British Journal of Social Psychology (2001), 40, 79±98 Printed in Great Britain 79

# 2001 The British Psychological Society

The role of desires and anticipated emotions

in goal-directed behaviours: Broadening and
deepening the theory of planned behaviour

Marco Perugini
University of Leicester, Department of Psychology, UK

Richard P. Bagozzi*
Rice University, USA

Building on the theory of planned behaviour (TPB), we develop a new model of

purposive behaviour which suggests that desires are the proximal causes of
intentions, and the traditional antecedents in the TPB work through desires. In
addition, perceived consequences of goal achievement and goal failure are modelled
as anticipated emotions, which also function as determinants of desires. The new
model is tested in two studies : an investigation of bodyweight regulation by 108
Italians at the University of Rome and an investigation of eåort expended in
studying by 122 students at the University of Rome. Frequency and recency of past
behaviour are controlled for in tests of hypotheses. The ®ndings show that desires
fully mediated the eåects of attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioural
control and anticipated emotions on intentions. Signi®cantly greater amounts of
variance are explained in intentions and behaviour by the new model in comparison
to the TPB and variants of the TPB that include either anticipated emotions and}or
past behaviour.

The origin of actionÐits e¬cient, not its ®nal causeÐis choice, and that of choice is desire and
reasoning with a view to an end.
Aristotle (Nicomachean Ethics, 1139a 31±2)
The theory of reasoned action (TRA) has been a mainstay in social psychology for
many years (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). One advantage of the theory is its parsimony,
so it is understandable that changes have occurred infrequently. Perhaps the most
important revision of the TRA has been the introduction of perceived behavioural
control (PBC) with the theory of planned behaviour (TPB ; Ajzen, 1991). The
approach taken by Ajzen with this revision was to add an independent variable as a
parallel predictor of the dependent variables, along with established predictors. The
idea is that more variance can be accounted for by specifying processes formally
contained in error terms in tests of the theory. This general approach might be
characterized as theory broadening.
* Requests for reprints should be addressed to Prof. Richard P. Bagozzi, Rice University, Graduate School of
Management and Department of Psychology, 6100 Main Street, Houston, TX 77005-1892, USA (e-mail :
bagozzi!rice.edu).
80 Marco Perugini and Richard P. Bagozzi
A second approach to the revision of any theory is to introduce a variable that
explains how existing predictors function to in¯uence intentions. The idea is that
certain theoretical mechanisms can be better understood and their eåects better
quali®ed by introducing a new construct that mediates or moderates the eåects of
existing variables. This general approach might be characterized as theory deepening.
This study presents a model that expands and deepens the TPB by introducing new
constructs which recently have been shown to play important roles in decision-
making. Figure 1 presents our model, which we term the model of goal-directed
behaviour (MGB) for expository purposes.

Figure 1. The model of goal-directed behaviour.

The MGB posits that desires provide the direct impetus for intentions and
transform the motivational content to act embedded in attitudes towards the act
(Aact), anticipated emotions (AE), subjective norms (SN) and PBC. Frequency of
past behaviour is further assumed to be a predictor of desires, intentions and
behaviour, whereas recency of past behaviour predicts behaviour only. As argued
below, the introduction of anticipated emotions broadens the TPB by including new
decision criteria with respect to a person’s goals. The incorporation of desires
deepens the TPB by reinterpreting how existing antecedents in the theory function.
The inclusion of frequency and recency of past behaviour allows the researcher to
incorporate information concerning automatic aspects of goal-directed behaviours
not re¯ected in the variables included in the TPB.

Derivation of the MGB

The TPB seeks to account for actions and maintains that these are a direct function
of behavioural intentions (BI) and PBC, and indirect functions, through BI, of Aact,
SN and PBC.
A recent meta-analysis examined 142 empirical tests of the TPB and found that the
TPB accounted on average for 40 % of the variance in intention and 29 % of the
 TPB and goal-directed behaviours 81
variance in behaviour (Armitage & Conner, in press). Although there is little
question that the TPB oåers a parsimonious account of purposive behaviour, its
su¬ciency can be questioned. Researchers recently proposed additions to the TPB
that address self-identity processes (Sparks & Shephard, 1992), moral norms (Beck
& Ajzen, 1991 ; Parker, Manstead, & Stradling, 1995), the distinction between
perceptions of control and self-e¬cacy (Armitage & Conner, 1999 ; Terry &
O’Leary, 1995), and anticipated emotions (AEs; e.g. Parker et al., 1995 ; Richard, van
der Pligt, & de Vries, 1995).
We also propose that the TPB can be improved by adding predictors to it.
Speci®cally, we posit that AEs function as important antecedents in decision-making
processes. An early consideration of AEs was done by Parker et al. (1995) who found
that anticipated regret (measured with `make me feel sorry’ and ` make me feel good’
items) tempered behavioural expectations that one would commit certain automotive
driving violations. Likewise, Richard et al. (1995) found that negative AEs (called
anticipated post-behavioural aåective reactions and measured with `worried±not
worried’, `regret±no regret’ and ` tense±relaxed ’ items) increased expectations that
people would refrain from sexual intercourse or would use condoms in casual
encounters.
A question that can be raised about attempts to introduce AEs into the TPB is
whether the conceptualization of AEs and its measures overlap with Aact and its
measures." Our theoretical speci®cation and empirical measurement of AEs diåer
fundamentally from the speci®cation and measurement of both Aact and AEs as
proposed heretofore. Consider ®rst Aact. Attitude is conceived as ` a psychological
tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor
or disfavor’ (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993, p. 1, emphasis in original removed). Under the
TRA and TPB, Aact is formulated to refer to a target behaviour and is measured by
such bipolar semantic diåerential items as good±bad, harmful±bene®cial, rewarding±
punishing, and unpleasant±pleasant (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980, pp. 261±262). The
psychological tendency embodied by an attitude is sometimes termed an `acquired
behavioural disposition’ (Campbell, 1963). Acquisition of an attitude is thought to
be primarily via learning, although biological bases are sometimes acknowledged as
well (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993, p. 3).
The nature and role of AEs we introduce diåer from that entailed by Aact in
attitude theories in three main respects, and concern the referent, underlying process
and measurement of attitudes, respectively. First, Aact under the TRA and TPB
focuses upon what one does or can do, whereas our speci®cation of AEs focuses not
upon action, but rather upon achievement of personal goals. Heretofore, researchers
have taken one approach or the other. Under the TRA and TPB, actions are the
referents for all antecedents. Indeed, goals are purposefully excluded from the
theories (e.g. Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980, pp. 29±30, 111 ; Fishbein & Stasson, 1990,
p. 177). An alternative approach was taken by Bagozzi, Baumgartner, and Pieters
(1998) who argued that people, when deliberating to act or not in goal-directed
situations, take into account the emotional consequences of both achieving and not

