartial view of that object of description.
• It is factual not based on emotions or feelings

• It relies on precise details
• It is commonly used in scientific reports
• The writer remains impersonal – no personal feelings or emotions are allowed in the
description.
Subjective Description
Unlike objective description, subjective description shows the writer’s feelings and attitudes
making the writing personal. It is the kind of description commonly found in stories and essays.
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Use of emotive words and expressions that create the right picture in the reader’s mind, making the
reader feel emotional about what is being described. Here the writer becomes imaginative or
artistic. We can even say that the writer is being impressionistic.
The language of description
The language of description depends on the nature of what you are describing. Scientific writing
requires you to distance yourself from what you are describing. So the language of science is
impersonal. For instance, there is little use of personal pronouns especially ‘I’. Where needed, ‘we’
is used.
Passive constructions or imperative constructions are frequently used. Words are carefully chosen
to hide the observer’s opinions and present bare facts.
However, where factual accuracy is not so highly demanded, it is often preferable to present vivid
descriptions. The goal here is to use words that suggest something to the reader. And to make the
object being described easier to imagine, it is more usual to give the essay a certain measure of
closeness to life.
3.3.4 Discourse Form 2: Argumentation
Argumentation is an attempt to prove how sound or valid your point of view is. It can be likened to
a debate in which a speaker tries to consider all sides of a question, asks lots of relevant questions
before finally coming to a conclusion. So, it has been said to be the process of reasoning
methodically.
Argumentation is usually for or against an idea. Issues of morality, policy and the like are what
usually attract arguments and not matters of fact. For example, it will be sheer waste of time and
energy to argue over your height or weight because it can be resolved easily in a matter-of-fact
manner by checking with a ruler or weighing scales. But consider a topic like “University students
are wiser than Polytechnic students” or “Boys schools are better than girls schools” and you realise
that it lends itself to discussion and argument.
A good argument has three main characteristics:
1. It should be reasonable. So your points should be relevant and adequate to support a given
stand. This means that:
(a) Evidence for or against an issue must not be biased (prejudiced).

(b) Facts must not be distorted or omitted.
(c) Unwanted or extraneous material should be excluded.
A premise is accepted as a fact by the reader if it can stand without further support. A pure
opinion statement must be backed up by evidence. Notice that a logically valid conclusion
can be arrived at even after assuming false premises. This means that a logical argument
does not necessarily represent a truth. So it is only people who share your views who will
respect your argument. Once you have made your assumptions, whether true or false, you
can draw logical conclusions from them.
2. An argument should have consistency (or non-conflicting views). A good argument has no
internal contradictions.
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3. An argument should have a clear definition. This will prevent you from being misunderstood.
So define clearly the key concepts in your argument. For instance, if you want to prove to
your colleagues that Mr. X is a bad lecturer you may have to start by explaining what you
mean by a bad lecturer. You will notice that it is common to find two or three people
disagreeing on a point, for the simple reason that each of them is using a key concept in the
argument in a different sense.
How to present an effective argument:

To present an effective argument, you must communicate effectively by employing all the
techniques of good communication such as clear writing, correct vocabulary and correct sentences.
You can cause confusion if you fail to use the correct communication devices.
• Be clear in defining the issue the argument is about and what you want to prove or disprove.
• Make sure you stress the points which you think are crucial in support of your stance. One
way to do this is by starting with your minor points, discussing their relevance and even
their limitations, as you go on. Then you bring in your major points to take care of the
loopholes shown by the minor points.
• Use rhetorical questions.
• Use repetitive expressions for emphasis.
• Use contrast and comparison figures of speech.
3.3.5 Discourse Form 4: Exposition
Exposition simply means explanation. So this type of essay sets out to explain something to the
reader. We write an exposition when we want to make the reader understand:
• What something is.

• How something works or how it is made or done or how it happened.
• Why something happened the way it did.
• How one thing is related to another.
• How one part of a thing is related to other parts.
In exposition therefore you appeal to the reader’s thinking or intellect and not to their emotions or
feeling. What you try to do is dissect a given idea and make it more understandable to the reader.
Modes of Exposition
What we try to do in exposition is analyse or break down a given idea and make it more
understandable to the reader or listener. We shall consider three different ways by which we
explain: Definition, analysis, and instructions.
Definition
This perhaps is the commonest form of exposition in use. By defining a word, a dictionary helps
you to understand its meaning. Thus dictionary definitions, and other forms of definitions you find
in textbooks are expositions.
29
Remember:
• Definitions help to clarify meaning, so use language your readers will understand.
• Definitions should be objective. They should explain exactly what the item is. There should
be no personal judgments.
A definition can be a single paragraph or may extend to many pages. Definitions used to explain
could include the origin of words, history, backgrounds, examples, diagrams, analysis of parts,
comparison and contrast.
Analysis
An analysis involves breaking up something into its component parts or examining the various
stages or parts of something. It helps you to reveal those hidden parts not easily seen by the casual
observer. This lays open the hidden nature of the different parts showing how they relate to each
other and how each part contributes to the total shape of the whole when put together. A good
analysis leads to a greater understanding of a topic.
Instructions
Instructions explain how to do (or make) something. You give and take instructions and these seem
to be happening all time. Think of the instructions on how to operate the new television or radio
you bought or was it the instructions on the label of some medicines you bought? What do all these
aim at doing? Instructions explain each step in enough detail for readers to complete procedures
safely and efficiently.
Instructions are meant to serve the purpose of explaining in detail. In doing this:
• They should be clear and give as much detail as necessary.

• You should work out instructions in logical and ordered steps, etc.
In this section we have reviewed some types of essay we write and we have tried to identify one
type from another.
Always try to distinguish one type of discourse or essay type from another. For example, while a
narrative essay should be made interesting from the start, a descriptive essay should have clarity as
its guiding feature. In argumentation, your premise must lead logically to your conclusion.
Expository writing, especially of instructions, requires precise language and logical step-by-step
ordering of facts.
3.4 Ensuring Cohesion in Essays
Cohesion means ideas in the essay sticking or flowing together. Certain words and phrases help to
achieve this in an essay. They show the relationship between ideas in the essay. These words and
phrases are known as transitions/transitional devices or connectors. They are referred to as
connectors because they guide the reader from one major point to another. Let us look at some of
them and their functions:
3.4.1 To indicate a list of items

First, firstly, in the first place; second, secondly, in the second place, third, in addition, additionally,
30
added to the above; furthermore, next, then, moreover, finally, lastly, also, similarly, besides, and,
as follows:
3.4.2 To indicate an illustration or example

For instance, for example, an instance of this is, an illustration is, to illustrate;
3.4.3 To indicate a cause and effect relationship between one idea and another
Accordingly, as a result, because, consequently, hence, therefore, thus, since, for, then.
3.4.4 To indicate an opposing point/idea.

But, however, in contrast, on the other hand, nevertheless, on the contrary, yet, still, either …or,
neither … nor, conversely, whereas, unlike, in fact (avoid using ‘yet still’)
3.4.5 To indicate a conclusion or summary

In conclusion, to conclude, all in all, to sum up, clearly, altogether, finally, in brief, on the whole, in
short.
3.4.6 To indicate comparison

Similarly, likewise, also, for example, in the same way.
3.4.7 To indicate results

Therefore, consequently, thus, as a result, because, for, so, hence, since.
3.4.8 To indicate emphasis

Surely, certainly, actually, indeed, again, as a matter of fact.
It is necessary to note carefully that the mere presence of these words will not ensure the cohesion
of an essay. Transitions or connectors must be properly fused into the essay to portray the desired
meaning very clearly. For instance, use of “however” must show a contrast to the preceding idea.
So you should know what is required of you.
Exercise
Read the following paragraph on Gold. The paragraph makes use of a lot of transitional devices.
When you have finished reading it, list the transitional devices used and explain how they help to
keep the reader moving smoothly through the paragraph.
GOLD
Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics. First of all, gold has a lustrous
beauty that is resistant to corrosion. Therefore, it is suitable for jewellery, coins and ornamental
purposes. Gold never needs to be polished and will remain beautiful for ever. For example, a
Macedonian coin remains as untarnished today as the day it was minted twenty-three centuries
ago. Another important characteristic of gold is its usefulness to industry and science. For many
years, it has been in hundreds of industrial applications. The most recent use of gold is in
astronauts’ suits. Astronauts wear gold-plaited shields for protection outside the spaceship. In
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conclusion, gold is treasured not only for its beauty but also for its utility (Copyright Abuja
University/IEDE materials).
32
LECTURE IV
DEVELOPING WRITING SKILLS IV: STYLE
The objectives of this lecture are:
• To introduce “registers” or word families;

• To present correct spelling guides;
• To discuss punctuation;
• To discuss editing.
• Be able to show scholarship and understanding of word families of various disciplines;

• Be able to speak and write confidently through the appropriate use or choice of words;
• Be able to spell ‘troublesome words’;
• Be able to punctuate their writing effectively to ensure clarity of written communication;
• Be able to edit and present error-free work.
4.2 Register
A register is a group of words referring to the particular aspect of life or human experience (field or
discipline). For example, register of computers, sea transport/travel, law or mining.
To show scholarship and understanding, it is necessary to know the registers – word families – of
various disciplines.
Read the following and try the exercises as you develop your vocabulary and learn different
registers. (Against each number in the lists following the passages, choices of words are offered.
For each question, choose the word that is the most suitable to fill the numbered gaps in the
passages).
4.2.1 Word Families:- Computers
In almost all spheres of modern life, a working knowledge of computers is fast becoming essential.
You will find them everywhere: in factories, banks, offices, educational institutions – anywhere the
speedy retrieval and processing of information is required.
What is a computer? Basically, a computer is a machine for storing, retrieving and processing
information. In business or administration, the great advantages of computers over humans and old
fashioned filing systems is that they can store vast amounts of information retrieved very quickly,
and can be changed or manipulated in many different ways.
The Register of Computers
In the following passage, the numbered gaps indicate missing words. Against each number of the
list following the passage, five choices are offered in columns lettered A to E. For each question,
choose the word that is the most suitable to fill the numbered gap in the passage.
33
Computers can be found in all fields of human activity. In scientific research, and in various
technical operations such as aircraft and rocket control, and in manufacturing (1) – computers are
able to perform very difficult calculations extremely quickly and accurately, and can control a
number of different (2) – operations simultaneously. For instance, without computers people
would never have landed on the moon: the huge advances in science would not have been possible
without computers: the large-scale (3) – of oil, and the manufacture of many essential chemicals,
are often controlled by computer systems.
Computers come in all shapes and sizes. Some are large enough to occupy a whole room, or even
an entire building; others, (4) – or personal computers, can fit on an ordinary desk. The text of this
material was initially typed into a computer: this operation is known as word. (5) –
Data are fed into the computer in several ways: usually it is done by means of a (6) – which looks a
bit like an ordinary typewriter. In addition to the normal keys, there are special (7) – keys which
are used to give instructions to the computer. Data are provided from other (8) – too: discs
containing information can be slotted in, and the information (9) – information can also be
conveyed (10) – by means of a special device called a (11) – attached to one’s computer and linked
to a telephone. By this means, with a desktop computer in Nigeria, one can gain information from
Los Angeles, or London, by means of the (12) – .
In smaller computers, the output is usually produced using two output devices. These are the
monitor, which looks like a television screen, and which displays data; and the printer, which prints
out the data stored in the computer. The (13) – is also called a VDU, or visual display unit. A
printer resembles an ordinary typewriter except that it has no keys; the printer types automatically,
direct from the memory of the computer, when instructed to do so by the operator.
A computer’s memory usually consists of small magnetic discs which look like records, or compact
discs, and a disc-drive, which sometimes (14) – a cassette player. The data are recorded on the
disc, and played back when required using the disc drive. On the screen, a small mark called a
cursor shows at what point the operator can intervene; the cursor is moved around the screen by
means of a small hand-held device called a (15) –
As well as data, computers also store (16) – . These are sequences of instructions that tell the
computer to carry out a set task or series of operations. For instance, most banks use a program
which tells their computers to prepare monthly statements for all their customers, involving
millions of (17) –; this task would have involved thousands of man-hours; nowadays, a handful of
computer operators can (18) – the same job in a few hours.
A B C D E
1. Business processes matters industry factories
2. curious complicating computer complex durable
3. refuelling refining discovery redemption recycling
4. macro micro miniature miniscule minimal
5. processing controlling typing spelling spinning
6. typewriter keyboard control-panel control board key-panel
7. functional control function system button
8. means areas origins founts sources
9. downloaded off loaded downtrodden downwinded wound up
10. electrically telepathically remotely by radar electronically
11. modem module bug model fax-machine
12. network internet telephone internal data bank
13. TV screen module prefect monitor
14. reveals resumes records tapes resembles
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15. mouth mouse button bug monitor