" This issue was raised by an anonymous reviewer and the editor, to whom we are grateful. See also Conner and
Armitage (1998).
82 Marco Perugini and Richard P. Bagozzi
achieving a sought after goal (cf. Parker et al., 1995 ; Richard et al., 1995). In both
cases, the processes are believed to be predicated upon a type of thought process
analogous to counterfactual thinking, but perhaps better termed ` prefactual
appraisals ’ (Gleicher et al. 1995), whereby a decisionmaker imagines the aåective
consequences of goal attainment and goal failure before deciding to perform
instrumental acts. Bagozzi et al. (1998) identi®ed 17 emotions (7 positive, 10
negative : see Method below) that in¯uenced intentions to diet and exercise, in the
service of losing or maintaining one’s body weight. Unlike Bagozzi et al. (1998), who
only considered goal criteria, we also incorporate the TPB and therefore include
action referents in our integrative approach.
A second diåerence between our model and the TPB, beyond divergence in
referents, concerns the theoretical processes underlying the eåects of Aact vs. AEs.
As a disposition to respond in a favourable or unfavourable manner, Aact arises
through learning, whereby a person acquires a reaction to an object or action over
a period of time or through repeated contact accompanied by reinforcement. An
attitude is an evaluative response towards an object or act that, once learned, is
triggered automatically when one is exposed to the object or act or thinks about it
(Fazio, 1995). By contrast, the processes behind the functioning of AEs are more
dynamic and entail self-regulation in response to feedback (Bagozzi, 1992 ; Carver &
Scheier, 1990, 1998). That is, one ®rst has a goal, then appraises the consequences of
achieving and not achieving that goal, with corresponding positive and negative
emotions arising. An attitude is typically constant over reasonable periods of time
and is not formulated as a response contingent on the occurrence of particular
happenings to be appraised. The proposed functioning of AEs is, in contrast,
speci®cally contingent on one’s appraisal of goal achievement}goal failure, which
changes from time to time, depending on the context. An implicit comparison is
made between one’s goal as a standard or reference value and achieving and failing
to achieve that goal, with anticipated emotions as consequences. Attitudes do not
function in this manner but are more disposition-like responses to a ®xed object or
act.
A third distinction we wish to make between Aact and AEs occurs at the level of
measurement. When people are asked to respond with their attitudes, they are forced
to make a choice of favourability or unfavourability. This is a consequence of the
common practice of using bipolar items to indicate respondents’ attitudes. By
contrast, for the measurement of AEs, we argue that it is important to use unipolar
items (e.g. the experience of excitement along a ` not at all ’ to ` very much ’
continuum). In a study of aåect, Bagozzi, Wong, and Yi (1999) found that positive
and negative aåect can be positively or negatively related (or unrelated) to each other,
depending on the circumstances. This ®nding is in line with related evidence for basic
diåerences between positive and negative emotional reactions, in terms of static
structural representations of aåect (Russell & Barrett, 1999 ; Watson & Tellegen,
1985), basic functioning of physiological systems (e.g. Davidson, 1992 ; Gray, 1990),
behavioural strategies (Carver & White, 1994 ; Higgins, 1996), anticipation of future
consumption (Lowenstein, 1987), decision-making (van der Pligt, Zeelenberg, van
Dijk, de Vries, & Richard, 1998) and eåects on behaviour (Cacioppo & Bernston,
1994 ; Cacioppo, Gardner, & Berntson, 1999). To use a bipolar scale to measure
 TPB and goal-directed behaviours 83
emotions (as is done in attitude theory) would make positive and negative aåect
mutually exclusive by de®nition and not permit respondents the opportunity to
express their diåerential relevance. Previous research found that positive and
negative anticipated emotions are positively correlated yet clearly diåerentiated (u ¯
± 50 ; Bagozzi et al., 1998).#
In summary, one type of revision to the TPB proposed herein adds AEs as parallel
predictors along with the traditional independent variables found in the TPB.
Whereas the TPB speci®es that action is the target referent of all independent
variables, de®nes Aact as a disposition-like tendency to respond favourably or
unfavourably towards the action, and uses bipolar items to measure Aact, our
speci®cation of AEs stipulates that the referents of AEs are personal goals, AEs
function as independent variables based upon a decision process that takes into
account judged consequences of goal achievement and goal failure, and AEs are
measured as unipolar reactions.
A second revision of the TPB is related to the introduction of a variable explaining
how existing predictors in¯uence intentions. It has been argued that the TPB fails to
consider how intentions become energized (Bagozzi, 1992 ; Calder & Ross, 1973, p.
7 ; Fazio, 1995, pp. 271±272). Attitudes, SN and PBC provide reasons for acting, it
is claimed, but do not incorporate explicit motivational content needed to induce an
intention to act. Similar to Gollwitzer’s designation for wants and wishes in his
action phases model (e.g. Gollwitzer, Heckhausen, & Steller, 1990, p. 1119), Bagozzi
(1992, pp. 184±6) proposed that desires provide the motivational impetus for
intentions and suggested that Aact, SN and PBC work through desires enroute to
in¯uencing intentions.$ This happens in one of two ways. With volitive desires
(Davis, 1984a), Aact, SN and PBC provide reasons for acting that a decisionmaker
takes into account to form a self-commitment to act. Some philosophers maintain
that desires have a particular kind of relationship to intentions in the sense that, once
one is aware of and accepts his or her desire to act, this will motivate him or her to
form an intention. Davis (1984b, p. 53) calls this the `connection condition’ for
intentions. With appetitive desires (Davis, 1984a), Aact, SN and PBC serve as
catalysts to release or free-up a hidden or latent desire related to such biological needs
as food or sex, in contrast to their arousing function for volitive desires (Bagozzi,
1992). Some empirical support for the role of volitive desires in decisionmaking has
been found in the contexts of exercising, dieting and studying (Bagozzi & Edwards,
1998 ; Bagozzi & Kimmel, 1995 ; Leone, Perugini, & Ercolani, 1999). In the MGB,
however, the target behaviour is instrumental to goal achievement. Thus, the
speci®cation of desire is relative to performance of a given behaviour (e.g. dieting)
because it is conducive to goal attainment (e.g. body-weight regulation). This
motivational stance is often referred to in the philosophical literature as the
functioning of an extrinsic desire, that is ` a desire for something for its believed
conduciveness to something else that one desires’ (Mele, 1995, p. 391).

# Note that negative anticipated emotions refer to failures and positive refer to success in achieving a goal. A positive
correlation therefore is what one would normally expect.
$ For empirical and theoretical evidence about the distinction between desires and intentions see, among others,
Bagozzi and Kimmel (1995), Bratman (1987), Leone, Perugini, and Ercolani (1999),Malle and Knobe (1997),and Mele
(1992).
84 Marco Perugini and Richard P. Bagozzi
Thus, desires represent the motivational state of mind wherein appraisals and
reasons to act are transformed into a motivation to do so. This motivation or desire
is hypothesized as the most proximal determinant of intentions in the MGB.
A ®nal shortcoming of the TPB is that past behaviour is not incorporated in the
model. Ajzen (1991) criticized the use of past behaviour on grounds that it oåers no
explanatory content, although he allowed that past behaviour provides a
methodological control in tests of any theory: `¼ past behaviour can be used to test
the su¬ciency of any model designed to predict future behavior’ (p. 202).
Furthermore, he argued that the inclusion of PBC in the TPB should preclude the
need for past behaviour, in that PBC should mediate any residual eåects of past
behaviour. However, recent empirical work ®nds that past behaviour still predicts
intentions and}or behaviour in tests of the TPB (e.g. Ajzen & Driver, 1992 ; Bagozzi
& Kimmel, 1995 ; Beck & Ajzen, 1991 ; Leone, Perugini, & Ercolani, 1999 ; Norman
& Conner, 1996 ; Norman & Smith, 1995).
The question remains what the eåects of past behaviour might represent. A recent
meta-analysis examined 64 studies and found robust evidence for the impact of
frequency of past behaviour on both intentions and future behaviours (Ouellette &
Wood, 1998). The authors proposed two processes through which frequency of past
behaviour guides future behaviour. When a behaviour is well-practised in a constant
environment, frequency of past behaviour re¯ects habit strength and has therefore a
direct eåect on future behaviour. However, when behaviours are not well-learned or
when they are performed in unstable contexts, frequency of past behaviour
contributes directly to intentions because ` people are likely to form favourable
intentions about acts they have frequently performed in the past ’ (Ouellette &
Wood, 1998, p. 56). The latter rationale may also be extended to the direct eåects of
frequency of past behaviour on desires. In both cases, a reasonable assumption is that
not all desires or intentions are explicitly formed consciously or well-formed (e.g.
Bagozzi & Yi, 1989 ; Greenwald & Banaji, 1995). Another proposal has been to
partition the eåects of past behaviour into frequency and recency eåects (e.g. Bagozzi
& Warshaw, 1990). Although seemingly related, frequency and recency eåects are
conceptually distinct and therefore might carry independent information. For
instance, one may have a long history of performing a given behaviour without
having performed it recently (e.g. a person who long ago gave up purchasing lottery
tickets, after experiencing a string of frustrated hopes), or one may have recently
taken up an activity with no prior experience with it (e.g. a ®rst-time skier).
Recency of behaviour performance should in¯uence future behaviour to the
degree that availability and anchoring}adjustment biases occur in information
processing (e.g. Tversky & Kahneman, 1974) and to the degree that an activity,
whether established or not, has been recently initiated. The recent initiation of an
activity may carry implicit information about intentions over and above the degree
to which intentions are accessible to conscious awareness (Bargh & Barndollar, 1996 ;
Greenwald & Banaji, 1995 ; Verplanken, Aarts, & van Knippenberg, 1997). Recency
may serve as an indirect indicator that an intention has been activated and therefore
be positively associated with subsequent performance of the behaviour.
To recap, we postulate a new model, the MGB, by proposing revisions to the TPB
based upon the addition of new independent variables, the introduction of a
 TPB and goal-directed behaviours 85
mediating variable, and explicit provision for control of past behaviour. We added
AEs and past behaviour to the TPB as co-predictors along with Aact, SN and PBC.
Desires were hypothesized to provide the motivational impetus channelling the
eåects of the predictors on intentions. The su¬ciency of desires as mediators were
tested explicitly by formally comparing the model in Fig. 1 to a model where the
above-mentioned antecedents also have direct eåects on intentions. The present
study tested the MGB in two ®eld settings : losing}maintaining body weight and
increasing}maintaining eåorts at studying.