16. programmes systems monitors additions programs
17. tasks bargains events incidents transactions
18. practice carry carry on perform derive
The Register of Science
In the early hours of this morning, within 2.4 seconds of the time expected, the Voyager 2
spacecraft will have passed within only 10,000 miles of Neptune, never before (1) – closely by
man. Five hours later, it will have passed within about 24,000 miles of the Neptunian noon Triton
before continuing its steady (2) – at 90,000 mph out of the influence of the Solar System for ever.
Voyager 1, after having encountered Saturn, was deliberately sent off northwards via one of its
moons towards the star AC+79, but Voyager 2 flew on to Uranus and its moons, and then, after
having acquired new (3) – cut across towards the far reaches of our Solar System.
The Voyager scientific achievements are numerous. Besides a mass of data which will take years
to (4) – there have been many surprises. Highlights include discovering (5) – volcanoes on Io (one
of Jupiter’s moons), as well as its rings of dust and additional moons. A massive electric current
equal to three times the total electrical (6) – capacity of Earth was found running continuously
between Io and Jupiter.
The Saturn encounter revealed simple organic (7) – in the frigid atmosphere of Titan (one of its
moons) which, in a warmer environment, would have the potential to evolve into living (8) – . The
planet Uranus revealed the presence of a strange magnetic (9) – with a corkscrew tail extending
millions of miles into space and many new (10) – features on its moons. Neptune’s data will
clearly provide us with a wealth of new scientific information, including details of its internal
composition and its complex volatile (11) – .
Such fundamental new scientific data from extraterrestrial sources contribute immensely to our
understanding of the (12) – of nature and the physics of the universe.
A B C D E
1. manifested watched perceived observed glanced

2. flight course rout launch pursuit
3. experience insights deductions equipment data
4. formulate penetrate analyse investigate hypothesize
5. active sensitive bursting attractive heated
6. alternating generating conductor transmission accumulating
7. components compounds cells membranes combinations
8. substances parasites fibres organisms molecules
9. compass circuit field rotation eclipse
10. zoological astronomical topical geological archaeological
11. atmosphere density radiation aroma nucleus
12. procession procedure progress proceedings processes
35
The Register of Finance
Money Matters
Money is a subject of great interest to most people, and most people want to get more of it. The
lawless ones among us see robbery, (1) –, and other forms of stealing as their way to it, while some
enrich themselves by using the posts they occupy in companies or government departments to
collect bribes or (2) – for the award of contracts.
Those without any financial (3) – whatever will merely save any money they acquire by keeping it
in the ground, in which case, clearly, it earns no (4) –: but most people with (5) – to spare will think
of some kind of (6) –, acting on the sound principle that one sum of money can be made to grow
into a larger sum. This can happen in various ways. In Nigeria small businesses are very popular;
so savings can become the (7) – needed to establish a provisions shop, say, or to run a taxi.
Although this type of business entails some (8) –, it also offers the prospect of fairly quick and
sometimes quite healthy (9) –
Less enterprising citizens will prefer to put their money in savings or (10) – accounts in banks; or
they purchase interest-bearing Government (11) – or (12) – in companies that pay a regular (13) –
Trading in stocks and shares is what large-scale financial dealings are all about, and in Nigeria, as
in other countries, these are chiefly carried out through the Stock Exchange. The middlemen of the
Stock Exchange are known as (14) –: they buy and sell shares on behalf of clients, for which they
charge a (15) –. Often the client is a company seeking to purchase shares in another company,
sometimes with a view to taking over completely. The reason is that if several companies operate
in a particular line of business – e.g. timber production, or textiles – each has a natural interest in
driving out competitors and establishing a (16) – However, some of those dealing (17) – the Stock
Exchange are not there to further the interest of a company engaged in productive business; they
are there merely to (18) – , i.e. to purchase shares when they are relatively cheap and sell them
again when they fetch a higher price.
At any one time, certain shares are increasing in attractiveness and price, while others are less
attractive and their price is falling. Occasionally, there is a general loss of (19) – on the Stock
Exchange, people rush to sell all their shares and there may even be a world-wide Stock Market
(20) –. A major event of this type happened as recently as 1997.
A B C D E
1. arson homicide embezzlement misdemeanour corruption

2. pick-ups kick-backs hand-overs hand-outs throwbacks
3. acumen reliability wit advantages fortitude
4. interest reward discount margin Increment
5. legacy endowment currency account funds
6. holdings investment insurance deposit loan
7. foundation goods principal capital minimum
8. risk insecurity misfortune chance anxiety
9. credits fortune income benefits profits
10 mortgage static deposit interest frozen
11. obligations certificates bonds contracts pledges
12. stakes shares issues rights assets
13. refund allowances gratuity salary dividend
14. stockbrokers shareholders trustees auctioneers wholesalers
36
15. tax favour duty commission bill

16. uniformity hegemony sovereignty monopoly dominion
17. in on at with through
18. accumulate hoard speculate exchange loiter
19. confidence security guarantee trust faith
20. strike fall-out slide panic crash
The Register of Publishing
Publishing
Many people confuse printing and publishing. Although a printer might sometimes wish to publish
a book or magazine, and a publisher may sometimes run his own printing works, they are not really
the same thing at all.
The publisher is the person or organization that arranges for a book, newspaper, or magazine to be
printed and (1) –. How does a book get published? In some cases a publisher might (2) – an author
to write a book. This happens when a publisher already knows roughly what kind of book he wants
to publish, and has already identified the potential (3) –. Many educational books fall into this
category.
In other cases, an author may send in a (4) – to be considered for publication. Publishers receive
many of these, and it is their job to decide which ones to publish – not all books stand an equal
chance of selling in sufficient numbers to justify the publisher’s (5) –. Publishers will often send
work to an independent (6) – to report on.
Even if a publisher (7) – an author’s work, he will usually try to make some helpful comments, for
young authors need plenty of (8) –: moreover, the amateur scribbler of today may turn into the best-
selling author of tomorrow.
Once a book has been accepted for publication, the publisher still has many other decisions to
make. Invariably, books need to be (9) – for even the best author’s work can be improved on,
somehow. The many (10) – problems include: the size of the page, the type and size of print, the
type of cover, the (11) – and who should draw them – all these questions and many more have to be
(12) –.
There are other decisions to be made, too: who is to print the book, how many (13) – should be
printed, how it should be advertised, and how much the book should cost.
How is an author paid? Sometimes, he or she may be paid a (14) –. But more usually, an author is
paid a (15) – of 10% of the published price on all books sold – though this percentage may vary.
The publisher must of course (16) – all the costs of printing and distribution, as well as the usual
(17) –. Authors may, if they wish, obtain the (18) –.
A B C D E
1. disseminated distributed scattered handed out dispersed
2. authorise inaugurate commission empower ordain
3. audience spectators congregation readership participants
4. paper document draft script manuscript
5. investment purchase payment subsidy donation
6. examiner reporter reader critic inspector
37
7. ignores turns up scraps rejects snubs

8. courage encouragement spirit morale humour
9. altered perfected edited axed expunged
10. project design plan scheme organisation
11. artwork pictures designed distinguished requested
12 considered Thought pondered acted made
13. items numbers issues volumes copies
14. salary tip sum fee wage
15. commission royalty amount profit portion
16. head chest shoulder arm disarm
17. costs charges expenses overheads payments
18. investments speculation interests selves prerequisites
The Register of the Mass Media
In the following passage, the numbered gaps indicate missing words. Against each number in the
Everyone believes (1) – progress and development, although not everyone agrees what they mean.
But one thing is certain: they depend (2) – communication, for without this there can be no
knowledge.
Communication, at all levels, is (3) –. The best known (4) – of communication in Africa are radio,
television, and the newspaper. For one reason or another, none of these are sufficiently (5) – to the
rural population. For instance, newspapers are obviously of limited use because many rural
communities are largely (6) –. Television is not much help, either: (7) – are built in cities that are
very remote to the rural population, and the cost of television sets is in most cases (8) –. Radio
seems to be the answer, then: radios are cheap, easily (9) –, and even with just two (10) – - most
have more than two – are immensely flexible. Provided that the (11) – is strong enough, messages
can be conveyed for hundreds of kilometres. Listeners can (12) – to the radio wherever they may
be – at home, on the farm and even while travelling.
A B C D E
1. on for in about to
2. in on to for over
3. indiscernible irredeemable invincible indisposed indispensable
4. medium media means ways milieu
5. amenable marketable inaccessible accessible obtainable
6. ill-fitted illiterate illegible irascible illegitimate
7. stations centres factories units pylons
8. escalated prohibiting prohibitory prohibited prohibitive
9. turned operated manipulated switched controlled
10. waves bands wavebands lines programmes
11. power station battery transmitter electricity generator
12. hear turn on switch on tune in attend
The Register of Ceremonies
Nigeria is famous for the way tradition continues to play an important part in modern life. Every
important aspect of human life is marked by (1) – of various kinds. When a child is born, there are
38
(2) – ceremonies, in which traditional gifts such as kola-nuts, honey and palmwine may play their
part.
Elaborate (3) – also accompany weddings and burials. No visit to Nigeria would be complete
without witnessing or taking part in the (4) – festival of the yam.
Considering the (5) – of Oba Oyewusi II. Only a direct descendant of Oduduwa can claim the title
of oba and wear the sacred (6) –. Such occasions are marked by elaborate (7) – and fascinating
performances by (8) –.
In most parts of Nigeria there are (9) – rulers. In some cases, they are of mainly (10) – importance,
but many play an important part in local affairs.
A B C D E
1. festivities ceremonies ceremonious civics civilities
2. birth naming nativity native nuptial
3. celebrations rituals rights rites virtues
4. animal annual anniversary universal harvest
5. crown investment enthrone coronation decoration
6. cloths robes regalia rituals ritual
7. clothes costumes materials material clothing
8. dance acrobats subjects supporters masqueraders
9. tradition traditional symbolic despotic respectful
10 public ritual little ceremonial solemn
The lives of whole communities may be dominated by (11) – affairs. The (12) – of a new king
(called (13) – among the Yoruba) is accompanied by much (14) – and merry making. Another
great sight is the (15) – that takes place when (16) – is installed accompanied usually by (17) – of
trumpets, and (18) displays by horsemen.
A B C D E
11. chief chiefdom chieftaincy regal royal
12. restoration restore exultation installation instalment
13. oba oni emir king chief
14. festival east feasting joy joyful
15. horse-riding festival meeting durbar ritual
16. a king an emir traditional ruler sultan an MP
17. furious frolics fun-fair fanfares whistling
18. spacious spectacle superfluous spurious spectacular
The Register of the Law (Nigeria)
In pre-colonial days, Nigeria enjoyed what we today call (1) – or traditional law. It varies from one
ethnic group to another. The legal (2) – did not exist in written form, except where Islamic law or
(3) – had been introduced.
In the colonial era English law was introduced into the country and remained after Independence.
Customary (including Islamic) law and English law are thus two main sources of law in Nigeria
today. The system also includes new laws made by the country’s law-making bodies in accordance
39
with the (4) –.
Law in Nigeria is administered by a variety of (5) –. In addition to customary courts and Sharia
courts, the main ones are, in ascending order: Magistrate’s Courts and Area Courts, which are (6) –
over by magistrates appointed by the State (7) – Services Commission; the (8) – Court in each
State; the Court of Appeal; and finally the (9) – Court of Nigeria. The last two of these are found
only at Federal level. The decision of any higher court is (10) – on any Court lower down in this
hierarchy.
All these courts have (11) – over both civil and criminal matters. Civil law deals with (12) –
between persons – divorce cases, land disputes, etc. Criminal law deals with those (13) – of
committing crimes against the laws of Nigeria.
A person (14) – on a criminal (15) – is known as the (16) –. His trial comes about after his arrest
by the police.
A B C D E
1. cultural established customary prehistoric custodial
2. inventory code catalogue directory laws
3. sharia tariff Shia Sallah tort
4. judiciary justice legislature Constitution wishes
5. decrees judges courts variables rules
6. presided exercised supervised reigned ruled
7. General Civil judicial Public Executive
8. Great High Superior Prime Supreme
9 Senior Ultimate Maximum Supreme Extreme
10. obligatory restrictive virtual automatic binding
11. jurisdiction authority priority judgement tendency
12. contests controversies arguments disputes agreements
13. guilty charged suspected acquitted accused
14. brought tried sentences interrogated guilty
15. case investigation charge plea matter
16. defence defender victim defendant counsel
To carry out an arrest, a policeman must produce a (17) –. If the accused person cannot be tried
within 24 hours he is entitled to (18) –. At his trial he normally has a lawyer to defend him. The
case against him is presented by the (19) –, a lawyer representing the Government.
Lawyers who have the right to argue cases in court are also known as (20) –, and they belong to the
Nigeria Bar Association. Both the defence and the prosecution produce (21) –. These give their
evidence, and they may be (22) – by both the defence and the prosecution. They are under (23) – to
tell the truth, and failure to do so is a crime known as (24) –.
When all the (25) – has been heard the judge gives his (26) – which is either ‘Guilty’ or ‘Not
Guilty’. If it is ‘Not Guilty’ the accused is (27) – and regains his freedom. If on the other hand he
is found ‘Guilty’, he is punished according to the seriousness of the (28) –. Sometimes if there are
(29) circumstances, or if it is a first offence, the person may be cautioned and (30) –.
17. warrant summons bill permit proof