Method
Participants and procedure
In Study 1, 108 students (63 women and 45 men, mean age ¯ 22± 0, SD ¯ 6± 6) at the University of Rome
participated in a longitudinal study concerning body weight regulation. In Study 2, 122 students (56
women and 66 men, mean age ¯ 20± 5, SD ¯ 3± 5) at the University of Rome were asked to participate
in an investigation concerning studying. All participants were contacted individually. At Phase 1,
participants provided background information, including a statement on their body weight}studying
goals. They were asked to write the initials of their names on the questionnaire and were assured of
anonymity. Participants in Study 1 were asked: ` Which of the following statements best expresses your
personal goal over the next four weeks? ’ The alternatives were: (1) `I want to decrease my body weight
over the next four weeks’, (2) ` I want to stay at the same body weight over the next four weeks’ (3)
` I want to increase my body weight over the next four weeks’ ; and (4) `I do not have a goal with respect
to my body weight ’. Participants in Study 2 were asked : `Which of the following statements best
expresses your personal goal over the next four weeks? ’ The alternatives were : (1) ` I want to decrease
my studying eåort over the next four weeks’ ; (2) ` I want to stay at the same level of eåort for studying
over the next four weeks; (3) ` I want to increase my studying eåort over the next four weeks’; and (4)
` I do not have a goal with respect to my studying eåort ’. Participants who chose (1) or (2) in Study
1 and (2) or (3) in Study 2 were asked to answer questions worded in accordance with their selected goal
for AEs, PBC, Aact, SN, desires, BI and past behaviour. Four weeks later, participants were re-
contacted and asked to answer a questionnaire containing measures of instrumental behaviours used to
achieve their goals.% To minimize the chances for across time self-presentational and consistency biases,
participants were not told at Phase 1 that they would be contacted at a later time.

Measures&
Choice of instrumental behaviour. Whereas in Study 1 two instrumental behaviours (dieting and exercising)
were examined for each respondent, participants in Study 2 were asked to choose their own preferred
instrumental behaviour. Five behaviours were listed on the questionnaire, and participants were asked
to choose one of them or to provide a diåerent one if they so preferred. The ®ve behaviours were
selected based on a pilot study (Leone, 1995). The ®ve instrumental behaviours were `stick to a ®xed
daily schedule ’, ` avoid any type of distractions ’, ` study in a placid place ’, ` refrain from doing anything
but studying in the afternoon ’ and ` choose a quiet environment’. Respondents chose the instrumental
acts in the following respective proportions : 27± 9%, 19± 7 %, 18± 0%, 6± 6 % and 11± 5 %, respectively.
% In Study 1, 60% of all respondents (N ¯ 200) had speci®c body weight goals and were included in the study, for
a sample of 120. At Phase 2 we were able to contact 90% of this sample, thus yielding 108 people for study. Every
participant contacted at Phase 2 agreed to participate. In Study 2, 70% of the sample of 185 initially contacted had
a goal for studying. At Phase 2, we were able to contact about 95% of the sample of 130 people who expressed a
goal to increase their eåort or keep the same eåort for studying, thus yielding 122 people for study. Every participant
contacted at Phase 2 agreed to participate.
& Studies 1 and 2 were conducted in Italy and the questionnaire presented in Italian. The Italian versions are available
on request.
86 Marco Perugini and Richard P. Bagozzi
Other behaviours not on the list were chosen by 16± 3% of the participants. With this procedure, we
wished to be as certain as possible that the instrumental behaviours were those that participants
considered personally relevant to reach their goals. Participants were asked to write their selected
instrumental behaviour in a box at the top of each remaining page of the questionnaire. The rest of the
questionnaire referred to the chosen instrumental behaviour as ` Activity X ’.

Anticipated emotions. Anticipated emotions in Study 1 were measured on 11-point items, with response
alternatives from ` not at all’ to ` very much ’. For the positive emotions, participants were asked to
express the felt intensity of each emotion expressed in the subjunctive conditional: ` If I succeed to
achieve my goal of [decreasing my body weight, staying at the same body weight] over the next four
weeks, I will feel [excited, delighted, happy, glad, satis®ed, proud, self-assured].’ The wording for the
negative emotions was : ` If I do not succeed to achieve my goal of [decreasing my body weight, staying
at the same body weight] over the next four weeks, I will feel [angry, frustrated, guilty, ashamed, sad,
disappointed, depressed, worried, uncomfortable, fearful] ’. Similar wording was used in Study 2 for
` increasing my studying eåort [staying at the same level of studying eåort] ’.

Attitudes. Attitudes were assessed for each behaviour in similar ways in both studies. For example, the
dieting item began: `I think that to keep to a diet in order to decrease my body weight [stay at the same
body weight] during the next four weeks is ¼’ Participants responded to 11 semantic diåerential items
on 7-point scales, de®ned by the pairs useless±useful, ineåective±eåective, disadvantageous±advan-
tageous, stupid±intelligent, punishing±rewarding, foolish±wise, unpleasant±pleasant, joyless±joyful,
boring±exciting, unattractive±attractive, and unenjoyable±enjoyable.

Subjective norms. Participants were asked to `List the three most important persons for you and indicate
how much each of them would approve or disapprove of you doing physical exercise in order to
decrease your body weight [stay at the same body weight] during the next four weeks’. Each response
was measured on a 7-point scale anchored by ` disapprove ’ and `approve’. Similar items were used for
dieting and studying. We used these items in order to provide multiple measures but acknowledge that
this could introduce error to the extent that they are not highly correlated with the traditional direct
way of measuring SN.

Perceived behavioural control. This variable was measured with three items for each instrumental behaviour.
For example, the ®rst item for dieting was, ` How much control do you have over keeping to a diet in
order to decrease your body weight [stay at the same body weight] during the next four weeks’,
followed by an 11-point scale going from `no control ’ to ` full control ’. The second item was, `For me
to keep to a diet during the next four weeks in order to decrease my body weight [stay at the same body
weight] is ¼’, followed by an 11-point scale from ` di¬cult ’ to ` easy’. Finally, the third item asked
participants to respond on an 11-point scale from ` very unlikely ’ to ` very likely ’ to the following
statement : ` If I wanted to, it would be easy for me to keep to a diet during the next four weeks in order
to decrease my body weight [stay at the same body weight].’ Analogous items were used to measure
PBC for exercising. For studying, only the second and third items were used.

Desire. Desires were measured by three items for each instrumental behaviour. For physical exercise, the
three items were : (1) ` I desire to do physical exercise in the next four weeks in order to decrease by
body weight [stay at the same body weight]’, followed by an 11-point scale anchored by ` false ’ and
` true ’ ; (2) `My desire for doing physical exercise in the next four weeks in order to decrease by body
weight [stay at the same body weight] can be described as ¼’, where participants selected one of the
following : (a) ` no desire ’, (b) ` very weak desire ’, (c) `weak desire ’, (d) ` moderate desire ’, (e) `strong
desire ’, and (f) `very strong desire ’; and (3) ` I want to do physical exercise in the next four weeks in
order to decrease my body weight [stay at the same body weight]’, followed by an 11-point scale from
` false ’ to ` true ’. Similar items were employed for dieting. For studying, only the ®rst and third items
were used.

Intentions. Intentions were indicated by three items. For example, the item measuring dieting plans was,
` I am planning to keep to a diet in order to decrease my body weight [stay at the same body weight]
during the next four weeks’, followed by a 7-point scale with ` very unlikely ’, ` unlikely ’, ` somewhat
 TPB and goal-directed behaviours 87
unlikely’, ` neither unlikely nor likely ’, `somewhat likely ’, `likely ’ and ` very likely ’ as response
alternatives. For intentions, the item read, ` I intend to keep to a diet in order to decrease my body
weight [stay at the same body weight] during the next four weeks’. Responses were measured on a
7-point scale anchored by ` completely disagree ’ and ` completely agree ’. Finally, for eåort, the item read,
` I will expend eåort on dieting to decrease my body weight [stay at the same body weight] during the
next four weeks’, and a 7-point scale going from ` completely disagree ’ to ` completely agree ’ was used
to record responses. Parallel items were used to measure intentions to exercise and to study.

Past behaviour (frequency and recency). The measure of frequency was : ` How often did you do physical
exercise during the past year to decrease your body weight [stay at the same body weight] ? ’ Participants
answered on a 7-point scale with ` never’, `almost never’, `a very few times, ` occasionally ’, `often ’,
` quite often ’ and ` very many times ’. For recency, the item read, `How often did you do physical
exercise during the past four weeks to decrease your body weight [stay at the same body weight] ?’,
where responses were recorded by a 5-point scale with ` never’, ` sometimes ’, ` regularly ’, ` often ’ and
` always’ as alternatives. Similar items were used to assess frequency and recency for dieting and
for studying.

Behaviour. In Phase 2, participants were re-contacted and asked to respond to the following items,
depending on the study they were in : ` In order to decrease by body weight [stay at the same body
weight], I have done physical exercise during the previous four weeks’ ; ` In order to decrease my body
weight [stay at the same body weight], I have kept to a diet during the previous four weeks’ ; and ` In
order to increase my studying eåort [stay at the same studying eåort], I have done [Activity X] during
the previous four weeks’. Five-point scales were used in all cases, with ` never’, ` sometimes ’,
` regularly ’, `often ’ and ` always’ as response alternatives.

Data analysis
Speci®c information concerning the statistical analyses which have been used for the two studies are
given in the Results section.
In both studies, Structural Equations Models (SEM) with LISREL 8 were used to test the relevant
statistical models (Jo$ reskog & So$ rbom, 1993). The goodness-of-®t of the models was evaluated with
the chi-square test, the Comparative Fit Index (CFI), the Tucker±Lewis Index (TLI) and the Root Mean
Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA). Satisfactory ®ts are obtained when the chi-square test is
non-signi®cant, but given the dependence of the chi-square test on sample size, and the need for ®t
indices normed from 0 to 1, the other indices were examined as well. Good ®ts are obtained when the
CFI and TLI are greater than or equal to ± 90 and the RMSEA is less than or equal to ± 08. Further
discussion of goodness-of-®t issues can be found in Bentler (1990), Marsh, Balla, and Hau (1996) and
Steiger (1990). Note further that the TLI and RMSEA indices reward for model parsimony and penalise
for model complexity.
Alternative models were compared with chi-square diåerence tests for nested models and with the
other ®t indices for non-nested models. In addition, key parameters were compared and R# values
inspected to learn about the predictive power of the alternative models and the su¬ciency of desires.

Results
Because Study 1 employed separate measures of two instrumental acts, we examined
hypotheses separately for the acts and also for a summary model where exercising and
dieting were treated as ®rst-order factors loading on a single second-order factor that
can be interpreted as a latent representation of general means to body-weight control.
A three-step strategy for analysis was employed beginning with principal components
analysis, followed by higher-order con®rmatory factor analysis (CFA), and ending
with hierarchical regression analysis. The analyses supported our decision to consider
88 Marco Perugini and Richard P. Bagozzi
the summary model and refer to the speci®c acts only when statistically signi®cant
diåerences were present. A complete description of the procedures and the ®ndings
are available on request from the authors, but is not presented here in the interest of
brevity.