18. bail remittance rebate damages freedom
19. prospector prostitution prosecution persecutor prosecutor
20. ushers barristers bailiffs orators auditors
40
21. observers testimonials witnesses guarantees eye-witnesses

22. interrogated interviewed queried harassed cross-examined
23. oath promise pledge commitment swear
24. felony perjury arson homicide slander
25. confirmation complaint process evidence complaints
26. counsel point of view verdict opinion announcement
27 justified exonerated acquitted pardoned fined
28. offence penalty procedure wrong law
29 mitigating diminishing compensating moderating extraneous
30. discharged executed released liberated jailed
The Register of Technology (Welding)
The following exercise focuses on a technical register – the group of words associated with the
technique of welding. None of the items that feature in this exercise is technical in a narrow sense
– they all fall into the category ‘Technical English required by ordinary people’.
In the following passage, the numbered gaps indicate missing words. Against each number in the
Welding is a (1) – that is used very (2) – in industry and engineering. Basically, it works on the
principle that pieces of metal can be joined together when great heat is (3) –. There are two kinds
of welding.
Forge welding is the oldest kind. It is widely used in Africa, especially for such general purposes
as making or repairing metal tools and farm (4) –. In forge welding, the welder heats the two
pieces of metal until they are soft and then beats them with a hammer until they (5) – into each
other to form one (6) –. In fusion welding, the two pieces of metal are not merely softened, but
melted. The heat in fusion welding is often obtained by use of an oxyacetylene (7) –. With this
tool, oxygen is used in (8) – with the gas acetylene to produce an extremely hot flame. The size of
the flame and the position of the jet can both be easily (9) – if the job is intricate.
The other method of doing fusion welding is called electric arc welding, which uses electric
currents to make heat. In this method there is an electric (10) – capable of carrying a powerful
charge. A metal welding rod is connected to one (11) –: the pieces of metal to be welded are
connected to each other. An electric (12) – called an arc, is generated at the place where the two
pieces of metal are to be joined. The heat of the arc is so strong that it melts the two pieces of
metal, and they join together.
A B C C E
1. work job process procession business
2. externally extensively extraneously ostensibly extraordinarily
3. implied applied obtained provided supplied
4. instruments utensils mechanisms implements apparatus
5. become join amalgamate cement merge
6. sullied solvent solid sordid molten
7. flame torch light lamp spotlight
8. mixture composition conjunction addition attachment
9. accommodated corresponded regularized harmonized adjusted
10. current circuit voltage terminal circle
11. screw plug earth terminus terminal
41
12. flash star spark glint shine
The Register of Business
As in the previous exercise, choose the best alternative from the list below for each of the following
blanks.
At first, Mr Gacuiri (1) – his new business entirely on his own. He even kept his own (2) –But as
he began to diversify, and business grew, he had to employ a (3) – to do them for him. His job was
to maintain a record of all the (4) – that Mr Gacuiri carried out. He kept a ledger, and all the
payments made by Mr Gacuiri were placed under the heading (5) –, and all the money received was
put under the heading (6) –. Every so often the books had to be (7) – to ensure that all the finances
were in order.
A B C D E
1. governed ruled ordered managed led
2. figures numbers accounts sums receipts
3. book-keeper typist recorder reporter assistant
4. activities processes procedures transactions duties
5. debit debt bill deficit obligation
6. profit receipt cash credit gain
7. balanced evened out adjusted altered levelled
The Register of Road Travel
Musa (1) – driven all the way from B/Kebbi to Zaria. The tyres of his bus, though (2) –, had not
(3) –. The brakes, though binding, had not failed. The time was now 7.30 p.m. and Musa had put
on his (4) –. Not being used to points where the Government collects money on the highway (5) –,
and not being literate. Musa was surprised to find the (6) – way suddenly dividing into five points
at the toll-gate. Since he saw so many vehicles, and so many policemen, Musa felt that armed
robbers must have (7) – there then. He suddenly did a (8) – just as another vehicle was coming on
the side he was turning. He saw the (9) – vehicle just in time to attempt to stop. In vain, the other
vehicle tried to (10) –. But his brakes suddenly (11) – and his vehicle (12) – into the oncoming
vehicle. The (13) – of the two vehicles were shattered and the (14) – were damaged, as evidenced
by the hot water rushing out from the ill-fated vehicles. Very soon, three road safety officers
arrived and demanded the vehicles’ (15) – from the two drivers.
A B C D E
1. is has had have having
2. worn out worn down tired brand new secondary
3. bursted bursting busted bust burst
4. brake lights headlights rear lights parking lights hazard lights
5. toll-gates town-gates gateways bye-ways city gates
6. flyover dual-carriage expressed new way dirt-road
7. being operated been operating operated had operated are operating
8. reversal revision round-turn round-about U-turn
9. on-coming p-coming on-going stationary stationery
10. swerve avoid escape commence avert
11. had failed failed have failed has failed felled
12. parked dived crashed managed jerked
13. tyres boots aerials roofs windscreens
42
14. seats belts bonnets radiators generators

15. particulars manuals booklets dealers owners
Try to do the following exercises too:
Making appointments
Fill in the missing words in the passage below. Choose from the following. The first has been done
for you.
forms employment pay

personnel functions promotion holiday
references round holes square pegs
chosen Application Advertisements
Short list Interview
Making appointments is one of the main (1) personnel functions.
(2) …………………….. are placed in newspapers and in trade journals. (3) ……………………
who reply to these, or who are found in other ways, are sent application (4)……………………
…………………………. From these the best candidates are (5)…………………………
…………………….............. and a (6) …………………………….. is drawn up. The employers
try to avoid fitting (7) ……………………into (8) ……………………… The short-listed
applicants are called for an (9)…………………….. . During this, the (10) ……………… …
package is explained; this includes the annual (11) ……………………… entitlement,
the rates of (12) ……………………., and the opportunities for (13) ………………………... .
When the successful candidate is decided on, there is one last step: (14) ……………………… are
taken up before the appointment is finally confirmed.
Contracts
Fill in the gaps in the outline draft contract, choosing from the words in the box. The first has been
done for you. (Note: “widget” is a slang term used for any type of imaginary item which is assumed
to be made, bought or sold.)
43
Terms arbitration payment

Reclaim freight/ loading specification
Charges penalty late
Delivery substandard invoked
Letter of credit parties
DRAFT CONTRACT between

WIDGETRY Ltd (hereafter known as the “seller”)
And MERCURY plc (hereafter known as the “buyer”)
The seller undertakes to supply the buyer with 120,000 super widgets, to BSI (1) specification 999
and to pay all (2) …………………………. and insurance (3)…………………………….. The
terms of (4) ………………….. and immediate payment of (5) ……………………….. charges by
confirmed and irrevocable (6)……………………. …………………. ………………. are to be
standard.
A (7) …………………… clause will be included in the contract. It will be (8)
……………………….. against the seller for late delivery or (9) ………………….. quality; against
the buyer for (10) ………… payment.
In the event of non-payment, the seller shall be entitled to (11) ……………………................the
goods.
In the case of a dispute between the (12) …………………… to the contract, the matter will be
taken to independent (13) ………………. . All the (14) …………………….. of the contract must
be complied with by both parties.
Banking
Choose from the words in the box to complete the sentences. The first has been done for you.
Bank of England base rate stock shares bond

Bearer Stock Exchange bear bull
asset
1. The American central bank, the FED is the equivalent of the Bank of England in Britain.
2. The units of ownership of a company, allowing the holder to receive a proportion of the company’s
profits are …………………………………….. .

44
3. If the company is publicly quoted, the answer to 2 above are sold on the
4. ………………………………………………….
5. In the UK, a fixed amount of paid-up capital held by a stockholder is a ……………………….
6. If the market is thought to be good and prices on the Stock Exchange are thought to be likely to rise,
the market is called a ………………………………….. market.

7. If the market is thought to be good and prices on the Stock Exchange are thought to be likely to fall,
8. the market is called a ………………………………….. market.

9. A promise to buy a sum of money over an agreed time by anyone licensed to do so, such as a
10. government, insurance firm, etc.., is a ……………………………… .

11. Certificates of ownership of bonds that can be transferred from seller to buyer without any
12. formalities are ……………………………………….. bonds.

13. Something that is owned by an individual or company, has monetary value, and can be sold to pay
14. debts, is an ……………………………. .

15. The interest which a bank charges on loans is at a rate which is usually higher than its
…………………………………… .
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4.2.2 Foreign Elements in English
Languages do not stay the same for ever but are always changing. English has borrowed a large
number of words from other languages, especially Latin, French and Greek. Often we forget that
words in common use are borrowed – for example, democratic and political came from Greek.
Some of the words still keep their foreign pronunciation.
Study the lists on this page. Match the foreign words on the left with the corresponding meaning,
or paraphrase, on the right. The first one is done for you.
Latin words
ad hoc* to the point of sickness or disgust
ad nauseam bounteous mother: one’s,
much loved school college
or university
alma mater by virtue of the office or
position one holds
bona fide the other way round
ex officio * improvised, impromptu
for a specific occasion
homo sapiens unwelcome or
unacceptable person
persona non grata a person’s greatest work
in memoriam in memory of (a deceased
person)
inter alia summary of one’s life
magnum opus member of the human
species
sine qua non among other things
vice versa a necessary precondition
curriculum vitae genuine
French Words
bourgeoisie an attitude or doctrine of

governmental non-intervention
carte blanche concerning
chargé ďaffaires unconstitutional change in government
coup d’état a rude mistake
en route justification, reason for being
fait accompli a reversal (e.g. of opinion)
faux pas an accomplished fact
laissez-faire complete freedom or authority to act
morale friendly relationship, understanding
raison ďétre person in charge of a diplomatic mission
rapport feelings
vis-à-vis a member of the middle class
volte-face on the way
NB Pronunciation etc. of the following words (Fr origin) also: debris, reportage, (diplomatic) corps,
impasse. (Others???)
46
Greek Words
acme I’ve found it

anathema point of perfection
chaos something totally unacceptable
charisma the common people
cosmos capacity to inspire
eureka disastrous pride
hoi polloi glory, renown, fame
hubris orderly system
kudos complete confusion
Exercise: Research and add five (5) new words or expressions to each of the above lists.
4.2.3 Idioms
What do you understand by the following idioms?
1. The discussion generated more heat than light.