Measurement models
Measurement models were examined to ascertain the degree of convergent and
discriminant validity of the measures. For this purpose, a CFA model was employed
(e.g. Bagozzi & Kimmel, 1995 ; Bollen, 1989 ; Leone, Perugini, & Ercolani, 1999).
Reliabilities of the constructs were calculated by use of the formula: q ¯
(R k i)#}((R k i)#­ R h i)), where k i refers to the ith factor loading and h i to the ith error
variance. This coe¬cient is similar to Cronbach’s alpha, but it relaxes the assumption
that each item is equally weighted in determining the composite (i.e. the actual factor
loadings are taken into account).
Study 1. The CFA model contained 24 observed variables and 10 latent variables (see
Fig 2. for de®nition of factors and relations to measures). For Aact, positive AE and
negative AE, multiple indicators were formed for the latent variables by averaging
items to form three indicators per latent variable (e.g. Bagozzi & Heatherton, 1994).
The model revealed a reasonable ®t. Although the chi-square was signi®cant
(v #(N ¯ 108) ¯ 295± 69, d.f. ¯ 210, p F ± 00), all the other indices pointed to a good
®t (CFI ¯ ± 96, TLI ¯ ± 94, RMSEA ¯ ± 06). The parameter estimates were all
signi®cant as well.
Satisfactory convergent and discriminant validity were achieved for all measures.
The computed reliabilities were satisfactory, ranging between ± 79 and ± 95. With
regard to discriminant validity, we used chi-square diåerence tests to test whether
each u ij ¯ 1 and found in each case that the correlations were signi®cantly less than
1± 00. Bagozzi and Edwards (1998), Bagozzi and Kimmel (1995) and Leone, Perugini,
and Ercolani (1999) also found evidence for discriminant validity between measures
of desire and intentions. Note that the u s are correlations between latent constructs,
and therefore are corrected for attenuation and are higher than the raw correlations
between measures. Moreover, tests of discriminant validity were performed on
factors sharing a common method, which would tend to in¯ate the correlations
between measures across constructs, thus making it more di¬cult to demonstrate
discriminant validity.
Study 2. A CFA model was run with 21 observed variables and 10 latent variables (see
Fig. 3). However, the second measure of SN failed to load su¬ciently on its
corresponding factor, and it was therefore excluded from further analyses. The ®nal
CFA model thus contained 20 observed variables and 10 latent variables. For Aact,
positive AE and negative AE, three aggregates of items were used as indicators for
each construct. Intentions were also measured by three items. Subjective norms,
recency, frequency and behaviour were each measured by a single indicator, and PBC
and desires were indicated by two indicators each. The model showed a good ®t. The
chi-square was signi®cant (v #(N ¯ 122) ¯ 197± 07, d.f. ¯ 129, p ¯ ± 00), but the
other indices pointed to a good ®t as a practical matter (CFI ¯ ± 94, TLI ¯ ± 91,
 TPB and goal-directed behaviours 89
RMSEA ¯ ± 07). The parameter estimates for the models were all satisfactory, with
the exception of the ®rst item for intentions, which showed only a moderate loading.
From a strictly statistical point of view, this item might have been discarded.
However, we decided to retain it, for the sake of consistency.’
The reliabilities ranged from ± 74 to ± 88. All the constructs showed a reasonable
degree of convergent validity. With respect to discriminant validity, chi-square
diåerence tests again indicated that all u ij were signi®cantly less than 1± 00. Overall,
the results revealed that the measures of all constructs achieved satisfactory
psychometric properties.

Tests of the model of goal-directed behaviour

Figure 2 shows the ®ndings for the structured equation model applied to the body
weight regulation data. Following convention, circles or ellipses depict latent
variables, squares represent measures, numbers at the origins of arrows are error
variances, numbers on arrows connecting latent variables to measures are factor
loadings, and numbers linking latent variables are regression parameters.
Standardized parameter estimates are presented for ease of interpretation. The model
in Fig. 2 ®ts satisfactorily overall (v #(222) ¯ 309± 11, p F ± 01, CFI ¯ ± 95, TLI ¯ ± 94,
and RMSEA ¯ ± 06). Factor loadings are uniformly high, and error variances are low
to moderate in value. Relatively high levels of explained variance occur for desires
(R# ¯ ± 54) and intentions (R# ¯ ± 74) to diet, and a moderate amount of explained
variance results for dieting (R# ¯ ± 25). Even higher amounts of explained variance
result for desires to exercise (R# ¯ ± 72), intentions to exercise (R# ¯ ± 78) and
exercising (R# ¯ ± 46).
Next looking at the paths, we see that intentions in¯uence behaviour (b ¯ ± 35) and
desires in¯uence intentions (b ¯ ± 77), as hypothesized. Likewise, frequency of past
behaviour in¯uences intentions (c ¯ ± 16) but not subsequent behaviour (c ¯ ± 04,
n.s.), and recency of past behaviour in¯uences subsequent behaviour (c ¯ ± 23), as
predicted. Frequency of past behaviour in¯uenced desires (c ¯ ± 24) as well.
When one regression coe¬cient appears on an arrow in Fig. 2, this signi®es that
the coe¬cient has the same magnitude for both dieting and exercising. Equality of
eåects in this sense resulted for all coe¬cients shown in Fig. 2 except for the impact
of PBC. It can be seen that PBC in¯uenced desires (c ¯ ± 61) and behaviour (c ¯ ± 37)
for exercising, but not dieting (the c s were non-signi®cant in the latter case). Figure
2 shows further that positive AE (c ¯ ± 28) and SN (c ¯ ± 24) in¯uence desires, but
Aact (c ¯ ± 17, n.s.) and negative AE (c ¯ ± 12, n.s.) do not.
The top panel of Table 1 summarizes the ®ndings for testing the su¬ciency of
desires as a mediator of eåects from the antecedents shown in Fig. 2. Chi-square
diåerence tests are used to test for the signi®cance of direct paths from antecedents
to intentions, unmediated by desires. Consistent with hypotheses, it can be seen that
the direct paths from Aact, positive AE, negative AE, SN and PBC to BI are non-
’ A measurement model without this ®rst item of intentions was tested as well. The ®t in fact was better (v #(111)
¯ 145± 38, p ¯ ± 02 ; CFI ¯ ± 97, TLI ¯ ± 95, RMSEA ¯ ± 051), and the loadings of the two remaining items were also
higher (± 96 and ± 67) and reliability increased (± 81). However, the diåerences were not dramatic, and the conservative
decision was taken to retain the ®rst measure of intentions.
 90
Marco Perugini and Richard P. Bagozzi

Figure 2. Findings for the model of goal-directed behaviour in Study 1 (body weight regulation, N ¯ 108).
Note : PAE ¯ Positive Anticipated Emotions ; NAE ¯ Negative Anticipated Emotions ; PBC ¯ Perceived Behavioural Control. Separate values for
dieting and exercising are reported in parentheses when a path diåers. The ®rst value refers to dieting, the second to exercising. Likewise, for r# values.
Structural parameters with an asterisk are signi®cant at the ± 05 level or better.
 TPB and goal-directed behaviours 91
signi®cant. Figure 2 shows that positive AE (c ¯ ± 28) and SN (c ¯ ± 24) have
signi®cant eåects on desires, while Aact (c ¯ ± 17, n.s.) and negative AE (c ¯ ± 12,
n.s.) do not. In summary, desires mediate the eåects of the antecedents on BI, which in
turn in¯uence behaviour.