2. The politician’s speech had an electric effect on the meeting.
3. The fat was in the fire when she heard of her son’s arrest.
4. Gacuiri soon learned to stand on his own feet.
5. Fobi began to diversify with an eye to safeguarding his new business.
6. The teacher did his best to encourage them to train harder, but their hearts didn’t seem
to be in it.
7. Ali decided to turn over a new leaf.
8. She wanted to avoid the rat-race of life in the city.
9. Local businesses demanded a level playing field and called for more controls on cheap
foreign imports.
10. A small computer company located in Accra is trying to gain a foothold in the
mushrooming computer games market.
4.3 Spelling
Spelling words correctly is a difficult job for many people; although nearly everyone has some
difficulty writing this or that word. Spelling errors are, however, very unpleasant. The source of
spelling errors in English may be oddities such as:
• Words which sound the same, but are spelt differently, like buoy and boy, quay and key, I
and eye.
• Words that are spelt the same, but sound differently, like record (n) and record (v), and
read (present tense) and read (past tense).
• Words that contain ‘silent’ letters – island, design, biscuit, knee, gnat.
But English spelling is not totally confusing. There are basic rules that underlie and show how to
spell most words. You must therefore make a conscious effort to be aware of these rules. Doing
this will help overcome what has become so common these days: The wrong spelling of ‘simple’
words.
Follow the following rules and tips to improve your spelling and get the so-called commonly
misspelt words right.
47
Making plurals
Normally, just add s

book – books, organisation - organisations
If a word ends in s, x, z, ch or sh, add es. Exception quiz - quizzes
Words ending in f or fe; change to ve and add es
thief – thieves, wife - wives
Exceptions:
beliefs chiefs dwarfs gulfs proofs roofs
Words ending in y.
a) If the letter before the y is a vowel, add s say – says boy - boys
b) If the letter before the y is a consonant, change the y to ies baby – babies spy - spies
Words ending in o, add s

Piano – pianos
Exceptions:
cargoes dominoes echoes
goes heroes mangoes
mosquitoes potatoes tomatoes
tornadoes volcanoes
Some words stay the same in the plural

aircraft deer sheep furniture information
Others are irregular

children men feet
geese mice oxen
teeth women lice
Some Latin and Greek words change in a different way:

Crisis – crises formula – formulae larva - larvae
Adding ing and ed

When we use verbs, we have to change them according to the verb tense we are using.
Present Simple tense

I walk to school.
Past Simple tense

I walked to school yesterday.
Present Continuous tense
I am walking to school now.
Note these rules:
Normally, you just add ing or ed walking- walked

48
Words with one syllable, with a long vowel, ending in e: remove the e, and add ing.
like – liked – liking
Exceptions: age – aged – ageing

queue – queued – queueing
Words with one syllable, a short vowel, ending in a single consonant : double the consonant
beg – begged – begging
Words with more than one syllable, ending in a single consonant:

a) If the stress is on the last syllable, double the consonant
permit – permitted – permitting
b) If the stress is not on the last syllable, just add ing or ed
benefit – benefited- benefiting
sharpen – sharpened - sharpening
Words ending in l:
a) If there is a single vowel before the l, add ling or led
compel – compelled – compelling
instil - instilled - instilling
b) If there is a double vowel before the l, just add ing or ed

peel – peeled – peeling
Words ending in y
a) If the letter before the y is a vowel, just add ing or ed
play = playing – played
Exceptions:
lay – laid pay – paid say – said
b) If the letter before the y is a consonant, change the y to I before adding ed

try – tried - trying
Adding ly
We can turn adjectives into adverbs by adding ly:
She is a quick worker.
She works quickly.
Normally you just add ly to the adjective quick – quickly
If the word ends in ll, just add y full – fully
If the word contains two or more syllables, and ends in y, cut off the y and add ily:
happy – happily healthy - healthily
Words of one syllable ending in y are usually regular shy- shyly
Exceptions: gay gaily day – daily
Using ‘ie’ or ‘ei’

The rule is ‘i’ before ‘c’ except after ‘c’ when the sound is long ‘ee’ /i:/.
49
thief niece piece

perceive receive ceiling
Exceptions: seize weird

their neither
Using ce or se
The rule is ‘c for a noun, s for a verb’ (you can remember this quite easily because the letters are in
alphabetical order: C – Noun, S – Verb)
Noun Verb
advice advise
practice practise
licence license
Example
Will you advise me?
I need your advice.
Warning!
In American English, the c appears in both the noun and the verb forms. For example: ‘I missed my
football practice last week, and so I will have to practice twice next week.’
Problem words
Words that are often confused

accept except peace piece
affect effect quite quiet
aloud allowed read reed
bear bare red read
birth berth right write
board bored sew sow
chose choose some sum
diary dairy steak stake
great grate tale tail
heel heal threw through
here hear wait weight
lose loose weak week
made maid weather whether
meter metre where were
miner minor which witch
pain pane wood would
past passed your you’re
Note too:
its it’s there their they’re
to too two whose who’s
50
Words with single and/or double letters. These often cause problems. Here are the
commonest:
accelerate address illustrate imitate

assist beginning immediate marvel
brilliant caterpillar mattress millionaire
collapse collect necessary occasion
commit corridor parallel patrol
disappear discuss pedal possess
embarrass exaggerate success sufficient
happiness harass terrible unnecessary
woollen
Awkward customers
Regularly misspelt in examinations!
adaptation adviser foreign friend

argument beautiful government guard
breakfast building headache height
business centre humorous island
chemist cheque knowledgeable neighbour
connection conscience people rhythm
conscious daughter rhyme scissors
electricity February separate usually
vehicle
On your own
Make up sentences using these words, and note them down in your vocabulary notebooks. Do
spelling tests from time to time with a friend.
4.4 Punctuation
When people speak, we notice that they manipulate what they feel or want to put across. They can
use the voice to indicate that they are only making a statement, posing a question or saying that
they are happy, sad or even furious. If we are listening, we are able to interpret correctly and
understand what the voice modulation means. But when people write, they are unable to use tone
and pitch or voice, pauses, gestures, postures, facial expression, touch and other non-verbal
communication to show what they mean. Rather, there are special marks that they have to add to
the text to indicate these non-verbal communications. These special marks are called punctuation
marks and punctuation refers to the use of punctuation marks to show the division between phrases
and sentences and making sentences clearer. The structure of a sentence greatly influences the type
of punctuation marks to use. Some common punctuation marks are the following:
comma (,)
semi-colon (;)
quotation marks (“ ” or ‘ ’)
apostrophe (’)
parenthesis (( ) or [ ])
question marks (?)
full stop or period (.)
4.4.1 The Comma (,)

It is probably the most frequently used punctuation mark within the sentence, but it is also the most
frequently misused. Be careful to use the comma correctly. In a sentence, the comma is usually
51
used to separate items from each other. The items may be words, phrases or clauses, and here, the
comma does a job similar to that of the dash, the parenthesis, the colon and the semi-colon. A
comma or a semi-colon may be used to separate independent clauses joined by and, or, but, for and
similar co-ordinating conjunctions.
Consider the following sentence:
You must register first, and then we shall supply the handouts.
1. You must register first.
2. Then we shall supply the handouts.
It can be seen that sentences 1 and 2 can each stand on its own and make complete sense; they are
thus independent clauses and both combine to form a compound sentence bound by the common
co-ordinating conjunction “and”.
When “and” is omitted, the semi-colon may be used as in:
You must register first; then we shall supply the handouts.

We are lecturers; they are priests.
Use commas to set off names and similar words in direct address. Study the following two
sentences:
We are calling, Dad, to say that we shall be home for Easter.
We are calling Dad to say that we shall be home for Easter.
Notice that sentence 1 has commas setting off Dad. Can you guess the difference in meaning of the
two sentences?
In sentence 1 where Dad is set off by the two commas, Dad is the one being addressed. In sentence
2, however, the addressee seems to be someone else while Dad is the indirect object of the verb
“calling”.
Use commas to separate elements in a series: For example,
1. In those days, the six engineering departments of Western University College of KNUST
(now UMaT) were Geomatic, Geological, Mining, Mineral, Mechanical and Electrical.
2. We bought pieces of cake, drinks and take-away fried rice for the Christmas party.
Note that the comma before “and” in a list or series is optional.
…. Mechanical and Electrical
…. Mechanical, and Electrical
Both are correct.
Use a comma before and after a direct quotation and to set off “she said” and similar
attributions.
52
1. “I’m blessed to have you as my students”, said Dr Mrs Mireku-Gyimah.
2. Dr Mrs Mireku-Gyimah observed, “I’m blessed to have you as my students”.
In constructions like sentence 2 where the attribute comes before the quotation, the colon (:) may
be used in place of the comma:
Dr Mrs Mireku-Gyimah remarked: “I’m blessed to have you as my students”.
Use a comma to separate contrasting items e.g.
The head of department is a man, not a woman.
He has four daughters and a son, not four sons and a daughter.
My mother is a teacher, not a nurse.
Use a comma to separate names of places, addresses and items in dates.
1. We ever resided at Bungalow Numbers 24, 16 and 44, Government Hill, Tarkwa.
2. Nana Ama was born on Saturday, 8th July, 1989.
3. Lectures began for this semester on Monday, February 2, 2015.
Use the comma to separate an introductory phrase or adverbial clause from the main
(independent) clause.
For example:
1. Since it rained heavily, we could not hold the meeting yesterday.
2. Impressed by her neatness and impeccable use of language, the men could not help smiling
to her.
3. When the semester ends, I shall travel abroad.
Use commas to set off forms of the appositive.
1. My mother, Auntie Aggie, is a very affable person.
2. The International students will pay a visit to the Foundation Vice Chancellor of UMaT,
Professor Daniel Mireku-Gyimah, who has now retired.
Use commas to set off non restrictive modifiers. For example:
1. The SRC President, who was impeached last year, is now a businessman.
2. Solomon Ampim, who is a former president of GHAFES, made a first class.
3. We lost Mr Charles Antuokuu, the indefatigable secretary to the VC, in 2014.

53
4. The National Health Insurance Scheme, which is such a tremendous help to the citizenry,
must not be destroyed.
Exercises on the comma
Insert commas at the appropriate places in the following sentences:

1. We performed very well in our final examinations so our parents organised parties for us.
2. His wife is from Ghana but he is from Nigeria.
3. Returning to school I carried clothes shoes food items and books as my luggage.
4. Her brother was baptised on Sunday 6th March.
5. The Member of Parliament whose wife is a nurse is also a good singer.
6. They would like to become medical doctors not accountants.
7. If you are hardworking you will succeed.
8. The guests of honour included our Communication Skills lecturer Dr. Patricia
9. The Vice Chancellor of a university must be given the right to appoint deans who must have
the appropriate academic and administration qualifications and experience to assist in the
task of running a university.
10. Next Sunday the new head will be inducted into office.
4.4.2 The Semi-colon (;)
Use the semi-colon to separate two complete statements or independent clauses without a
conjunction (as seen earlier in our discussion of the uses of the comma). Consider the following
examples:
1. Two pioneer students, Wango and Kindo, successfully undertook the One-Year Certificate
in English programme at CENCES, UMaT, the following year; one student, N’goran,
followed their footsteps.
2. Christmas is over; Valentine’s Day and Easter follow in that order.
3. Many are called; few are chosen.
Use the semi-colon (instead of the comma) to separate elements in a series when some of the
elements already contain commas. This will ensure clearer separation between phrases that would
otherwise be very confusing indeed. Study the following example:
That year, selected athletes for the final of finals competition were of varied backgrounds; they
included Kofie, a first year tall, lanky and very fast runner from Abontiakoon, Tarkwa, who was
offering Geomatic Engineering; Chukwu, a Nigerian in the second year Petroleum Engineering
class, a first class triple jumper; Fatou, a beautiful, third year Mining Engineering student, who
54
was highly brilliant, and hailed from Ouagadougou in Burkina Faso; and Annie, the Cameroonian-
turned- Ivorian lady of the first year Mineral Engineering class, who almost always wore her hair in
braids during the competition and who, unfortunately, died the following year, after a short illness.
Use the semi-colon in the sentence before transitional connectives between two main clauses. The
common transitional connectives include also, besides, consequently, furthermore, yet, therefore,
likewise and nevertheless. For example:
1. They never do their work well; therefore they never please the boss.
2. He sent his daughters to school; consequently, he has a bevy of beautiful, brilliant and rich
ladies in his family to prop him up in his old age.
3. That woman is always kind; yet she has no one to show kindness to her.
Exercise
Insert semi-colons in the appropriate places in the following sentences:
1. My daughter ignored her friend’s advice to do Arts she preferred to do Science.
2. Students must be wise with money parents are literally trying to squeeze water out of stone
to finance education of their children.
3. Mass transport is good but there is no privacy private cars provide privacy but they are too
expensive to maintain.
4. The birds landed on chairs, tables, and drapes they even landed on the family’s pet dog.
5. A few nights later, fifty more birds turned up in another home this time the police helped
the family chase them out.
6. People must begin to cut down on fatty foods cutting down on fatty foods will ensure
healthier, longer life.
8, We must avoid inhaling poisonous gases importation of cars with faulty exhaust systems
must be stopped!
9. Africans must give serious thought to cremation of their dead the continent can save on land
and expensive wood this way.
10 The traditional form of education had the advantage of preparing a child for life in the
community it did not in general encourage him to be ambitious or independent, or teach him
to meet the needs of the modern world.
4.4.3 The Colon (:)
The colon may be used to introduce direct speech as noted earlier in the uses of the comma. For
example:
55
He said: “I have finished the work”.
The major function of the colon, however, is to introduce what follows it (i.e. the colon). It may be
a list, a statement, an example, or whatever the earlier part of the sentence has caused the reader to
expect. For example,
1. All manner of people attended the durbar: chiefs, American tourists, market women,
teachers, nurses, miners, footballers, ministers and even pickpockets.
2. It is an international hostel: English, German, Italian, Russian, American, Indian, Ghanaian