Table 1. Tests for su¬ciency of desire

v # d.f. v #d p b SE t b std

Study 1 : Body weight regulation (N ¯ 108)

Model of goal-directed behaviour 309± 11 222
(MGB)
MGB­ attitude to intentions 308± 21 221 0± 90 n.s. ± 06 ± 07 0± 96 ± 07
MGB­ PAE to intentions 307± 70 221 1± 41 n.s. ± 09 ± 08 1± 22 ± 09
MGB­ NAE to intentions 308± 25 221 0± 86 n.s. ® ± 06 ± 07 ® 0± 94 ® ± 06
MGB­ SN to intentions 307± 00 221 2± 11 n.s. ± 11 ± 07 1± 45 ± 11
MGB­ PBC to intentions 308± 72 221 0± 39 n.s. ± 05 ± 07 0± 65 ± 04
Study 2 : Studying eåort (N ¯ 122)
Mode of goal-directed behaviour 211± 30 141
(MGB)
MGB­ attitude to intentions 208± 45 140 2± 85 n.s. ± 10 ± 06 1± 66 ± 17
MGB­ PAE to intentions 210± 50 140 0± 80 n.s. ± 05 ± 06 0± 89 ± 08
MGB­ NAE to intentions 210± 36 140 0± 94 n.s. ± 05 ± 06 0± 97 ± 08
MGB­ SN to intentions 210± 99 140 0± 31 n.s. ® ± 02 ± 04 ® 0± 56 ® ± 05
MGB­ PBC to intentions 211± 12 140 0± 18 n.s. ± 02 ± 05 0± 43 ± 04

Note: MGB ¯ model of goal-directed behaviour ; PAE ¯ positive anticipated emotions ; NAE ¯ negative
anticipated emotions ; SN ¯ subjective norms ; PBC ¯ perceived behavioural control.

Figure 3 presents the results for the structural equation path model applied to the
studying data. This model ®ts satisfactorily overall (v #(141) ¯ 211± 30, p F ± 00, CFI
¯ ± 94, TLI ¯ ± 92, and RMSEA ¯ ± 06). Factor loadings are high in all cases, save one
(k ¯ ± 49 for the ®rst measure of intentions, error variances are low to moderate in
value, except for the ®rst measure of intentions. Relatively high levels of explained
variance occur for desires (R# ¯ ± 49) and intentions (R# ¯ ± 53), and a moderate
amount of explained variance results for studying (R# ¯ ± 24).
Next looking at the paths, we see that intentions in¯uence behaviour (b ¯ ± 29) and
desires in¯uence intentions (b ¯ ± 66), as hypothesized. Frequency of past behaviour
in¯uences subsequent behaviour (c ¯ ± 24) and desires (c ¯ ± 24) but not intentions (c
¯ ± 14, n.s.). Recency of past behaviour fails to in¯uence subsequent behaviour (c ¯
± 14, n.s.). Perceived behavioural control in¯uences desires (c ¯ ± 37), but not
behaviour (c ¯ ® ± 10, n.s.). Attitudes (c ¯ ± 41), negative AE (c ¯ ± 32) and SN (c
¯ ± 16) in¯uence desires, but positive AE does not (c ¯ ® ± 14, n.s.). The bottom
panel of Table 1 summarizes the ®ndings for testing the su¬ciency of desires as a
mediator of eåects from the antecedents shown in Fig. 3. Consistent with hypotheses,
it can be seen that the direct paths from Aact, positive AE, negative AE, SN and PBC
to intentions are non-signi®cant. Desires mediate the eåects of the antecedents on
intentions.
A ®nal set of results is presented in Table 2 to compare the eåects of introducing
 92
Marco Perugini and Richard P. Bagozzi

Figure 3. Findings for the model of goal-directed behaviour in Study 2 (studying eåort, N ¯ 122).
Note : PAE ¯ Positive Anticipated Emotions ; NAE ¯ Negative Anticipated Emotions; PBC ¯ Perceived Behavioural Control. Structural parameters
with an asterisk are signi®cant at the ± 05 level or better.
 TPB and goal-directed behaviours 93
frequency and recency of past behaviour, AEs and desires into the TPB. It can be
seen that each of the new variables contributes to the explanation of intentions,
whereas only frequency and recency of past behaviour contribute to additional
variance explained in subsequent behaviour, as hypothesized. The MGB explains
approximately 88 % (D ¯ 40 %), 34 % (D ¯ 20 %) and 56 % (D ¯ 19 %) more of the
variance in intentions than the TPB for dieting, exercising and studying behaviours,
respectively.

Table 2. Comparison of model of goal-directed behaviour to theory of planned behaviour

and its variants

Explained variance

Study 1 (body weight regulation) Study 2 (studying)

Intentions Behaviour Intentions Behaviour

Dieting Exercising Dieting Exercising

Theory of planned behaviour ± 34 ± 58 ± 19 ± 38 ± 34 ± 15

Theory of planned behaviour ± 41 ± 62 ± 19 ± 38 ± 40 ± 14
with anticipated emotions
Theory of planned behaviour ± 45 ± 60 ± 24 ± 47 ± 34 ± 23
with recency and frequency
eåects
Theory of planned behaviour ± 49 ± 64 ± 24 ± 47 ± 40 ± 23
with recency and frequency
eåects and anticipated
emotions
Model of goal-directed ± 74 ± 78 ± 25 ± 46 ± 53 ± 24
behaviour