and Nigerian students live there.
3. Our school motto reads: Seize the day.
4. The following items will be needed: pens, paper, clips, pins, key holders and flower vases.
Use the colon in numerals expressing time to separate the hour from the minute, e.g. 10:30 a.m.,
1:15 p.m., 7:00 p.m.
Exercise
Insert colons where appropriate in the following sentences:
1. Our birthdays fell on July 4th, 5th, 8th and 24th.
2. Higher Education must do at least one thing encourage independent, critical thinking.
3. On 6th March 1957 at exactly 10 45 a.m., he was born.
4. The first president of the Republic of Ghana, Osagyefo Dr. Nkrumah, declared
“Independence now.”
5. Study the following literary terms simile, irony, assonance, theme, subject matter and
characterization.
6. This was the text message I received Mum, I really adore you.
7. A good essay should have three major parts an introduction, a body and a conclusion.
4.4.4 Quotation Marks (“ ” or ‘ ’)
Use the double quotation marks as follows:

1. To set off the actual words of a speaker or writer e.g.
a. She said: “God is surely on our side.”
b. “There’s too much work around here” he complained.
2. To set off a word or group of words under discussion e.g.

a. “Poverty” does not refer to just the absence of money in one’s purse.
b. “Mining and the environment” is what we are considering this afternoon.
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3. To indicate the title of an article, a poem, a short story or song e.g.

a. Mireku-Gyimah, P. B. (2002), “The Environment” in Gateway to English for Senior
Secondary Schools, Students’ Bk. 1, Essex, Pearson Edu. Ltd., Essex, pp. 131- 142.
b. We are studying “Abiku” as one of the selected poems for the examination.
c. “Awurade Kasa” is one of Cindy Thompson’s greatest hits.
d. The title of Peggy’s short story is “Love Conquers All.”
The single quotation mark is used to set off a quotation within the quotation e.g.
The Vice Chancellor said, “Thank God, UMaT is now a full-fledge University”.
Use quotation marks around nicknames and epithets e.g.

a. They refer to him as “Tarzan.”
b. Azumah “Zoom Zoom” Nelson is a popular boxer from Ghana.
c. Ghana’s beloved footballer, Asamoah Gyan, is also known as “Baby Jet”.
Use quotation marks around unfamiliar words e.g.

a. The drunken boys kept asking for more beer with shouts of ‘bu bra’, ‘bu bra.’
b. Ghanaians are suffering under the “dumsor” situation.
4.4.5 The Apostrophe (’)

The apostrophe is not really a punctuation mark because unlike the others it does not occur between
words. Nevertheless, we shall consider it here since it functions as a punctuation mark somehow.
The chief functions of the apostrophe are to form the possessive case and to show contractions (or
shortened forms) and eliminated letters.
Use the apostrophe to form the possessive case of singular words by adding ‘s’ to the singular word
e.g. the book’s cover, my son’s shirt, Pat’s office. The apostrophe in these phrases shows that the
first word possesses the second so the cover belongs to the book, the shirt belongs to my son and
the office owned or occupied by a person called Pat.
Also with similar words ending in s or x such as “boss” and “box”, use the apostrophe and the s.
For example:
a. The box’s size looked too huge.
b. Our boss’s appearance was good.
When the word “sake” is used in some expressions, the s is usually dropped even if the noun is
singular. Pay special attention to the following examples:
For goodness’ sake; for convenience’ sake; for conscience’ sake.
Use the apostrophe to indicate a shortened form of a word e.g. ‘it is’ becomes it’s; ‘it has’ becomes
it’s as in:
a. It is good to see you becomes: it’s good to see you
b. It has been raining heavily these days becomes: it’s been raining heavily these days
Do not confuse it’s with its;

Its is a possessive form, it’s is only a shortened form as has been seen.
In fact in constructions such as:

a. The dog wags its tail. Its refers to the dog – specifically the tail of the dog.
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b The book has lost its cover. Its refers to the book – the cover of the book.
Note that there is nothing like its’ in English. Avoid it.
Remember also that the pronouns “her”, “your”, and “their” do not take on an apostrophe: there
are no such words as her’s, your’s or their’s in English. Their possessive forms are always hers,
yours and theirs. Learn to use them correctly as in the following:
a. The book is hers/yours/theirs.

b. I’m yours.
c. Yours faithfully, or Yours sincerely,
Use the apostrophe with s to show the plural of letters, numerals, and special symbols e.g.
a. Mind your R’s and L’s b. When it comes to money, I’d rather see 1000’s than
100’s.
For plural words ending in s, form the possessive by adding only the apostrophe and leaving out the
s as in:
The books’ case. b. My sons’ room.
Note here that it is the ‘possessing’ words that are plural in these instances. What is the difference
in meaning between the following sentences?
a. The pastor’s secretary. b. The pastors’ secretaries.
Plural nouns that do not end with s should also take on the apostrophe and an s as in the earlier
examples, e.g.
a. woman (singular); women (plural); women’s groups.

b. child (singular); children (plural); children’s rights.
c. man (singular); men (plural); Men’s Fellowship/Ministry.
Since there are no such words as womens, childrens or mens in English, it is wrong to write
apostrophes after them to mark the possession. You cannot write something like:
*Womens’s or womens’
*Childrens’s or childrens’
*Mens’s or mens’
To avoid clumsiness, do NOT line up possessives as in:
a. * My mother-in-law’s sister’s half brother’s uncle’s funeral comes off next week.
Instead, write simply: The funeral of my mother-in-law’s relative …
b. * My brother’s wife’s half sister’s mother-in-law’s father-in-law’s aunt is 101 years

old.
Instead, write:
My sister-in-law’s relative is 101 years old.
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Exercises on the Apostrophe
Insert apostrophes where appropriate in these sentences:
1. Its not easy at all!

2. The Womens Ministry Week is here.
3. Childrens rights are human rights.
4. I am yours sincerely, Pat.
5. These books are mine, those are hers and theirs.
4.4.6 The Question Mark (?)
The quotation mark is used for one main job: to show that the sentence or statement is to be seen as
a question.
For instance:
a. You have been doing your work well? or Have you been doing your work well?
b. It’s true?
c. Is it true?
Use the question mark in parenthesis after words or phrases in sentences to show uncertainty as in
the following:
a. Education(al?)
b. Education fund (?) or educational fund (?)
c. Their greatest asset (?) was the dilapidated house at Nima, Accra.
Exercises on the question mark
Add the question mark at the appropriate place in the following sentences:
1. You are travelling to Kumasi next week, aren’t you

2. It’s your sister or
3. Five million cedis is big money
4. Do they obey instructions
5. Are you sure you are right
4.4.7 Parenthesis ( )
The parenthesis functions like the comma, the semi-colon and the colon because it is used to
separate words from one another. It may be used, like the dash (-) to set off an explanation, an
amplification or a qualification. The parenthesis encloses this extra information that helps clarify
the statement:
a. We leave for the Ashanti Region today (Kumasi to be precise).

b. The students (especially the girls) are quite big and mature.
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Exercises on the Parenthesis
Insert parenthesis where appropriate in the following sentences:

1. Some words are often misspelled because they sound alike for example “cares” and
“curse”.
2. The institution is 61 this year, 1952 – 2013.
3. I worked at Tarsco for almost twenty-three years from September 1981 to January 2004.
4. The Novotel of UMaT painted red and yellow is quite a delight to watch.
5. Stakeholders of education like teachers and parents must join hands to train children.
4.4.8 The Full Stop or Period (.)

The full stop or period is used at the end of a sentence which is not a question, a command or an
exclamation (or interjection).
For example:
a. You are coming with me.
b. I like gospel music.
c. There will be a symposium next week.
d. The budget for 2004 has been read.
You may use the full stop to also show formal abbreviations as in the following:
Titles: Mr., Rev., Dr., Lt., Col., Fr., Prof., etc.
Degrees: B.A., B.Sc., M.Ed., Ph.D. etc
Days and months: Mon., Jan., Tues., Dec.
For common abbreviations and acronyms, leave the full stop out. For example, bring no periods in:
AU, NEPAD, UNICEF, UNDP, UN, GTZ, NDC, NPP, CPP, ECOWAS etc.
4.4.9 The dash ( – )
It is not the same as the hyphen (-); the dash is much longer ( – ) and it is used to indicate that the
thought is not complete or that there are interrupters as in:
They went to his place, once, twice – and then they stopped.
The dash may be used like the comma, the semi-colon, the colon or the parenthesis e.g.
a. We were right there – in your house at that very minute.

b. Globalisation – a curse or a blessing?
c. She’s been gossiping about us – you and me.
4.4.10 The hyphen (-)
It is used to make compound words, including names e.g. half-brother; mother-in-law, cross-cut,
Mr. Opoku-Agyemang. To know real compound words, always consult the dictionary, as this is
difficult. However, use the hyphen to make compound adjectives e.g.: a head-on collision, an open-
minded man, second-hand cars, open-ended question, one-year certificate programme, etc.
Use the hyphen to divide between syllables at the end of a line e.g.
60
a. She bought sand-

wiches.
not
She bought san-
dwiches
b. We saw the Princi-
pal
not
we saw the Pr-
incipal
Use the hyphen for word numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine e.g.
thirty-three; sixty-two; ninety-one.
Exercises on the dash and the hyphen
1. Pupils come to school on Monday, Tuesday and then they go for ‘gallamsey’!
2. Teenage pregnancy the consequence of Valentine’s Day celebrations without
thought!
3. Our class has forty one students; twenty two females and nineteen males.
4. Here are day old chicks for sale
5. We do not need any nine day wonders.
6. A fifty year old man should not marry a lady who is only twenty five!
4.5 Editing
To edit is to prepare (a text or film) for printing and viewing by correcting mistakes and deciding
what will be removed and what will be kept in, etc, or to be in charge of (the reports in a newspaper
or magazine etc.) (Cambridge International Dictionary of English).
To edit is to prepare or modify written material for publication. (The Concise Oxford Dictionary).
You have just read the dictionary definitions but note that whether you are publishing your work or
not, it is always very important to edit or proofread what you write including even your letters.
Submitting work for marks is not a trivial issue in the university. Read through your work whether
it is an examination paper or not, and endeavour to correct errors you may have made. It is very
likely that you can remove what is unwanted so that your work becomes good enough to fetch you
good marks etc.
Remember that too many errors mar your work and speak very ill of you. These days, the works of
many university students are full of grammatical errors, spelling mistakes and many other language
problems. Show that you are different. Edit your work. Proofread your written assignments and
examination papers always before submitting them. Your work speaks volumes about you. Check
your handwriting even!
Editing your work involves getting it ready, in your case, for submission. It can be considered as
the final stage of writing. After putting in so much effort to gather your material, plan and draft
your essay; you need to look very closely at the work. At this stage, you want to do some
‘checking’ to see whether you have done the right thing – the content, the paragraphs, the linking –
have you used the correct transitional devices etc.?
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Now your sentences, your words, your punctuation and spelling! You need to check them all to see
if they are right.
4.5.1 Follow the checklist below to edit your essay/work.
A Check your sentences
• Make your sentences effective. Write well-balanced and varied sentences.
• Vary the length and construction of your sentences. Alternate simple and complex
structures and long and short sentences for effective contrast.
• Learn to use active verbs.
• Eliminate any word you do not need.
B Check your words
As you edit your work look out for the following:
• Overuse of abstract or general words.
• Jargons, euphemisms and pretentious words.

Find simple, plain, straightforward substitutes that state your meaning clearly.
• Clichés. Avoid worn-out phrases like last but not least, busy as a bee, or at this point in
time. Whenever you can, replace such tired expressions with simple words like finally,
industrious and now respectively. These allow your writing to flow smoothly.
C Check your grammar
Errors in grammar are often hard to spot. You can learn to spot them by reading your draft aloud.
As you are reading, check for:
• Faulty tense shifts.

• Faulty agreement of subject and verb.
• Incorrect or unclear pronoun case forms or references.
• Dangling modifiers.
D Check your punctuation
Like grammatical errors, punctuation errors can be hard to spot. You may therefore need others to
help you find them, but try your best by watching for:
• Misused commas, and

• Mispunctuated quotations.
Exercise
62
Punctuate the following passage and organise it into paragraphs.
Some people had come for land problems others for advice in their marriage problems and yet
others were a delegation to seek the support of the mp in applying for a secondary school in their
ridge our children have nowhere to go after their primary schools one of the elders was explaining
after about an hour or so the mp arrived he was dressed in a dark suit and carried a leather
portfolio he smoked a pipe he greeted all the people like a father or a headmaster his children he
went to the office without apologizing people went in one by one
(James Ngugi, A Grain of Wheat p.72)
E Check your spelling, capitalisation and apostrophes
Know and look out for:
• Your own spelling demons.
Spelling demons are the words you have trouble spelling correctly. Is it receive which you
spell with ‘ie’ (recieve) or tomorrow which you spell with ‘mm’ (tommorow) or what?
Revise the correct spelling of words which are frequently misspelt.
• Words with apostrophes.
Be reminded again that words with apostrophes should be used to show the possessive of
nouns e.g. the girl’s book, and to form the plural of nouns; the two boys; the possessive of
pronouns: its head or the house is theirs. So note here that the ’s in the following is wrong: the
two boys; your’s ever; it’s tail. The correct versions are: the two boys; yours ever, its tail -
respectively - as you should be aware by now.
Names and titles
Check that these are capitalised. It is very important.
Remember that in addition to good organisation in paragraphing, you have to pay attention to the
mechanical features of the language to ensure that what you write is readable. The proper use of
capitalisation, punctuation and word division helps the reader get the information you want to put
across. Without the use of the comma, period, question and quotation marks, our information would
be muddled up and the purpose of writing as a means of communicating would be defeated.
Remember: edit whatever you write before submission.
4.5.2 Editing: Trial Exercises
Read the following passages carefully and rewrite them while editing them as appropriate.
PASSAGE 1
Geomatic Engineering is the eye of all professions especially engineering in the world. Geomatic
Engineering as the name implies, is the collection of data and informations in the surface of the
earth which are analysed and processed to enable engineering works to be located properly on the
earth surface. Furthermore, civil engineering, architectural engineering, mechanical engineering
63
and geological engineering needs the data or information gathered by the geomatic engineer to
enable them carry out their duties. Hydrographic surveys for instance seek certain informations like
the correct positions to allocate marine boards to guide sailors and navigators. Construction of
roads, dams, bridges, and also building which in actual fact are done by the civil and architectural
engineers often work with the geomatic engineer. Mine surveyors are able to make bench faces in
the mines by the help of Geomatic engineer who in actual fact provide to the mine surveyor in the
coordinates of the pole to allocate the bench face in the mines.
PASSAGE 2
Mineral technology is important to the national economy. Firstly, it creat job opportunity to the
unemploy youth in the country. Secondly, it raise the standard of leaving of the people by provision
of basic social amenities like, hospital, good roads, water and so fouth through the exportation of
it’s products which bring in more foreign exchange earner. Thirdly, founding the local industrials
with raw materials to boast domestic production. Finally; it serve as a machinery to extract and
processes the country natural mineral resources for economic growth.
PASSAGE 3
In some ways adolescence is merely a continuation of childhood. In other words, thee two periods
are very different. Adolescente involves personal responsibility, schoolwork, household chores and
family acitivies just as childhood do. Both provide opportunity for leisure time, hobbies and
activities with friends. During adolescence, however, boys and girls usually exercise greater
responisibilities in every area of their lifes, both at school and at home, than they did as children.
Adolescent must take on more individuals rolls without supervision than they did as children.
The adolescence years are often more troubles and are often mor emotional than the childhood
years. . Adolescents are offerred a greater experience with peers and family members, whese
presents emotional and mental growth difference from what they have experienced previously.
PASSAGE 4
Horace whittell hatred his alarm clock. He hatred it for fourty-seven years. Every working day
during all that years, the clock had made sure that Horace gut up in time to go to his job at the
docks in Chatham, England . chatham is a shipping pot. The clock’s shrill bell had jangled him
from asleep at exactly six o’clock every morning. He sweared that alarm clock would rang know
more when he retired. He brought the clock to work on his last day and smashed it under eight-ton
press. “it was a lovely filling,” Horace said “now I can be able to sleep past six o’clock every day”
PASSAGE 5
I am very sorry for the delayment of registration.The reason was due to financial constrain on my
behalf. I reported on the 12th April and we were requested to pay the full payment before we can be
allow to register, after the preliminary discussions, I found it necessary to go home for the full
payment.
I travel to Akosombo for the rest of the money and then return on 20th April, that was Thursday at
2.45pm. I was told that administration has closed for the Easter holiday and effort to register proved
futile.
The above reason has cause my delay.
PASSAGE 6
Your letter is at hand dated 25th October, 1999. I leant you pay visit for a week. Hopefully, things
are cool at abroad, Life is not bad here. I have draw the following programme to make you fill
happy about your visit.
On the very day you arrive at Kotoka International Airport. I will be there. On the Friday
early in the morning as you said, we shall visit Osu Castle.
64
Moreover, we shall visit cancoon rain forest at capecoast the nest day. I learnt you would
like to set eyes on wild animals. You will see elephants, monkeys etc. What a nice time to have at
that forest.
PASSAGE 7
While the horror inspired by the murder of Becket was still fresh, the pilgrims to the seen of his
matyrdom were doubtless inspiredby a filling of pure devosion. It was in such a spirit that Louis
VII of France comes to returns thanks for the recover of his sun from a dangerouse illness.
PASSAGE 8
Two weeks before the faithful examination begun, I was indiscreet enough to fights the Principal’s
sun. He was a fellow fifth-former with whom, up till then. I had had no quarrel at all. He was
inclined to be a little over-baring at times; but then a flint need contact with another flint in other to
spark, and I had being forced to develop from the start an easy-going and tolerant disposition.
PASSAGE 9
It is the custom of our people that after a boy has being “made clean” by his circumsition in the
Bondo bush, He must proof his manhood by killing a wild beast without help from any other
person. The youth spend the last night before his text of manhood with his mentor who may go
with her only as far as the urge of the forest. Many young men does not return from this guest.
Vultures show the waiting once where to search for a mangled body.
PASSAGE 10
Basic issues to be consided in the development of a mine layout includes the location and design of
assess and s10rvice openings, and the defination of stopping procedures for or extruction. This
issues are not mutually independence. However, geomechanics questions concening stopping
activity may be pervasive than those related to sitting and design of permanent openings, since the
formal persist through out the life of the mine, and possibly after the completing of mining.
65
LECTURE V
DOCUMENTATION
The Objectives of this lecture are:
• To discuss the features of a document (e.g. thesis or project report): Abstract, Table of
Contents, List of Figures, List of Tables, Main Chapters, References and Appendices;
• To discuss how to prepare Table of Contents;
• To discuss referencing and bibliography: how to cite sources of information from books,
journals, the internet etc.;
• To discuss tables and figures:-how to title them and make references to them;
• To discuss how to make and use footnotes;
• To discuss how to write a curriculum vitae (CV).
At the end of the lecture, the student is expected to be able to:
• Write and present a scholarly document e.g. theses, project reports, dissertations,
• Prepare a CV
5.2 The Features of an Academic Document (e.g. Thesis, Project Report etc.)
5.2.1 Academic Document
An academic document is a scholarly work which is written and presented as part of the
requirements for the award of a degree, etc. in a higher educational institution such as a university.
Words like thesis (plural – theses), dissertation, long essay, project work or project report may be
used depending on what the institution wants to call it. However, longer writing for higher degrees
are usually termed dissertations.
Also, although academic documents are mostly by research, there are some that are not.
5.2.2 Form and Structure of Theses, etc.
Form and structure of theses, etc. may vary from institution to institution and even from faculty to
faculty. Therefore, it is always advisable to follow the guidelines that will be given to you by your
faculty or institution and which, hopefully, your supervisor will recommend. Following are
standard and international guidelines recommended for use at UMaT. (For much more details, refer
to “Format for the Presentation of Theses and Project Reports”).
The Essential Preliminary Elements and their order of Presentation
An academic document usually comprises the following and appears as:
• Title and Title Page

• Candidate’s Declaration
• Abstract
• Dedication (optional)
• Acknowledgements
66
• Table of Contents
• List of Figures
• List of Symbols (optional)
• Nomenclature
• Introductory Chapter
• Central Chapters
• Concluding Chapter
• References
• Appendices
• Bibliography
1. Title and Title Page
The title which should be written in capital letters must be stated briefly and clearly, and should
give a precise and comprehensive description of the contents and scope of the work. Do not
include irrelevant words, phrases or expressions in your title because they add nothing significant.
For example, exclude something like “a report on investigations into” or “observations on some
aspects of”. Consequently avoid a title such as:
A REPORT ON INVESTIGATIONS INTO THE APPLICATION OF SURPAC AND WHITTLE

SOFTWARE IN OPEN PIT DESIGN – A CASE STUDY OF BOGOSO GOLD LTD.
Delete the superfluous phrase and you would have lost nothing! Write simply:
APPLICATION OF SURPAC AND WHITTLE SOFTWARE IN OPEN PIT DESIGN – A CASE

STUDY OF BOGOSO GOLD LTD.
Other information on the title page and their order of appearance are:
• Author’s first Name(s) followed by Surname), e.g. VINCENT FREMPONG BOAKYE
• Institutional Requirement Statement and type of degree or qualification sought, e.g.