Discussion
Predictions under the proposed MGB were largely supported. Desires, in particular,
mediated the eåects of the antecedents on intentions in both studies. These ®ndings
not only suggest that the TPB is insu¬cient for explaining intentions, but the results
imply that the mechanism behind the eåects of the predictors are more complex than
hypothesized under the TPB. Desires apparently provide su¬cient impetus for
intention formation and channel the eåects of the antecedents. In this sense, desires
constitute important motivators in decision-making. At the same time, desires were
found to be functions of AEs and the independent variables speci®ed under the TPB,
as quali®ed below.
By the same token, the MGB accounted for signi®cantly more variance in
intentions to diet, exercise and study than the TPB. In this sense, the MGB meets
Ajzen’s (1991, p. 199) criterion for revising the TPB :
¼ the theory of planned behavior is, in principle, open to the inclusion of additional predictors
if it can be shown that they capture a signi®cant proportion of the variance in intention or
behavior after the theory’s current variables have been taken into account.
94 Marco Perugini and Richard P. Bagozzi
However, in addition to prediction, the MGB re®nes the explanatory mechanisms
underlying intention formation. Desires are hypothesized to provide the direct
impetus for intentions and to convey the eåects of Aact, SN, AEs and PBC on
intentions. It might be argued that the gain in prediction by the MGB comes at the
expense of parsimony aåorded by the TPB. However, as can be seen in Figs 2 and
3, the explained variance in intentions is owing to desires, and not Aact, SN, AEs
and PBC. A model with only desires as antecedents to intentions would be in fact
both more parsimonious and predictive than the TPB. Of course, to understand the
basis for desires, the MGB provides insight and introduces antecedents based on
both action and goal consequences and thus is more explanatory.
Therefore, we believe that the MGB represents a substantial improvement over
the TPB, while retaining its key concepts. Should one abandon the TPB ? We believe
this would be premature for a number of reasons. First, the TPB has been supported
by many studies, whereas the MGB is new. More evidence should be produced
before one considers abandoning the TPB or accepting the MGB. Second, the MGB
was developed to apply to decision-making where behaviours are performed with the
manifest purpose to reach a speci®c goal. Thus, the addition of AEs injects explicit
content into the TPB that takes into account the importance or implications of a goal
to which an act is contributory. By contrast, the antecedents under the TPB focus on
the act as referents and not its speci®c goal consequences. On the other hand, for
target acts or behaviours that are performed as ends in and of themselves (e.g.
exercising for pure kinaesthetic pleasure), we would anticipate that the TPB would
predict intentions as well as the MGB. One could speculate that the TPB works best
when actions are ends, and the MGB provides the biggest improvement when
actions are means to end-state goals. More research is needed to verify these
speculations and discover other boundary conditions under which the theories apply.
A number of diåerences between the ®ndings in Studies 1 and 2 should be
mentioned. Positive, but not negative, AEs predicted desires to exercise and diet in
Study 1 ; but negative, and not positive, AEs predicted desires to study in Study 2.
What could account for these diåerences ? Why should desires to exercise and diet be
driven by the positive consequences of goal attainment, and studying be driven by
the negative consequences of goal failure ? One possibility is the diåerent contexts
and their meaning for approach and avoidance goals (cf. Carver & White, 1994 ;
Higgins, 1996 ; Leone, Bagozzi, & Perugini, 2000). Consider ®rst, losing and
maintaining one’s body weight : losing and maintaining weight are concrete goals.
Likewise, the connection or linkage between these concrete goals and other concrete
or higher level ends (e.g. ®t into clothes better, look good, feel good, boost self-
esteem, enhance health, promote one’s social life) are readily inferred (e.g. Bagozzi
& Edwards, 1998). Moreover, losing or maintaining body weight is conceived with
relatively high likelihood to lead to other concrete and higher-order ends and to do
so in a relatively short period of time, compared to studying (see below). As a
consequence, losing and maintaining body weight, at least for people most able to
do so (e.g. students), may come to be seen primarily as approachable goals and
associated with positive emotions. The negative consequences of not losing or
maintaining one’s body weight may not be su¬ciently strong for students in order
to stimulate a desire to engage in goal-directed behaviours. Furthermore, the end
 TPB and goal-directed behaviours 95
states which most likely are associated with the goal concern ideal aspects of the self,
especially in an Italian context. According to Higgins (1996 ; Higgins, Shah, &
Friedman, 1997), the presence of an ideal regulatory focus should be associated with
an approach strategy and with accentuated importance of positive aåect. To increase
or maintain one’s studying eåorts, however, may be less easy to conceive, and in any
case the perceived connection between such goals and higher-level ends (e.g. lead to
a high paying, challenging career) are weak in Italian society. Furthermore, such
consequences are further removed in time than consequences of losing or maintaining
one’s body weight. Moreover, studying is likely to be viewed, in an Italian context,
not as a goal of intrinsic worth, but rather as something which ought to be done. The
prevalence of an ought focus should be associated with an avoidance strategy and
with an accentuated role played by negative aåect such as guilt, shame or anxiety.
Further research should focus on deeper investigations of the relation between
anticipated emotions, regulatory focuses and behavioural strategies.
An area in need of future research is speci®cation of how self-caused and
circumstances-caused factors are taken into account in decisionmaking with respect
to goals. We focused herein on the emotional implications of self-caused goal
achievement and goal failure as outcomes. However, in addition to these aspects of
purposive behaviour, it is important to take into account cases when a plan is
progressing well or poorly, when subgoals have been achieved or thwarted, when
expectations in the likelihood of goal attainment change (e.g. Oatley, 1992, p. 48),
and when personality styles related to con®dence, doubt and coping, and happenings
beyond one’s control, occur that facilitate or inhibit goal attainment.
Finally, the present study leaves open the question of whether other explanatory
variables can be introduced between intention and behaviour. To the extent that a
particular behaviour constitutes a goal in the mind of a decisionmaker, a number of
variables can be suggested as possibilities for future study. For example,
implementation intentions, planning, decisions with respect to means and related
criteria dealing with the monitoring of progress towards goal attainment and the
maintenance of commitment to goal pursuit are processes that might be examined,
given that recent research into goal-directed behaviours has found that these
variables in¯uence action (e.g. Bagozzi, 1992 ; Bagozzi & Edwards, 1998, 2000 ;
Gollwitzer & Schaal, 1998 ; Orbell, Hodgkins, & Sheeran, 1997).

Acknowledgements
The authors wish to express their gratitude to the editor and anonymous reviewers for comments made
on an earlier draft of this paper.

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Received 31 July 1998; revised version received 13 August 1999