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY/MASTER OF
PHILOSOPHY/MASTER OF SCIENCE/BACHELOR OF SCIENCE DEGREE IN
MINING ENGINEERING/MINERAL ENGINEERING, ETC. (Note the correct wording).
• PLACE (Town and Country) separated by a comma, e.g. TARKWA, GHANA
• “THESIS SUPERVISOR” and SUPERVISOR’S NAME with broken lines on top as if for a
signature e.g.
THESIS SUPERVISOR
---------------------------------------
PROF. D. MIREKU-GYIMAH
and finally,
• DATE (MONTH AND YEAR) separated by a comma, e.g.
JUNE, 2004
67
Note that the full name of the institution, town, faculty and the department from where the thesis is
coming, should be the very first items on the title and title page.
Here is a typical specimen title page:
UNIVERSITY OF MINES AND TECHNOLOGY

TARKWA
FACULTY OF MINERAL RESOURCES TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING
A THESIS REPORT ENTITLED
APPLICATION OF SURPAC AND WHITTLE SOFTWARE IN OPEN PIT DESIGN –

A CASE STUDY OF METROPOLITAN MINE LTD.
BY
VINCENT FREMPONG BOAKYE
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE AWARD OF THE MASTER OF SCIENCE DEGREE IN MINING ENGINEERING
THESIS SUPERVISOR
----------------------------------------------
PROF. D. MIREKU-GYIMAH
TARKWA, GHANA
JUNE, 2004
2. Candidate’s Declaration
This usually goes like the following. Please note the wording well.
I declare that this project work/thesis is my own work. It is being submitted for the Degree of
…………………………………………………………………in the University of Mines and
Technology, Tarkwa. It has not been submitted for any degree or examination in any other
University.
----------------------------------------------
(Signature of Candidate)
------------(day of) -----------------(year) ----------------
This declaration should appear on a fresh page and should be signed by the candidate in each copy
of the thesis or project work.
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3. Abstract
“Abstract” is the term used for the summary of the whole work found at the beginning of the thesis,
report etc. It covers the objective of the thesis, the research method(s) and procedure(s) followed
by major results, conclusions and recommendations. Usually, the number of words for the length
of the abstract is specified. The abstract is highly important and should therefore be done very well
so that it captures the significant facts and any findings. It is the “entrance” to your whole work
and would allow the reader to decide on reading it further or not.
Start the abstract with a topic that states the central or major theme of the thesis. Write the abstract
in normal style, not telegraphic style.
4. Dedication
The “dedication” is optional, but interesting. It is a statement paying tribute to the writer’s spouse,
family or other “associate(s)”. Type the dedication centrally on a fresh page starting on the chapter
line. Do not provide a heading, e.g.
To Daniel, my dear husband and mentor, for the encouragement
5. Acknowledgements
Although many are those whose help you would like to acknowledge, it is impossible to do that in a
single thesis. It is therefore enough to acknowledge the assistance of supervisors, sources of
financial help, permission to publish and special facilities of a company, university or research
institution.
6. Table of Contents
This comes on separate pages and is consistent with the plan of the structure of the thesis as well as
the headings in the work itself. The contents should only show the first three levels of headings in
the report. The table of contents should also indicate the relevant page numbers.
7. List of Figures
This list is done on a new page and follows the contents but comes before the list of tables.
8. List of Tables
This comes after the list of figures. It is also provided on a new page.
9. List of Symbols
This is optional. Consultation with supervisors on list of symbols is necessary as symbols differ
from discipline to discipline.
10 Nomenclature
This refers to a glossary where terms etc. are explained. Yet when an unusual word, technical term,
jargon, acronym or symbol is used for the first time in the text, it should be defined.
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5.2.3 Body of the Work

Most theses can easily be categorised into three parts: introductory chapter(s), central or main
chapters made p of the major report of the research /work, logically divided into chapters, and the
concluding chapter that has the findings, conclusions and recommendations.
5.2.4 Introductory Chapter
Chapter 1 should contain the following:

• Statement of the Problem/Problem Definition/Definition of the Problem
• Objectives
• Methodology and Scope
• Organisation of Theses/Report
5.2.5 Main or Central Chapters
Italicise Chapters 2 and 3
Chapter 2 of the thesis should deal with a comprehensive critical review of existing literature on the
topic or subject. It should show previous studies or investigations into this and clearly related
problems. The contribution of each of these should be stated clearly while noting the shortcomings
that have prompted the current study or investigation. If the current investigation proposes to apply
an existing procedure to a different situation or a new approach and direction are being shown, they
should all be made very clear.
Chapter 3 should give the data source, method of procedure followed (experimental techniques)
and the analysis of results. An experimental thesis normally devotes a separate chapter to these
topics. In a case study, however, pertinent information about the area under study will form this
chapter.
Chapters 2 and 3 may reverse depending on the thesis topic. For example case studies will usually
use chapter 2 for discussion of relevant information on project area and chapter 3 for review of
literature or experimental research procedures.
5.2.6 Other Central Chapters
Specific directions for organisation of all the studies and findings cannot be given easily. This is
because of the wide variety of topics investigated, procedures followed, techniques used and types
of data generated. However, it should be noted that these other central chapters form the crux of
the thesis since they are the ones that show what has actually been discovered and is being made
known here; it is here that the candidate’s contribution to knowledge is felt or seen. So the
researcher should be extremely careful to present his/her material in a lucid, succinct and logical
manner for easy understanding.
5.2.7 Conclusions and Recommendations
The concluding chapter should involve a summary that restate the developments of the previous
chapters and show clearly the more important findings and conclusions of the whole study. The
author may list unanswered questions beyond the scope of his work as recommendation for further
research and offer solutions to the investigations as recommendations.
70
5.2.8 Appendices (Appendix – singular; appendices – plural)
Appendices come immediately after the list of references. They refer to the special area reserved
for recording complex apparatus and mathematical or other formulae, descriptions of experiments
or any extra or lengthy material such as data, letters of introduction of researcher to project area,
computer programme listings, copies of spectra or other instrumental outputs that would otherwise
render the text clumsy and unreadable. After reading the main work, the reader should be able to
study or refer to them later. Appendices should be numbered or lettered consecutively so that they
can easily be traced. Each appendix must take a fresh sheet.
5.3 How to Prepare the Table of Contents
5.3.1 The Table of Contents
The Table of Contents is an important element in a thesis or project report. It occurs as an outline
and gives a graphic information of what is actually contained in the whole write-up. The Table of
Contents goes with pages that correspond to the various headings and sub-headings. Three major
levels of heading are used as in the text.
5.3.2 Preparation of the Table of Contents
First, write centrally in First level format the words “TABLE OF CONTENTS.” On the left hand
side after the “Table of Contents” is written “Contents”; on the right “Page” both in small letters
with capitals beginning.
The first part of the Contents section lists the preliminary elements from Declaration to List of
Tables in capital letters.
The actual page numbers where these elements are found are written against the topics on the right
hand side. Roman numerals are used here (e.g. i. – viii).
Next come the main chapters e.g.
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
CHAPTER 3:
CHAPTER 9: CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1
APPENDIX 2
The page numbers for the main chapters are given in Arabic numerals (e.g. 1, 4, 5, 20).
71
SPECIMEN CONTENTS PAGE(S)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents … … Page
DECLARATION … … i
ABSTRACT … … ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS … … iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS … … iv
LIST OF FIGURES … … v
LIST OF TABLES … … vi
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION … … 1
1.1 Problem Definition … … 1
1.2 Objectives of Thesis … … 1
1.3 Methodology and Scope of Study … … 3
1.4 Facilities Employed … … 4
1.5 Report Organisation … … 4
.
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW … 5
2.1 Impact of Industrial Activities on Environment
2.1.1 Air Pollution … … 5
2.1.2 Water Pollution … … 13
2.1.3 Noise Pollution … … 20
2.2 Environmental Planning and Management … 25
2.3 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) … 30
EIA Procedures … … 35
Environmental Audit … … 40
Environmental reports … … 48
CHAPTER 3 PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENTS,

FACILITIES AND OPERATIONS … 49
3.1 Accra Plains Depot … … 49
3.1.1 Physical Environment … … 49
3.1.2 Facilities and Operations … … 51
3.2 Mami Water Depot … … 51
3.2.1 Physical Environment … … 51
3.2.2 Facilities and Operations … … 53
3.6 Buipe Depot
3.6.1 Physical Environment
3.6.2 Facilities and Operations
CHAPTER 4 IDENTIFICATION OF POTENTIAL

ENVIRONMENTAL FACILITIES AND PRACTICES … 70
4.1 Prevention and Mitigation of Air Pollution … 70
4.2 Prevention and Mitigation of Water Pollution … 70
4.7 Pipeline Protection … … 74
4.8 Waste Management and Disposal … … 75
72
CHAPTER 5 ASSESSMENT OF CURRENT ENVIRONMENTAL

IMPACTS OF THE DEPOTS … … 76
5.1 Ambient Air Quality … … 76
5.2 Water Quality … … 76
5.3 Soil Type and Quality … … 78
5.4 Noise Level … … 80
CHAPTER 6 THE ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY … 82

6.1 Objectives … … 82
6.2 Specific Objectives … … 83
CHAPTER 7 THE ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PLAN … 85

7.1 Objectives … … 85
7.2 Against Air Pollution … … 85
7.8 Contingency Plan … … 94
7.9 Fire Contingency Plan … … 97
7.13 Decommissioning Plan … … 101
CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSIONS … … 102
REFERENCES … … 104
APPENDICES … … 108
APPENDIX 1 LIST OF UNDERTAKINGS … 109
APPENDIX 2 LIST OF MANDATORY UNDERTAKINGS … 118
APPENDIX 5 RESULTS OF SOIL SAMPLE ANALYSIS … 136
APPENDIX 6 BOUNDARY NOISE LEVEL … 138
5.4 References and Bibliography
Both “references” and “bibliography” are lists of sources like books, journals, etc. written at the
end of a whole work, e.g. a thesis, project report or book.
5.4.1 Distinction between References and Bibliography
“References” is the list of sources that was actually used or referred to in the text.
“Bibliography” refers to the list of any extra literature which was not specifically used or referred
to in the text, but which are relevant to the subject or topic under investigation. There could be
many more useful, interesting and relevant literature than those one can actually have access to in
preparation of a thesis, etc. Therefore, in bibliography the list would be longer than in references,
but “references” though limited, is usually more “genuine” and precise to the work in question. So
at UMaT, “References” is recommended for the academic document.
5.4.2 References and Documentation
When writing a research paper, it is necessary to read widely so as to find lots of facts and opinions
about the topic from different sources. You can use these facts and opinions to reinforce your
argument or to clarify points you have raised by quoting directly or by paraphrasing i.e. stating the
ideas in your own words. You will need to let your readers know that you owe a debt to those
whose ideas you borrowed. This means that you are not a thief –an academic thief. Doing this and
73
also showing where readers can find the references for themselves mean that you are
“acknowledging” the sources.
Documentation therefore is the acknowledgement of all the sources from which you borrowed
words, ideas, facts or opinions for your work, essay or research paper.
What to document
Specific information is what is usually documented. This includes:
1. A direct quotation.
2. Statistics: including graphs, tables, charts or diagrams taken from a source.
3. A discussion in your own words of someone else’s words or opinions.
Information that has become common knowledge such as the independence of Ghana was achieved
on 6th March, 1957 need not be documented if used.
Why document?
1. To avoid plagiarism.
2. You may obtain poor grades for your work; you may not even get your degree if you
plagiarize.
3. You give weight and credibility to your arguments in the essay.
4 Readers can read more about your topic.
5.4.3 Referencing Systems
There are different referencing systems for different associations. For example, there are the MLA
and APA systems for the Modern Languages Association and the American Psychological
Association respectively. Two main systems may be considered for scientific writing: The Harvard
System and the Numerical System. We adopt the Harvard System for our College.
5.4.4 The Harvard System
The references are cited in the text by author’s surname followed by year of publication separated
by a comma and are listed in alphabetical order by year of publication in the list of references [(e.g.
Mireku-Gyimah, 2002)]. The letters, a, b, c, are used to distinguish between a number of articles
by the same author cited for a given year. In each case full-page numbers for the articles must be
given in the reference list [e.g. (Eshun, 1990a) and (Amegbey, 1990b)].
For more than three authors, only the first (senior) author’s name is given in the text followed by
“et al.” – a Latin expression meaning “and others” – e.g. [(Cobblah et al., 1973)]. The full list of
names is however given in the references list. The recommended layout of the reference list must
be noted.
Specimen Text (Harvard System)

At present Ghana produces gold, bauxite, manganese and diamonds for export. Other minerals that
can be exploited to advantage include iron ore, limestone, brown clay, kaolin and salt (Kesse,
1985). The general trend of gold production from 1880 to 1990 reveals three gold booms (Mireku-
Gyimah and Suglo, 1993). Tsidzi and Adofo discussed the visual and chemical impacts of mining
in Ghana.
74
REFERENCES
Dzigbodi-Adjimah, K. (1996), “Environmental Concerns of Ghana’s Gold Boom – Past, Present

and Future”, Ghana Mining Journal, Vol.2, No.1, pp. 21–26.
Kesse, G. O. (1995), The Mineral and Rock Resources of Ghana, A. A. Balkema Publishers,
Rotterdam, 610 pp.
Mireku-Gyimah, D and Suglo, R.S. (1993), “The State of Gold Mining in Ghana”, Trans. Inst. Min.
Metall (Sec.A: Mining Industry), Vol.102 pp. A59 – A67.
Tsidzi, K.E.N. and Adofo, R.A. (1993), “Some Environmental Aspects of Mining and Related
Activities in Ghana”, Proceedings of the National Seminar on Current Developments in the
Minerals Industry of Ghana, Tsidzi, K.E.N. (ed.), IMME, KNUST, Ghana, pp. 126 – 131.
5.4.5 Citations
Order of items on list of reference are as follows:
Books/Thesis/Project Reports/Lecture Notes
• Authors’ Name
• Year of Reference
• Title of book, thesis, project report or lecture notes
• Name of publisher/type of thesis/project report/lecture notes and name of school
• Location of publisher (in the case of a book)
• Edition numbers of book or number of report
• Year of reference (numerical system)
• Inclusive page numbers of book, thesis, project report or lecture notes
Example of a book is Kesse, G.O. (1995) (Please refer)
Example of a thesis/project report/lecture notes:
Eshun, P.A. (1998), “Accounting for Risks in Economic Evaluation of Gold Mining Projects in
Ghana”, BSc Project Report, KNUST School of Mines, Tarkwa, 83 pp.
Example of Journal/Bulletin:
Dzigbodi-Adjimah, K. (1996), “Environmental Concerns of Ghana’s Gold Boom – Past, Present

and Future”, Ghana Mining Journal, Vol.2, No.1, pp. 21–26.
Example of Conference/Seminar Proceedings/Transactions
Tsidzi, K.E.N. and Adofo, R.A. (1993), “Some Environmental Aspects of Mining and Related
Minerals Industry of Ghana. Tsidzi, K.E.N. (ed.), IMME, KNUST, Ghana, pp. 126 – 131.
5.5 Tables and Figures
Tables and Figures convey a lot of information that can be taken in at a glance. As such, they allow
clear and easy understanding; they are therefore used in documents to communicate much
75
information in a relatively small space and to clarify or support ideas in the text. Figures are the
illustrations such as graphs, photographic plates, drawings and diagrams. Tables and Figures are
especially useful when the writer or researcher has numerical values to compare and contrast. But
for tables and figures to be effective, they must be simple and clear. These can be achieved better
when each table or figure is not overcrowded and when it takes only a page of the document. Thus,
as much as possible, prepare your tables and figures horizontally – in the “normal” straight form of
the page. Where size will be a problem, a table or figure can be prepared vertically – with the
document turned sideways. This is to ensure that it fits a page.
5.5.1 How to title Tables and Figures
Tables and figures are numbered or named according to the chapter they fall in in the text and the
serial number of the table or figure. For instance, a table which is the first to occur in Chapter 1 of
the document will be called Table 1.1. The second table in the first chapter is Table 1.2. Thus, the
4th table in Chapter 2 is Table 2.4 while Table 5.8 will refer to the 8th table in chapter 5. Notice that
a full stop separates the two numbers. The first number is the Chapter’s, the second number is that
of the table or the figure. Follow the same principle to name all tables and figures. Lettered
appendices will also follow the procedure, but here, drop the full stop between the two numbers.
For example, Appendix A3 refers to the third table in Appendix A. “Figure” is usually shortened to
“Fig.” Figure 7.1 is shortened Fig.7.1 but both are acceptable.
Now explain in words what the following stand for:
1. Table 4.11 2. Table 8.1

3. Figure 7.3 or Fig. 7.3 4. Appendix A4
5. Appendix A5
The title of a table or figure is written against the table or figure number with no full stop at the
end, e.g.
• Table 1.2 Rainfall in Tarkwa
• Figure 2.3 Average Temperatures at Aboso or Fig. 2.3 Average Temperatures at Aboso.
The title should also be clear and simple and should be a summary of what the table or figure
depicts. The table or figure number and the title or heading together give a table or figure its
identity. The number and title of a table or figure are written below or on top of it.
5.5.2 How to refer to Information on Tables and Figures in the text
When referring to a table or a figure in the text, use the table or figure number alone. The ‘T’ or
‘F’ of table and figure should be in capitals. Do not add the title. For example, refer to a table
numbered 1.2 and titled “Rainfall in Tarkwa” only as Table 1.2. Thus, write or say something like
the following:
From Table 1.2, we can see the distribution of rainfall in Tarkwa or Table 1.2
shows/depicts/represents/illustrates rainfall in Tarkwa.
Extract the exact information from tables and figures, and use precise language to interpret data
while avoiding generalisations that you cannot support with the data you have before you.
76
SPECIMEN TABLE (horizontal)
Table 2.1 JSS Enrolment in Kwarta

JSS Enrolment
Wesley University 200
Minefields 195
Golden Era 174
Faith 120
King 101
The following example statements can be made of the table:
1. Table 2.1 depicts enrolment in the various Junior Secondary Schools in Kwarta.
2. From the table, Minefields has an enrolment of 195, which is only five (5) less than Wesley
University.
OR
1. Table 2.1 represents enrolment figures for Junior Secondary Schools in Kwarta. According
to the table Wesley University JSS has the highest enrolment; 200
OR
2. Table 2.1 shows that the JSS with the lowest enrolment is “King” with only 101 students.
3. Table 2.1 shows that the total enrolment of Wesley University and Minefields Schools alone
is the same as those of the other three schools put together: 395 students.
When the source of a table or figure must be written, the table name and title go up and the source
is stated down – below the table. (There are different conventions, so follow what your supervisor
may suggest.)
5.6 Footnotes
A footnote is a note that is printed at the bottom of a page. Attention to this note is drawn by
means of a reference mark in the body of the text.
5.6.1 How to make and use Footnotes
In your thesis or project work, you can acknowledge the source of your information. After a
quotation, summary or paraphrase, write a number (starting with 1 for the first footnote) as a
superscript. Then at the bottom or the foot of the very page on which you have that raised number,
write the same raised number that you have against the quotation etc. Next write the detailed
information of the source. Doing this means that you are using a footnote. A footnote therefore
gives information at the foot or bottom of a page concerning a source that you have cited.
Illustration:
According to Perry and Grumble, evidence shows that the graduates of distant teaching institutions
are highly regarded by employers because by being prepared to study at a distance, they have
shown themselves to be highly motivated1.
1
Walter Perry and Greville Rumble. A Short Guide to Distance Education (Cambridge:
International Extension College, 1987) p.29.
77
When you cite two or more sources on a page, you should use consecutive numbers for them (i.e. 1,
2, 3 etc.). Note that you should give details about the sources at the foot of the same page where
the numbers are.
Try to read the Abstracts of articles in Engineering fields, especially from the world-famous
Ghana Mining Journal and Ghana Journal of Technology, both of UMaT, noting among other
things how to cite references correctly.
5.7 The Curriculum Vitae (CV)
78
“Curriculum Vitae” is a Latin expression literally meaning “the course of one’s life”. Abbreviated
as CV, it actually refers to an outline of one’s educational and professional history and is usually
prepared for job applications. “Vitae” has two pronunciations – vi:tai, or vaiti:. The plural of
curriculum vitae is curricula vitae (Collins English Dictionary). In American English the word
“résumé” is used for the curriculum vitae. Therefore, when applying for a job in an American
establishment etc., you must use résumé instead of CV.
The CV or resume is a compressed form of your application letter for a job because the information
you will give about your life so far, particularly those on your education and professional
background and previous employment experience, will all be captured in your CV, but in an outline
form.
A young person’s CV will not be as detailed as an old person’s for obvious reasons. Young people
might not even have much of or any employment experience at all. So you must not worry if your
CV is “not very rich”. However, every skill or hobby, however, “small” is important and could
impress your potential employee. So add these to your curriculum vitae.
The interesting thing is that as life goes on and our situations change, we add to our CV new
information. So a CV is meant to be upgraded from time to time to reflect the owner’s status at the
point in time when he/she is applying for a job.
First, do a draft and then type out your final CV neatly and clearly; presentation is very important
here. If possible, type your CV on a word processor so that you can upgrade or rewrite it easily
whenever necessary.
5.7.1 The Features of a CV
Although the CV is essentially about your educational and professional experience, you must add
information on obvious topics such as name, sex, date of birth, age, address both for school/office
and home, telephone number(s), parents’ names and addresses, marital status, spouse’s name and
address (if married), hobbies and names of referees (usually two or three) provided towards the
end. But how do you organise this information and proceed to write the CV?
You may organise your information as you wish, but the layout of the CV should give only an
outline. Also, whether the information on you is a lot or scanty, group together common pieces of
information under general headings for clarity and easy understanding. For example, Personal
Details, Education (with dates), Qualification (with dates), Experience, Interests and Hobbies,
Other Information, References as in the sample CV below (see also the internet source in the
reference list of this handout, for more examples).
For older people with very long CV’s, some groups like Academic Background and Professional
Background could be created with sub-groups separating Degrees from say Certificates and
Diplomas or Local Professional Training and Professional Training Abroad.
Now proceed to write a draft of your CV and keep updating it as you go on in life and chalk more
“feats”.
79

Communication Skills Sem 2 (May 2021) S2 Final Prof.

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May 2021

Communication Skills II 2020/2021

2020-2021 ACADEMIC YEAR

LECTURE (L) 2 HRS

LECTURE I: INTRODUCTION TO COURSE 1

LECTURE II: WRITING SKILLS II: PARAGRAPH LEVEL 5

LECTURE III: DEVELOPING WRITING SKILLS III: THE WHOLE ESSAY 22

LECTURE IV: DEVELOPING WRITING SKILLS IV: STYLE 34

1.1 Lecture Objectives and Expected Outcomes

The objectives of this lecture are to present:

• The course aim, objectives and expected outcomes;

At the end of the lecture, the student is expected to:

• Appreciate the nature and scope of the course;

1.2 Course Aim, Objectives and Expected Outcomes

• To help the student become an effective communicator.

CS I enabled the student to:

• Grasp some theoretical insights into communication;

CS II, the present course, seeks to:

The objectives of this course (CS II) are:

Expected Course Outcomes:

At the end of the Course, the student is expected to:

1.3 Course Outline and Instructional Methodology

The course content is as follows:

• Attending all lectures and tutorials;

1.4.1 There are two parts to the student assessment, namely:

• Continuous assessment; and

• Good handwriting (1.5 mark);

1.4.2 Assessment of Course Lecturer

1.5 Reference Material

NB: Internet Sources:

http://www.thomsonedu.com/english/anderson click on desired chapter(s).

www.buowl.boun.edu.tr/students/Paragraph Writing Exercises.htm

http://cbse-notes.blogspot.com/2013/02cbs-class-910-editing-exercise-2.html CBSE Papers,

2.1 Lecture Objectives and the Expected Outcomes

The objectives of this lecture are to:

• Discuss ‘The Good Paragraph’;

At the end of the lecture, the student is expected to:

• Master the basic principles of paragraph writing;

2.2 The Good Paragraph (After Frank Chaplen)

2.2.1 The Controlling Idea

The Importance of Completely Developing the Controlling Idea

Now study the following example paragraph.

Excluding material that does not develop the controlling idea

2.2.2 The Topic Sentence

The Importance of Composing a Clear Topic Sentence

2.2.3 Support of the Controlling Idea

Major Support Sentence

Minor Support Sentence

A minor support sentence has two jobs:

2.2.4 The Topic Sentence and its Placement

1. The Topic Sentence placed at the Beginning of the Paragraph

Refer to the previous paragraph starting

Read the whole paragraph again.

2. The Topic Sentence placed in the Middle

Read the following paragraph carefully:

3. The Topic Sentence placed Last

Consider the paragraph below:

1. State the controlling idea of the paragraph.

2. What is the topic sentence?

Compare your answer with the following:

This is then narrowed down to it to:

2.2.5 Development Patterns of Paragraphs

Two major development patterns may be isolated:

Figure 1 represents this form.